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THE

CYCLOPADIA;

OR,

Universal Dictionary

OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, AND LITERATURE.

VOL. XXIV.

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é A I | él or oi O) ‘ f ; I i :

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qin Ieanainy,

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Printed by A. Strahan,
Wew- Street- London.

THE

CY CLOPA DIA;

OR,

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

Arts, Sciences, and Literature,

BY

ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. S. Amer. Soc.

EMINENT PROFESSIONAL GENTLEMEN.

ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS,

BY THE MOST DISTINGUISHED ARTISTS.

EEE

IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES.
VOL. XXIV.

EEE

LONDON:
Printep ror LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN, PaTernosteER-Kow,

F.C. AND J- RIVINGTON, A.STRAHAN, PAYNE AND FOSS, SCATCHERD AND LETTERMAN, J. CUTHELL,
CLARKE AND SONS, LACKINGTON HUGHES HARDING MAVOR AND JONES, J. AND A. ARCH;
CADEL! AND DAVIES, S. BAGSTER, J. MAWMAN, JAMES BLACK AND SON, BLACK KINGSBURY

PARBURY AND ALLEN, R. SCHOLEY, J. BOOTH, J- BOOKER, SUTTABY EVANCE AND FOX, BALDWIN
CRADOCK AND JOY, SHERWOOD NEELY AND JONES, R- SAUNDERS, HURST ROBINSON AND CO.,
J. DICKINSON, J. PATERSON, E. WHITESIDE, WILSON AND SONS, AND BRODIE AND DOWDING.

1819.

\ Vy Z : ook D4 j
Sehsiry of WH

1016065

———

——— —-— - —_ —__-— - —_

a

CVYCLOPEDIA:

OR, A NEW

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

Aten is Ss1and:: SoC bE N Cok: S:

MONSTER.

N ONSTER,>in Anatomy and Phyfiology, a creature in

whom the body in general, or fome large and confpi-
cuous part of it, deviates remarkably from the accuftomed
formation. The union of the two eyes into one, with defi-
ciency of the nofe, the want of the brain, and of its membra-
nous and bony coverings, the various more or lefs complete
jundtions of two bodies, &c. come under this defcription. A
confiderable deviation trom the ordinary form or ftruéture
of a particular part or organ is often called a monffrous
formation.

Confiderable variation is obferved in the form, fize, and
relative pofition of the nerves, veflels, mufcles, bones, &c.
All the {maller parts, particularly the blood-vefiels, differ
in almoft every two bodies; fo that it would be very dif-
ficult, if we defcended into minutix, to fettle precifely
what ought to be regarded as the mott frequent, and there-
fore the natural ftruGture. Thefe aberrations from the ac-
cuftomed type are generally calied by anatomilts varieties,
and frequently /u/us nature, as if they owed their origin to
nature being in a {fportive mood. No very accurate line
ean be drawn between them and montters; nor cam we
affign any very rigorous mearing to the latter term, which
is generally ufed in a loofe and popular manner.“ Monftri
vox,” fays Haller, “ex ipfa linguz natura videtur defignare
aberrationem animalis a confueta fue fpeciei fabrica adeo
evidentem, ut etiam ignarorum oculos feriat. Nobis vis
vocis perinde videtur indicare fabricam, etiam grandium &
eonfpicuarum partium, alienam a folita.” De Monitris,
lib. i. cap. 1. ‘

In the prefent article we propofe to confider the fubject
of unufual formations in a general view, without confining
ourfelves to thofe called monilers. When we {peak of natural
or unnatural formations, we only mean, by the former, the

Vou. XXIV.

organic arrangements, which are the moft common; by the
latter, the deviations from the ftandard.

In the following account of unufual formations of the
body in general, or of its parts, we fhall adopt the following
divifions, without attempting to draw very accurately the
line of diftin@ion between varieties and monftrous forma-
tions, which differ rather in degree than in kind.

J. Varieties which are for the molt part not incompatible
with the right performance of the natural fun¢tions,
1. General obfervations. 2. Unufual formations of the
fkin; comprifing, a, deviations from the natural colour;
4, patches of hair; c, porcupine men; d, marks exifting at
birth; e, horns. 3. Varieties in the vifcera; including,
a,,tranfpofitions ; 4, varieties in the inteftinal canal; c, in
the kidnies and uterus ; d, in the heart.

II. Monfters. 1. With unnatural formation of fome parts:
a, hare-lip ; 4, malformation of the urinary and generative
organs; c, united eyes; d, {pina bifida; e, imperforations ;
js imperfe& extremities; g, general malformation; 4, re-
femblances of animals. z. With unnatural pofition of parts.
3. With deficiency of parts: a@, want of the brain and its
coverings, and of the fpinal marrow ; 4, of the heart ; c, of
various other parts. 4. With{upernumerary parts; a, fuper-
fluous parts in bodies otherwile perfect, as fingers, limbs,
heads, lower half of the body, and more or lefs complete
body ; 4, united foetufes ; compound head; fcetufes double
above and joined below ; double below and joined above ;
two perfec bodies united ; ¢, foetufes included in the bodies
of others.

III. Confiderations on the production of thefe unufual
formations.

1. Varieties —1. General Obfervations.—Notwithitanding

the general fimilarity of parts in the fame {pecies of animals,
ae) there

MONSTER.

there is no reafon why nature fhould not fometimes deviate
from her ordinary plans. Accordingly, we find that there is
much variety in animal ftru€ture, but this does not commonly
affe&t the funétions. Under this reftri€tion, the variety is fo
great in the eppearances of every part, that it is almoft im-
poflible to examine any two animals of the fame fpecies with-
out remarking many differences. In the articular extremities
of bones there is little variety; becaufe a particular fhape
is beft adapted to a particular kind of motion. In other
parts, as the foramina, depreffions, ridges, and futures,
there is great variety. Examples of this are feen in the
offa triquetra of the full, which are fometimes abfent,
fometimes prefent, and in the latter cafe vary greatly in
fize and number ; in the fuperciliary foramen of the frontal
bone, which fometimes is deficient, its place being fupplied
by a notch; in the fupra-fcapular notch, which may be
deep or fhallow, or not exift at all; or there may be a’com-
plete foramen inftead of it, &c. &c. There may be twenty-
fix ribs, or fix lumbar vertebra.

The fame general rule will apply to the varieties of muf-
cles. The principal objeét is a certain infertion near a joint,
whereby the motion produced has a determined dire¢tion.
Thefe infertions, comparatively fpeaking, vary very litt'e:
but there is a great difference in the bodies and conneGtions
of the mufcles, which have no fhare in the regulation of the
motion. The biceps flexor cubiti has often an additional
flip from the humerus; and the latiflimus dorfi from the
angle of the fcapula. The palmaris longus and the plantaris
are often entirely abfent ; but the other flexors of the wrilt
and extenfors of the ankle fupply their place. The fame
obfervation applies to the pyramidalis of the abdomen.
The number of proceffes, to which the mufcles of the fpine
are affixed, varies confiderably.

In no part of the body are the arrangements lefs confined
to a particular model than in the diftribution of the blood-
veffels. The objeé is, that blood fhould be conveyed to
every part of the body, and brought back again to the
heart : it is of no importance whether the fluid pafs by one
route or another. Thus, inftead of three, we fometimes
have two, and fometimes four, or even more numerous
branches from the arch of the aorta: the artery of the upper
extremity may divide into its radial and ulnar branches in
the axilla, the arm or fore-arm: the order, in which the
principal arteries come off from the fubclavian and internal
iliac trunks, is by no means conftant, &c. There may be
four, or only two valves inftead of three, at the orifices of
the great arteries. The great arterial trunks of the body
and limbs, however, are not expofed to thefe varieties, be-
caufe they generally occupy fituations, in which they are
mott effectually proteéted from external injury. We have
to remark, alfo, that the arteries of the upper are much
more liable to varieties than thofe of the lower limbs.
The latter are almoft conftant in their diltribution, while
thofe of the fore-arm and hand are hardly alike in any two
{ubjects taken together. We do not fee on what principle
this difference can be accounted for. :

We fhall mention two other inflances of varicties in the
blood-veffels, which are fufficiently remarkable to deferve
notice. There were no internal carotid arteries in the cafe
of a nobleman lately examined by Mr. Wilfon, le@urer. on
anatomy at Windmill-ltreet ; the vertebrals were unufually
large, and the communicating branches of the polteriores
cerebri of the bafilar ran forwards to take the fituation
of the internal carotids.) A woman had laboured under a
difficulty of from her infancy, gradually in-
ereafing as fhe advanced in years, and relieved by regular
bleedings, at monthly or fhorter intervals; fhe became at

{wallow ng

laft fo weak from her incapability of taking down fufficient
nourifhment, that fhe could not provide for her own main-
tenance, and was admitted inte a parif work-houfe.
For the latt twenty years of her life fhe could fearcely
muiter up refolution to force down food enough to pre-
vent her from ftarving. ‘The obf{truétion feemed to be op-
pofite to the firft bone of the fternum: there was violent
palpitation of the heart when fhe fwallowed. Nothing was
found after death to account for thefe circumftances, except
a variety in the courfe of the right fubclavian artery ; which
arofe from the left fide of the arch of the aorta, and then
pafled between the efophagus and trachea. Memoirs of the
London Medical Society, vol. 1i. p. 275. We have feveral
times feen this variety, but in inftances where we know
nothing of the previous hiitory of the individual.

It cannot be at all important to the funtion of a vifcus,
whether it be in one mafs or in feparate portions: the
ftru€ture being the fame, the fame aétions will take place.
Hence we often find the two kidnies united into one mafs ;
and, not unfrequently, two or three {mall fpleens befides the
common one. Neither is it of confequence that a vifcus
fhould always be of the fame fhape, becaufe its functions
depend not on this circumftance, but on ftructure; accord-
ingly we find much variety in this particular.

Many vifcera are connected together in their funétions,
or by the medium of large blood-veffels, in fuch a way as
to require a certain relative fituation to each other: this alfo
becomes neceffary, in order to preferve the general fhape of
the animal. Accordingly we find, that when any important
vifeus is changed in its fituation, it affe€ts other vifcera,
requiring in them a fimilar change. In the inftance of ©
tranfpofed vifcera, which will be related afterwards, the
change in the fituation of the heart and liver was accom-
panied with a correfponding change in the- itomach, fpleen,
pancreas, in fhort in all the vifcera of the abdomen and
thorax. So great a deviation as this changes almoft the
whole vital fyftem, and happens very rarely. The funétions
cannot be affeéted, as they depend on ftruciure and fituation,
both of which are preferved. Hence the individual alluded .
to arrived at the age of maturity, and might have continued
to live to an extreme old age. The human machine might
have been conftructed in this way commonly ; and under
fuch circumftances, what is now called the natural fituation
of parts would have been as fingular as the appearances
which we fhall mention.

There is lefs variety in the nervous {yitem of animals of the
fame f{pecies, than in mott parts of the body. Scarcely any
differences are obferved in the appearances of the brain, and
much fewer in the diftribution of the nerves than of the
blood-veffels. Yet varieties have been feen even in the brain,
of which a remarkable inftance is recorded in the Tranfaétions
of a Society for promoting Medical and Surgical Know-
ledge, vol. 1. p.212. The falx cerebri was deficient, and,
inftead of the ufual fiffure dividing the two hemifpheres,
there was merely a depreffion for the fuperior longitudinal
finus. ‘* No pia mater could be found in the fituation of
the natural cleft; a tranfverfe feétion was made through
the cerebrum, keeping above the level of the corpus cal-
lofum, but ftill no veltiges of membrane, or of cineritious
fubftance, or of previous inflammation and adhefion were to
be found."’ There is alfo very little variety in the organs
of fenfe : perhaps the biectaiitty in both thefe is nicer, fo
that a confiderable deviation would interfere with their
peculiar funétions.

2. Unufual Formations of the Skin :—a. Deviation of Colour.
—Deviatious from the accultomed ftructure,in this organ
are more confpicuous in the coloured than in the white races

of

MONSTER.

of mankind. One of the moft ftriking is the entire abfence
of colouring matter, conftituting the Albino, which was firft
noticed in the negro: this peculiar formation, however,
occurs alfo in the white races, and in various genera both of
mammalia and birds. The individuals are remarkable, not
only for the whitenefs of the fkin, but alfo for that of the
hair (feathers and fur in animals), and rednefs of the eyes.
See INTEGUMENTS, ALBINO, and Man.

Individuals of the black races are fometimes marked by
fpots of white, of various fize and number, without any
thing like difeafe of the fin. "his circumftance occurs
molt frequentiy in negroes, and generally begins in early
infancy ; the individuals are called {potted or piebald fe-
groes, in French, negrea-pies. Blumenbach has defcribed
a man of this kind, whom he faw in London; he was fervant
to the perfon who kept the animals at Exeter Change. He
was a young man, perfe@tly black, excepting the umbilical
and hypogattric regions of the abdomen, and the middle of
the lower limbs, including the knees and neighbouring parts
of the thighs and legs, which were of a clear and almoft
fhowy whitenefs, but {potted with black, like the flan of a
panther. His hair was of two colours; on the middle of
the front of the head, from the vertex to the forehead,
where it ended in a fharp point, there was a white fpot,
with a yellower tinge than thofe on the trunk and legs,
The hair covering this was white, but refembled the reft in
other refpe&s. On comparing the picture of this man with
three others (a boy and two girls), he obferves, that the
white {pots occupied the abdomen and thigh, never appear-
ing on the hands and feet, which parts with the groins are
the firft to turn black in the newly-born negroes ; and that
the arrangement of the white parts was fymmetrical. Both
the parents of this man, and of the others, of whom Blu-
menbach had collefted accounts, were entirely black, fo
that Buffon’s conjeGture of this variety being produced by
the cohabitation of a negro with an albinefs is groundlefs.
Reprefentations of {potted negroes may be feen in Blu-
menbach’s Abbildungen Naturhiftorifcher Gegenftande, 3d
part, and in Buffon, Supplement, t. iv. p. 565. tab.2. See
alfo Byrd in Phil. Tranf. vol. xix. p. 781, for an inftance, in
which the fpots began in the fourth year, and increafed in
fize ; and Morgan, in Tranfaétions of the Philofophical So-
ciety at Philadelphia, t.ii. p. 392.

Thefe {pots, in which the epidermis is perfectly healthy,
and which are diftinguifhable from the reft of the fin, only
by their whitenefs, are not to be confounded with difeafes
of the organ, where the cuticle becomes fcaly or branny,
which are frequent in fome of the black races. Nor are
they peculiar to the dark-coloured races. Blumenbach has
feen two inftances in Germans, one of a youth, and the
other of a man 60 years old. They both had a rather
tawny fkin, marked here and there with various fized {pots
of the cleareft white. They appeared firft in the former in
infancy, and in the latter at the age cf manhood.

b. Hairy Coverings.—Patches of the fkin are fometimes
thickly covered with hair, like that on the head. Such oc-
currences have given occafion to reports of perfons having
hides like animals. Buffon (Supplement, v. iv. p. 571.)
Wunfch (Kofmologifche unterhaltungen, pt. 3.), and La-
vater (Phyfioguom. fragments, pt. 4. p.68.) have given
figures and defcriptions of A. M. Herrig, a woman of
Triers, faid to have the fkin of a deer, and fhewn in many
parts of Europe. Soemmerring faw this perfon, and found
the peculiarity to confilt of numerous and large elevations
of the fkin, covered by thick and ftrong hairs, They
were of the nature of the moles, often feen on the face of
very fair perfons, and generally giving origin to hair; he

could not difcover a fingle hair refembling that of a deer.
Befchreibung einiger Miflgeburten, &c. p. 32.

c. The Porcupine Men.—In the Englifh family of the
porcupine men, a very fingular ftruéture of the fkin is ob-
ferved. At nine weeks after birth, this remarkable pecu-
liarity firft began to fhew itfelf. The fkin of the whole
body, except the head and face, the palms and foles, is
covered by hard wartlike prominences. « It was not eafy
to think of any fort of {kin or natural integument, that
exactly refembled it ; fome compared it to the bark of a
tree; others thought it looked like feal-fkin, others like the
hide of the elephant, or the fkin about the legs of the rhi-
noceros ; and fome took it to be like a large wart, or a
number of warts uniting and overfpreading the whole body.
The briitly parts, which were chiefly about the belly and
flanks, looked and ruftled like the briftles or quills of a
hedge-hog, fhorn off within an inch of the fkin.”” The
perfon enjoyed good health; every thing connected with his
excretions was natural; he derived no inconvenience from
the ftate of his {kin, except that it would crack and bleed
after very hard work. (Philof. Tranf. N° 424, with views
of the fkin.) In a fubfequent account, after an interval of
24 years, the man is faid to continue the fame. « The
covering feemed moft nearly to refemble an innumerable
company of warts, of a dark brown colour, and a cylin-
drical figure, rifing to a like height (an inch at their full
fize), and growing as clofe as poflible to one another, but
fo ftiff and elaftic, that when the hand is drawn over them,
they makea ruttling noife.” They are fhed annually in the
autumn or winter months, and fucceeded by young ones of
a paler brown. The perfon had the fmall-pox, and had
been falivated twice; the tubercles difappeared on thefe
occafions, but were reproduced. The health continued
good. He had fix children with the fame peculiarity, be-
ginning, as in himfelf, about nine weeks after birth. One
only of thefe furvived, and was eight years old, when the
account was written. Phil. Tranf. v. xlix. p. 21, witha
figure of the hand, Edwards’s Gleanings of Natural Hif-
tory, v.i.pl.21z, A defcription of them at a later period
has alfo been given by Blumenbach, in Voigt’s Neue Maga-
zin, v. iii. pt. 4, which we have not feen.

There is an inftance fomewhat analogous recorded, of a
man whofe {kin was covered in various places with warts of .
different fize and form, See Hiftoria Pathologica fingularis
Cutis turpitudinis, J. G. Rheinhardi viri 50 annorum, Lipf.
1793, fol.

d. Marks exifting at Birth—The various appearances of
the fkin, comprehended under the name of nevi materni, and
commonly fuppofed to be produced by the influence of the
mother’s imagination, are natural varieties in the {tru@ture of
this organ. ‘The colour of thefe is generally red, livid, or
brownifh ; they fometimes confift of confiderable mafles of
fub{tance, or may be quite fuperficial ; they are fmooth or
irregular on the furface. Numerous ramifications of blood-
veflels are generally vifible in them. We have feen one oc-
cupying nearly the whole fore-arm ; but often they are not
larger than a fixpence. They are frequent about the face.
They appear to confit of a congeries of veffels forming al-
moft innumerable communications, and correfpond nearly to
what Mr. J, Bell has defcribed by the name of “aneurifm
from anaftomolis.” See Nmvi and AnrurisM.

e. Horns—The formation of hard fubitances, defcribed
under the name of /orns, on the human head, is not a very
uncommon occurrence. Thefe certainly cannot be regarded
in the fame point of view with the varieties in formation of
different parts, as they are not originally formed; and the
may be claffed rather with the produ@tions of difeafe, althou gh

B2 they

MONSTER.

they are free from pain, and attended with rio inconvenience
when undifturbed. The term /orn is applied to them from
their hardnefs and colour ; for they bear no refemblance in
their developement and growth to the parts of animals called
horns. (See Horn, in Comparative Anatomy.) Yet productions
from the fkin, refembling true horns, have been feen in

“animals. A fheep, about four years old, had a large horn,
three feet long, growing on its flank. It had no connection
with bone, and appeared to be only attached to the external
fkin. It dropped off in confequence of its weight having
produced ulceration in the foft parts. to which it adhered.
On examining it, there was a flefhy fubftance, feven inches
long, of a fibrous texture, filling up the cavity on which
the horn-had been formed. (Home on horny excrefcences 3
Phil. Tranf. vol. lxxxi.) Inthe fame work, vol. xlix. p. 183,
is another example of a very regularly fhaped horn of 26lbs.
in weight, growing from the neck of a fheep.

The growths, which have been called horns, in the human
fubjeét, have taken place from encyfted tumours, which have
burit, and difcharged a thick gritty fluid; the cyfts have
then collapfed, and the new fubftance has gradually grown
from the bottom. It is at firft pliable, and afterwards af-
fumes nearly the colour and hardnefsof horn. ‘The lining of
thefe cy{ts approaches to the nature of cuticle, and hair has
fometimes been found among their contents. The horn then
is fimply a fecretion of cuticular fubitance from the furface
of the cyft, becoming dry and hard in confequence of its
expofure. Such horns may be produced in any fituation of
the body.

In the eafe of a middle aged woman related by Mr. Home,
a moveable tumour grew on the fide of the head, in-the courfe
of four or. five years, to the fize of a pullet’s egg, when it
burft, and difcharged a thick gritty fluid. A fmall foft
fubftance of a reddifh colour was produced from the centre
ofthe tumour; it increafed in length and thicknefs, and
continued pliable for about three months, when it firft
began to put ona horny appearance. It attained the length
of five inches, being about one inch in circumference at the
ends, and rather iefs in the middle. It was curled, likea
ram’s horn, and refembled ifinglafs in colour. Three others
formed fucceflively in this individual.

Bartholin, in his epiltles, mentions a woman who had a
tumour under the f{ealp, covering the temporal mufcle. This
gradually enlarged, and a horn grew from it, which had be-
come 12 inches long in the year 1646, when he firft faw it.
There is a horny excrefcence in the Britifh Mufeum, 11 inches
long, and 24 in circumference at the bafe, or thicket part,
produced from a wen on the head ; it began in the 48th year
of the woman’s age, and was four years in reaching the
above-mentioned fize. Sec Mr. Home’s paper in the Phil.
Tranf. quoted above.

3. Varieties in the Vifcera—a. Tranfpofition of the Vifcera.
—A very complete account of fuch an arrangement has been

iven by Dr. Baillie, in the feventy-eighth cotta of the Phi-
ofophical Tranfaétions ; the particulars afcertained by his
diffleGtion -are there very minutely detailed. The anterior
mediaftinum inclined obliquely to the right ; the left lung
was divided into three, and the right into two lobes. he
apex of the heart pointed to the night fide, nearly oppofite
to the fixth rib, and its cavities, as well as the large veifels,
were completely tranfpofed. The right auricle and ventricle
were fituated on the left, and the left cavities on the right
fide. The pulmonary artery afcended towards the right
fide, and the arch of the aorta alfo paffed to the right, while
the fuperior and inferior cave opened into their auricle on the
left fide of the fpine. The right fubclavian vein croffed the
cheft in front of the arteries that arife from the arch of the

aorta; the arteria innominata produced the left carotid and
fubclavian, while-the right arteries came off feparately.
The defcending aorta was onthe right, and the vena azygos
on the left fide of the {pine ; the thoracic du& opened into
the right fubclavian vein.

The ordinary courfe of the right and left recurrent nerves
was interchanged. The liver was placed on the left fide of
the epigaflric region; its ligaments and blood-veffels, the gall-
bladder, and the biliary duéts bearing the fame relations to
it in this new fituation as they do in the ordinary one. The
du&tus communis choledochus terminated on the fore part of
the duodenum. The fpleen was placed in the right hypo-
chondrium, and the pancreas correfpended to the altered
courfe and fituation of the duodenum. The great end of
the ftomach was fituated on the right fide of the abdomen,
and the pylorus alittle on the left of the fpine. The duodenum
firft pafled to the right fide, behind the {mall end of the
ftomach, then turned on itfelf towards the left fide ; it after-
wards took the proper {weep to the right fide, pafling be-
hind the fuperior mefenteric artery and vein. The mefentery
was inclined obliquely from right to left. The ijium termi-
nated in the great inteftine on the left fide, and the cecum
was placed on the left pfoas magnus and iliacus internus
mufcles. The arch of the colon pafied from the left to the
right fide of the body, and the figmoid flexure croffed over
the right pfoas, to get into the cavity of the pelvis. The
renal veflels were tranfpofed.

The aorta in the abdomen continued on the right fide of
the fpine, and its branches were altered from their natural
courfe in accommodation to the peculiar fituation of the vif-
cera. The inferior vena cava was placed on the left of the
vertebral column, and perforated the left fide of the tendinous
centre of the diaphragm. :

Dr. Baillie adds, that ‘‘ the perfon feemed to have ufed his
right hand in preference to his left, as is ufually the cafe, as
was readily difcovered by the greater bulk and hardnefs of
that hand, as well as the greater flefhinefs of the arm. It
was not indeed to be expe¢ted that he fhould be left-handed.
The perfon, while alive, was not confcious of any unvfual
fituation of his heart ; and his brother has his heart pointing
to the left fide, as in ordinary cafes. Indeed there was little
reafon to expe that we fhould meet with any thing parti-
cular in the account of his life. His health could not be
affeGted by fuch a change of fituation in his vifcera; nor
could® there arife from it any peculiar fymptoms of difeafe.
Still lefs could there be any connection between fuck a change
and his difpofitions or external actions.”

In the body of a child ten months old Mr. Abernethy
found the heart pointing to the right fide of the cheft, and
the liver in the middle of the epigaftric region, extending
equally into each hypochondrium. The great blood-veifels
of the cheft, and the other abdominal organs, were not
tranfpofedin this cafe. Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixxxiii.

There are feveral other minute and well authenticated ac-
counts of fimilar tranfpofitions. Mery found all the parts
of the abdomen and cheft in this inverred {tate in a foldier
who died at the age of 72; and has left a very exact nar-
rative of the diffeGtion. See the Récueil des Anciens Mé-
moires de l’Acad. t. x. alfo Mém. de l’Acad. an. 1733,
p- 374. Another inftance is recorded by Riolan, in his
Difquititio de tranfpofitione partium naturalium et vitalium
in corpore humano ; fee his Opufcula ariatomica, 1652; and
another by IF. Hoffman, in his Cardianattrophe, feu cor-
dis inverfio memorabilis, obf{ervataa collegio medico civitatis
Hallenfis, in anatomia cadaveris feminei; Leipfic, 1671.
Numerous references to other inttances may be feen in Hal-
ler’s Opera minora, tom. ill. p. 16.

b. Varieties

MONSTER.

b. Varieties in the Intefinal Canal.—Short procefies, ter-
tminating in blind extremities, and called diverticula, are
fometimes found in the {mall inteftine. (See Intestine.) A
more remarkable deviation from the ordinary ftructure of
thefe parts was met with by Mr. Abernethy. In the well-
formed body of a boy, four feet three inches in length, he
found a {mall inteftine only two feet long, witha large one
of four feet. Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixxxii.

To the unufual formation of the inteftines belongs alfo the
want of the opening at the anus; the re¢tum ends in a cul-
de-fac. Sometimes all the external openings are deficient ;
thofe of the urethra and vagina as well as of the large in-
teftine. The mouth or nofe may alfo be clofed.

c. In the Kidnies and Uterus.—Among the abdominal
vifcera, the kidnies are frequently fubje¢t to varieties in
number and arrangement. There may be only the right or
left ; or the two may be joined together, fo as to reprefent
acrefcent ; or they may be united into one large rounded
mafs. (Haller, Op. Minor. t. iii. p.34. p. 40. et feq.) In
thefe cafes there are confiderable deviations from the ordinary
mumber and arrangements of the renal veffels.

Inftances are not very uncommon of two uteri; fee the
article GENERATION, in the defcription of the uterus, and
Haller de Monftris, lib. i. cap. 9.

d. Jn the Heart.—In many of the cafes which we have
jut been confidering, the funétions are ftill perfe&ly exe-
cuted ; the change of pofition in the tranfpofed vifcera, or
of fize and figure in the united kidnies, leaves thefe organs
juft as capable of anfwering their ufual purpofes as when the
ordinary arrangement is obferved. But the heart is often
the feat of deviations from the accuftomed ftruG@ure, which
effentially affe€&t its funGions, and thereby exert fuch an in-
fluence on circulation and refpiration, as to give a very pecu-
liar charaéter to the whole ftate of the individual, and gene-
rally to fhorten very confiderably the term of exiftence. in
animals which breathe, the paflage of the blood through the
lungs produces a remarkable change in its properties and ap-
pearances ; the right performance of the various vital pro-
cefles requires that the organs of the body fhould be fupplied
with blood that has undergone this change; and this object
cannot be accomplifhed unlefs the cavities of the heart holding
the two kinds of blood, are kept perfeGtly free from all com-
Munication with each other. In many inftances the heart is
fo formed that the two fides con{tantly communicate ; this
is of no confequence fo long as fetal exiltence continués, in
which the blood is all of one kind; but afterwards it pro-
duces a mixture of the arterial and venous bloods, and the
greatet difturbance of refpiration and circulation. The
body, particularly its extremities, is cold and livid; the
flighteit exercife produces anxiety, and often a fuffocating
fenfation, accompanied with fits of infenfibility ; the growth
is impeded, and the whole being fo altered, that the indi-
vidual is unfit for any active employment, and has a truly
miferable appearance. Sometimes the two ventricles form
but one cavity; or there may bea larger or {maller opening
in the partition between them, with the aorta rifing over it,
and the pulmonary artery haying a very {mall communication
with its ventricle, &c. (See Heart.) The black and red
bloods will be more or lefs completely mixed in thefe cafes,
according to the degree of malformation, and the individual
will either die very foon after birth, or exilt ina ftate of lan-
guor, fuffering, and conftant profpeét of death, tor a few
weeks, months, or even years.

Il. Mon/ters.—We proceed to confider thofe imperfeé or-
ganizations which are commonly called monfters, and fhall
defcribe them under the four divifions generally adopted ;
giz. 1. Unnatural formation. 2. Unufual pofition of cer-

tain organs. 3. Deficiency. 4. Redundance of certain
parts. Some of the examples may not, perhaps, be deemed
fufliciently ftriking deviations from the accuftomed form to
deferve the name of monfters; but we take up the term in
its moft extenfive meaning. Neither are the kinds of mon-
ftrofity kept diftin& in each cafe; they may all be united in
one {pecimen, and the want of one part is often attended
with an unnatural pofition of another, &c.

1. Monfters with unnatural Formation of certain Parts.—
The hare-lip is one of the moft ftriking examples of vicious
formation of parts; this may either be a fimple fiffure in the
lip, or it may be complicated with more or lefs extenfive
divifion and deficiency of the bony and foft palates, fo
that often the nofe and mouth form but one cavity. (See
Hare-.ip.) When this mal-formation exifts ina very con-
fiderable degree it renders fucking impraéticable.

b. The urinary and generative organs in both fexes are
frequently the feat of unnatural arrangements. The ante-
rior part of the urinary bladder and the integuments cover-
ing it may be wanting; the pofterior portion being pro-
truded between the reéti abdominis mufcles, and forming by
its mucous lining a foft, red, fenfible protuberance on the
furface of the lower part of the abdomen, contiguous at its
circumference with the common fkin, with the ureters open-
ing on it, and conftantly allowing the paflage of the urine.
The offa pubis do not come together in thefe cafes, but are
feparated by an interval of an inch or two: hence the reti
mufcles are unufually feparated, and allow the projeétion of
the back of the bladder. So extenfive a mal-formation
could not exift in this part of the body without difturbing
the arrangement of the generative organs, particularly in the
male. The wide feparation of the offa innominata occafions
an unufually long portion of the penis to be concealed under
the integuments; hence the loofe portion of the organ is
very fhort. It deviates again very widely from its ordinary
appearance in confequence of not being perforated by au
urethra: or perhaps we may fay that the urethra, like the
urinary bladder, is laid open. ‘The fcrotum is divided into
two lateral folds, each containing its teftis. In the female,
the labia are wide apart, inftead of being joined by the
ufual commiflures ; the nymphz deficient, &c. We {hall
give a defcription of the appearances, in the cafe of a male
and a female, which will ferve as fpecimens of the ftru€ture ;
the fame defcription, in all effential circumftances, will apply
to the other inftances. ;

Mr. A. Cooper has defcribed the external appearances and
the diffeétion of a female in the Edinburgh Medical and
Surgical Journal, vol. i. p. 129, with a figure: another
plate, reprefenting the external appearances, is given at
p-42. This perfon had from birth a fungous tumour at
the lower part of the abdomen, from which the urine was
difcharged involuntarily ; this infirmity difabled her from
gaining a fubfiftence in fervice, and drove her to the necef-
lity of begging in the ftreets of London, where fhe died,
at the age of twenty-two, from the effeéts of want, and
expofure to the feverity of the weather. The fungus,
forming three projections, occupied the region of the pubes,
exiending as far as the ufual fituation of the fymphyfis. It
was red, {fpongy, and very vafcular, extremely fenfible, and
it bled upon the flighteft irritation. The urine fr quently
trickled from the lower part of the tumour; and if any
thing was given her to drink, the urine began to flow b
drops in a few minutes; but if fhe made any confiderable
effort with the abdominal mufcles, a fmall ftream of urine
f{pouted from each fide of the furface of the tumour. The
openings, through which it was difcharged, were fufliciently
large to admit the introdu€tion of a {mall probe, and were

fituated,

MONSTER.

fituated, one on each fide of the tumour, near to its jun&tion
with the fkin, and towards its lower edge. Juft above the
tumour a cicatrix was obferved, which was the only appear-
ance of umbilicus; fo that the umbilical veffels had pafled
through the parietes of the abdomen near the fungus, in-
ftead of at the ufual place. ‘The labia pudendi receded from
each other more than ufual ; the nymphe and meatus urina-
rius were wanting, the lower part of the fungus occupying
the ufual fituatiun of the meatus and glans clitoridis. ‘The
vagina kad its ufual fituation. The bones of the pubes
were feparated to the diftance of an inch and a half or two
inches fromeachother. The urinary bladder appeared from
the abdomen as if forced through the aperture of the {lin
and abdominal mufcles, with the anterior portion. wanting, fo
that the fungous furface on the abdomen was the back of
the bladder, with the ureters terminating in it. It adhered
firmly to the margin of the abdominal mufcles and fkin, and
appeared from within puckered at itsedges. The ureters,
which opened through the lower part of the fungus, were
uncommonly large, equal in fize indeed to the rectum, and
had ferved the purpofe of refervoirs. The kidnies were
alfo more than double the ufual fize, owing entirely to their
pelves and infupdibula being enlarged, for the fecreting part
did not appear altered.

The inftance, which we fhall relate of the male, is de-
feribed by Dr. Baillie in the tranfactions of a Society for
the Improvement of Medical and Surgical Knowledge,
vol.i.p. 189. Immediately above the ufual fituation of the
fymphyfis pubis, there was a vafcular pulpy mafs of about
two inches by one and a half. It was feated in a deep bed,
{cooped out, a3 it were, from the lower part of the fin and
mufcles of the abdomen, and covered thickly with a vifcid
mucus. At the upper edge of this mafs the {lin was in one
part finer than is natural, and a little puckered ; this was all
the appearance of navel. ‘The ureters opened on two pro-
jecting tubercles. At the lower edge of the pulpy mafs,
and about its middle, were two diftinét rounded orifices, the
openings of the vafa deferentia and veficule feminales. A
little above their level was a confiderable canal, large enough
to admit a goofe-quill, and leading to the fubitance of the
proftate gland. About half an inch below the vafcular mafs
the penis was feen, of the common fize with refpeét to the
tran{verfe diameter, and a little more than an inch in length.
The whole of its upper furface was fomewhat hollowed, and
had a finer fkin than the common covering. Near its extremi-
ty, the canal corre{ponding to the urethra opened by a pretty
large oval orifice. Under the glans there was a loofe fold
of {kin correfponding to the prepuce, and a chord like the
frenum. ‘There were two confiderable oblong {wellings at
the groin, covered with hair, and terminating below in a
corrugated fkin eae the feretum.

On the infide, correfponding to the fituation of the vaf-
cular mafs, there was a projection, refembling the back of
the urinary bladder, confifting of an arrangement of muf-
cular fibres fimilar to thofe of the bladder, and perforated
by the ureters. The latter tubes were larger than ufual.
The umbilical veffels terminated at the fine puckered fkin
above the vafcular mafs. On each fide of the fubftance,
correfponding to the bladder, the reéti_mufcles pafled, to
terminate in the offa pubis, at nearly four inches diitance
fromeach other. ‘The proftate and veficute were about one-
third of the ordinary fize. ‘There was a canal correfpond-
ing to the arethra, in the corpus {pongiofum. ‘The tettes

were of the ufual fize and ftru&ture. In the front of the
pelvis there was a deficiency of bone for nearly four inches,
filled by a broad ligamentous menibrane.

For numerous references to the other recorded cafes of

this kind of mal-formation, fee two papers by Dr. Duncan,
jun. in the Edinburgh Medieal and Surgical Journal, vol. i.

It has been obferved much more frequently in the male
than in the female fubje&t. Many of the individuals have
exhibited themfelves for money, and have often been fup-
pofed to be hermaphrodites ; a f{uppofition which they have
encouraged for the purpofe of increafing public curiofity.
On this fubject, as well as on all thofe unufual formations
of the fexual organs, which have given rife to the notion of
a mixture of the two fexes; fee the article GeNERATION,
under the head of Hermaphrodi/m.

Thefe cafes prove to us clearly, what we fhould have fup-
pofed a priori; viz. that the urinary bladder 1s not a part
effential to the body, but fubfervient only to our conve-
nience and comfort, by retaining the urine, and prevent-
ing its conftant difcharge.' A perfon may exilt in per-
feét health and ftrength, although the urine fhould ran off
as it is fecreted.

e. United Eyes.— An union of the two eyes into one, which
is placed under the middle of the forehead, in the fituation of
the nofe, whichis deficient, is not an uncommon kind of mon-
ftrofity : it feems to realize the ancient fables of the Cyclops.
This fingle eye is large, and has generally the appearance of
being compofed of two confounded together. Thus, each
lid is compofed of two, united in the middle by their extre-
mities, and having their refpective Meibomian glands, &c.
In one inftance there were two optic nerves joined into one,
two lacrymal glands, and one large cryftalline lens. In
another an iris almoft double, a fimple lens, two lacrymal
glands. Indeed, in all the inftances there have been more
or lefs plain marks of the apparently fingle organ being
compofed of the parts of two eyes.

This kind of formation is not uncommon in animals.
Haller difle@ted a cyclopic lamb; the upper eye-lid was
compofed of two, the lower deficient. There was a fingle
optic nerve, and one fet of mufeles. All the parts of the
eye were fimple, but unufually large. De Monittris, lib. i.
cap. 12. For other examples, fee Soemmering, p. 31, in
the pig ; Memoires de Acad. des Sciences, 1703 and 1744,
in the dog; Philof. Tranf. No. 456, in the fheep; Buffon,
Defer. du Cabinet du Roi, t. xiv. p. 392—394, in the dog
and pig; Hift. Naturelle, t. vi. p. 55, inthe cat. See alfo
the deicription of the middle eye in the double head dif-
feted by Soemmering in the latter part of this article.

d.’ Spina Bifida—A divifion fometimes occurs in the pof-
terior part of the vertebral canal, formed by the f{pinous
proceffes of the vertebre, and is attended with a tumour,
caufed by a protrufion of the membranous lining of the
canal, and filled with fluid. We have {een the {pinous pro-
ceffes deficient through the whole vertebral column. See
Spina Bifida.

e. Imperforations.—The termination of the rectum in a
cul-de-fac, where the anus is deficient; the termination of
the wfophagus in a fimilar way ; the confufion of the blad-
der, uterus and rectum into one mafs, without any external
opening, all belong to this clafs.

f. Imperfe& Extremities —The extremities prefent various
imperfect arrangements, which do not, of themfelves, occa-
fion the feetufes, in whom they occur, to be called monitters.
The club-feet, in which the foot is turned inwards or out-
wards on the leg, are of this kind. (See Foor, Diflortion
of.) The fingers or toes may be united together by the
ikin, the bones, mufcles, &c. being perfect. Hailer faw a
girl born at the fixth month, with both hands unnaturally
curved (manus utraque contortuplicata), The thumb was
crooked and not well formed: there were three other fin-
gers united into one mafs, with diltin& nails ; the middle of

thele
4

MONSTER.

thefe was twice as large as the others. In the feet, the
great toes were well formed; the four other toes were
arranged in the natural direction, and perfectly formed, but
united laterally by the fkin. (Opera Minora, t. iii. p. 37.)
Thefe unions of the fingers are not rare, and they do not
affe& the effential ftruture, as the parts, when artificially
feparated, can execute all the ufual motions.

Sometimes the limbs are quite mis-fhapen, andend in one
or two {mall and ill-formed parts, holding the place of
fingers.

g. General Malformation.—A very confiderable malforma-
tion is defcribed by Dr. Clarke, in the Philofophical Tranf-
ations, vol. 83. After the birth of a healthy child, another
fubftance contained in the ufual membranes, and conneéted
with a placenta, was expelled: it had an oval figure, and
‘was covered by common integuments. There were two pro-
jeGtions, each ending in three imperfect toes, and another
like a finger. It confifted internally of a homogeneous
flefhy and vafcular fubftance, without any mufcular fibres,
and having the umbilical veffels diflributed through it. It
contained an os innominatum, os femoris, tibia and fibula.
At the upper part, and towards the infide of the os innomi-
natum, was placed a little portion of fmallinteftines, loofely
conneéted by their mefentery to the pofterior edge of that
bone, and covered by periteneum. No other parts could be
traced in this produétion ; there was not the leaft veftige of
either brain or nerves.

Another remarkable inftance of general malformation oc-
curs in the child contained in the body of another, defcribed
in the latter part of this article.

We might carry this enumeration to a much greater length,
by collecting what has been obferved by various authors,
but the enumeration would be very tedious, and not inftruc-
tive. We refer therefore on this fubjeét to Haller’s work De
Monttris, contained in the 3d vol. of his Opera Minora,
lib.i. § 8. We may ftate, in general, that where any prin-
cipal organs are wanting, or any great deviation occurs in
leading points, there is always great confulion in the fubor-
dinate parts. In the cafe jult quoted from Dr. Clarke, the
want of the vifcera produced a difturbance of the whole
fabric ; and in other examples, where there has been no
heart, all the reft of the body has been very irregularly
framed.

h. Refemblances of Animals —The numerous examples of
refemblances to animals mutt be referred to the imagination
of the obfervers, as more exa€t modern obfervation does not
at all confirm them. We find fcetufes defcribed with the
face of amonkey, afs, dog, hare, goat, calf, fheep, cock,
fkate; lizard, locuft ; with the head of a cat, horfe, or calf;
with the penis of a dog; or horfe, &c. &c. &c. To the
fame clafs beloug the calves, fheep, and pigs, with human
heads, &c. &c. See Haller, ubi fupra. e

2. Monfters with unnatural Pofition of Parts.—TVhe fecond
is the leaft common kind of moniters. We cannot include un-
der this defcription the tranfpofitions of the vifcera, as the
external appearance is natural, and the functions are per-
formed regularly ; nor can we arrange in the clafs of mon-
{ters the examples of perforations in the diaphragm, where a
greater or {maller proportion of the abdominal contents
paffes into the cavity of the thorax. In the latter cafe the
vifcera may have taken the unnatural fituation before birth,
and then death follows birth very quickly, from the impedi-
ment to the free aétion of the lungs, or they may not pafs
into the thorax until fome fubfequent period of life. For
references to feveral cafes of this kind, fee Lawrence’s
Treatife on Ruptures, p. 482, note.

Protrufion of the abdominal vifcera at the navel may

more jultly be regarded as a monftrous formation. This ex-
ifts in very various degrees, froma {mall tumour, holding a
few turns of intefline, to alarge pouch, containing the liver,
ftomach, fpleen, and all the moveable vifcera of the ab-
domen. Sometimes thefe organs are all completely uncover-
ed, lying on the furface of the body, without any abdomi-
nal muteles at all; and the fame formation may extend to
the chelt, leaving the heart and lungs bare. Hence the pa-
rietes of the whole anterior and lateral parts of the abdomen
and chet are deficient. See the Treatife on Ruptures quoted
above, chap. vxii. fect. 1, and Haller, De Monftris, lib. i.
cap. 5.
The fame kind of protrufion of the abdominal vifcera at
the navel, is faid\by Haller to be frequent in the common
fowl, and not to be uncommon in other animals.- We have
feen a calf with the abdominal and thoracic vifcera completely
uncovered.

In a monfter delineated by Soemmerring, tab. 8, two ill-
formed fingers projeCted from the left breaft : the os humeri,
and a bone conne&ted with it, were under the integuments ;
the fcapula and clavicle in their natural fituation. Abbil-
dung und Befchreibung einiger Miflgeburten, &c.

Where there has been only one eye, a kind of monflrofity
that has occurred in the human fubje&, and in fome animals,
as the pig, fheep, and calf, it has been placed under the mid-
dle of the forehead, in the fituation of the nofe.

3- Monflers with deficient Paris.—a. Want of the Brain and
its Coverings, and of the Spinal Marrow.—An entire want of
the brain, and of the coverings which ordinarily belong to it,
isa very common occurrence ; and it conftitutes what have
been commonly called acephalous (headlefs) foetufes. All the
upper convex portion of the frontal bone, the whole of the
parietal bones, the fquamous parts of the temporal bones,
and the greater part of the occipital bone, behind the fora-
men magnum, are deficient in thefe cafes. Inftead of the
brain, there is an ill-fhaped mafs of bone, the bafis cranit,
covered by a thin membrane: the latter forms fometimes a
confiderable foft mafs, covering the bafis of the full : be-
hind this there is an opening, leading into the vertebral ca-
nal. The foft vafeular membrane is united at the edge of
the cranium with the common integuments, and hair grows
on the latter in this fituation, although there is none in the cor-
re{ponding part, nor within fome diitance of it, In individuals
naturally formed. The neck is remarkably fhort, fo that the
head feemsto lie on the fhoulders, and fometimes there is a con=
tinuity from the chin to the chelt. (See Soemmerring, tab. 3.)
In one initance, Haller found only five cervical vertebrz.
The eyes, viewed in conne€tion with the retreating furface of
the head, give to the whole a ttriking refemblance to the
head of a cat; fo that thefe fetufes have been called in
Germany cats’-heads (katzen-kdpfe). The body is well
formed in every other refpe@t, and generally reaches the full
fize. The medulla fpinalis, and the different nerves of the
brain begin at the openings, by which they ufuaily go out of
the head, and are perfectly formed in all refpeéts. It has
been obferved by Soemmerring and Morgagni, that molt of
the feacephalous monfters are females. Hewfon, Mekel,
and Soemmerring found in many initances, that the renal cap
fules were very {mall in thefe brainlefs children. Soemmer-
ring, p. 7.

' Thefe children generally die very foon after they come into
the world : but they have fometimes lived many hours, cried,
fucked, &c.

In one cafe, where the bones were wanting, but an im-
perfect cerebrum feemed to exift, the child lived fix days. The

child

MONSTER.

child was perfe&tly formed,.excepting the head, and of the
ufual fize. It took no food, and had no evacuation. Re-
{piration went on naturally : it did not cry, but often made
a hideous whining noife. When the foft fubftance at the
top of the head was touched, general and violent convulfions
took place. No figns of voluntary motions appeared, and
the mother had lefs feeling of the child in utero, than in her
former pregnancy.

See the work of Soemmerring already quoted, and San-
difort’s Anatome infantis cerebro deltituti, Lugd. Bat:
1784.

7 Want of the fpinal marrow is fometimes obferved in the
fame fcetufes which have no brain. We have feen an inftance
in which the whole of the fpinous procefles were deficient,
fo that the fpinal canal was completely expofed ; the place
of the medulla f{pinalis was fupplied by a vafcular membrane,
like that covering the bafis cranii in acephalous montters,
united in the fame way to the furrounding fkin. A fimilar
deficiency was obferved by Soemmerring, p. 21.

b. Want of the Heart.—The inftances in which there has
been no heart are not very rare. Mr. Brodie met with an
example in a foetus nearly of the natural form and fize.
There was no communication between the trunks of the ar-
teries and yeins. The vena cava of the foetus was continued
to form the umbilical vein, and the internal iliac artery of
one fide was reflected to form the umbilical artery. There
were defeéts in feveral other parts of this foetus: the fingers
and toes were not perfeét, nor in the right number ; the pa-

late was divided, the liver deficient, and the efophagus ter-
minating in a cul-de-fac. Other cafes of lefs perfect foctufes
without hearts, are mentioned in the Memoires de Il’ Acad.
des Sciences for 1720 and1740. Phil. Tranf. for 1767.
There were alfo two in Dr. Hunter’s collection. See Mr.
Brodie’s paper in the Phil. Tranf. for 1809. We have feen
one inftance in which there wasno heart: the brain and me-
dulla {pinalis were alfo deficicnt. The formation of the body
and the,fize of the limbs were for the moft part natural, but the
fingers and toes here were below the ordinary number. The
extraordinary malformation defcribed above from Dr. Clarke,
belongs alfo to the prefent divifion, as exhibiting an initance
of want of the heart and brain; alfo that of the foetus
found in the body of a child defcribed towards the end of
this article.

Monfters, in which confiderable parts are wanting, feem
peculiarly likely to affift inthe profecution of phyfi ological
refearches. If we never faw animals, except in a perfect
ftate, we could not form juft ideas of the comparative im-
portance of the different organs. And if we attended only
to the complicated ftruéture of the more perfect animals, we
fhould probably conclude tMat the conneétion of parts found
in them was eflential to the execution of vital functions. Of
thefe parts, the brain and nerves, the alimentary canal and
its appendages, the heart and lungs feem to be of fuch im-
portance in the machine, that we fhould probably conclude
the funétions of life could not go on without them. But, in the
fimple animals, which compofe the lower orders, many of th-fe
parts arenot found ; although they are capable of performing
the molt important animal functions. ‘This great fimplicity ot
ftruéture is found chiefly when the body is homogeneous,
not confilting of parts fo different from each other ae fkin,
vifcera, mufcles, bone, &c. We might, therefore, flill
fuppofe, that all the complicated mechanifm, found in the
more perfect animals, 15 effential to the conttruétion of fuch
heterogeneous fubltances, as thofe of which they confilt.
The monfters jult defcribed prove that this is not the cafe ;
they fhew us that cartilage, bone, ligament, cellular fub-

ftance, membrane, inteftine can be formed where no brain
or nerve or heart exifts, and where there is nothing further
than the aGtions of the vafcular fyftem; and they lead us to
conclude that the formation and nutrition of our organs
are the funétions of the blood-veffels only, At all events
they exclude the brain, nervés and heart from all participation
in this procefs.

The nature of foetal exiftence is confiderably elucidated by
thefe moniters. Superficial obfervation will convince us
that the life of the foetus is very different from that of the
animal which is born. The former is the moit fimple kind
of vitality : it includes merely the developement and growth
of parts, which, although ufelefs to the animal in this flate
of its exiftence, are effential afterwards, That the lungs
are of this kind, is generally admitted ; we muft adopt the
fame conclufion concerning the heart. A little refleGion
fhews us, that the brain and nerves are equally ineffential
to the foetal exiftence. The nerves tran{fmit impreffions -
from without ; the brain perceives thefe, reflets and wills ;
the nerves again convey the influence of the brain to the
mufcles. Although we cannot clearly prove the point, we
think there is very little reafon for helitation, in affirming
that none of thefe proceffes take place in utero: confe-
quently, that the brain and nerves are completely ina€tive.
The alimentary canal, and the organs connected with it, the
urinary apparatus, which difpofes of the refidue of nutri-
tion, are fuited to the fubfequent ftage of exiltence, and bear
an obvious relation to the mode in which the body is nourifh-
ed after birth; they are-dormant while the anima] remains
in utero, during which time the materials of its nourifhment
and growth are drawn from the mother, through the pla-
centa and umbilical chord. It is hardly neceflary to fay
any thing ofthe generative organs, as they are not called
into a€tion until many years after birth, and are then not
very clofely conne€ted to the reft of the fyitem ; at leaft their
abfence or ination does not produce any confequences that
endanger the exiftence of the animal. We fhould infer then,
that the whole growth and formation of a fetal body depend
onthe actions of the vafcular apparatus, which appear from
Dr. Clarke’s cafe to be fully equal to the tafk.

That beings fo imperfectly formed are incapable of exe-
cuting the funétions neceflary for the continuance of exilt-
ence after birth, is very clear. Refpiration is performed by
mufcles deriving their power from the brain, and, confe-
quently, cannot take place where there is no brain. If, in
any initance, life and refpiration have been kept up for a fhort
time, there has probably been an imperfect brain ; as in the
cafe related above, where the child lived fix days. All our
obfervations on living animals, too, concur in fhexing that
the heart’s a¢tion is effential to life. Without the alimentary
canal, no fupply of nourifhment can be received.

ge acephalotis moniters fhew us the independence of the
nerves on the brain, fo far as their formation goes; and they
evince very clearly the independence of the formation and
growth of the organs in general on the brain. For thefe
individuals are perfect in the fize and form of all the parts :
any organ or limb could not be diitinguifhed from that of
the molt regularly conftru€ted foetus with a brain.

If the anatomy of the veflels were well known in cafes
where there has been no heart, and if the circulation could
have been obferved, we could not fail to derive fome in.
terelting information : hitherto we know too little on thefe
points to enable us to draw any inferences applicable to the
phyfiology of the girculation after birth.

e. Want of other Parts.—The examples of deficiency of lefs
important parts are numerous, Where there has been

only

me

MONSTER.

only one eye, the nofe has been wanting: the ears have
fometimes been deficient. We have heard of a child, in
whom the {kin was {mooth and not perforated in the fitua-
tion of the ear, who had the fenfe of hearing. We met witha
fcetus, in which the foft palate did not exiit, and the tongue
had paffed into the nefe, having a deep impreflion on its
furface, correfponding to the feptum narium. ‘This child
muft have died immediately after birth, as it could not have
breathed. i

Various deficiencies occur in the extremities, from the
want of fome fingers or toes to the entire want of the
whole limbs. Individuals have been born without either
arms or legs. (Haller De Monftris, lib. i. cap. 10.) We
have feen a cat without tore legs, and a fimilar deticiency
has been noticed in the dog and horfe. (See Haller, lib. 1.
cap.1o.) The want of the ufual abdominal and thoracic
coverings we have already mentioned.

The irregularities in the defcent of the teftis have fome-
times been noted as monftrous formations. See the defcrip-
tion of the defcent of the teftis in the article GENERATION.
When one teltis only has defcended, the individuals have
been called monorchides ; and where both have been retained
in the abdomen, anorchides; as if there had been original
deficiency.

4. Monfters with fupernumerary Paris.—In the laft divifion
of monfters we fhall confider, under feparate heads, initan-
ces of fome additional parts conneéted to bodies otherwife

perfect, of united fcetufes, and of fcetufes involved in the.

bodies of others.

a. Superfluous Parts in Bodies otherwife perfed. Supernume-
rary Fingers.—Supernumerary fingers and toes hardly con-
ftitute a fufficiently ftriking deviation to deferve the name of
monitrofity ; there may be five fingers, or a {mall addi-
tional thumb in the hand; and fix toes in the foot. In
fome inftances this variety has exited in feveral individuals
of the fame family, and has been tranfmitted through two
or more generations, both by the father and mother. See
the article GENERATION, towards the end, on the theories
concerning that fubjeét; alfo Haller De Monttris, lib. 1.
cap. 9.

Ana'ogous appearances have been noticed in animals, as
the dog, pig, fheep, and common fowl. Supernumerary
horns fometimes exilt in the cow, fheep, and deer; and in
the ovis polycerata this variety feems to have become per-
manent. ¥

‘The exiltence of herniez and other tumours in the fcro-
tum has given rife heretofore to the notion of fupernumerary
tefticles: hence the triorchides, pentorchides, &c. ‘here
are never more nor fewer than two teltes naturally.

Superaumerary Extremities are by no means uncommon in
animals. Haller diffeéted a dog, in which there was a large
broad bone between the two offa innominata, fupporting a
leg, to the lower end of which two feet were connected.
In achicken, which he examined, there were two rumps,
with a bone placed between them and fupporting a fuper-
numerary leg. Ibid. c. 15.

Morand diffected a full-grown and perfectly well-formed
fheep, in which there were two additional lower extremities
projecting between the hindlegs. The anus and penis were
double. An unufual bone was placed between the tyro offa
pubis, and had acetabula fr the f{upernumerary thighs. The
bones of thefe additional limbs were regular; but there were
no mufcles. The ileum divided into two tubes, each of
which was continued into a large intefline: the kidnies,
teites, &c. were doubled. The aorta and vena cava bi-
furcaied; one branch going in the ufual courfe, and the
others being dillributed to the fupernumerary parts. (Mem.

VoL, XXIV.

del’Acad. des Sciences, 1733, p. 141.) For a fimilar in-
ftance in a cow, where the additional parts adhered to the
fpine, fee the Philof. Traafaé. vol. xlix. p- 183.

Examples of thefe additional limbs in all the domefti-
cated animals, as the horfe, dog, cat, cow, fheep, pig, goat ;
alfo in the hare; in the common fowl, duck, goofe, {par-
row, dove, goldfinch ; and in the frog, are mentioned in the
work of Haller. j

Additional Head.— Examples of any other parts, befides
the limbs, being thus attached to bodies otherwife perfeét,
are le{scommon: an ox is mentioned in the Philofophical
TranfaGions, vol. xlix. with an additional head attached
under the lower jaw; and a cow attained its full fize with
two heads and necks.

Some inftances have occurred, in the human {pecies, of
a more or lefs confiderable portien of another individual
adhering to fome part of the body. The Indian child
with a double head, deferibed by Mr. Home in the Philo-
as Tranfactions, vol. Ixxx. isa rare example of this
<ind.

The child lived to the age of two years, when it died
from the bite of a cobra de cabelo. The woman, who a@ed
as midwife, terrified at the ftrange appearance of the double
head, endeavoured to deitroy the infant by throwing it on
the fire, where it remained long enough to have one of the
eyes and ears confiderably burned. The body was naturally
formed, but the head appeared double, there being, be-
fides the proper head of the child, another of the fame
fize, and to appearance almoft equally perfect, attached to
its upper part. This upper head was inverted, fo that they
feemed to be two feparate heads united together by a firm
adhefion between their crowns, but without any indenta-
tion at their union, there being a fmooth continued furface
from one to the other. The face of the upper head was
not over that of the lower, but had an oblique pofition,
the centre of it being immediately above the right eye.
When the child was fix months old, both heads were co-
vered with black hair im nearly equal quantity. The neck
of the upper head was about two inches long, and the
upper part of it terminated in a foft tumour Itke a {mall
peach. The eyes of both heads moved at the fame time,
but thofe of the fuperior wandered in different directions.
The irides of the upper contracted on expofure to light ;
its eyelids were never completely fhut, remaining a little
open, even when the child was afleep. Tears flowed al-
moft conftantly from them, but never from the eyes of the
lower head, except when crying. ‘The fuperior head ap-
peared to fympathife with the child in moft of its natural ac-
tions. When it fucked the mother, fatisfa€tion was exprefled
by the mouth of the fuperior head, and the faliva flowed
more copioufly than at any other time ; for it always fowed
a little from it. When the child {miled, the features of the
fuperior head fympathifed in that ation. When the fkin of
the fuperior head was pinched, he feemed to feel little or no
pain, at leaft not in the fame proportion as was felt from a
fimilar violence being committed on the lower head or body.
No pulfation could be felt at the age of fix months in the
fituation of the temporal arteries in the upper head; brt
the fuperficial veins were very evident.

The monttrous head was brought from the Eaft Indies to
this country, and depofited in the mufeum of Mr. Joha
Hunter. The two fkulls are nearly of the fame fize, and
equally complete in their offification. The frontal and pa-
rietal bones, inftead of being continued over the top of the
head, meet each other, and are united by a circular future.
The two fkulls are almoft equally perfe& at their union ;
but the fuperior {kull, as it recedes from the other, becomes

imperfeG,

MONSTER.

imperfeét, and many of its parts are deficient. The number
of teeth is the fame in both. There is no feptum of bone
between the two crania, fo that the two brains muft have
been contained in one bony cafe.

Winflow mentions an Italian, whom he faw in 1698, who
had another head, much lefs than his own, connected to the
chelt, below the cartilage of the third rib. This had been
baptized feparately from the other. It adhered by the
lower half of the right fide of the face and head; fo that
the right ear and furrounding parts were not feen. All the
reft of the head and face, with the hair, and moft of the
neck, the eyes, nofe, mouth, teeth, and chin, were very dif-
tinGily vifible. This Italian felt whatever affected the
additional head. Mem. de Acad. des Sciences, 1733,

. 366.
haperhe Portion of another Body attached to a perfe& one—
The fame anatomiit faw a girl, twelve years old, well
formed, and of the accuftomed fize, with the abdomen and
lower extremities of another body hanging from the left
fide of the epigaftric region. This fecond body was {mall ;
it Had a row of vertebre conneéted to the fternum of the
larger ; and feces were difcharged from it, ‘The formation
of the parts compofing it feemed natural in every refpect.
The child felt perfectly whatever touched this additional
body. Winflow found, on diffle€tion, that the ileum bifur-
cated, and each branch went into a correfponding large in-
teftine. The latter, in the little fifter, terminated in a com-
mon receptacle with the ureters. There were no fexual
organs. The bones of the fifter were well-formed, but
there were no mufcles; the interval between the {kin and
bones being filled merely with fat, blood-veflels, and nerves.
Tn this inftance, there was a doubt whether the child fhould
be confidered as one ortwo ; and Winflow was fent for, not
only to afford his medical affiftance, but alfo te confider
whether extreme unGtion fhould be adminiltered to the little
tifter, as wellas to the entire body. Mem. de |’ Acad. 1733.
p- 366. : ; : 1

AA more remarkable inftance, in which at leaft the addi-
tional being was more perfect, was feen and is defcribed by
Bartholin, who viewed it, as he fays, with great aftonifh-
ment (cum ftupore), and Zacchias; and was exhibited in
many of the principal cities of Europe. c

The individual, named Lazarus Colloredo, was 28 years old,
well-formed, and of the ufual ftature: he had a deformed
twin brother hanging by the cheft from the lower part of the
fternum, who had been chriltened by the name of Johannes
Baptifta. ‘The latter had two arms, with three fingers only
on each hand, and one imperfe&t lower extremity. The
head was larger than that of Lazarus, but not well-formed ;
it was. well covered with hair, and there was no beard:
the trunk feems, from the figure, to have been very im-
perfect. The eyes were generally clofed, the mouth open,
and yielding a conftant flow of faliva. Refpiration was
hardly perceptible : there was a pulfation in the chefl. The
hands, ears,,and lips could be moved. John Baptiita was
nourifhed by the food taken by Lazarus. ( Hiltor. Anatom.
cent. 1. hift. 66. See alfo Zacchias Queftion. Medico-Legal.
lib. vii. tit. i. queft. 9.) ‘The latter author, who was chief
phyfician in the ecclefialtical flates, enters into a difcuffion
whether John Baptifta had a rational foul, which he deter-
mines in the negative 5 and hence feems to have doubted
whether it was right for him to have undergone the holy rite
of baptifm. * S¢ io hunc puerum feorfim a perfecto fuiffe
baptizatum ; an recte, et fecundum rationem id factum, neque
affirmo, neque nego: qui d enim ecclefia catholica in hoc de-
terminet, expecto, curet in hoc et in ceteris omnibus humiliter
me fubjicio,”’ Ibid. quelt. 4. He determines that the addi-

tional beings in thefe cafes are ‘* additamenta ex luxuriante
femine enata, et quod nullam, ne per fomnium quidem ra-
tionalis anime potentiam fortirentur.”

Ambrofe Paré relates an inftance of a fimilar defcription,
where another man, with all his parts, excepting the head,
was attached to an individual forty yearsold. (Lib. xxii.
cap. 3.) Amatus Lufitanus has an example in a well-formed
boy of fix years old, from whofe navel another imperfect
being, without a head, was fufpended. Curat. Medicin.
cent. ili. hilt. 57.

In the Ixxixth volume of the Philofophical Tranfa@ions,
there is an account ofa handfome and well made Gentoo boy,
of good fenfe and fagacity, who has a little brother fufpended.
by the pubes, and confifting of pelvis and lower limbs. He
feels perfectly what is done to the brother, but cannot move
the legs and feet, which are cold.

Thefe are the moft detailed and authenttc cafes ; references
to others, both in the human fubject, and in animals, may
be feen in Haller, ut {upra, cap. 20. ‘Thefe approach very.
nearly to the double foetufes, in which there appears to be
an union of two, originally diftiné.

b. United Fatufes.—Thefe form a very numerous clafs of
moniters, both in the human fubje& and in animals, aed
we meet with this kind of unnatural arrangement in almoft
every poffible degree, from the flight indications of a head
compoled of two joined together, to two bodies, apparently
perfe@ in all their parts, adhering at fome point to each
other. We might form a feries, having at one end a body
naturally formed, and at the other two natural bodies joined,
in which the intermediate gradations fhould be filled by indi-
viduals differing almoft imperceptibly from each other. Part
of fuch a feries, in that kind of monftrofity in which there
isa double head, is exhibited in the work of Soemmerring,
tab. 2. to 7.

In all thefe fpecimens, the parts placed at the point of
union are the molt worthy of notice; they are not like the
organs of a natural body, but exhibit unions of the parts
of two bodies in various degrees and fhapes. If it were pof-
fible for two heads, from each of which one-third or one-
fourth had been cut away, to be joined and grow together
by the cut furfaces, we fhould have the appearances ex-
hibited in thefe cafes. In the fame way, two tracheas or
cfophagufes, coming from the two halves of a double head,
are united below into one tube, or the {mall or large intef-
tines from two diftinét upper portions of a body are joined
into one canal, or the blood-veffels united in the fame way,
or the fkeletons joined in various manners ; or, on the con-
trary, the organs may be fimple above, and bifurcated down-
wards, to produce double parts for double bodies. In all
fuch inftances, organs are formed, for which there is no
model in the common ftruéture ; the points of bifurcation,
or divifion of the various canals mentioned above, are like
nothing in the naturally formed body. We fhall proceed to
notice a few particulars.

Fetufes with compound Head.—The flighteft deviation from
the common {truéture in this direétion is exhibited in Soem-
merring’s fecond plate. The head is very broad; there are
only two eyes, placed far apart ; and the nofe and upper lip
are divided by a confiderable fiflure. On each fide of this
fiffure there are about two-thirds of a nofe. The third plate
reprefents a head of fuch fize and form as would refult from
joining two two-third heads. The halves of this double
head are fymmetrical, and refemble each other in all refpects,
the features are exaétly alike, and each upper lip has a cleft
in it. In the following inftances the fame clofe refemblance
of the features is obferved, and in one there is a hare-lip
on both fides, yet the right is rather larger and better a

than

MONSTER.

~than the left fide; and the fame circumflance is noticed in the
other inftances reprefented by this authio> ; and he conceives
that it admits of explanation by the circumitance of the
right half being nearer to the heart. Inthe middle of this
broad head, of which each lateral Civifion contains its eye,
nofe and mouth, there is a large unnaturally formed eye. Each
lid is manifeftly compofed of two, united by their outer ex-
tremities, inftead of joining correfponding extremities of the
lower lids to form external angles ; the oppofite ends of thefe
lids are joined and form two angles turned towards the nofes
of the two halves of the head. The globe, obférved ex-
ternally, feems compofed of two two-thirds united together ;
two optic nerves enter it behind, and the number of mufcles
exceeds that of a fingle eye. There were two lenfes, two
choroid coats, and irifes. A fharp projecting edge of the
{clerotica, correfponding to an external depreffion, formed
the back of a feptum dividing the interior of the globe; the
two choroids, lying in conta¢t, continued this partition, but
it did not reach to the cornea. The two irifes were united,
and formed one large pupil; a pointed projection in the
middle of the upper and lower edge of this, as well as its
breadth, fhewed that it was made of two joined together.
Under this large eye, there wasa broad furtace compofed of
the two cheeks and chins united; a depreffion fhewed the
divifion of the right and left cheeks. ‘The cefophagi and
trachez of the two halves joined at the bottom of the neck.
In the fetus, reprefented in the fifth plate, the face is com-
pofed of two three-quarter faces. There are four well-
formed eyes; the outer angles of the two middle eyes exhibit
the ordinary appearance, but are united in the middle of the
head. The fixth plate exhibits a ftill nearer approach to
two heads. The two inner eyes are apart from each other ;
a depreffion above marks the diftinGtion of the two heads,
and the bottom of this is filled by an irregularly formed ex-
ternal ear, appearing as if it had been made by blending the
oppofed ears of the two heads. In the preceding inftances
there had been only two ears; here there were three, two of
the ordinary ftru€ture and a third compound one. A {itill
more complete divifion of the head into two lateral heads is
fhewn inthe 7th plate. There are in this four ears, and the
two middle ones are in contaét at their convex furfaces.
From this part a deep depreffion runs to the breaft, marking
the diftinGtion of the cheeks and chins.

The cafes in which the head is fingle, but compofed of
two imperfe& heads united, are followed by others, in which
there are two completely diftin€ heads, joined higher or
lower in the neck ; if we add to thofe already defcribed the
three following cafes, the feries will be complete; Sahler
Diff. de Foetu bicipici, Defil. 1786: Prochafka Annot. Aca-
dem. fafcic. 1. tab. r. Monro on the Nervous Syftem,
tab. 8. .

Fetufes with two Heads, joined in the Trunk.—The double
parts of the body are continued farther down in this than in
the preceding clafs. There are two heads and necks and
two arms; the double parts join in the cheft, and the body
is fingle below. See Hift. de l’Acad. des Sciences, 1745,
- 29.
E Or the union may take place lower down in the cheft, or
in the abdomen or pelvis; there are three or four arms in
fuch cafes, and two lower limbs. In a fcetus defcribed by
Duverney, Comm. Acad. Petropol. t. iii. p. 188, there
were two imperfeé& arms between the twonecks. The two
inner rows of ribs joined together, and did not run on to the
iternum ; there were three cavities in the thorax, a right and
left proper, and a middle common one, and two hearts. In
another there were two perfect lateral upper extremities,

and a middle imperfeé&t one; a double {pine as far as the
loins ; two hearts, and aorte, which united below the dia-
phragm. (Phil. Tranf. N° 138.) In one examined by Le-
mery, there were two vertebral columns, and trachez, double
lungs, a fingle heart compofed of one auricle and ventricle,
two aorte joined in the back, two ftomachs and duodena,
which united into one inteftine. (Mem. de l'’Acad. des
Sciences, 1724, p- 63.) In another the vertebra were joined
in the back; there were two efophagufes and one ftomach,
a double heart, and large veflels united in the loins. (Haller,
Opera Minora, p. 85.) A child with two heads and chetts,
and four upper limbs ; one pelvis and: penis, and two lower
limbs is defcribed in the Journal des Savans, 1684, p. 27.
For an account of a much greater number of thefe cafes,
and numerous references, fee Haller De Monttris, lib. i.
cap. 21—28.

Fraiufes double below, and united above.—There is a clafs
of fcetufes different from the former, in which a fingle head
is united toa double body. Haller has givena very detailed
account ofa pigof this kind. The face and upper part of
the cranium were fingle in this animal, the lower portion of
the cranial cavity, and all the organs thence downwards were
double. The two bodies, which in fize and form corre-
f{ponded to the ordinary model of the fpecies, adhered toge-
ther from the navel upwards. Alf the parts towards the
front of the head were fingle. There were two occipital
bones, divided by an additional petrous bone ; they refted
in front againft a fingle fphenoid. ‘T'wo additional occipital
bones were joined into a pentagonal piece refting on the addi-
tional petrous portion. The occipital bones were fupported by
their refpeétive atlantes, and there were two fkeletons from
this point downwards, differing from the ordinary arrange-
ment only in the fterna. Each of thefe received a row of
ribs of each body ; that is, to one fternum were attached the
right ribs of one cheft, and the left of the other, and vice
ver{é. The cerebrum was fimple, with fiffured medulla ob-
longata, two cerebella, two medullz fpinales, two bafilary
arteries, and two pituitary glands. The nerves were fimple
from the firft to the fixth pair; there were four auditory
nerves and paria vaga, and a fingle ninth pair for the fingle
tongue. There were two larynges, with one pharynx and
cefophagus between them. Above the navel the abdomen
was fingle, and double below ; there was one {ftomach and
{mall inteftine ; the latter bifurcated towards its end, and the
canal from this part was double. There were two livers,
fpleens, and pancreafes. The thorax was fimple in the
middle, and extended on each fide into two cavities refem-
bling each a fimple thorax; and containing the lungs as
ufual. There were two hearts, one of which received the
veins of the left body, and fent an aorta to the right, while
in the other thefe relations were reverfed. Juft behind their
arches, the aorte were joined by a large but fhort tranfverfe
communicating branch. (Haller, ut fupra, cap. 16. with
five figures.). In the fame place a multitude of examples of
this formation in animals, as the dog, cat, goat, horfe, hare,
rabbit, fowls, &c. is quoted. There are alfo many inftances
in the human fubjeét ; fee cap. 18.

Two complete Bodies united.—Through the preceding clafles
there is a gradual approach, from the fingle body to the
union of two, in other refpects, perfe&t bodies. The moft
complete diffeGtion of a double child is furnifhed by Haller.
The mother had brought forth three well-formed children, |
and carried this double produétion the fulltime. It con-
fifted of two well-formed girls, of the ordinary fize, with
abundant hair, perfeét nails, and rather elegant features.
The chefts and epigaftria “9 united, the twe bodies beng

2 ree

MONSTER.

free in every other part. The labour was very difficule and
tedious, and attended with the death of thefe children, which,
‘but for this reafon, might probably have furvived, their or-
ganization feemed fo perfect in all refpects. ‘The umbilical
chord contained four arteries and one vein ; the abdomen was
fingle above the navel, and double below ; it contained one
- liver, to which there were attached two gall-bladders. ‘The
greater diaphragm was fimple, and terminated below in
double appendices for the two bedies. A large fingle heart
was placed in the middle of the cheit ; but ali the blood-
vefels were double. The pulmonary veins of one body
opened into the {uperior cava, while in the other there were
two fuperior cave, and the pulmonary veins had diftinét
openings in the heart. The latter organ cosfifted of one
auricle, receiving the terminations of all the veins, and of
two ventricles, from each of which an aorta and a pulmonary
artery arofe. All other parts were double ; indeed there
were two bedies almoft entirely diitiné&t. The two fterna
were both common to the two bodies ; each receiving a feries
of ribs from each child, and a clavicle of each, (loc. cit.
cap. 29.) with feveral figures. In the 30th, gift, and 32d
chapters, Haller. has collected a great number of inftances
of fimilar montters both in animals and in the human fubject
from authors. Generally there has been only one heart, but
fometimes two ; in fomescafes there have been four cavities,
with the ufual blood-veffels, but often fewer. The liver ia
almof ali inftances fingle. :

The formation of the bodies is fo perfect in many of thefe
cafes, that we can difcern no reafon why they fhould not
continue to live after birth; probably the violence to which
they are expofed in parturition, and the duration of that

rocefs confequent on this difficulty, may be the caufe of
their deflruGtion. They have lived for a longer or fhorter
time in a few inftances. ‘Two children joined by the ab-
domen, double above, and having one pelvis and penis, and
two lower limbs, but no rectum, lived jeven days, and died
within a quarter of an, hour of each other. (Journal des
Savans, 1684, p- 27-) Another is mentioned in the fame
work, p. 340, who lived to the age of 28, under James 1V.
in Scotland; one of the bedies died fome days before the
other. Wa PLN

The moft extraordinary inftance of this kind is that of the
united twins born at Szony, in Hungary, in 1701, publicly
exhibited in many parts of Europe, and among others in
England, and living till 1723, when they were buried in
the convent of the nuns of St. Urfula, at Prefburgh. They
were joined at the back, below the loins, and had their faces
and bodies placed half fideways towards each other. They
bad one anus, and one vulva. The vifcera were all double,
except that the two vagine united into one towards the ex-
ternal aperture, and the two recta were joined in the fame
way. ‘here were two bladders and urethre opening fepa-
rately. The two facra were blended into one, and hada
fingle oy coccy gis conneéted to the lower end. The two
aoriz were joined into one tube before the divilion into the
iliacs; and the inferior venw cave were united at the fame
part. They were not equally {trong nor well made; andthe
molt powertul, (for they had feparate wills,) dragged the
other after her, when fhe wanted to go any where. At fix
years one had a par lytic affection of the leit fide, which left
her much weaker than the other. There was a great differ-
ence in their funGions in health and difeafe. They had dif-
ferent temperaments. Neither the alvine nor the urinary eva-
cuations were always performed at the fame time by both
filters; the menfes happened at different times, one having
them a week or more after the other; fometimes one, fome-

times the other would be moft difordered at fuch periods ;.
when one was afleep, the other was often awake; one had a
defire for food, when the other had not, &c. They had the
{mall-pox and meafles at one and the fame time, but other
diforders feparately. Judith was often convulfed, while
Helen remained free from indifpofition. ne of them hada
catarrh and a colic, while the other continued well. Their
intellectual powers were different ; they were brifk, merry,
and well bred; conld read, write, and fing very prettily ;
could fpeak feveral languages, as Hungarian. Germany
French, and Englith. ‘Chey died together. Phil. Tranf.
vol. 1. G.C. Driefchii hiftoria magna legationis cefarex,
&c. p.41. Hiailer, lib. i. cap. 28, and lib. 1. cap. 26,
where fome other inftances are quoted.

c. Fatufes included in the Bodies of others —Beings included
in the bodies of others are the molt uncommon kind of
monttrofity ; yet we have fome well authenticated cafes.

In the Gent!eman’s Magazine for December, 1748, men-
tion is made of a child, born with a large bag extending
from the fundament to the toes. It burit a few days after
birth, and expofed anirregular mafs of florid flefh, in which
a hand and foot with perfeét fingers and toes could be diftin-
guifhed. There was no other vilible diflinétion of parts or
fex. The child fed heartily.

A feetus was lately difcovered in the abdomen o a boy.
fourteen years old in Paris: we have feen no detailed account
of this occurrence, which is mentioned in the Bulletin de
Ecole de Medecine, in the Gazette de Santé, 1804, No. ty.
and the Journal de Medecine, an. 13.

But the inltance recorded by Mr. G. Young in the Me-
dico-Chirurgital Tranfaciions, vo'. 1, with four plates, is,
the moft minutely defcribed, and the belt authenticated, as
the parts were {een at the time by the principal medical men
in London. A tumor was perceived nearly from the time
of birth in the abdomen of a child, and gradually increafed.
to its death, which took place at the age of nine months.
A firm and for the mott part thick cyit was placed in front
of the abdominal aorta, between the roots of the czliac and.
fuperior mefenteric arteries, attached to the left crus of the
diaphragm, and covered in front by the ftomach and duo~
denum, pancreas, and its du€t,.and tranfverfe portion of the
colon. It contained 78 ounces of a limpid fluid, and a
rudely formed human fetus adhering to its furface, by a
flefhy cone proceeding from the umbilicus, and meafuring
one inch and feven-tenths at one end, and half an inch at
the other. This production was covered by integuments of
the natural appearance, cn which there was febaceous mat-
ter, fuch in all refpe&ts as is often met with on the fkin of
infants recently born. The extremities were dittinétly. re-
cognizable, and in many refpects tolerably well farmed, fo
much fo as to have diitin fingers and toes with nails, but
exceedingly fhart and fitout. There was fomething cor-
refponding to the bafis cranii, and a confiderable portion of
the fpine, fome fhort ribs, facrum and offa innominata, and
fone banes and joints of the limbs well formed. Very
little mufcular fubttance was found in this creature ; none
on the trunk, a little about the hips, and none in the
remainder of the limbs, which confiited of adipous fub-
ftance. There was neither brain nor {pinal marrow, but a.
diftin& plexus of nerves jult witbin the umbilicus, about the
commencement of the inteltines, to which numerous branches.
were diftributed. ‘Uhere were two locks of hair joft below
the part correfponding to the head. It had no heart nor
lungs, and’ no abdominal vifcera, except a few inches of
naturally! formed inteltine, with mefentery. ‘Two kinds of
veflels were diltinguifhed in this production ; butit wag not

practicable

MONSTER.

practicable to afcertain clearly the nature of their con-

neétion with the cyft. There was a very diltin& ferotum
and penis.

III. Confiderations on the produétion of thefe unvfual
formations.

Thece is a very important ground of diftinétion, in con-
formity to which, on the firft view, we feparate them into
two claffes ; thofe which are, anda thofe which are not, ca-
pable of fupporting life after birth. To the former belong
ail varieties, and feme of the monftrous formations; to the
latter moft of the monfters, as the headlefs and heartlefs
children; thofe with imperforate anus, with communication
between the trachea and efophagus, with uncovered vifcera.
In the former, there is another diftinGion between the
inftances, in which the natural fenétions are all perfectly
executed, and thofe in which life is continued for a certain
length of time with inconvenience and fuffering, and then
prematurely ended. ‘The varieties of a flighter kind, and
in unimportant organs, belong to the firft of thefe divifions ;
malformations of the heart, and of the urinary organs, {pina
bifida, &c. to the fecond. Again, in fome kinds of mal-
formation, the vital powers feem as perfect as in the ordi-
nary formation, but the mechanifm is imperfeét, as in club-
feet and other erroneous organizations or deficiencies of the
limbs.

It is very clear that the great deviations from the accuf-
tomed flandard, producing monttrofities, are generally inca-
pable of life; and we can underftand the reafon of this in
many cafes, where the heart or brain is deficient, &c. But
in other inflances, where no fuch fatisfactory caufe is ap-
parent, experience fhews us that thefe montters are generally
cut off. We have aiready obferved, in the article Eapryo,
when {peaking of the foetus, that it is often ill-formed, {maller
than it fhould be, deviating from the ufual proportions, or
monitrous, in abortions; fo that the vital powers in mon-
tters do not feem adequate to maintain the comparatively
fimple exiftence of the fectal flate: if, however, they get
over this danger, the hour of birth is with them generally
the hour of death. There are many poffible arrangements,
differing from the ordinary type, in which the funétions
would have been all preferved ; but this would interfere with
another principle, which feems to prevail extenlively in the
operations of nature, viz. prelervation of uniformity in the
{pecies.

We fhould obferve, in the next place, that thefe devia-
tions are not contined to the human fubject; they are very
frequent in animals. All the kinds of monitrofity have not,
we believe, been noticed in the latter; we find no inf{tances
recorded of hare-lip, of want of brain and heart, of {pina
bifiday of malformed urinary organs, nor of fuch general
malformation as is exhibited inthe cafe of Dr. Clark, and
in the foetus diflected by Mr. Young. But united feetufes,
fupernumerary limbs, and unnatural arrangements about the
eyes and nofe,are very frequent.

We obferve further, that fuch morftrous produétions are
almoit, if not entirely, confined to domelticated animals; at
leait nearly all the recorded inftances juttify this affertion.

Out of very numerous monttrous animals, of which the™

defcriptions are referred to in the work of Haller, we find very
few that can be at all fufpefted to have been in a ftate of
mature. There are fome hares, and one inftance of double
moles cited from Valifnieri. He refers to three in!tances of
frogs with five feet. Examples of ferpents with two heads
have not been very uncommon ; the fame formation has beea
feenin the turtie and lizard. (See Haller de Monttris, lib. 1.
cap. 33.) True hermaphrodites, or individuals poffeffing
perfect male and female organs, are not rare among hfhes.

We have read fomewhere, that if the fpawn of 2 fifh be
placed in a {mall veffel, about the time that it begins to be:
evolved, all kinds of unaatural unions will take place, exhi-
biting montters of every defcription, but we cannot now
refer to the place. ;

Monttrofities are very frequent in the pig ; we believe that
they are entirely unknown in the wild animal. That domef.
tication fhould have this effect is not more furprifing, than
that it fhould affect the number of young produced. The
wild fow brings forth only once a year, and thus has fewer
young than the tame one, which farrows twice.

The circumitances ju{t mentioned ; the great abundance
and numerous kinds of monfters found in the human fubje¢t,.
their comparative rarenefs and fewer f{pecies in the dometlic
animals, and their prcbable entire abfence in wild animals,
lead us to fufvect that they owe their origin to fomething
connected with our peculiar mode of exiftence in this re-~
fpe& ; in fhort, they refemble our difeafes, which we believe
to be altogether unknown to animals in a ftate of nature,.
and to exift in greater number in proportion as they are”
more and more complegely dometticated and rendered arti-
ficial. At the top of the fcale, whether we regard the
number, the cemplication, or the feverity of his difeafes,
ftands the lord of the creation; if he boafts that his arts
have fubdved both animate and inanimate nature, the no-
fol-gilt, unfolding his long and appaliing catalogue, loudly
proclaims that he is difeafed, checks his triumph, and con-
vinces him that he has paid too dear a price for empire.

Generation is a function not differing in its effential cha-
racters from the other procefles of the animal economy.
The produétion of a new being feems, on a fuperficial views,
fo much like creation, according to the notions which men
have amnfed themfelves with framing on that fubje&, that
they have conceived it to require fome precernatural agency.
Regarding this bufinefs then as the work of God, and hav--
ing already affumed that all his works are perfe&, they
maintain that the young animal is originally perfe@, and
degenerates into a moniter through the adtion of external:
forces. More accurate obfervation difclofes to us in this-
affair inerely the cperation of fecondarv caufes, and exhibits:
to us the production and developement of the feetus as the.
refult of vafcular aétion in fecretion and nutrition; in fhort,.
however his pride may be offended at hearing it, the fimple
truth is, that min, confidered at the epocha of his firft.
formation, and with refpeét to his corporal frame, is a
fecretion.

The fun&ion of generation is not more exempt from the-
operation of difturbing caufes than any other ia the animal:
economy. Any violent and fudden impreffion interrupts it.
at once by caufing abortion; but minor caufes, although.
their effects are not feen, are not to be deemed inoperative,
Particular bodily formations, particular mental characters,,
and difpofitions to certain difeafes,. &c. &c. are tranfmitted.
to the offspring. Indeed, how can we expect, that, when,
all the reit cf the being is artificial and vitiated, this one.
part fhould be undifturbed ;. we afcribe then the aberrations-
trom the ufual form and ftructure of the body, which pro-
duce monifters, to an irregular operation of. the powers.
concerned in generation, and place them on a level, with
refpect to their caufe, with unhealthy executions of the
nutritive, fecretory, or exhalant fun&tions.. We on'y mean,
by thefe obfervations, to refer the aberrations of the forma-
tive procefs to the fame general principles, as the other devia--
tions from the healthy execution of funGtions, and to pro-.
tet againit the confidering them as forming a peculiar cafe
out of the common rules applying to orgamiled beings.

It would ‘not be right, however, to pafs unnoticed the,

commorly-

MONSTER.

commonly entertained opinions, although we entirely reje&
them ; we fhall, therefore, make a few obfervations on fome
of thefe.

Phyficians for a long time believed, and mankind in general
are ftill firmly convinced, that the mind of the mother exerts
a very potent influence on the formation of the child ; and
that her imagination, or fome peculiar mental ftate, is capable
of producing even very fignal deviations from the accuttomed
formation, after the natural developement and growth have
been very confiderably advanced. It has been fuppofed that
a fudden fright will caufe a refemblance to the animal or
obje& producing it, and that a violent defire or longing for
any thing, particularly if it be not gratified, will caufe a
refemblance of the thing to be marked on fome part of the
child’s body. The names given to the marks, fometimes
obferved in newly-born children, fhew how generally the
opinion has prevailed ; viz. nzvi materni, in Latin ; mutter-
mahl, or mutterflecken (mother’s {pots), in German ; envie
(longing), in French. Matrons and nurfes, the hereditary
prieitefles of Venus and Lucina, and the great authorities,
to the uninitiated, on all the mytteries of generation, often con-
trive to keep a mother, doubiy anxious for herfelf and her
offspring, in a ftate of alarm throughout her pregnancy, left

‘the fight of fomething frightful or difgufting, the longing
atter fome objet, &c. fhould convert the child in her womb
into a montter.

In the firft place, monftrous produétions are often brought
forth, when the mother has been confcious of no canfe durmg
her pregnancy, that could be thought likely to produce
them. The ttrong defire, common indeed to both fexes, of
being thought capable of executing the generative funétions
perfectly, and the uneafinefs accompanying any fuppofed
failure, induce midwives, where a montter is brought forth,
to conceal it from the mother’s knowledge, which, as they
generally die after birth, is eafily done. If, however, fhe
fhould-learn the occurrence, fhe recals to her recolleGion
whatever has happened in her pregnancy, and can hardly
be at a lofs for fome longing, or averfion, or fright, to
which fhe refers what might otherwife bring into queftion
her fitnefs for thefe important funétions. How are the
nzvi, and other unnatural formations to be accounted for,
when no mental caufe is remembered, or, when the mon-
ftrofity not being known to the mother, fhe never mentions
any fuch occurrence ?

A knowledge of the different kinds, and of the anatomical
ftruGture of montters, affords very ftrong, and indeed incon-
trovertible proofs of the abfurdity of the common notions.
The moft zealous advocates of the opinion, which indeed
only makes the matter more obfcure, will hardly contend
that the imagination of the mother can annihilate one-third
or one-fourth of a head, and adapt to it an exaétly cor-
refponding piece of another head, refembling it fo exactly
in fize, form, features, &c. If it fhould not be difficult
enough to acceunt for the produétion of this fymmetrical
double head, a harder tafk remains ; wiz. to explain how
the imagination of the mother changes nearly half the
body ; for the vertebral column may be double, the breatt
confequently broader, &c. in fuch an example.

We fhall again afk how longing or fright can difpofe of
the brain, membranes, fcull, fcalp, &c., as in the acephali?
How it can ftop up the anus? or deftroy the fore-arm and
place the fingers at the end of the arm? or annihilate the
nofe; and bring together and confound in one the two
eyes ?

Do pigs, horfes, hares, &c. long? are pigeons and fowls

given to thefe fancies? or does the fame effeét arife from
ene caufe in men, and from another in animals? How does

3

the explanation apply to trees, and other vegetables, in which
monttrous productions are not rare ?

That the vulgar, who know only the furface of things,
and are contented with the moft diftant refemblances and the
loofeft analogies, fhould afcribe the harelip to the fight of
ahare, is not very ftrange ; but we fhould hardly believe, if
it were not before our eyes in print, that Heifter (Obferv.
Med. Mifcellan. obf. 14.) defcribes an acephalous foetus with
divided lip as the refult of fuch a caufe. The mother of
a fimilar child defcribed by Sandifort afcribed the deformity
toa fright caufed by amonkey. Now what refemblance is
there between a hare or amonkey and fucha child?) What
between a hare and a monkey? All the monfters of this
defcription are remarkably alike ; in our judgment they do
not bear the moft remote refemblance, either to a monkey or
ahare ; and we have already mentioned that they have gained
the common name in Germany of cat’s-heads. If we go
back into times a little more remote, as 1670, we fhall meet
with children refembling devils. Kerkring (Spicileg. Anat.
obf. 23.) gives us a figure, with the following infcription:
‘ Monftrum cacodemonis picture, quam humanz figure,
fimilius.”” The fingers in the engraving have fomething of
the character of claws ; and the mother fancied that fhe had
had intercourfe with evil {pirits: ‘ jam fibi cum malis geniis
congreffa videbatur.’’ The goffips thought the child like an
imp; and Kerkring found it in no ref{pe& like a human be-
ing, but rather like an ugly monkey: ‘caput nihil habebat,
quod hominem referret. Facies fimiz, eique deformi fimillima.””
Is it not very clear that the imagination is much more power-
fully at work in thefe good people, than in the poor mothers ?
Devils, apes, hares, and cats are all alike to them. It is
difficult 'to contend againft fuch adverfaries: if they are
driven from their monkies and hares, they conjure up the
phantoms of their brains, and array again{t us imps, blue
devils, and old nick himfelf.

In cafes of harelip, the parts do not refemble the fnout of
a hare, but are formed in quite an oppofite way. The up-
per jaw-bones are drawn apart, and the face confequently
more than ufually broad, inftead of being narrow and
flanding forwards, as inthe hare. The lip of the hare is not
fiffured, but merely notched, and covered with long {tiff brif-
tles. The fiflure of the lip is often the fmallett part of the
deformity in the human fubje@: there is a divifion through
the whole of the bony and foft palate, to which a hare’s
head has nothing analogous.

The productions of the fkin, which are compared to
ftrawberries, mulberries, rafpberries, &c. are fo obvioufly
unlike thofe objets, that it would be a waite of time to fay
any thing on the fubjeét. Let it be obferved, too, that hare-
lips and other monttrous productions are feen in countries,
where there are no hares, no rafpberries, cherries, &c. to
caufe them.

Women generally refer to frights, longings, or other men-
tal impreffions, in the latter months of pregnancy : at earlier
periods they do not feel the fear of fuch occurrences. Now
monttrous foctufes are feen at all times of utero-geftation,
from the firft recognifable exiltence of the child; and the
foetus is ill-formed or monftrous in a large proportion of
abortions, which occur for the moft part before the time
at which their apprehentions begin.

The child does not participate in moft of the bodily af-
fections of the mother, and apparently is uninjured in many
very ferious and extenfive diforders ; at leaft ftrong and well-
formed children are brought forth by mothers, after going
through fuch difeafes. Is it reafonable to fuppofe that the
fight of an animal, or the mere with for an article of food,
fhould have effeéts which the much more ferious caufes do

not

MON

not produce. We know that if a pregnant woman has a
limb broken or amputated, fhe will neverthelefs produce an
entire child ; yet we are gravely told that if fhe fees fuch
things in another, her child will fuffer. .

But it is needlefs to purfue further a queftion, on which all
rational perfons well acquainted with the circumftances are
already unanimous ; to explain that there is not a fingle faét
even approaching to a proof, that the mother’s imagination
ever had any effe&t on the form of any child ; that none of
the numerous montters refemble, in any effential character,
the objeéts to which they are compared, and moft of them,
as the braialefs and thofe without hearts, the double foetufes,
thofe with redundant parts, as the two-headed, &c. corre-
{pond to no archetype in nature; and that, when diffection is
employed, unufual arrangements of important organs, like
nothing elfe in heaven above or the earth beneath, are found
in abundance. This belief in the power of imagination,
like the belief in witchcraft, is greater or lefs, according
to the progrefs of knowledge, which in truth differs greatly
in different countries and heads. We know that many en-
lightened women are fully convinced of its abfurdity, while
Jfoi-difant philofophers are {till found to fupport it.

The produétion of monfters has been explained mecha-
nically by fome phylicians : they have fuppofed that deficient
parts-are deltroyed by external preflure or violence ; that fu-
perfluous parts are remains of another foetus becoming adhe-
rent toa perfeGt one, and that compound fcetufes are made of
two growing together. This isa perfectly gratuitous hypo-
thefis, andis repugnant toall our knowledge concerning the
animaleconomy. By what faéts are we jultified in believing,
that the ribs of two feetufes, and the clavicles, can detach
themfelves from their refpeétive fterna, and become fixed, each
to the fternum of the other, as in the {fleleton of the double
foetufes: that two perfect hearts, if the cheft could be thus
metamorphofed, could be united with one auricle only, and
with two ventricles, of which each produces a pulmonary
artery and an aorta; that a new communicating channel
fhould be formed between the two aorta, as in the double
bodied pig already defcribed. If we could believe all thefe
wonders, it would not be fufficient ; for monftrofities occur,
when there has been no violence inflicted during pregnancy.
We cannot help being furprifed that Haller, who fhews how
inadequate this explanation is to the folution of the pheno-
mena in moft of the monftrous births, fhould admit it in any
kinds. Yet he confidersit as perfe€tly applicable to moit
of the unnatural pofitions of parts; to fome unnatural
formations; to the abfence and divifion of organs, and
to fome cafes of preternatural unions.. He refers the hare-
lip to awant of the cellular fub{tance, that fhould unite the
fuperior maxillary bones, and conceives that the parting of
the bones lacerates the lip. (Lib. ii. cap. 13.) He afcribes
the appearances in the acephali to accidents during utero-
geitation deftroying the brain and its cafe. The refpeét due
to the name of Haller, a name fo dear to all who intereft them-
felves in phyfiological purfuits, leads us to beftow on thefe
opinions a degree of notice which they would not otherwife
gain from us. Let us allow, what is not fupported by a
fhadow of proof, that a force can be applied to the child in
utero, capable of caufing this extenfive deftruction ; how
does it happen that the head fhould be deftroyed in all cafes
juit fo far as the orbits ? it muit either take place fuddenly
-or gradually. ‘The former cannot be the cafe, for the brain
and its membranes could not be annihilated without kill-
ing the child: moreover, in the frequency of thefe cafes
how does it happen that the head is never found in this
bruifed condition? If it be the confequence of gradual pref-

MON

fure, how furprifing it is that the deftruétion fhould always
be found precifely at the fame point, that no fpecimens of an
earlier or later {tage fhould ever have been met with. How
is the prefence of the hair at the edge of the integuments,
where it does not exift naturally, to be accounted for?
Why are females fo much oftener the fubje&ts of fuch acci-
dents than males? Why do not other parts fuffer in the fame
way, lince the brain is protected by a bony cafe at an early
period, while the bones in other parts are internal? How
does external force deftroy the fpinous procefles of the ver-
tebre through the integuments in {pina bifida?

In order to prove that a brain has exifted, and has been
deftroyed in thefe cafes, Haller obferves that it is quite con-
trary, not only to the wifdom of nature, but to common
fenfe, for arteries, veins, and nerves to be made in a fkull,
where there is no brain, This is a dangerous argument : is
it not equally contradictory that are€tum fhould be formed
without an anus, fince life cannot be continued without fuch
an opening ? If nature be fo wife and careful, why did not fhe
provide againft the deftruétion of the head? And why does
fhe go on working, month after month, tono purpofe, in con-
ftruéting the numerous other monfters, which are ineapable
of life ? Not contented with exercifing his mental faculties,
on what comes under the operation of his fenfes, and ex-
ploring the inftrudtive {cenes of nature, man is ever difpofed
to enter the regions of imagination, and to give to the beings
of his fancy, whom he firlt clothes with all the attributes of
perfection, the defigns and aGtions which accord enly with
his own fhortfightednefs and ignorance: He is as pofitive
about what goes oninthis unfeen region, as if he direéted all the
operations himfelf, and can tell you very precifely what does,
and what does not harmonife with the wifdom of the Creator,
which turns out at laft to be the exact reprefentation. of his
own knowledge or prejudices. Why may not arteries, veins,
&c. which ufually belong to a brain, be formed without a
brain as well as a re&tum without an anus, heads without
eyes, and all other imperfeét montters? It is enough that the
thing happens: whether nature has any defign in thefe for-
mations, or nat, we leave undetermined, until we are informed
of fome data on which a decifion may be grounded.

Morgagni has fuppofed that the acephali may have had hy-
drocephalus ; and that the brain may be deftroyed by the
water ; and this is called an explanation! A learned profef-
for, to be fure, would lofe his charaéter, if he had noffa
reafon for every thing that happens: he fhould fay that the
child has eaten its own brains, rather than confefs his igno-
rance on the fubjec.

The reader may refer to Haller, De Monftris; in the
Opera Minora, v. 3.; toSoemmerring, Abbildung und Befch-
reibung einiger Miflgeburten, &c. folio, Mentz, I7QI3
and to Regnault, Les Monftres, ou les ecarts de la nature 3
ouvrage qui renferme toutes les monftrofités que la nature
produit, foit dans l’efpéce humaine, {oit parmi les quadru-
pedes, &c. en planches coloriées; folio, Paris, 1775. The
two former of thefe works are replete with references.

For an account of the poor ideots in the Valais and fome
other mountainous European tracts, and of the {welling of
the throat, particularly obferved in certain hilly countries,
fee the articles Cretin and Goirre.

A Monster, in Law, is one that hath not human fhape,
and yet is born in lawful wedlock ; and fuch may not pur.
chafe or retain lands; but a perfon may be an heir to an an-
ceftor’s land, though he have fome deformity in any part of
his body. (Co. Litt. 7, 8.) If there appearsno other heir
than fuch a prodigious birth, the land fhall efcheat to the

lord.
Monsters,

MON.

“Monsters, Vegetabie. ‘There are alfo monftrous produc-
‘tions in the vegetable world: fuch, e. gr. are what fome bo-
‘zanifts call mules.

Floriits alfo give the denomination montfters, “or monftrous
flowers, to thofe flowers which are not only dcuble, ‘but
double podded; or when, inftead-of one flower, there are
awo. or three rifing one above another-from a fingle ftalk.

MONSTERAS, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in
the province of Smaland ; 25 miles N. of Calmar.

MONSTIER. See Mourier.

MONSTRANS de Droit, in Law, 2 writ iffuing out of
chancery, ‘or the exchequer; for reftoring a perfon to lands
or tenements that are‘his in right, though on fome occafion
found in pofleflion of another lately dead.

MONSTRAVERUNT, a writ which lies for a tenant
who holds by ‘free charter in ancient demefne, upon his
being diftrained for the payment of any fervice or impcfition
contrary to the liberty he does or ought to enjoy.

MONSTRELET, Encuernranp pe, in Biography, a
chronicler of the fifteenth century, was defcended from an
ancient family in Cambray, of which city he died governor
in 1453- ‘He left a hiftery, in French, of his own times,

commencing with the year +400, and carried down to 1467,
but the laft fifteen have been added by another hand. The
beft edition is that of Paris, in two folio volumes, 1572: its
title is <‘ Chronique d’Enguerrand de Monftrelet, gentil-
homme, jaedis demeurant e Cambrai en Cambrefis.”’ It
gives a faithful, but, as might be expeGed, a prolix narrative
of the wars between the houfes of Orleans and Burgundy,
of the capture of Normandy and Paris by the Englifh, and
their expulfion, and of all the memorable events in France
and other countries during that period. It occupies the
fpace between the hiitories of Froiffart and Comines, and
is valuable on account of the number of ariginal documents
which it contains. Moreri.

MONT, Henry pu, a voluminous ecclefiaftical com-
pofer of mufic, and maitre de chapelle to the king of France.
He publifhed at Paris, in 1652, Cantica facra; andin 168t,
motets in four parts, five vols., and other motets for the
Chapelle royale in 1686, fixteen vols.

He was born at Liege in 1610, was a great organ player,
and the firlt, fays M. Laborde, who introducéd the ba/e
continue, or thorough-bafe, into France. His ftyle is now
be@ome extremely dry and uninterefting, and never was equal
to that of many Germans and Netherlanders, his contem-
poraries.

Mon, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Segeftan; go miles N.W. of Zareng.

AONTABAUR, atown of Germany, in the _princi-
pality of Naffau, in the extenfive bailiwic of which filver
mines are found ; 11 miles I. of Coblentz.

MONTAFIA, a town of France, in the department of
the Tanaro; 11 miles N.W. of Afti.

MONTAGNA, a department of Italy, E. of lake
Como,, containing about 160,042 inhabitants, who ele& 12
deputies ; the capital of which is Lecco.

MONTAGNAC, a town of France, in the department
of the Dordogne, and chief place of acanton, in the ditlri¢t
of Bergerac; nine miles N. of Bergerac. ‘Ihe place con-
tains 1020, and the canton 10,865 inhabitants, ona territory of
2974 kiliometres, in 19 communes.—Alfo, a town of Frince,
in the department of che Herault, and chief place of a can-
ton, inthe diftri€t of Beziers ; 21 miles W.S.W. of Mont-
pellier. The place contains 3100, and the canton 9162 inha-
bitants, ona territory of 212$ kiliometrer, in
younes.

12 com-

MON
MONTAGNANA, Antonio, in Biography, an Italian

opera finger, with a powerful bafe voice, and great abilities,
who arrived in England during the latter-part of Handel’s
opera regency, as {ucceffor to Bofchi.

He firft performed in Sofarmes, in the grand air, * Fra
Vombree V’orori.”? In this air Handel diiplayed all the
power, depth, and mellownefs of his voice, and the pecoliar
accuracy of his intonation in hitting diftant intervals. ‘This
air will ever be admired, among bafe fongs, by real judges
of compofition, and heard with delight by the public, when-
ever it fhall be executed by a finger whofe voice and ability
fhall equal thofe of Montagnana. He fung for Handel ir
YFaramond and Xerxes, from whom he apoftatized, and went
over to the oppofition, and performed with Farinelli in the
operas of Porpora.

Montacnana, BARTHOLOMEW, a nativeof Padua, was
a diftinguifhed profeffor of medicine in the univerlity of that
city, in the middle of the fifteenth century ; and was fuc-
ceeded by his fon, of the fame name, who held a ttill higher-
reputation as a {cholar, though he was lefs diftinguifhed as
a practical phyfician. The latter left Padua, and tock up
his refidence in Venice, in the year 1508, where he prac-
tifed his profeffion until his death, in 1525. The firit Mon-
tagnana left a colleétion of opufcula, which were firlt |
printed at Venice in 1497, and afterwards frequently repub-
lifhed, with the title of « SeleQiorum Operum, &c. Liber
unus et alter.”” And the fecond publifhed, ‘* Refponfa re-
parande, confervandeque fanitati fcitu digmffima ;’’ and
** De Peltilentia ad Adrianum Pont. Max.’?

But the family of Montagnana produced feveral medical
and furgical profeffors for two or three fucceilive generations,
the fon and two grandfons of the fecond Bartholomew hav-
ing taught thefe fciences, and publifhed each one or two
works of little note. A tract of Bartholomew, the fon,
“© De Morbo Gallico,”’ is’ printed in the Venice colleGtion
upon that fubjeét. The grandfons, Marc Anthony and Peter,
who were fucceffively profeffors of furgery at Padua, pub-
lithed, the one atreatife, ‘“‘ De Herpete, Phagedena, Gan-
grena, Sphacelo, et Cancro,’’ Ven. 1559; and the other
two eflays “ De Urinis,”” and * De Vulneribus et Ulce-
ribus, eorumque remediis,”’ both in Latin and Italian. Eloy
Dic. Hilt. dela Med.

MonraGNnana, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
Paduan; 18 miles S.W. of Padua. N. lat. 45° 14’. E.
long. 11° 31’.—Alfo, a town of Italy, in the duchy of
Modena.

MONTAGNE, or Monraiecye, Micnarr px, in Bio-
grephy, a celebrated effayilt, was born in 1533. His early
attention to the ftudies of youth led his father, lord of Mon-
tagne, in Perigord, and mayor of Bordeaux, to cultivate
his talents with the greateft care. He was exceedingly well
grounded in the ancient and fome of the modern languages.
«At the age of thirteen he had completed his courfe of edu-
cation at the college of Bordeaux, where he had enjoyed the
benefit of the in{ftruétions of Muret and Buchanan. He
was intended for the legal profeffion, and followed it fome
time, but became difguited with its dry forms, and devoted
his talents and time to the ftudy of menand books, After
the death of his friend Etienne de la Boetie, who bequeathed
to him his library and manufecripts, he publifhed “ The
Remains” of that friend in profe and verfe. In 1569 he
printed a tranflation of * The Narural Theology ot Rey.
mond de Seboude,” a learned Spaniard. On the death of
his father he acquired poffefion of the eftate and feat of
Montagne, and being now at eafe, in that retreat, he be-
gan to collect materials for his Effays. In the hope of en-

‘ larging

= Sa Ss” le

MON

larging his {phere of obfervation on men and manners, he
travelled through France, and vifited Germany, Switzerland,
and Italy. .At Rome he was honoured with the privilege
of citizenfhip. In hi he was chofen mayor of Bor-
deaux, an office which he held four years, in the courfe of
which he was delegated by his fellow citizens on fome pub-
lic bufinefs to the court. During a refidence at Paris he
contracted that intimate friendfhip with Mademoifelle de
Gournai, which continued as long as he lived. He was not
inclined much to the political fquabbles which difturbed
France during the reign of Charles IX., but was fubjec&
to temporary dangers from the military parties, which at
that period feemed to make no difference between friends or
foes. He died in 1592, leaving an only daughter. His
literary reputation is founded on his ‘+ Effays,’’ which were
at one time extremely popular, and which are ftill read with
pleafure by a numerous clafs of perfons. They embrace a
great variety of topics treated of ina lively and entertaining
manner, but without much accuracy or depth. Their ftyle
is neither pure nor correct, but fimple, bold, lively, and
energetic. La Harpe fays of him, ‘* As a writer, he has
impreffed on our language (the French) an energy which it
did not before poffefs, and which has not become antiquated,
becaufe it is that of fentiments andideas. As a philofopher

"he has painted man as he is: he praifes without compliment,

and blames without mifanthropy.’? The beft editions of
Montague’s Effays are thofe of Cofte, in three volumes,
quarto, 1725, with additions, and a fupplemental volume,
quarto, 1740, reprinted in fix volumes, r2mo.; and that
of Bruffels, three volumes, 1759. In 1772, Montague’s
“ Travels”? were publifhed by M. de Querlon, in one vo-
lume quarto, and three volumes 12mo. Moreri.

This modern Democritus, in travelling through Italy and
Germany about 12 years before his deceafe, feems to have
attended to the ecclefiaftical mufic of thofe times and coun-
tries, with more intereft than we had reafon to expect from
the general tenour of his life and occupations. In 1580,
at Kempton in Bavaria, he fays, ‘* the Catholic church of
this city, which is Lutheran, is well ferved; for on Thurf-
day morning, though it was not a holiday, mafs was cele-
brated in the abbey, without the gates, in the fame manner
as at Notre Dame, in Paris, on Eafter-day, with mufic and
organs, at which none but the prietthood were prefent.””

at the church of the Lutherans, Montagne heard one
of the minifters preach in German to a very thin congrega-
tion, “ when he had done, a pfalm was fung, in German
likewife, to a melody a little different from our’s. At each
ftave the organ, which had been but lately erected, played
admirably, making a kind of refponfe to the finging.”
This is an early inftance of the ufe of interludes in accom-
panying pfalmody on the organ. ‘* As a new-married
couple,’’ continues Montagne, ‘ went out of church, the
violins and tabors attended them.’’ This circumftance is
mentioned to prove, that the violin was then a common in-
ftrument in Germany.

At Lanfperg, the fame author tells us, that “ the town-
clock, jike many others in this country, ftruck quarters,
et dié-on que celui de Nurembergh fone les minutes.’ This
is likewife an early proof of chimes, in Bavaria, whence
they are faid to be brought into the Low Countries.

It is here that this author gives an account of the cantor
or chanter, who direéts the finging in Lutheran churches.
«¢ Two feats are placed, one for the minilter, and one for the
preacher, when there is one, and another below for the
perfon who leads off the pfalm. After each verfe, the con-

egation waits till he has pitched and begun the next;

Vot. XXIV.

MON

then they all fing together, pele mele, right or wrong, as
loud as ever they can.”

MONTAGRIER, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Dordogne, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftritt of Riberac; fix miles N.E. of
Riberac. The place contains 1850, and the canton 9175
inhabitants, ona territory of 192% kiliometres, in 13 com-
munes,

MONTAGU, Lady Mary, in Biography, the eldef
daughter of Evelyn, earl of Kingiton, afterwards marquis
of Dorchefter, and then duke of Kingtton, and of lady
Mary Fielding, daughter of William, earl of Denbigh, was
born at Thorefby, in Nottinghamfhire, about the year 1690.
The firft dawn of her genius, led her parents to pay the
ftrigteft attention to her education, She acquired the ele-
ments of the Greek, Latin, and French languages under the
fame preceptors as were employed in the education of her
brother, lord vifcount Newark. After fhe had made con-
fiderable progrefs in her claffical ftudies, fhe came under the
care of bifhop Burnet, who foftered her fuperior talents with
every expreflion of dignified praife. She gave an extra-
ordinary proof of her erudition, in her twentieth year, by a
tranflation of the Enchiridion of Epiétetus. She was ena-
bled to acquire fo much learning by living a very retired life,
{pending her time chiefly at Thorefby, and at Aton, near
London, in the fociety of a very few friends! The charms
of her perfon and underftanding feem to have been little
known to the world till after her marriage, which took
place in the year 1712, with Edward Wortley Montagu,
a relation of the earl of Halifax, who will be fhortly no-
ticed.

For three years after her marriage, and till the return of
lord Halifax to the miniftry, at the acceflion of George I.,
introduced Mr. Wortley (for fo he is ufually called) to a
place in the treafury, they lived privately ; but on this change
in his circumftances he thought proper to bring his wife to
London, and place her in the {phere of the court. Here fhe
attracted that admiration which beauty and elegance, joined
to wit and all the charms of converfation, could not fail to in-
{pire. She became familiarly acquainted with Addifon, Pope,
and other diftinguifhed writers of that period, and was fully
equal to maintain her rank among the votaries of polite
literature. In 1716, Mr.eWortley obtained the appoint-
ment of ambaflador to the Porte, and was accompanied to
Conftantinople by his lady, who took great delight in the
opportunity which fuch a journey offered her of viewing
foreign countries and manners. They pafled through Ger-
many to Vienna, and thence acrofs Hungary, and the
northern provinces of Turkey to Adrianople. Her na-
tural talents, joined to her acquired knowledge, fingularly
fitted her for taking advantage of her fituation, both in the
courfe of travelling, and in her refidence as ambafladrefs.
On many occafions fhe difplayed a mind fuperior to common
prejudices and weak fears; but in none fo happily as in
adopting the Turkifh praétice of inoculation for the fmall-
pox, then unknown in Chriftian Europe, for her own fon,
at Pera, in 1718. This prattice, it muft be mentioned to
her high honour, fhe was the principal means of introducing
into England by the miniftration of Mr. Maitland, the me-
dical attendant on the embafly, and thereby fhe has ren-
dered herfelf one of the greateft benefactors of her country.
«“ This merit alone,’? fays one of her biographers, * juitly
entitles her memory to a high degree of gratitude, not only
from this nation, but from all others which have followed
the example of Great Britain in taking advantage of fo fa-
lutary an invention, and even if it fhould hereafter be fuper-

D feded

MON

feded by a newer difcovery (vaccination), ftill the medical
fyftem of Europe muft be confidered as indebted to her for
rendering familiar the general idea of inoculation."? Mr.
Wortley returned in 1718, by the way of the Archipelago,
to Genoa, and thenceto Turin, Lyons, and Paris ; fo that
lady Mary’s tour comprifed a larger and more varied cir-
cuit, than has often been performed by a female traveller ;
and few have ever been better, or, indeed, half fo well able
to adapt themfelves to foreign manners, or have difplayed
more firmnefs of mind in circumftances of difficulty and ha-
zard. On her return fhe was received at court with the
diftintion due to her great talents and f{plendid acquire-
ments, and fhe renewed her conneétion with the wits, among
whom, Pope was one of the moft highly favoured. With
this poet fhe afterwards quarrelled, and this has been re-
garded as a memorable epoch in her life. If lady Mary
were the “ Sappho”’ of that poet’s fatirical pieces, which
few will doubt, though he pofitively denied the fad, he is
chargeable with a groffer infult than could be endured by
any woman. The lines particularly referred to are to be
found in the imitation of Horace's firft fatire in the fecond
book. In writing to lord Hervey in vindication of him-
felf, he fays, «In regard to the right honourable lady, your
friend, I was far from defigning a perfon of her condition by
a name fo derogatory to her as that of Sappho, a name
proftituted to every infamous creature that ever wrote verfe
or novels. I proteft, I never applied that name to her in
any verfe of mine, public or private, and I firmly believe
not in any letter or converfation. Whoever could invent a
falfehood to fupport fuch an accufation I pity; and who-
ever can believe fuch a charater to be her’s, I pity itill
more.”

Lady Mary retaliated upon the fatirift, by joining lord
Hervey in a very fevere copy of verles, addreiied to him.
She was thenceforth courted by other wits of the time, and
retained her place in the circles of fafhion and literature till
the year 1739, when fhe quitted her country and family,
and, for a long feries of years, eftablifhed her refidence on
the continent. Her health was made the pretext of this
change of place, but there were probably other reafons for
her determination. It is certain fhe had her hufband’s con-
fent, from the liberal allowance he made her, and for which fhe
expreffes her acknowledgments. » It has been thought it was
through his injunctions that fhe left England ; this is ren-
dered probable by her returning immediately after his death.
But the ftrain of her letters to him, during this period, be-
trays neither refentment nor humiliation. Venice, Avignon,
and Chamberry, were at different times her refidence, but
fhe ufually {pent her fummers at Louverre, in the Venetian
territory, famous for its mineral waters. There fhe occu-
pied an old palace, which fhe put into habitable condition,
amufing herfelf with her garden, her filk-worms, and the
little fociety which the place afforded. She perfeétly accom-
modated herfelf to the manners and way of living in that
country, and paffed her time in tranquillity. On the death
of Mr. Wortley in 1761, fhe complied with the folicitations
of her daughter, the countefs of Bute, and after an abfence
of twenty-two years returned to England, where fhe died
in the following year.

Lady M. W. Montagu has obtained a confiderable repu-
tation among the literary charaéters of her own country, as a
poetefs and epiftolary writer. Her chief works in poetry are
‘Lown Eclogues,’’ meant as a kind of parody upon the
common paltoral eclogues, and a vehicle of fome fafhion-
able fatire. As an epiltolary writer, this lady’s fame ftands
much higher, and is not furpafled by that of any perfon of

8

MON

either fex, whofe letters have in this country been given to
the public. In proof of what we affert, we refer to the
edition in five volumes, publifhed in 1803, to which a
biographical memoir is prefixed, from whence the fore-
going faéts have been chiefly collected.

Mowxracu, Epwarp Wortzey, only fon of lady Mary,
and Mr. Wortley Montagu, was born about the year 1714.
He was, froma very early period, remarkable for eccen-
tricity of chara@er, and ran away three times from Welt-
minfter fchool. It is faid, that in the firlt of thefe elope-
ments he exchanged his clothes with a chimney-{weeper,
and followed the footy occupation for fome time. Henext
aflociated himfelf with low fifhermen, and cried fifh through
the ftreets: after this he failed as cabin-boy in a veflel
bound to Spain, on his arrival in which country he deferted
the fhip, and hired himfelf asa mule-driver ; at length he
was difcovered-by the Englifh conful, who fent him back to
his friends, and they put him under the care of a private
tutor. How long he remained under the inftru€tions of
this gentleman we cannot afcertain, but the next time we
hear of him is in the Weft Indies, where he contined fome
time. He was fond of adventures, and was almoft perpe-
tually feeking fomething new. Of himfelf he fays ina letter
to a friend, * I have converfed with the nobles of Germany,
and ferved my apprenticefhip in the fcience of horfemanfhi
at their country-feats. J have been a labourer in the fields of
Switzerland and Holland, und have not difdained the humble
occupations of poftillion and ploughman. I affumed, at
Paris, the ridiculous chara¢ter of a petit-maitre. I was an
abbe at Rome. I put on at Hamburgh the Lutheran ruff,
and with a triple chin and a formal countenance, I dealt
about me the word of God, fo as to excite the envy of the
clergy.”’ Inthe more regular and ferious part of his life,
he was member of the houfe of commons in two fucceflive
parliaments, and was rather an affiduous attendant upon va-
rious literary focieties. His expenfive habits, and confe-
quent neceffities, obliged him again to quit his native coun-
try, and from this time he became a wanderer upon earth fo
long as he lived. As an author he publifhed, in 1759,
«© Reflections on the Rife and Fall of the Ancient Repub-
lics,” which work contains an elegant and concife fummary
of the hiltories of Greece, Rome, and Carthage, with al-
lufions to the flate of Great Britain. It acquired for the
author a confiderable degree of reputation for learning, inge--
nuity, and tafte, but in a pamphlet publifhed almoft thirty
years afterwards, under the title of ‘* An authentic Detail
of Particulars relating to the late Duchefs of King{ton,’’ it.
is affirrned, without any hefitation, that Mr. Montagu had no
fhare in the compofition, but that it was wholly written by
Mr. Fofter, his private tutor, afterwards chaplain to the
duchefs. In 1760, Mr. Montagu communicated to the
Royal Society, in two letters from Turin, ‘ Obfervations
on a fuppofed antique Buftin the King of Sardinia’s Col-
letion”’ In the Tranfactions of the Royal Society of
London, for the year 1766, there is a letter from Mr.
Montagu, giving a curious account of his journey from
Cairo to the mountains in the defert of Sinai >, and in the
following year he tranfmitted to the fociety fome new ob-
fervations on Pompey’s. pillar at Alexandria. ‘ Thefe
articles,” fays his biographer, * point out that abode. in
the Oriental countries which was the fource of his moft
diftinguifhed fingularities.? As a profeffor of religious
opinions and doéirines he quitted the Proteftant church, in
which he had been educated, for that of Rome, which he
afterwards abandoned to become a follower of the Arabian
prophet.. He is faid, by Mr, Sharp, in his ane we

taly.””

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Italy,”” to have appeared with a very long beard and an
Armenian head-drefs. ‘ His bed was the ground, his food
rice, his beverage water, his luxury a pipe and coffee.”
A more particular account has been given of his mode of
living at Venice, by count de Lamberg, in the “¢ Memorial
@un Mondain.”’. “ He rifes,” fays the count, ‘ before
the fun, fays his prayers, and performs his ablutions and
lazzis according to the Mahometan ritual. An hour after
he wakes his pupil, a filthy emigrant of Abyffinia, whom
he brought with him from Rofetta. He inftruéts his dirty
negro wiih all the care and precilion of a philofopher, both
by precepts and example: he lays before him the ftrongett
proofs of the religion he teaches him, and catechifes him in
the Arabian language. That he may not omit any parti-
cular, in the mott rigorous obfereance of the Mahometan
rites, Mr. M. dines at a low table, fitting crofs-legged on
a fopha, while a Moor, ona cufhion itill lower, fi-s gaping
with avidity for his mafter’s leavings. [t is this negro who
fupports the white mantle that makes a part of the Vurkith
garb of his maiter, who is always preceded, even at noon-
day, by two gondoliers, with lighted torches in their hands.
The ufual place of his refidence is Rofetta, where his wife
lives, who is the daughter of an inn-keeper at Leghorn, and
whom he has forced to embrace the Mahometan religion.
During the moft intenfe cold he performs his religious ablu-
tions in cold water, rubbing at the fame time his body with
fand from the thighs to the feet: his negro alfo pours frefh
water cn his head, and combs his beard, and he alfo pours
cold water on the head of the negro. To finifh the religious
ceremony, he refumes his pipe, turns himfelf to the eait,
matters fome prayers, walks afterwards for ha!f an hour,
and drinks coffee.””. With ref{pe& to his wife, it may be ob-
ferved that he married very early in life, a woman of mean
birth and in almoft the loweft ranks of fociety, with whom
he never cohabited, but to whom he allowed a feparate main-
tenance. ‘ He afterwards affumed all the Mahometan licence
wich refpeét to the fex, and in feveral countries of his refidence
had a harem of women of various aations and complexions.”’
Dr. Moore, who faw a good deal of Mr. Montagu oa the
continent, defcribes him, in his ‘¢ View of Society, &c. in
Italy,’’ as extremely acute, communicative, and entertain-
ing, and blending in his difcourfe and manners the vivacity
of a Frenchman with the gravity of a Turk. Mr. Montagu
difplayed his fingularity of condu& to the laft. Upon
the death of his lawful wife, bemg defirous of leaving an
heir to his eltate, which he was aware would otherwife fall
to the Bute family, whom he difliked, he commiffioned a
friend in England to advertife for a decent young woman
already pregnant, who would be willing to marry him. One
of the many applicants was fixed on, and he wason the
point of returning to England, to form the alliance, when
he was feized with an ilinefs which terminated his life in the
year 1776. Gent. Mag. Gen. Bicg.

MONTAGUE, Ricranp, a learned prelate, was born
about the year 1577, and having received the elements of
good claffical education he was {ent to purfue his maturer
ttudies at King’s college, Cambridge, of which he became
a fellow. He very foon obtained preferment in the church,
for the duties of which he had been exorefsly educated. In
1616, he was appointed dean of Hereford, and in 1621 he
pubhithed a learned anfwer to Selden’s ‘* Hiltory of Tythes.”’
He was afterwards engaged in a controverfy with the Pa-
piits, and wrote a work ‘ Appello Cefarem,’’ by which
he gave offence to the government, and was ordered to ap-
pear at the bar of the houfe of commons in the firft parlia-
ment of Charles I., on a charge of maintaining Arminian
ard Popifh errors. He was afterwards made bifhop of

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Chichelter in 1628, from whence he was tranflated to Nor-
wich in 1638. This fee he held about three years, when he
died. Hischief work was an “ Ecclefiaftical Hittory,” in
Latin, in which his learning and talents are faid to appear to
great advantage. Biog. Brit.

MontacGue, Epwarp, earl of Sandwich, a celebrated
Englifh admiral, the only furviving fon of fir Sidney Mon-
tague, was bornin July, 1625. He married, before he was
eighteen years old, the daughter of Mr. (afterwards lord}
Crewe, and being thought warmly in the interett of the par-
fiament, he received a*commiffion, in 1643, to raife and
command a regiment. This colonel Montague performed,
and even took the field, in fix weeks. He was prefent at the
ftorming cf Lincoln in May, 1644, which was one of the
hotteit actions in the courfe of the whole war. He was,
likewile, in the battle ef Marfton.moor, where he fo highly
ditinguithed himfelf, that on the capitulation of the city of
York, he was appointed one of the commiffioners for fettling
the articles, though then only in his nineteenth year. He
took an active part in the battle of Nafeby, and alfo at the
ttorming of Briftol, in the months of July and September,
1645. «After this he entered into the fea-fervice, and was
engaged, in 1656, with admiral Blake in the Mediterranean,
and for his fuccefs at that time he was exceedingly carefled
by the protector, and received the thanks of parliament.
On the death of Cromwell, he, like many others who had
been zealous in the protector’s fervice, was ready to facri-
fice his principles to join the royal party, which was fuppofed
to be the ftrongelt. He was, indeed, in the councils of
Charles while he held a commiffion under the authority of
parliament. His conduét became fufpe¢ted, and he was
ordered to attend at the bar of the houfe to anfwer for him-
felf. After an examination he was difmifled from his com -
mand, which he probably tock-as a very lenient punifhment,
kuowing, as he mutt, that he had been guilty ct high trea~
fon againft the exilting government. “* After fuch an
efcape,’’ fays Campbell, “ he withdrew to his eftate in the
country, with a defign to enjoy, in privacy and peace, the
remainder of his lite:’’ his real motives were probably to
watch the opportunity of enlifting again under the banners
of the king, or the commonwealth, according as the one
or the other obtained the fway. He was quickly called
from his retirement, and had the honour, as he then thought
it, of convoying his majeity to England, who within two days
of his landing fent him the ribband and George of the moft
noble order of the Garter, which were prefented to him in
his fhip, then riding inthe Downs. In July, 1660, Charles,
grateful for his affiitance, created him baron Montague, vif-
count Hinchinbrooke, and earl of Sandwich, in Kent; he
was at the fame time {worn of his majelty’s moft honourable
privy-council, made matter of the king’s wardrobe, admiral
of the narrow feas, and lieutenant-admiral to the duke of
York, as lord high-admiral of England.

Lord Sandwich has been accufed of being an advifer of
the meafure for giving up Dunkirk, and notwithftanding
what Campbell and others have faid in his vindication, there
feems little doubt that he was privy to the bargain, and
offered reafons to bring over thofe who were iaiat it.

He was in the great battle fought in June, 1665, in which
the Dutch left their admira', Opdam, and had eighteen of
their men of war taken, and fourteen dettroyed : the honour
of this victory was chiefly due to the earl of Sandwich.
The laft ation in which he was engaged, was on the 25th of
May, 1672, which is thus defcribed by Campbell: ‘* The
earl of Sandwich, in his fine fhip the Royal James, which
carried one hundred pieces of cannon, and about Soo men,
began the fight, and fell furioufly onthe fquadron of Van

Diz Ghent ;

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Ghent : this he did, not from a principle of diftinguifhing him-
felf by an aé& of heroic valour, for he knew that his character
was too well eftablifhed to need that: his view was to give
the reft of the fleet time to form, and in this he carried his
point. Captain Brakel, in the.Great Holland, a fixty-gun
fhip, depending on the affiftance of his fquadron, attacked
the Royal James, but was. foon difabled, as were feveral
other men of war ; and three fine fhips were funk. By this
time moft of the admiral’s men were killed, and the hull of
the Royal James was fo pierced with fhot, that it was im-
poffible to carry her off. In this diftrefs he might have been
relieved by his vice-admiral, fir Jofeph Jordan, if that gen-
tleman had not been more folicitous about affifting the duke :
when, therefore, he faw him fail by, heedlefs of the condition
in which he lay, he faid to thofe that were about him,
“« There is nothing left now but to defend the fhip to tke
laft man ;” and thofe who knew him readily underitood,
that, by the laft man, he meant himfelf. When a fourth
fire-fhip had grappled him, he begged his captain, fir Rich-
ard Haddock, and all his fervants, to get into the boat
and fave themfelves, which they did ; yet fome of the failors
would not quit the admiral, but ftaid and endeavoured to put
out the fire, which in fpite of all their efforts they could not
do, and fo they perifhed together !”” Other writers, Pollow-
ing the Dutch account, fay, that when he faw his fhip on
fire, he jumped out into the fea and was drowned. This
noble lord, it has been reported, occupied his leifure mo-
ments in engraving. His Letters and Negociations have
been printed in two volumes, He tranflated fromthe Spa-
nifh a work on “¢ The Art of Metals.” :

His lordfhip’s body was found nearly a fortnight after-
wards, and being brought home the highelt funeral honours
were paid to it He is defcribed by the Dutch hiftorian,
Gerard Brandt, as a man equally brave, knowing, and ofa
moft engaging behaviour, one who had rendered his fove-
reign the greateft fervices, not only in the field, but in the
cabinet, and as an ambaflador in foreign courts. His own
countryman, bifhop Parker, fays ‘he was capable of any
bufinefs, full of wifdom, a great commander at fea and
land, and alfo learned and eloquent; affable, liberal, and
magnificent.” Notwithftanding thefe encomra, and we might
tranfcribe many others, equally ftrong and honourable to the
charaéter and talents of the earl of Sandwich, ftill it can-
not be denied that he pofleffed a large portion of worldly
wifdom, by means of which he attained to the moft diftin-
guifhed honours ; while others, who had aéted in the fame
caufe, but who were fteady to their principles, were doomed
to the feverett fufferings, to the penalties of confifcation of
property, and of death. Campbell’s Lives of the Admirals.
Walpole’s Noble and Royal Authors.

Monracue, Cuarzes, earl of Halifax, aneminent ftatef-
man, and illuftrious as a patron of letters, was the fourth
fon of George Montague, a younger fon of the earl of
Manchefter. He was born in 1661, at Horton, in’ North-
amptonthire, and having laid in a ftock of grammatical
knowledge in the country, he was at the age of fourteen
fent to Weftminfter {chool, then under the care of Dr.
Bufby. He remained in that feminary till he had attained
the age of manhood, hen he was admitted of Trinity col-
lege, Cambridge. Here, befides purfuing the ftudies of
the place, he cultivated a talent for poetry, of which he
gave {pecimens in an ode on the marriage of the princefs
Anne to prince George of Denmark, and a copy of verfes
on the death of Charles II. The latter piece attracted the
notice of the carl of Dorfet, who introducéd the author to
the wits of the day. He took a part in the parody of
Dryden’s Hind and Panther, entitled « The Country and

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City Moufe,’’ which proved his zeal for the liberties of his
country, and which he farther manifefted by figning the
invitation to the prince of Orange. He was elected a mem-
ber of the convention which declared the throne vacant on
the abdication of king James; and by the recommendation
of the earl of Dorfet, a penfion of . was fettled on
him by the king, till fome promotion fhould offer. In the
houfe of commons he diftinguifhed himfelf on many im-
portant occafions, particularly in promoting a bill which
allowed counfel to perfons accufed of high treafon. In
pleading the caufe of humanity, he felt embarrafied, and for
a fhort interval was unable to proceed in the argument,
upon which he exclaimed « If I, Mr. Speaker, who ftand
here, a member of this houfe, innocent and unaccufed, am fo
awed by the view of a wife and illuftrious aflembly, as to
lofe the powers of utterance, what muft be the condition of
a man obliged to plead in a public court for his life.”’

He was introduced to feveral places of great honour and
truft, as a commiffioner of the treafury, a member of the
privy-council, and chancellor of the exchequer. In 1695, he
undertook the arduous tafk of recoining all the filver-money
of the kingdom, which had become, at that time, very defec-
tive ; this {cheme he completed in the courfe of two years,
He alfo procured the eftablifhment of a general fund, which
was the parent of the finking fund. For thefe, and for other
fervices, he had a grant of lands in Ireland. In 1698, he
was made firft commiffioner of the treafury, and during his
majelty’s abfence abroad he was appointed one of the lord
juttices. In 1700, he was called to the houfe of peers by
the title of baron Halifax. Scarcely had he taken his feat
in this affembly before he was impeached, by the lower
houfe, of high crimes and mifdemeanours. The articles
againit him referred to the grants which he had obtained
from the crown, and to his pofleffing at the fame time offices
that were inconfiftent with each other, as commiffioner and
chancellor of the treafury, and auditor of the *exchequer.
The charges, being heard, were difmifled by the houte of
lords, and he continued in the king’s favour till the death
of that fovereign, He was again attacked upon fimilar
grounds after the acceflion of queen Anne, and though
itruck out of the lift of privy-counfellors, he was protected
by the lords. He took a very active part in all the political
queftions that were agitated at this period: and, in 1706,
was appointed one of the commiffioners to negociate the
union with Scotland. When the a& paffed for the natura-
lization of the Hanover family, and‘ the fecurity of the Pro-
teltant fucceflion to the crown, he was appointed to carry
it over to the electoral court. He vigoroufly maintained
the ftruggle of the Whig paity to retain a fhare of power,
and after their entire defeat, he was the ftrenuous oppofer
of the treaty of Utrecht; and a {ftedfaft fupporter of the
honour and intereft of the duke of Marlborough. In 1714,
he exerted all his powers to ward off the danger that feemed
to threaten the Hanover fucceflion, and by his contrivance
procured’a writ for calling the eleétoral prince to the houfe
of peers. On this account he was, after the acceffion of
George I., rewarded by an advancement to the earldom of
Halifax, with the order of the Garter. His prof{peéts now
were extenfive and flattering, but death ftopped his career, —
in May, £715, at the age of 54.

The patronage which lord Halifax afforded to polite li-
terature was repaid by the eulogies of many of the moi
éminent writers of the time, among thele were Addifon,
Congreve, Steele, and ‘Tickell. Of Addifon he was the
particular friend and patron. Steele dedicated the fourth
volume of the Tatler to his lordfhip, and mentions him
as having “ given a new era to wit and learning ; by his

4 patrouage

Re

“yy

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patronage to have produced thofe arts which before fhunned
the commerce of the world, into the fervice of life, and to
have been the caufe that the man of wit has turned himfelf
to be aman of bufinels.” Biog. Brit. Johnfon's Lives of
the Poets.

Mowragur, Exizaseru, the daughter of Matthew Ro-
binfon, efq. of Horton in Kent, was educated under the
direétion of the celebrated Dr. Conyers Middleton. In
1742 fhe married Edward Montague, fon of Charles, fifth
fon of Edward, the firft earl of Sandwich. By him fhe had
a fon, who died when he was about two years old. She be-
came*a widow in early life, and was left with an ample for-
tune and honourable connections. In 1769 fhe publifhed
«* An Effay on the Writings and Genius of Shak{peare,”
which obtained for the author a conliderable degree of re-
putation. She formed a literary fociety, which, for fome
years, was the topic of much converfation, under the name
of the ‘“ Blue Stocking Club.”? We have heard many ac-
counts of the origin of the title, but believe it arofe from
the cireumftance of a perfon excufing himfelf from going to
one of its very early meetings, on account of his being in a
defhabille, to which it was replied, ‘* No particular regard to
drefs is neceflary in an affembly devoted to the cultivation of
the mind ; fo little attention, indeed, is paid co the drefs of
the parties, that a gentleman would not be thought very
outre who fhould appear in blue ftockings.”’ This lady was,

- for many years, noticed for the benevolent peculiarity of

giving an annual dinner on May-day to all the little climbing
boys, apprentices to the chimney-{weepers of the metropo-
lis. Perhaps her attention to thefe, too frequently diftreffed
children, led to thofe humane regulations, which, through
the exertions of Mr. Jonas Hanway, were determined on by
parliament. Lord Lyttelton was a warm admirer of Mrs.
Montague, and was aflifted by her in the compofition of his
** Dialogues of the Dead.” She died in 1800. Gent. Mag.
and Private Communication. ‘

Monracue, in Geography, a townfhip of Hamphhire
county, Maffachufetts, on the. E. bank of Conneéticut
river; about 18 miles N. of Northampton; incorporated
in 1753, and containing 1222 inhabitants.x—Alfo, the
northernmolt townfhip in New Jerfey, fituated in Suffex
county, on the E. fide of the Delaware; 17 miles N. of
Newtown.—Alfo, the larzeft of the {mall iflands in Prince
William’s Sound, on the N.W.coaft of North America,
about 50 miles long and 10 broad. N. lat. 59° 50! to 60° 30’.
W. long. 147° to 148°.—Alfo, a townfhip in Upper Canada,
partly in the county of Greenville, and partly in Leeds,
wafhed by the river Radeau.—Alfo, a fmall ifland in the
Florida ftream. N. lat. 24° 42!. W. long. 81° 45'’—Alfo,
one of the New Hebrides, in the South Pacific ocean. S.
lat. 17° 26’. E.long. 168° 13’.

MONTAJA, a {mall ifland on the E. fice of the gulf
of Bothnia. N. lat. 65° 39!. E. long. 24° 44’.

MONTAIGRE, a town of France, and principal place
of a diftriGt, in the department of the Vendeé; 16 miles
S.S.E. of Nantes. The place contains 1011, and the can-
ton 10,696 inhabitants, on a territory of 265 kiliometres,
in 10 communes, N. lat. 47°. W. long. 1° 14/.

MONT AIGU, or ScuerpennevEL, atownof France,
in the department of the Dyle, raifed from a hamlet to a
place of importance by the multitude of people who an-
nually refort hither to pay their refpe& to a miraculous
image of the Virgin, placed in a chapel, richly adorned.
Juftus Lipfius has publifhed an account of the miracles
performed by this image; three miles W. of Dritt.

MONTAIGUT, a town of France, in the department
of the Puy-de-Déme, and chief place of a canton, in the

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diftri& of Riom; 21 miles N.N,W. of Riom. The place

contains 1460, and the canton 6875 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 197 kiliometres, in 10 communes. N. lat. 46° 12’.
E. long. 2° 53'.—Alfo, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lot and Garonne, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftri€t of Agen; 18 miles N.E. of Agen. The
place contains 4162, and the canton 8513 inhabitants, on
a territory of 165 kiliometres, in eight communes. N, lat,
44° 20!. E. long. 1° 6!.

MONTALEGRE, a town of Portugal, in the pro-
vince of ‘T'ras-los-Montes; 22 miles N.E. of Braga. N.
lat. 41° 45’. W. long. 7° 38).

MONTALTA, a town of Spain, in the province of
Catalonia; feven miles E.N.E. of Urgel. }

MONTALTO, a town of the marquifate of Ancona,
the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Fermo; 12 miles S.W. of
Fermo. N. lat. 42° 56!. E. long. 13° 38!.—Alfo, a town
in the duchy of Caftro, on the Fiora; 43 miles N.W. of
‘Rome. _N,. lat..43° a1! E. long. 11° 33’.

MONTALVAN, or Monraxsan, a town of Spain,
in the province of Aragon; 30 miles S.E. of Daroca.—
Alfo, a town of Spain, in the province of Cordova; five
miles N.W. of Montilla.

MONTALVAO, a town of Portugal, in Alentejo, on
the borders of Spain, near a fmall river, which paffes not
far from it into the Tagus; 96 miles N.E. of Lifbon. N.
lat. 39° 30'. W. long. 7° 12!.

MONTALYA, a town of Portugal, in Eftramadura;
28 miles N.W. of Beja.

MONTAMBCEUF, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Charente, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri€ of Confolens; feven miles N.E. of La Roche-
foucault. The place contains 947, and the canton 10,548
inhabitants, on a territory of 185 kiliometres, in 16 com-
munes.

MONTANARL, in Biography, a great performer on
the violin at Rome in the middle of the laft century ; when
a favourite pupil of Tartini, Pafqualina Bini, arriving in
that city very young, pra¢tifed with fuch affiduity, that in
three or four years time he vanquifhed the moft difficult of
his mafter Tartini’s compofitions, and played them with
greater force than the author himfelf. All the profeffors
at Rome were fo aftonifhed by his performance, particu-
larly Montanari, at that time the principal performer on
the violin in the capital of the world, that he is fuppofed
to have died of grief and mortification at being fo much ex-
celled in talents by the young Bini.

Montanari, GEMINIANO, a celebrated Italian natural
philofopher and mathematician, was born at Modena in the
year 1633. He loft his father while he was very young,
but his mother, well aware of the great importance of a
good education, had him carefully inftruGed in the claffics,
rhetoric, and philofophy, in his native city, and afterwards
fent him to Florence, where he ftudied with much fuccefs
civil and ecclefiaftical jurifprudence. Having completed
his {tudies, he fettled in the profeffion of the law at Vienna,
and was previoufly to this admitted to the degree of doctor
at Saltzburg. At Vienna he formed an acquaintance with
Paul de Buono, a confiderable mathematician, which proved
the means of diverting his attention from legal purfuits, and
of reviving in him a itrong inclination for the ftudy of ma-
thematics and natural philofophy. Till now he had been
a difciple of the philofophy of Des Cartes, but by con-
verfing with Buono, he adopted the theory of Galileo. In
1657 he accompanied his friend in viliting the mines in Stiria,
Bohemia, and Hungary, and attended diligently to thofe

{cientific purfuits connefted with mineralogy. At length,
their

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their proceedings awakened the jealoufy of the Hungarians,
and they were obliged to take refuge in one of the royal
palaces, which affected Buono fo fenfibly that he fell fick
and died. Upon this event Montanari came back to Vi-
enna, which he very foon after quitted, and returned to Italy.
His neceffities now obliged him to praétife at the bar of
Florence, in order to furnifh himfelf with the means of
fubfiftence; ftill, however, his philofophical ftudies oc-
cupied the greateft fhare of his attention. After this he
was patronized by duke Alphonfus IV. of Modena, and by
the marquis Malvafia of Bologna, by whofe recommendation
he was eleéted profeffor of mathematics at the univerfity of
Bologna. During 14 years he difcharged the duties of his
office with unwearied diligence, made a vaft number of obfer-
vations on the celeftial bodies, and performed experiments cn
the nature of different bodies. When the falaries of the pro-
feffors were reduced, Montanari determined to obtain a fettle-
ment elfewhere, and was eleCted profeffor cf altronomy at
Padua. Here he continued to profecute his obfervations and
experiments, and pub'ifhed various ufeful and curicus works.
The fenate, likewife, frequently availed themfelves of his
advice in matters relating to hydraulics, fortification, the
art of war, and the management of the mint. He died at
Padua in 1687, in the 55th year of his age. He was au-
thor of a number of works, ot which the titles, in a very
long lilt, is given in the “* General Biography :’’ and to him
is attributed the difcovery of the method of determining
the heights of mountains by means of the barometer,
to which he was accidentally led in the courfe of his
travels.

MONTANARO, in Geography, a town of the duchy
of Piacenza; feven miles S.S.E. of Piacenza.

MONTANCHES, a town of Spain, in Eftramadura ;
17 miles N. of Merida.

MONTANER, a town of France, in the department
of the Lower Pyrencés, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftriét of Pau. The place contains g18, and the
canton 58,49 inhabitants, on a territory of 110 kiliometres,
an 19 communes.

MONTANERA, a town of Italy, in the department
of the Mincio; five miles S. of Mantua.

MONTANINI, in Biography. See Perucriyo.

MONTANISTS, in Lcclefiaftical Hiflory, ancient here-
tics fo called from their leader Montanus, who aéted the
prophet, and had his prophetefles.

Montanus was an obfcure man, without any capacity or
ftrength of judgment, who lived in a Phrygian village,
called Pepuza, towards the clofe of the fecond century.
It is generally fuppofed, that he was born at Ardaba in
Myfia, which is either a part of Phrygia, or lay contigu-
ous to it; it is faid, that he was but a new convert to
Chriftianity, when he had the vanity to affume the character
of a prophet. ‘The rife of Montanifm is generally placed
by learned moderns about the year 171, agreeably to Eu-
febius in his ‘* Chronicle,’’ who refers it to the 11th year
of Marcus Antoninus. Some, however, as Pearfon and
Beaufobre, are of opinion, that it appeared in the year 156
or 157; and Barretier refers it to the year 126. Epipha-
nius, whofe chronology is'not always accurate, intimates,
that Montanus fet up his pretenfions in the rgth year of
Antoninus Pius, or about the year of Chrift 156. But
the moft probable account is that of Eufebius. Although
Irenaeus has not exprefsly mentioned the Montanilts, he is
fuppofed to refer to then. ‘They are twice mentioned by
Clement of Alexandria; and they were for fome time coun-
tenanced by a bifhop of Rome. They fublitted a good
while: for the Cata-Phrygtans are exprefsly mentioned in

‘rous in Cilicia, and at Conftantinople.

MON

Conftantine’s edicts again{t heretics. Epiphanius fays, they
were then in Cappadocia, Galatia, and Phrygia, and nume-
Auguttine, Sozo-
men, and Theodoret fpeak of them as fubfifting in their
times.

Montanus, no lefs weak than arrogant, gave out, that he
was the paraclete, or comforter, which the divine Saviour
at his departure from the earth promifed to fend to his dif-
ciples to lead them to all truth. Some have afferted that
Montanus pretended to be the Holy Gholt. But others
have obferved, with greater reafon, that he made a dittine-
tion between the paraclete, promifed by Chrift to his
apoitles, and the holy fpirit: underftanding by the former
a divine teacher, who was to perfect the gofpel by the ad-
dition of fome doétrines omitted by our Saviour, and to
caft a full light on others which were expreffed in an ob-
{cure and imperfect manner: accordingly he pretended to
be this divine teacner. Under this character, he added to
the laws of the gefpel many autftere decifions; inculcated
the neceffity of multiplying fafts; prohibited fecond marri-
ages as unlawful ; maintained that the church thould refute
abfolution to thofe, who, after baptifm, had fallen into the
commiffion of enormous fins, and that fuch perfons, fhould
not be admitted to full communion, though they re-
pented: and condemned all care of the body, efpecially all
nicety in drefs, and all female ornaments. He fhewed the
fame averfion to the nobleft employments of the mind, that
he did to the innocent enjoyments of lite ; and gave it, as his
opinion, that philofophy, arts, and whatever favoured of
polite literature, fhould be mercilefsly banifhed from the
Chriftian church. He looked upon thofe Chriftians as guilty
of a moft heinous tranfgreflion, who faved their lives by
flight from the perfecuting {word, or who ranfomed them by
money from the hands of their cruel and mercenary judges.’
He added many other precepts equal to thefe in feverity and
rigour: and iflued many-predictions concerning the difaiters
that were to happen in the empire, and the approaching
deftruétion of the Roman republic, which rendered him
obnoxious to the governing powers. Montanus was, there-
fore, firft by a decree of certain aflemblies, and afterwards
by the unanimous voice of the whole church, folemnly fe-
parated from the body of the faithful. However, he had
many patrons and adherents, the principal of whom was
Tertullian, and his caufe fpread abroad through Afia,
Africa, and a part of Europe. Enufebius fpeaks of Alci-
biades and Theodotus as joined with Montanus from the
beginning. But the perfons mott frequently mentioned as
his affillants and prophetefles are two women, named Prifea,
or Prifeilla, and Maximiila. Befides thefe, there were
other women, who were fuppofed to poflefs the gift of
prophecy. Some of the prophecies of thefe perfons were
preferved in writing. Neverthelefs, it is obferved by
feveral ancient writers, that thefe people made no boatt of
any prophecies among them after Montanus and his two
women: Maximilla exprefsly declared that there would be
none after her. Although the followers of Montanus held
him to be an infpired perfon, they did not think that his
infpiration was equal to that of the apottles, as it did not
relate to the great articles of faith, but chiefly to matters
of external onder and difcipline. When they delivered their
pretended prophecies, they feemed to be for fome time
deprived of their reafon. As for the refurreétion of the
body and other great articles of the Chriftian religion, no
doubt feems to have been entertained with regard to their
belief of them. Some of them, however, have been charged
with not holding the right doétrine concerng the ‘Trinity ;
and it is probable, fays Lardner, that thet were in the

Sabellian

MON

Sabellian or Unitarian fcheme. Tertullian evidently in-
timates, that they were Millenarians. Several writers of
the fourth and fifth centuries inform us, that they had cer-
tain myfteries among them, in which they pra¢tifed both
cruelty and lewdnefs; and two writers, one Ifidore of Pe-
lufium, and Cyril of Jerufalem, charge them with magic,
killing of infants, lewdnefs, and idolatry. But reports of
this kind have been deemed fitions and calumnies. Eufe-
bius and his authors do not warrant this account of them ;
and if.it had been true, Tertullian would certainly have
had no concern with them. We have no reafon for doubt-
ing, that they received all the fcriptures of the Old and
jt Teftament in common with other Chriltians, and with
like refpe&t; and it appears that they had their feparate
affemblies, in which every part of Chriftian worfhip was
performed. Mofh. Eccl. Hift. vol. i. Lardner’s Works,
vol. ix.

The Montanifts are the fame with what were otherwife
denominated Phrygians, Cataphrysians, and Quintilians,
which fee.

MONTANUM Veru. See Veru.

MONTARAN Iszanps, in Geography, a clufter of
fmall iflands in the Eaft Indian fea. 5S. lat. 2° 27’. E
long. 108° 30.

MONTARGIL, a town of Portugal, in Eftramadura ;
28 miles S.E. of Santarem.

MONTARGIS, a town of France, and principal place

of a diftri&t, in the department of the Loiret. The place
contains 6394, and the canton 15,135 inhabitants, on a ter-
ritory of 225 kiliometres, ints communes. N. lat. 47’ 59'.
E. long. 2° 48’.

MONTASORO, a town of Naples, in Principato Citra;
nine miles N. of Salerno.

MONTASTRUC, a town of France, in the department
of the Upper Garonne, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Touloufe; nine miles N.E. of Touloufe. The
place contains 1152, and the canton 6446 inhabitants, ona
territory of 152! kiliometres, in 14 communes.—Alfo, a
town: of France, in the department of the Gers; 10 miles
N.. of Auch.

MONTAUBAN, a town of France, in the department
of the [lle and Vilaine, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri& of Montfort; five miles N.W. of Montfort.
The place contains 2781, and the canton 8336 inhabitants,
on a territory of 175 kiliometres, in eight communes.—
Alfo, a town of France, and principal place of a diltrid,
in the department of the Lot, on the Tarn; before the re-
volution the fee of a bifhop. Its principal trade confiits
in woollen ftuffs. This town was built in the year 1144 by
Alphonfo, count of Touloufe. In 1562 the inhabitants
became Proteftants, who fortified it in fuch a manner, that
Louis XIII. befieged it without fuccefs in the year 1621,
nor was he able to reduce it till the year 1629, when its
fortifications were demolifhed.

The place contains 21,959 inhabitants: the weftern part
includes 12,851 and its canton 13,257, on a territory of
$71 kiliometres, in three communes ; and its eaftern part
contains 9108 inhabitants, and its canton 10,438, on a terri-
tory of 824 kiliometres, in two communes. N. lat. 44°
o' 55". E.long. 1° 20! 51".—Alfo, atown of France, in
the department of the Drome; 16 miles E- of Nions.

MONTAUK Port, the eattern extremity of Long
ifland, belong*ag to the ftate of New York. A traét called
‘Turtle Hill has been ceded to the United States for the
purpole of ereéting a light-houfe upon it.

MONTAUSIER, Cuartes ve Sainte Macrg, in
Biography, duke of, a peer of France, born in 1610, was

MON

educated a Proteftant, but afterwards conformed to the
eftablifhed religion. He obtained fome confiderable pofts
under government. His high chara¢ter for ftri& purity of
morals, and unfhaken loyalty, caufed him to be chofen to
prefide over the education of the dauphin, fon of Lewis X1V.
and it was his perpetual care to inculcate on his pupil the
principles of virtue, and to accuftom him to hear the truth.
He affiduoufly kept from him all court flatterers, who were
likely to corrupt his heart and injure his moral habits. He
once led the dauphin into a cottage, and faid to him, * Be-
hold, fir, the miferable roof, under which are lodged the
father, the mother, and the children, who inceffantly labour
to procure the gold with which your palaces are adorned,
and who pine with hunger to fupply the luxuries of your
table.’ When this worthy man and excellent philofopher
had done with his charge, and was on the point of taking
his leave, he faid to the prince, ‘ Sir, if you are a man
of worth, you will love me; if otherwife, you will hate
me, and I fhall confole myfelf.”” The duke was fo confpi-
cuous for auftere morality, and fincerity in his condu& and
actions, that Moliere’s charaéter of the « Mifanthrope’’
was thought to be modelled after him. Some enemies of.
the poet infinuated this to the duke, and he went to fee the
play aéted, and on leaving the theatre he exclaimed, «‘ Would
to God that I really refembled Moliere’s Mifanthrope.”’
He was accuftomed to {peak bold truths even to Lewis XIV.
He died at the age of So, in the year 1690, regretted by
all men of real worth. Gen. Biog.

MONTAUTO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in
Principato Ultra; five miles N. of Benevento.

MONTAW, a town of Pruffia, in Pomerelia ;; eight
miles S.W. of Marienburg.

MONTBARD, a town of France, in the department
of the Cote d’Or, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@
of Semur; nine miles N. of Semur. The place contains
2118, and the canton 10,875 inhabitants, on a territory of
2874 kiliometres, in 26 communes. N. lat. 47° 36’. E.
long. ;

MONTBARREY, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Jura, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@
of Dole. The place contains 434, and the canton 6727 in-
habitants, on a territory of 187! kiliometres, in 14 com-
munes.

MONTBAZAN, a town of France, in the department
of the Indre and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Tours; 7 miles S. of Tours. The place contains
gs50, and the canton 13,766 inhabitants, on a territory of

421 kiliometres, in 15 communes.

MONTBAZENS, a town of France, in the departs-
ment of the Aveyron, and’ chief place of a canton, in the
diltri& of Villefranche. The place contains 1026, and the-
canton 9173 inhabitants, on a territory of 195 kiliometres;,
in 13 communes.

MONTBELIARD, Puitieert-GueEneEAv,.in Biogra-
phy, was born in 1720, at Semur, in Auxois.. He {pent the
early part of his youth at Dijon, and afterwards came to.
Paris, where he made himfelf known as aman of fcience,
He continued with reputation, the “ Colle&ion Acade-
mique,’”’a periodical work, which gave a view of every thing ;
interefting contained in the ** Memoirs’? of the different
learned focieties in Europe. He was.chofen, by Buffon to.
be his affociate in his great work on natural hiftory, and the
continuation of his ornithology was. committed tohim.. He
is defcribed by the great French naturalift, «as of allmen,
the perfon whofe manner of feeing, judging, and writing was
mott conformable to his own.’” When the clafs of birds
was Hnifhed, Montbeliard undertook that of infects, rela-

tive

BE Dat

MON

tive to which he had already furnifhed feveral articles to the
New Encyclopedia, but his progrefs was cut fhort by his
death, which took place in 1785.

MonTBELIARD, in Geography, atown of France, in the de-
partment of the Upper Rhine, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri& of Porentruy ; 32 miles W. of Bale. The place
contains 3693, and the canton 7665 inhabitants, on a terri.
tory of 1024 kiliometres, in 20 communes. Before the re-
volution, it was the capital of a principality, which, though
infulated in France, was confidered as belonging to Ger-
many. Its fituation is pleafant, at the foot of ahill, and it
is watered by the river Halle, which rues into the Doubs.
The adjacent foil is fertile, and the air is falubrious. The
inhabitants have a confiderable trade in linen, leather, ftock-
ings, and cutlery. In its vicinity are vineyards, and a pro-
duGtiive iron mine. The principality was about 30 miles
long, and 24 in its greateft breadth. The inhabitants were
chiefly Protettants, confifting of Swifs, Germans, and French.
By the peace of Luneville, the whole was ceded to France.
N. lat. 47° 38'. E. long. 6° 44". f

MONTBELTRAN, a town of Spain, in Old Catftile ;
26 miles §. of Avila. :

MONT-BENOIT, a town of France, in the department
of the Doubs, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrié
of Pontarlier ; 7 miles N.N.E. of Pontarlier. The place
contains 94, and the canton 7059 inhabitants, on a territory
of 185 kiliometres, in 18 communes.

MONT-BLANC. See Branc.

MONTBOZON, a town of France, in the department
of the Upper Sadne, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Véfoul ; 10 miles S.S.E. of Véfoul. The place
contains 590, and the canton 9698 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 257% kiliometres, in 38 communes. i

MONTBRISON, a city of France, and capital of the
department of the Lojre, celebrated for its medicinal waters ;
31 miles S.S.W. of Lyons. The place contains 4703, and
the canton 12,222 inhabitants, ona territory of 295 kilio-
metres, in 21 communes. N. lat. 45°36’. E. long. 4° 9’.

MONTBRON, a town of France, in the department
of the Charente, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri&
of Angouléme; 15 miles E. of Angouléme. The place
contains 520, andthe canton 11,612 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 305 kiliometres, in 14 communes.

MONTBRUN, a town of France, in the department of
the Drome; 18 miles S.E. of Nions.—Alfo, a town of
France, in the department of the Upper Garonne ; 9 miles
S. of Rieux.

MONT-BUET, a mountain of Switzerland, faid to be
10,000 feet above the level of the fea.

MONT-CAVITA, atown of the ifland of Cuba; 20
miles E. of Villa del Principe.

MONT-CAYO, a branch of the Pyrenees, which ex-
tends to the province of Aragon, in Spain, and one of the
higheft ,in that kingdom : it is fituated between Aragon,
Caftile, and Navarre. The ftorms which colle& on this
mountain are faid to be the terror of the adjacent country,
to the extent of 20 miles.

MONTCENIS, a town of France, in the department of
the Saone and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftriét of Autun; ro miles S.S.E. of Autun. The place
contains 1068, and the canton 9963 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 290 kiliometres, in 12 communes.

MONTCHU, a river of Thibet, which runs into the
Sanpoo, 12 miles W. of Rimbu.

MONT-DAUPHIN, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Higher Alps, feated ona rock, and almoft fur-

MON

rounded by the Ifere: the refidence of a governor and gar-
rifon ; 3 miles N. of Embrun.

MONT-DE-MARSAN, a town of France, and princi- —
pal place of a diitri€t, in the department of the Landes ;
56 miles S. of Bourdeaux. The place contains 2866, and
the canton 11,986 inhabitants, on a territory of 395 kilio-
metres, in 26 communes. N. lat. 43° 53'. E. long. 0°
26'.

MONTDIDIER, a town of France, and principal place
of a diftrié, in the department of the Somme; 18 miles
S.E. of Amiens. The place contains 4049, and the canton
13,923 inhabitants, ona territory of 2224 kiliometres, in 33
communes, N. lat. 50° 5’. E. long. 2° 30!.

MONTDOUBLEAU, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Loir and Cher, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftri&t of Vendéme; 30 miles N.N.W. of
Blois. The place contains 1749, and the canton 9737
inhabitants, on a territory of 2474 kiliometres, in 14
communes.

MONTE, GramparisTaA DA, in Biography, (or la-
tinized Montanus,) a learned and diftinguifhed phyfician of
the 16th century, was defcended from the noble family of
Monte, in Tufcany, and born at Verona in the year 1498.
His tutors in Greek and philofophy were Mufuro and Pom-
ponazzo ; and on quitting their tuition, he was fent to Pa-
dua, with the view of ftudying jurifprudence, being intend-
ed by his father for the proteflion of the law. His tatte,
however, was not dire@ed to this ftudy, but led him to that
of phyfic, which he commenced, notwith{tanding the dif-
pleafure of his father, who even withdrew from him the
means of fupport, in confequence of his difobedience. Ne-
verthelefs he perfifted in following the bent of his mind, and
trufted to his own abilities and induftry for fubfiftence, while
he vifited feveral of the principal towns in Italy ; efpecially
Naples, Rome, and Venice, where he pra¢tifed his profeffion,
and diftinguifhed himfelf by his claffical fkill. It is proba-
ble, indeed, that, in addition to his profeflional knowledge,
his claffical talents were put in employment for the means of
fubfiftence ; fince Ghilini mentions that, at Naples, he ex-
plained the poems of Pindar. In the-courfe of his refidence
at thefe places, he gained high reputation, and numerous il-
luftrious friends, and at length acquired fuch eafe of circum
{tanees, that he retired to Padua, with the intention of en-
joying repofe, in 1539. But after refiding there about four
years, he was called upon to exert his talents as a teacher in
that fchool, being firft appointed profeflor of the practice of
medicine, and fubfequently of the theory: he was alfo for
fome time profeffor of anatomy in the fame univerfity. As
his reputation advanced, his emoluments were alfo augment-
ed, and ultimately furpaffed thofe of any other Italian phy-
fician of his time. His difciples were exceedingly numerous,
and many of them attained to great eminence. He had been
profeffor eleven years, when his extenfive reputation brought
him very liberal offers from the emperor, Charles V.,
Francis I. of France, and the grand duke of Tufcany, and
urgent folicitations to fettle at their re{pective courts, But
nothing could induce him to quit the chair, which he filled
with fo much benefit to his pupils, and fatisfaétion to him-
felf. He was afflifted with calculous complaints, however,
under which he at length fuffered fo feverely, that he was
compelled to retire to his eftate at Terazzo, in the Veronele
territory, where he died in May, 1551.

Montanus was held in high eltimation by his contempora-
ries, and his name was deemed of great authority in the Lta-
lian {chools for a long period. His works, however, which
were exceedingly numerous, and moftly publifhed by his
difciples, were principally comments upon the “en and

illuflrations

— en aE Ss St‘ ‘aié‘“sS

MON

illuftrations of their theories; and have therefore ceafed to
be of importance, fince the originals have loft their value.
He tranflated into Latin the works of Aétins, which he
publifhed at the defire of cardinal Ippolito de Medici. He
alfo cultivated poetry, and tranflated into Latin verfe the

“poem of Mufeus: ke is faid likewife to have made tranflations

of the Argonautics attributed to Orpheus, and of Lucian's
Tragopodagra. Eloy Dict. Hilt. de la Med. Gen. Biog.

Monte, Guipusatpe, Marquis del, a Venetian noble-
man, an able mathematician, who flourifhed in the 16ih and
17th centuries, but of whom little is known, more than that
he {pent his whole life in retirement, devoted to abltrufe and
difficult mathematical ftudies. In 1600 he publifhed his
“ Treatife on Perfpective,’’ and in 1608 an edition of his
«* Aftrouomical Problems’ was publifhed by his fon, from
which it appears that he was then dead. The treatife on
perfpedtive, already referred to, is the firft in which that
fcience was completely eftablifhed upon mathematical princi-
ples. He alfo publifhed “A Theory ofthe Planifpheres :”’
and he crew up “* A reformed Calendar.’ He was author of
commentaries upon the two treatifes of Archimedes “ On
Centres of Gravity,” and ** On the Screw-pump for drawing

Water.”’ Gen. Biog.
Monvre, //, in Geography, atown of the ifland of Corfica ;

18 miles S. of Baftia.

MONTE-ACUTO, a town of Sardinia; 40 miles
E.N.E. of Alghieri—Alfo, a town in the duchy of Ur-
bino; £5 miles N.W. of Urbino.

MONTE-AGNONE, a town of Naples, in Principato
Citra; 9 miles N.E. of Salerno.

MONTE-ALBANO, atown of Naples, in the province
of Oiranto; 6miles W. of O!tuni.—Alfo, a town of Na-
ples, in Bafilicata ; 4 miles N.N.E. of Turfi.—Alfo, a town
of Sicily, in the valley of Demona; 17 miles S.W. of

: Melazzo.

MONTE-ALCINO, a town of Etruria, anciently fons
Alcinoi, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Sienna. The moft
excellent wine of Italy, called “* Mufcatello di Monte-Al-
cino,”’ is procured in its vicinity ; 15 miles S.S.E. of
Sienna. :

MONTE-ALMAYA, a town of Etruria; g miles N.
of Florence.

MONTE-ALTO, a town of the marquifate of Ancona,
the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Fermo; 10 miles N. of
Afcoli.

MONTE-ALVERINO, a mountain of Etruria, near
the fource of the Tiber, celebrated for a convent, which is
a fanétuary ; 14 miles from Florence.

MONTE-APERTO, a town of Naples, in Principa-
to Ultra; g miles S. of Benevento.

MONTE-BALDO, a mountain of Italy, between the
river Adige and lake Garda, feparating the Veronefe from
the Trentin.

MONTE-BARBARO, a mountain of Naples, on the
fea-coaft, near Puzzoli.

MONTE. BARONE, atown of Naples, in Capitanata ;
x3 miles S.S.W. of Viette.

MONTE-BELLO, a town of Naples, in Calabria Ul-
‘tra; 10 miles S. of Reggio.—Alfo, a town of Naples, in
Abruzzo Citra; 20 miles S.E. of Ranciano.—Alfo, a town
of Naples, in Abruzzo Ultra ; 15 miles E.N.E. of Aquila.
—Alfo, a town of Italy, in the Vicentin ; 13 miles S.W.
of Vicenza.

MONTEBOURG, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Channel, and chief place of a canton, in the
aiftric of Valognes ; 4 miles S.E, of Valognes. ‘The place

Vou. XXIV.

MON

contains 2391, and the canton 10,478 inhabitants, on a
territory of 145 kiliometres, in 25 communes.

MONTE-BRANDONE, a town of the marquifate of
Ancona; 15 miles E.N.E. of Afcoli.

MONTE-BRAULIO, a mountain of the Rhetian
Alps, between the Grifons and the Tyrolefe; 10 miles N,
of Bormio.

MONTE-BRUNO, a town of the Ligurian republic ;
15 miles N.E. of Genoa.

MONTECALM, Louts Josep ne Sr. Veran, Mar-
quis de, in Biography, a celebrated general, was born of a
noble family at Candiac, in 1712. He entered early into
the army, and diftinguiflied himfelf gallantly in many bat-
tles, particularly in that of Placenza, in 1746... In 1756
he became a field-marfhal, and was appointed to command
the French army in Canada, where he oppofed lord Loudun
with fill and fuccefs. He afterwards defeated Abererom.
bie, his lordfhip’s fucceffor, but in the famous battle at Que.
bec, in 1759, he received a mortal wound, at the fame time
when the vahant Wolfe was lain.

MONTE-CALVO, in Geography, a town of the duchy
of Urbino; 4 miles N. of Urbino.—Alfo, a town of Na.
ples, in Principato Ultra; 10 miles E.N.E. of Benevento.

MONTE-CAMPELO, a town of Spain, in Galicia ;
7 ake Spee :

E-CARLO, a town of Etruria; 24 mi
W.W.W. of Florence. snail

MONTE-CAROTTO, a town of the marquifate of
Ancona; 8 miles W. of Jeli.

MONTE-CASINO, a town of Naples, in Lavora,
fituated ona mountain of the fame name, with an abbey in
which Benedié is faid to have founded his order. This mo-
naftery became fo,famous, that monarchs refigned their crowns
in order to end their days here; 13 miles $.S.E. of
Sora.

MONTE-CATINO, a town of Etruria; four mi
W.S.W. of Volterra. aes
, MONTECATINUS, Anrtuony, in Biography, an Tta-
lian_profeffor of philofophy, was born in the year 1536,
at Ferrara, where he read public leétures, and in procefs
of time was ele&ted the firft profeflor of philofophy. He
obtained alfo the appointment of governor of the city of
Reggio, the chief magittratefhip of Ferrara, and frequently
was entrufted with the whole management of affairs under the
duke. He died at Ferrara in 1599, at the age of 63. He
is chiefly known as an author by his Commentary on Arif.
totle’s Politics,” to which he added fome of Plato’s works.

MONTE.-CECCE, in Geography, a town of Naples, in
the county of Molife ; 20 miles N.E. of Molife.

MONTECH, a town of France, in the department of
the Upper Garonne, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrié&t of Caitel Sarrazin; 7 miles E. of it. The place
contains 2610, and the canton 10,240 inhabitants, ona terri-
tory of 1174 kiliometres, in yo communes,

MONTECHAL, Carnes pe, in Biography, a learned
French prelate, who flourifhed in the 17th century, was
educated at the college of Autun, at Paris, and role from
ftep to ftep to the poit of principal of that inftitution. He
alfo rofe to the rank of archbithop of Touloufe, aud obtained
a high reputation for piety, as well as for his acquaintance
with hiftory, the civil and canon law, and the Greek and
Hebrew languages. He died in 1651. His principal work
was entitled «* Memoirs of M. de Montchal, archbifhop of
Touloufe, containing particulars of the life and miniftry of
Cardinal Kichelieu,”’ in two vols. 12mo. Moreri.

MONTE-CHIARO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
department of the Mela; 10 miles S.E. of Brefcia.—Alfo,

aD a town

MON

a town of the duchy ef Piacenza; 13 miles S.W. of Pia-
cenza.

MONTECHIO, a town of Italy, in the department of
the Mela, on the Oglio; 5 miles S.S.W. of Breno.

Montecuio Maggiora, atown of Italy, in the Vicentin ;
11 miles S.W. of Vicenza.

MONTE-CHRISTI, a cape, bay, town, and river, on
the N. fide of the ifland of St. Domingo. The cape isa
high hill, fituated in N. lat. 19° 54! 30", and long. 74°9!
30! W. of Paris. The bay is formed by Cape La Grange
on one fide, and Pointe des Dunes on the other, about 6500
fathoms afunder: this bay is about 1400 fathoms deep, and
its winding is nearly four leagues. The town ftands at
800 fathoms from the fea-fide, and rifes inthe form of an
amphitheatre on the fide of the coaft. It was founded in
1533, abandoned in 1606, and is now become a poor place.
The town and its territory contain about 3000 fouls. The
land round the town is fandy and barren ; and the river con-
tafns a great number of crocodiles. To American fmug-
glers this port is well known, and carries on a great com-
merce, on account of its vicinity to the French plantations.
—Alfo, a chain of mountains, extending parallel to the N.
coaft of the ifland of St. Domingo, from the bay of Monte-
Chrifti to the bay of Samana on the E. Two rivers rife
and flow in oppofite dire€tions, along the fouthern fide of
thischain. The river Monte-Chrifti or Yaqué runs ina W.
by S. direétion, and Yuna river in an E. by S. courfe to the
bay of Samana. . Bothrife near La Vega, and have nume-
rous branches.—Alfo, a town of South America, in the au-
dience of Quito, and jurifdiGtion of Guayaquil, built at
firft near the Pacific ocean, and called «* Manta.’ Its com-
merce was then confiderable, by means of veffels pafling from
Panama to the ports of Peru; but being pillaged by foreign
adventurers, who frequented thefe feas, the town was removed
to the foot of a mountain, where it is now fituated, and from
which it has its name; 110 miles N.W. of Guayaquil.
S. lat. 1° 2!. W. long. 80° 49! 15".—Alfo, a {mall ifland
in the Mediterranean, not far from the coaft of Etruria; 8
miles S. of Elba. N. lat. 42° 20'. E. long. 10° 20!.

MONTE-CIRCELLO; a mountainous cape of Italy,
near the fea, called by the ancients an ifland, and rendered
famous as the fuppofed habitation of Circe, the forcerefs,
who ufed to transform her lovers into brutes. On the pro-
montory there was once’a town called Circeum. On the ruins
of the town was built a fortrefs, which ferved as a place of
retreat, and fafety for the popes in times of danger. Nothing
now remains but a caftle called “« St. Felice,’ ereéted by
pope Celeitin II, in the 12th century. An ancient tomb
is {hewn as the fepulchre of Elpenor, one of the companions
of Ulyffes, who, in a ftate of intoxication, fell from the top
of a houfe into the ftreet. N. lat. 41° 17’. E. long 12°

'

57 MONTECL ATRE, Micuet pe, in Biography, a French
mufician,, who publifhed feveral ufeful elementary treatifes
on his art ; but began his career as a ferious opera com-
pofer in the year 1716, among thofe who tried their force
with little fuccefs, after the deceafe of Lulli.

MONTE-CORVINO, in Geography, a town of Naples,
in Principato Citra, formerly the fee of a bifhop, but
united to Volturara in the year 1433; nine miles E. of
Salerno.

MONTECUCULI, Count Senastian, m Biography,
an Italian gentleman, who was introduced at the French
court, and became cup-bearer to the dauphin Francis, fon
of Francis I. He was accufed of having poifoned the young
prince of Valence, and being put to the torture, confeffed
that he was hired to do the deed by the partifans of

MON
Charles V. The friends of the emperor, however, full

refuted the abominable charge, and threw it back upon
Catherine de Medicis, wife of Henry II. brother to the
dauphin. This circumftance occurred in 1536.

MontecucuLt, Raymonp DE, prince of the holy Ro-
man empire, and a celebrated general in the fervice of the
houfe of Auftria, was born in 1608, at Montecuccoli, the
feat of his family, in the Modenefe. Having received a
liberal education, he took arms at an early age, under his
uncle Erneft Montecuculi, general of artillery in the impe-
rial fervice. The wars in Flanders were his firft fcene of
aétion, and in that fchool he acquired the fkill and expe-
rience which raifed him into notice. The firft conteft in
which he diftinguifhed himfelf was in the year 1644, when
at the head of 2000 men he {urprifed 10,000 Swedes, whom
he compelled to abandon their baggage and artillery. He
was himfelf afterwards defeated and made prifoner by the
Swedifh general Bannier, and was detained in captivity two
years. This time, which to moft young men would have
been loft to themfelves and the world, our youthful foldier
employed in literary and {cientific purfuits. On returning
to his profeffion, he defeated the Swedes, in Bohemia.
After the peace of Weitphalia, he travelled into different
countries, and was fent once in a diplomatic character to
Stockholm. He was very honourably received by queen
Chriitina, who afterwards admitted him to her correfpond-
ence, and imparted to him her fecret intention of abdicating
the throne. In 1657 he was appointed field-marfhal, and
fent to the relief of John Cafimir, king of Poland, who was
attacked by the forces of Sweden, and the prince of Tran-
fylvania. After defeating the latter, he took Cracow from
the Swedes, and gained feveral {plendid a&tions, which pro-
duced a peace. He next ferved againft the Turks, and
drove them out of Tranfylvania, for which he was made
prefident of the Imperial council. In 1673 he was fent
againit the French, to oppofe the celebrated Turenne ;
thefe great matters in the art of war exhaufted every ftra-
tagem in their fcience ; but while the game was in a ftate
of balance, it was brought to a conclufion by the death of
Turenne, from a cannon-ball, as he was reconnoitring with
a defign to attack. He afterwards acted with great courage’
and fkill againft the prince of Conde. After this he re-
fufed to contend with generals of inferior reputation: He
died in 1681. He was attached to literature, and left be-
hind him a work entitled «* Memoire ful’ Arte della
Guerra.”’

MONTE-DEL-BUCHAR, in Geography, a cape on the
W. coaft of North America. N. lat. 35° 19’. E. long. 239°
29’.

MONTE-DELL-CASALE, a town of Naples, in
Bafilicata; 12 miles N.W. of Turfi.

MONTE-FAGARIA, a mountain of Sicily, in the
valley of Noto; feven miles W.N.W. of Caltro Giovanni.

MONTE-FALCO, a town of the duchy of Spoleto, on
a mountain near the Clitumno; 12 miles W.N.W. of
Spoleto.

MONTE-FALCONE, a town of Naples, in the county
of Molife; 18 miles N.E. of Molife.—Alfo, a town of
Iftria; 16 miles W. of Treifte.

MONTE-FEGATESE, a town of the republic of
Lucca ; 12 miles N. of Lucca.

MONTE-FELICE, a town of the duchy of Urbino; ©
12 miles N.W. of Urbino. N, lat. 43° 56’. E. long. 22°
16!.

MONTE-FIASCONE, a town of Italy, the fee of a
bifhop, formerly belonging to the patrimony of the pope;
and fuppofed by fome to be the ancient “ Falerium,” or

Falerii,”

MON

“ Falerii,"’ the capital of the Falifci; but others, in de-
ference to the authority of Strabo, place the ancient Fale-
rium on a hill, which is now occupied by Citta Cattellana,
on the Via Flaminia, between Rome and Otricoli. During
the fecond triumvirate, Falerium was made a Roman colony,
and called “Colonia Janonia Etrufcorum ;” and Macrobius
obferves, that the ftatue of Janus Quadrifrons, or four-faced
Janus, was firft brought from that city to Rome. Monte-
Fiafcone is naw a very {mall town, though a bifhop’s fee,
with a feminary tolerably well endowed ; the large dome or
cupola on its cathedral is-feen at a diftance; but its ftreets
are narrow and badly planned. It is principally diftin-
guifhed by its fituation in the midft of hills, and by its ex-
cellent wine, particularly its Mufcadel, which is the pro-
duce of the Patrimonio di San Pietro, and very much
efteemed in Italy; 10 miles N.W. of Viterbo. N. lat. 42°
33’. E. long. 11° 56’.

MONTE-FILATRANO, a town of the marquifate
of Ancona; 15 miles S.W. of Tolentino.

MONTE-FORCOLI, a town of Etruria; 28 miles
W.S.W. of Florence.

MONTE-FORTE, a town of Naples, in Principato
Ultra ; 18 miles S.S.W. of Benevento.

’ MONTE-FORTINO, a town of the marquifate of
Ancona; 12 miles N.W. of Afcoli.

MONTE-FRIO, a town of Spain, in the province of
Grenada; 12 miles N.N.E. of Loja.

MONTE-FUSCO, a town of Naples, in Principato
Ultra; feven miles §.S.E. of Benevento.

MONTE-GALLIZO, a town of Naples, in Principato
Ultra; 18 miles S.S.E. of Benevento.

MONTEGAS, or Monrico, a town of Portugal, in
the province of Beira ; 16 miles §.W. of Guardia.

MONTEGIO, a town of the Ligurian republic; 12
miles N. of Genoa.

MONTE-GIOISO, a town of Naples, in Calabria
Wltra; ro miles N. of Girace.

MONTE-GIOVE, a mountain of the ifland of Candy,
anciently ‘* Mount Ida;”’ fix miles S. of Candy.

MONTEGO, a river of the ifland of Jamaica, which
runs into Montego bay ; which is a bay on the N. coatt of
the ifland. N. lat. 18° 30'. W. long. 77° 52’.

Monreco Bay, a flourifhing and opulent fea-port town
of the county of Cornwall, in the ifland of Jamaica, fituated
on the N. fide of the ifland; it confifts of 225 houfes, 33
of which are capital ftores or warehoufes, and contains about
600 white inhabitants. The number of top-fail veffels
which clear annually at,this port, is ftated by Mr. Edwards
to be about 150, of which 70 are capital fhips; but this
account includes part of thofe which enter at Kingfton.
Montego bay was made a free port in 1758. In 1795, it
was almoft deftroyed by an earthquake; the damage
amounting to 200,000/. N. lat. 18° 31’. W. long. 78° 20’.

Monreco Key, a {mall ifland in the bay of Honduras,
near the coaft of Mexico. N. lat.17° 5o'. W. long: 88°

8'.

‘ MONTE-GRANARO, a town of Naples, in the Capi-
tanata; 16 miles W. of Manfredonia.—Alfo, a town of
the marquifate of Ancona; 22 miles S. of Ancona.

MONTE-GROSSO, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of Golo, (ifland of Corfica,) and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftriét of Calvi. The canton contains 4829 inha-
bitants.

MonTeE-Grosso, a town of Naples, in the province of
Bari; fix miles N-E. of Minorbino.

MONTEJAN, a town of France, in the department of
the Maine and Loire ; 10 miles S.W. of Angers.

MON

MONTE-IGNOSO, a town of the republie of Lucca ;
20 miles W. of Lucca. ;

MONTEJICAR, a town of Spain, in the province of
Grenada; 12 miles N.W. of Guadix.

MONTEJO, a town of France, in the department of
Marengo; 12 miles E.S.E. of Chivaffo.

MONTEITH, a diftri& of Scotland, in the S. part of
the county of Perth.
~ MONTE'LIE,, a fort of Burgundy wine.

MONTELIMART, in Geography, a town of France, and
principal place of a diftri@, in the department of the Dréme,
fituated on the Robiou ; in which are fome manufactures of
wool, filk, and leather. The place contains 6320, and the
canton 10,598 inhabitants, on a territory of 212% kiliome-
tres, in 11 communes. The people of this town, it is faid,
were the firlt in France who embraced the doétrines of the
reformation. N. lat. 44° 33/. E. long. 4° 40).

MONTELLA, a town of Naples, in Principato Citra ;
12 miles W. of Conza.

Montetra, or Montilla, a light, white Spanifh wine
from Andalufia.

MONTEMOR o Novo, in Geography, atown of Portugal,
in the province of Alentejo, on the Canna; containing four
parifhes, and above 4000 inhabitants ; so miles E. of Lifbon.
N. lat. 38° 36!. W. long. 8°.

Monremor o Velho, a town of Portugal, in the province
of Beira, on the Mondego, containing fix parifh churches,
a convent, feveral hofpitals, and above 1900 inhabitants ;
the refidence of a military commander, with 24 companies
of regular troops, quartered in the town and vicinity ; go
miles N. of Lifbon. N. lat. 40° 7'. W. long. 8° 33’.

MONTENDRE, a town of France, in the department
of the Lower Charente, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri&t of Jonfac ; feven miles W. of Montlieu. The place
contains 852, and the canton 7417 inhabitants, ona territory
of 285 kiliometres, in 19 communes.

MONTENERO, a town of France, in the department
of the Stura; five miles N.N.E. of Coni.

MONTENSES. See Aconistic1, CAmMpirm, and Do-
NATISTS.

MONTE-NUOVO, the New Mountain, near Puzzoli,
in the Neapolitan territory. It was raifed in the night, in
September 1538, by the agency of a fubterraneous volcano,
which eje€ted fuch an immenfe quantity of earth, ftones,
and afhes, that in the courfe of 48 hours it attained the
height of 2100 feet.

MONTEPULCIANO, a very fine red Tufcan wine
pom Stiano, in the diftri€&t of Scarperie. It is exported in
flafks.

MONTER, Fr., in Mufic, to rife, afcend in the feale
by a feries of notes from the grave to the acute.

MONTEREAU-Fattt-Yonng, in Geography, a town
of France, in the department of the Seine and Marne, and
chief place of a canton, in the diftrié& of Fontainebleau, at
the junction of the Seine and Yonne; 12 miles N.E. of
Nemours. The place contains 3435, and the canton 8309
inhabitants, on a territory of 1674 kiliometres, in 14. com-
munes.

MONTEREY, a town of Spain, in Galicia; 18 miles
S.E. of Orenfe.

Monterey, or Monterrey, a Spanifh fettlement or pre-
fidio on the coaft of California, founded, according to La
Peroufe, on the third of June 1770, which by exact
Spanifh obfervations in 1791, is in N. lat. 36° 35'45", and
long. 115° 47! 30" W. of Cadiz. We fhall here obferve,
that with the Spaniards, ‘prefidio” is a general name for
all forts, both in Africa and America, placed in the middle

E2 of

MONTEREY.

of a country of infidels, and implying, that there are no
other inhabitants befides the garrifon which refides within
the citadel. The principal Spanifh garrifon is that of Mon-
terrey, and the licutenant-governor, who refides at Mon-
terrey, is governor of both the Californias. T he foil of the
adjacent diitrict is tolerably fertile and produ€tive ; for La
Peroufe obferved maize, barley, and peas; and by his
account, the climate is mild though foggy. But according
to the Spaniih writers, whofe account is more likely to be
juit than that of Peroufe, who vifited this coaft at a_parti-
cular feafon, the climate of California feems to be divided
between exceflive cold and torrents of rain, while water-
fpouts and hurricanes are not unfrequent, and thick fogs
ferve to diverfify thefe viciffitudes. The foil feeme alfo to
difplay a great vaticty of barrennefs. The chief product
is derived from the fur of foxes and other animals. From
the account of the ftate of California in. 1794, given by
Ettalla, we learn, that the miffionaries have planted olives,
figs, pomegranates, vines, and peaches, all of which yield
anabundant produce. The moft common plant is the ‘* Mez-
cale,” which covers the mountains and vallies, and, like the
« Maguey" of the fouth, fupplies the favages with food,
drink, and clothing. Although the land be generally
barren, fifh are abundant, and fome of the fhells are ex-
quifitely beautiful. From Monterey, and even from the
Red river, to Mendocino, the country is covered with im-
menfe foreits of pines and other trees. ‘The Spaniards have
begun to carry on a fur-trade with China; in this refpect
following the example of the Ruflians, who for this purpofe
had availed themfelves of their fettlements on the north-
weltern coaft of America; whilft their fettlements in Cali-
fornia furnifhed them with an abundant fupply of ‘kins,
chiefly of the fea-otter, as it is called by the Spanifh writers,
the fur being black, and equal to the fineft beaver. The
manner of catching the fea-otters is fo peculiar to the
Indians, that the Englifh, Dutch, and Spaniards, have not
been able to imitate their fkill. In {mall canoes, conflructed
of wood, or a kind of flag, and capable of holding only
one perfon, they venture out to fea; and provided with a
long rope furnifhed with two hcoks, the boatman advances
towards the otter, the females being furrounded with their
young, whom they teach to fwim. On the approach of the
canoe, the female plunges under water, and the Indian fixes
the hooks in the Boot and leg of one of the young. He
then retires and gives out rope, which he occafionally pulls,
and then giving pain to the young animal, it roars fo as to
bring the dam to its afliltance, who, in endeavouring to extri-
cate the young one, is often herfelf entangled by the hooks;
upon which the hunter arrives aud kills her by a fharp blow
on the head.

The mining ftation of St. Ann, near the miflion of All-
Saints, at 24, the filver of which is remarkably pure, has
been abandoned on account of the cruelty of the favages,
who malfacred the workmen. However, in fome parts of
the country, the natives are more mild and docile than in
others. ‘Che women are entruited with the care of pro-
viding food, and other means of tubfiftence, whillt the men,
like other favages in general, walk about like idle vagabonds ;
and this bufinefs is often very laborious. ‘They are obliged
to fubmit to this fatiguing drudgery, as death might pro-
bably be the confequence of any objection or demur. Hence
it happens, that murders are very frequent among them,
and they are committed on the flightett’ occafions. ‘Their
food is very i a confifting of herbs, wild fruite, a kind
of rabbits, venifon, with vipers, fnakes, rats, lizards, and
the like, In fifhing the Californians are very fkilful; and
they are alfo very dextrous in the chace, ‘Ihe Californians

are eafily inftigated either to good or evil; they will ofter
learn the principles of the Chriftian faith in a fortnight, and-
as foon forget them; fometimes crowding to the miffions,
and prefently abandoning them. They receive favours with
coolnefs, and treat their benefa€tors with neglect. Al-
though they appear bold, they are in reality cowardly, and
foon yield under the apprehention of danger or chaftifement.
They have fcarcely any government, or difpofition to affo~
ciate, or to fix in any place; they only unite in the dance,
the feaft, and their petty wars. Their huts or hovels are
generally two or three together, about 14 yards {quare,
having roofs formed of branches, and covered with a little
earth, and very low, fo that they are always full of {moke.
They indulge their appetites without reftraint; and they are
all naked except the women, who wear a {mall mantle of the
fibres of a plant, and a {kin of fome animal over the bofom.
The latter is alfo worn by the chiefs. The head-drefs of the
ladies is a little helmet of rufhes, while the men wear fea~
thers. They ule necklaces made of little fhells, and fome
of the men wear caps made of clay. Their complexion ts-
generally dark, though fome of the women are tolerably
fair. They paint themfelves with various colours; fome
cut off a piece of the ear, fome pierce the under lip, others
the noftrils, and wear as ornaments mice, lizards, fhells,
&c.; and it is evidently their defign in painting, to render
themfelves terrible to their enemies. The furniture of their
hovels confifts in a little net to keep feeds, fome wild tobacco,
with a pipe of clay, quivers for arrows, two pieces of wood
to light a fire, in rubbing which againit each other, fo as to
produce it, they are very dextrous; a bow and arrows, a
club to kill rabbits, and fome cords and hooks for fifhing.
A perfon who poffefles thefe articles is reckoned rich, but
th:re are many who have nothing. When they wifh to
move, the man bears the bow and arrows, and. the woman
allthe ret. The miffionaries have difcovered one diftri& in
which polygamy is not permitted, but regarded as unhappy,
and tending to a fpeedy death. But, in general, a man
may keep, under the title of cooks, as many women as he
can maintain. Although adultery be common, it is an ob-
ject of chaftifement, and the hufband may repudiate or kiif
his wife. The mother will fometimes kill or abandon her
infant, without being fubjeét to any account. Many of the
tribes feem to have no knowledge of religion or of a firit
caufe ; they have neither temples, nor idols, nor altars, nor
do they worfhip the fun or mocn. Some, however, have
confufed notions both of a creator, and of a kind of provi-
dence. ‘They have a fort of magicians, called ‘ Quamas,’?
who fupply the want of prieits, und are regarded as oracles.
Thefe magicians pretend to cure difeafes by ridiculous cere-
monies and gettures, and they greatly impede the progre!s
of Chriftianity, becaufe they juttly regard it as deftrudtive
to their profeffion, Thefe magicians diltinguifh themfelves at
the fettivals, which are merely affemblies of men and women
to gratify all their appetites. They have alfo wreftlirg
matches, in which the vitor becomes the favourite of the
women, while the vanquifhed feel fo mortified that'they fome-
times put themfelves to death, The. magicians difplay their
influence on occafion of funerals, in a variety of ridiculous
ceremonies. ‘Che natives of this country, whatever difference
there may be in the ftatements by various authors, as to the
falubrity of the climate, are generally temperate, and enjoy
good health; but the number. of favages, particularly among
the Pericues in the fouthern part of the peninfula, that have
fallen. vitims to the vewcreal difeafe, is very great, fo that
this particular tribe is almolt extinguifhed,

The bay of Monterrey, formed by New- Year's day (An-
no nucvo) point to the northward, and Cyprefs or Fir

7 (Pines)

MON

(Pinos point to the fouthward, is eight leagues acrofs at
its entrance in that direction, and nearly fix in depth to the
eaftward, where-the lands are low and fandy. The fea rolls
in to the very foot of the eminences of fand, with which the
coalt is fkirted, with a noife which may be heard at about
the diitance of a league. The lands to the northward and
fouthward of this bay are elevated and covered with trees.
Ships intending to put in here muft keep the S. fhore aboard,
and after doubling Fir point, which ftretches out to the
northward, they will fee the “ prefidio,”’ and may. drop
anchor in ten fathoms water within, and behind this point,
which fhelters them from the fea-breezes. ‘The Spanith fhips
that ftay for along time at Monterrey, approach within one
or two lengths of a cable to the fhore, in fix fathoms water,
where they moor to an anchor buried in the fand of the
beach: they are thus fheitered from the S. winds, which
are fometimes very ftrong, though not dangerous, as they
blow off fhore. At full and change of the moon it is high
water at half paft one, and the tide rifes feven feet. The
whales in this bay are very numerous, and, as Peroufe fays,
very familiar. They were continually blowing at the
diftance of half a piltol’s fhot, and occafioued a very dif-
agreeable fmell in the air.

The coatts of Monterrey bay are covered by almott eter-
nal fogs, which render it difficult of approach, though in
other refpeéts there {carcely exifls a bay more eafily entered.
The fea is covered with pelicans, which never go above five
or fix leagues from land ; and, therefore, navigators who per-
ceive them during a fog, will be certain that they are within
that diftance. Thefe birds are very common on the whole
coalt of California, and are called by the Spaniards. Alca-
tras.’’ M. Monneron,.who vifited this harbour in December,
1786, obferves that the land about it, though dry, feems
adapted for advantageous cultivation. European grains

row here both: fine and abundant,.and the butchers’ meat
is of the belt quality. It is therefore certain, he adds,.con-
fidering the commodioufnefs of the harbour,.that if this
fettlement fhould ever flourifh, a better port for one or more
veffels could not be found. in any part of the world... For
further particulars, we refer to the articles Vew: ALBION, and
CALIFORNIA.

MONTEROSSO, a town of Sicily,.in the valley of Noto ;
20 miles N.N.W. of. Noto. N. lat. 36° 38’. E.long,
I ° 2,

*MONTESA, a {mall town and. ruined caftle of Spain,.in
Valencia ;- nine miles SeW. of St. Felipe... The town is built
inthe form of an amphitheatre, on a mountain which ftands
forward detached from the chain. This was the feat.of the mi-
litary order of thatname. Molt of the monks perithed there
by an earthquake, which happened on the 23d of May, 17.48 ;
the rock on which the cattle was built being f{plit open, fo
that parts of it fell off. A great part of the cattle itill re-
mains of along re€tangular form, the walls of which are
flanked with towers and pierced with loop-holes.

Montesa, Order of, See St. GtornGeof Alfama.

MONTESQUIEU, Cuartzs pe Seconpat, Baron de,
in Biography, an eminent magiftrate and writer, defcended
from a diltinguifhed family in Guienne, was born in 1689.
At a very early period in life he manifeited .a. propenfity to
deep and folid thinking, and in his twentieth year he began
to make co'leétions for his moft celebrated work. He was
appointed to the office of-prelident a mortier in the parlia-
ment of Bourdeaux in 1716,.and in.1722 he was.deputed by
that body to make remonitrances on account of a new im-
poit, when he employed his eloquence with fo much force
as to obtain its fuppreflion.. He had already publifhed his
« Perfian Letters,” which give-a fativical reprefentation of

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the manners and fentiments of the country, under the affumed’
character of a foreigner. Thefe letters ferve as a vehicle of
free fentiments concerning politics and religion, which the
author was one of the firit to render popular in France.
They gave him a degree of literary reputation which in-
duced him to become a candidate for a ylace in the French
academy ; but the liberties which he had taken with the
church and {late were reprefented in fo ferious a light to the
minifter, the cardinal Fleury, that he had reafon to fear
exclufion, through the interference of authority. He, how-
ever, furmounted this ob{tacle, and was admitted iato the
academy in the year 1728. He now refolved to devote his
time and talents to the inftruGion of his fellow-creatures as
a writer : with this view he thought it was neceflary to ftudy
national charaéters upon the fpot, and accordingly fet out on
his travels. He vifited Germany, Hungary, Italy, Swit-
zerland, and Holland, and finifhed with a refidence of nearly
two years in England. Of this country, he faid “ it was
the belt to think in ;’? and here he was honoured with the
regards and attention of queen Caroline, and of the moit
diftinguithed literary characters of the day. He paid a
marked attention to the Englifh conftitution, of which,
upon the mott profound refleétion, he thought moft highly.
On his return to his native country he put the Jaft hand to
his work, entitled «¢ Sur la Caufe de la Grandeur et de la
Decadence des Romains,’’ which was publifhed in the year
1734. This excellent performance is celebrated for the
energy of its ityle, the force of its deferiptions, and the
depth of the author’s remarks. His love of liberty isthe
animating. {pirit of the whole. In 1748 he publifhed, in
two: volumes quarto, his “ Efprit des Loix.’’ Qn this he
had {pent very many years of his life; its principles are
founded on the radical diverlities of mankind, owing to
climate and other caufes, and it difcuffes at large the nature
of different forms of government, from which laws emanate,
and to which they orght tobe adapted. Voltaire, in fpeak-
ing of this work, which is far from fauitlefs, fays, «if it
doesnot always inftruét the reader, it never fails to make
him think.”” And M. de la. Harpe,-in comparing Mon-
tefquieu and Rouffeau, fays that the fyftem of the latter
was a work of mere imagination; hut the ‘* Efprit des
Loix'? was produced by long labour.and meditation, and
it feems as if one fhould, like a novel,, be read- for
amufement, and the other for information and improve-
ment.. Montefquieu’s lively and ingenious’ expreflions,
in which is, difplayed the imagination of Montagne, have
particularly. contributed to the great reputation of the
“ Efprit des Loix.’’ ‘The fame things faid even by a more
learned man would not have been read. Few works are-to
be met with in which there are more profound ideas, more
bold: thoughts, or more matter for inttruétion. It has a
claim to be ranked among the original preduétions which.
adorned the age of Lewis XIV., and.which.has no model.
in antiquity.. For feveral parts of his work the author drew
upon himfelf certain cenfures, and among his critics was

~M. Dupin, a farmer-ceneral, who wrote*an anfwer to it;
o ’

but after a few copies of the critique had been diftributed,.
Montefquieu made his.complaint to madame Pompadour,
who fent for the writer, and told him fhe took .the
‘Spirit of the Laws,’” and-its-author, under her. pro-
tection : in confequence of this, Dupin was obliged to
fubmit, and.the whole edition of his anfwer was configned
to the flames.. This was not to the credit cf Montefquieu,
who fhould have learnt a different leffon from-the country in
which he had been excited to thought and reflection.
He died of a pulmonary complaint in February, 175%,
in the fixty-fixth year of his age. His lat hours were dif-
turbed+

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turbed by the Jefuits, who were anxious to get from him
fomething like a retra€tation of his fentiments concerning re-
ligion. His private charaGer is reprefented as having been
highly amiable and eltimable. Though habitually frugal,
he was capable of great generofity, and an inftance of his
beneficence in giving his purfe to a young boatman at Mar-
feilles, and fecretly configning a fum of money to a banker
to redeem the youth’s father from flavery in Africa, has
been the fubjeét of a pathetic drama. In temper he was
mild, cheerful, and equal, free from ambition, fimple, and
unafieGted. After his death was publifhed a collection of
his works in three volumes quarto, in which were fome
pieces that had not before appeared. Of thefe the principal
was ‘* Le Temple de Guide,’ a kind of profe poem.
This was at firft read with great avidity, but was foon
conlidered as an effufion unworthy of the author. The
prefident hada fon, John Baptifta de Secondat, counfellor of
the parliament of Bourdeaux, who died in that city in 1796,
at the age of feventy-nine. He was author of many works ;
particularly of “ Obfervations de Phyfique et d’Hiftoire
Naturelle fur les Eaux Minerales de Pyrenees,” 1750;
« Confiderations fur la Commerce et la Navigation de la
Grande Bretagne,’’ 1740; ‘ Confiderations fur la Marine
Militaire de France,’ 1756. He refideda confiderable time
in London, and was eleéted a member of the Royal So-
ciety.

ee in Geography, atown of France, in the de-
partment of the Upper Garonne, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftrict of Muret ; four miles N.W. of Villefranche.
The place contains 2802, and the canton g4or inhabitants,
on a territory of 2274 kiliometres, in 15 communes.

MONTESQUIOU, atown of France, in the department
of the Gers, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of
Mirande ; four miles N.N.W. of Mirande. The place con-
tains 1874, and the canton 9547 inhabitants, ona territory
of 272+ kiliometres, in 19 communes.

MONTET, a town of France, in the department of
the Allier, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of
Moulins ; fix miles N.W.’of Montmerault. The place con-
tains 450, and the canton 10,544 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 3274 kiliometres, in 14 communes. :

MONTEVERDE, Cravunio, in Biography, a native of
Cremena, was one of the moft eminent compofers of the
period now under confideration. He firft diftinguifhed him-
felf as a performer on the tenor viol ; and being taken into
the fervice of the duke of Mantua, applied himfelf to the
ftudy of compofition under the diretion of Marcantonio
Ingegneri, of Cremona, maeftro di capella of that court,
and a confiderable compofer for the church. Soon after he
went to Venice, where the republic appointed him maeftro
of St. Mark’s church, a place which has been always filled
by profeffors of great abilities. Here, in 1552, he pub-
lifhed madrigals for three, four, and five voices, in the ftyle
of the times; but his courage increaling with experience,
in his fubfequent productions he dared to violate many rules
of counterpoint, which, having been long eflablifhed, were
held facred by orthodox profeffors. He had, therefore,

many Opponents, who treated him as an ignorant corrupter

of the art. Among thefe, the principal was Gio. Maria
Artufi, of Bologna, who, in the firlt part of his trac&
«© On the Imperfeétion of Modern Mutlic,”’ publifhed in
1600, as well as in the fecond, which appeared in 1603, in-

veighed with great afperity again{t Monteverde. Mufi-
cians entered the lifts on both fides, and the war became
general. Monteverde defended himfelf in prefaces and letters
prefixed to his works; but his beft defence was the revo-
lution he brought about in’ counterpoint ; for his licences,

M o N
pleafing the public ear, were foon adopted not only by di-
lettante, but profeffors.

As the innovations of Monteverde form a memorable
epoch in the hiftory of the art, it feems neceffary to
acquaint the mufical reader in what they confifted. ‘The
laws of harmony, like thofe of tragedy, comedy, and
epic poetry, when once eftablifhed, check invention, and fre-
quently impel men of real genius to become imitators.
Unluckily muficians had not fuch perfeé models before
them, as antiquity has furnifhed to poets in the dramatic
works of Sophocles, Euripides, and Terence, or the epic
poems of Homer and Virgil. In the infancy of mufical
compofition, men faw but a little way into the latent re-
fources of harmonic combinations; rules were formed upon
few and narrow principles, derived from monotonous and
infipid compofitions, when timidity was feeling its way in
the dark, and every deviation from the practice’of the firit
contrapuntifts was thought licentious. However, men were
too great friends to the pleafure of the ear, not to encourage
fuch happy licences as thofe with which Monteverde was
charged ; and fince that time, every fortunate breach of an
old rule feems to be regarded as the eftablifhment of a neu ;
by which means, the code is fo enlarged, that we may now
almoft pronounce every thing to be allowable in a mufical
compofition, that does not offend cultivated ears.

Monteverde was the firft. who ufed double difcords, fuch
as the 2, 2, and 7. as well as the flat fifth, and the feventh
unprepared ; and as he was poffefled of more genius and
fcience than the prince of Venofa, his innovations were not
merely praifed, and then avoided, but abufed, and adopted
by other compofers.

But it was not only by the ufe of thefe difcords that he
improved mufic, for by quitting ecclefiaftical modulation in
his fecular productions, he determined the key of each move-
ment, fmoothed and phrafed the melody, and made all his
parts fing in a more natural and flowing manner than had
been done by any of his predeceflors. In the firft fet of Mon-
teverde’s madrigals the compofition is not only correét and
fimple, but fo dry and fancilefs, as to threaten no attempts
at {uch new harmonies and effects, as would bring about a
revolution in the art. And it feems to have been by defign,
and in his dramatic experiments at the expreffion of words,
that he ventured to violate ancient rules, and militate againft
prejudice and pedantry : for neither his church mufic, nor the
two firft books of his madrigals, contain any licences that
would offend or furprife orthodox ears, even in the fifteenth
century. But in his fifth and laft book of madsigals, almott
every {pecies of difcord and modulation is hazarded, for the
ufe of which the boldeft compofers of modern times have
been often thought licentious.

Something fo free, facile, and fimilar to mufic of much
later times appears through all the trammels of fugue and
complication, in the melody, harmony, and modulation of
his latter madrigals, that we are forry not to be able to allow
room in our plates for a {pecimen, which, however, curious
inquirers into the progrefs of the art, may fee in Burney’s
Hittory of Mufic, vol. iti. p. 237, &c.

Monteverde may be regarded as a man who formed an era
in the hiftory of his art: he freed himfelf from many fevere
and narrow rules which impeded all experiment, and confe-
quently improvement. His new and bold ufe of difcords
opened a career, which, but for him, a great number of
celebrated compofers would never have been heard of.

He had acquired great reputation in 1620, and was ad-
mitted that fame year into the academy at Bologna with
great folemnity. His madrigals were printed at Venice from
1582 to 1651. Another colleétion of his pieces appeared

2 at

MON

at Venice in 1640, for one, two, three, four, five, fix, feven,
and eight voices.

He was one of the firft cultivators of recitative, and fet the
following operas : “ Proferpina Rapita,’’ 1630; ‘“ Ariadne,”’
16403”? “ Adonis,”’ with the title of a mufical tragedy, 1642;
and ‘ L’Incoronazione di Poppea,”’ all for Venice. With
refpeét to thefe operas, the learned Gio. Bat. Dom fays:
-¢ Claudio Monteverde, at prefent mae(tro di capella to the
republic of Venice, has received great applaufe at the per-
formance of his Ariadne ; he afterwards publifhed the prin-
cipal part of this produGtion, which is the Lamentation of
Ariadne, and perhaps the moft beautiful compofition of the
kind which our times have produced.”

MONTEVIDEO, in Geography, a bay and town of
La Plata, or Paraguay, in South America, fituated on the
N. fide of La Plata river: it lies E. of Buenos Ayres, and
has its name from a mountain which overlooks it, about 20
leagues from Cape Santa Maria, at the mouth of the ‘Plata.
S. lat. 34° 30!.

MONTEY, a town of Switzerland, and feat of a bailiff,
in the Valais; nine miles N. of Martigny.

MONTEYO, a town of Portugal, im the province of
Beira; 15 miles S.W. of Guardia.

MONTEZIA, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 25 miles
§.S.E. of Havanna.

MONTEZUMA, in Biography. See Mexico.

MONTFAUCON,; Bernarp pbk, a celebrated anti-
quary and philologift, was born in 1655, at the caltle of
Soulage, in Languedoc. -In early life he entered into the
military fervice, and ferved in two or three campaigns. By
the death of his parents, and fome other circumftances, he
was fo much imprefled with a diftafte of the world, that he
formed the refolution of adopting a monattic life. In 1675,
he entered among the Benediétines of St. Maur, and devoted
himfelf to the purfuits of literature. In conjunction with
two of his friends, he publifhed « Anale@a Greca, Gr. et
Lat. cum notis.” In 1690, he publifhed a {mall tra&, en-
titled «* La Verité de ? Hiftoire de Judith,’ in which he
gave fome elucidations of the hiftory of the Median and
Affyrian empires. After this he was occupied a few years
in preparing a new edition of the works of St. Athanafius,
which appeared in three volumes folio, dedicated to pope
Innocent XII. This work was publifhed in 1698, and was
preceded by a new life cf that father, and by feveral learned
differtations. In the fame year he undertook a journey to
Italy, for the purpofe of confulting libraries and examining
manu(cripts relative to the inquiries in which he was en-
gaged. Having been from home about three years he re-
turned to Paris, where, in 1702, he publifhed an account of
the obfervations made in this tour, under the title of ‘* Dia-
rium Italicum, five Monumentorum veterum, Bibliothecarum,
Mufeorum, &c.’”? During his refidence at Rome, he printed
a defence of the edition of St. Auguttin, publifhed by the
fathers of his ‘order, againft various attacks which it had
undergone. In 1706, he publifhed «« A Colle€tion of An-
cient Greek Ecclefialtical Writers,’ in two volumes, with
tranflations, notes, and differtations: but one of his moft
learned and important works appeared in 1708, with the
title of “ Paleographia Greca, five de Ortu et Progreffu
Literarum Grecarum, et de variis omnium Seculorum Scrip-
tions Grece generibus, &c.’? This work has effected,
with refpe& to the afcertainment of the age of Greek
MSS., that which the work of Mabillon, «« De Re Diplo-
matica,’’ has done with regard to the Latin. In 1719, he
was nominated a fupernumerary honorary member of the
Academy of Infcriptions and Belles Lettres, and in the
fame year he publifhed, in Latin and French, his celebrated

MON

work, ¢ L’Antiquité expliquée et reprefentée en Figures,’?
Paris, ten volumes folio. A fupplement to it appeared in
1724, in five volumes. This ftupendous colleétion of the
monuments of antiquity contains 1200 plates, comprifing
between 30 and 40,000 figures. Between the years 1729
and 1733, he publifhed «* Monumens de la Monarchie Fran-
coile,”? five volumes folio, with a great number of figures. .
And in 1739, he gave the public his concluding “in en-
titled « Bibliotheca Bibliothecarum Manufcriptorum nova,”’
in two volumes folio. He died at the abbey of St. Ger-
main des Prés in 1741, at the age of eighty-feven, having,
it is faid, preferved his faculties fo entire, that nearly to the
termination of his career he employed eight hours a da
in fludy. He was author of many other works befides thofe
that have been already noticed. He was not lefs eftimable
for his piety, candour, and goodneis, than for the extent. of
his erudition. Moreri.

Among the voluminous works of this learned and inde-
fatigable writer, there is in his « Trefor d’Antiquitez
facrées,’’ a differtation on the mufic of the ancients, and
particularly of the Hebrews, which merits fome confider-
ation as a mulical article.

The antiquity of the facred writings is now fo remote as
to throw into the regions of conjecture almoft every thing
concerning the Hebrews that is not in the bible. After an
eulogy almoft enthufiaftic on the mufic of the ancients in
general, and of the Hebrews in particular, up to Tubal
Cain, this pious Beneditine proceeds to defcribe their mufic
and mufical inftruments, with as much firmnefs as if he had
feen and heard them but yefterday. .

He allows, however, that there was no mufical eftablifh-
ment, even in the celebration of religious rites, till the time
of the royal pfalmilt, David, when he conftituted it a part
of priettly ftudy. So that they had it all to iearn,

The author then defcribes the mufical eftablifhments of
David and Solomon for the fervice of religion ; which were
indeed the moft numerous and fplendid upon record. When
David firft regulated thefe eftablifhments, it appears that
not only the fele& band of finging men and finging women,
but 4000 Levites were appointed to praife the Lord with
inftruments, and the number of thofe that were inflruded and
cunning in fong, is faid to be 288.

But all this fudden cultivation of mufic does not refle&
any great honour on the Hebrews as inventors of the art ;
for the learned writer fays that they had their mufic from
the Chaldeans and the Egyptians, and never pretended to
the honour of invention. The rabbins enumerate 34 dif-
ferent mufical inftruments which they feem to have kad in
ufe, and which, perhaps, furpafles the Grecian lift. But
after examining the names of thefe inftruments, he found it
neceflary to retrench 14 of them at once; as there did not
appear among them any term which indifputably fignified an
inftrument of mufic; fo that the number is reduced’to 20,
of which he has given engravings; but every one of thefe
is demonftrably Grecian, and copied from ancient {culpture,
known to be Greek. The reverend father, indeed, does not
feem deeply read in mufical hittory, or he would never have
aflerted that feveral of thefe ancient initruments were played
with a bow initead of a plectrum. But it has not been proved
by any of the moft curious and perfpicuous antiquaries,
that the ufe of the bow was ever known to the ancients,
nor can it be demonftrated of higher antiquity than 500
years.

Montraucon, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Nievre, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trict of Montmedy; 10 miles N. of Clermont, The place
contains 1024,and the canton 9194 inhabitants, on a territony

MON

-of rgokiliometres, in 18 communes.—Alfo,atown of France,
in the Upper Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri&
of Yffengeaux; nine miles S.E.of Moniftrol. The place con-
tains 864, and the canton 9172 inhabitants, on a territory of
¥874 kiliometres, in 7 communes.—Alfo, a town of France,
in the department of the Maine and Loire, and chief place
of acanton, in the diltri& of Beaupréau; nine miles W. of
Cholet. “The place contains 477, and the canton 10,053
inhabitants, on a territory of 2674 kiliometres, in 12 com-
muines.

MONTFERRAND, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Puy-de-Dome, and chief place of a canton, in
the diltri& of Clermont, one mile N. of Clermont. The
place contains 5522, and the canton 13,334 inhabitants, on
a territory of 724 kiliometres, in fix communes.

Monrrertann, a fine fort of red Bourdeaux wine,
the produce of Clermont-Ferrand, in Auvergne. It 1s
principally fent to Holland, Germany, and the north of
Europe.

WONTFERRAT, Duchy of, in Geography, lately a prin-
cipality of Italy, bounded on the W. and N. by Piedmont, on
the E. by the duchy of Milan, and on the S. by the republic
of Genva ; lying in N. lat. 45°, and in E. long. 8° 20', and
being upwards of 60 miles from N. to S., and from 3o to
38 from W. to E. Confitting of mountains and fruitful
vallies, it abounds in corn and mufcadine wine ; and contains
about 200 market-towns, villages, and feats. It was erected
into a duchy by the emperor Maximilian IT., but was entirely
ceded ‘to Sardinia, A.D. 1708. It is divided into Upper
and Lower; the former containing the provinces of Alba
and Acqui, and the latter thofe of Cafal and Trino. Cafal
is the capital of the duchy. This duchy is now united to
France, and included in the departments of the Tanaro and
Marengo.

Montrerrat Wines, a common kind of Italian wines in
the Piedmontefe territory.

MONTFLANOUIN, in Geography, a town of France, in
the depart ment of the Lot and Garonne, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftri€t of Villeneuved’ Agen; 19 miles N. of it.
The place contains 5173, and the canton 12,237 inhabitants,
ona territory of 225 kiliometres,in 12 communes. N. lat.
44° 32'. E. long. 0° 52!

MONTFORT, Simon bE, in Biography, a famous com-
mander in the 13th century, was defcended from a noble
family, the lords of Montfort, a town in the diftri&t of
Paris. He was remarkable for the magnitude and ftrength
of his body, and diltinguifhed himfelf on various occafions
in combats again{t the Germans and Englifh, and in an ex-
pedition beyond fea. In 1209 he conduéted the croifade
againft the Albigenfes, on which occafion he rendered
himfelf infamous by the cruelties which he perpetrated.;
of thefe too many inftances are given on the page of hif-
tory ; we fhall record bat one, which of itfelf is fufficient
to hand his name down to polterity with execration.
After the capture of Lavaur, he caufed the lady of the
nlace to be thrown into a well, her brother to be hanged,
fourfcore gentlemen to be maffacred in cold blood, and 4oo
heretics to be burnt, while the Aind-hearted clergy, of that
barbarous period, were finging a hymn to the Holy Ghoft.

Montfort gained a victory, in 1213, over Peter, king of
Arragon, but was himfelf killed, at the fiege of Touloufe,
jn 1218, by a ftone hurled ‘from a machine, of peculiar
conftrution, by the hand of a woman. He obtained the
reputation of one of the greateft captains of the time, and
a champion of the Catholic faith. Moreri. Univer. Hitt.

Mowxtrorr, Simon pe, earl of Leicefter, fon of the
preceding, fettled in England in 1236, and obtaining the fa-

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vour of the king, Henry JII., he was created earl of Lei-
cefter, and was permitted to marry the countefs dowager of
Pembroke, fifter to the monarch. He was afterwards ap-
pointed lieutenant-general of Gafcony, but his government
having excited great difcontents among the people, he was
recalled, tried, and acquitted of the charges exhibited
again{t him. The king, however, was fatisfied of his guilt,
and called him a traitor to his face, an affront which the
earl returned by giving him the lie dire¢ét: and though an
outward reconciliation took place, yet they never after-
wards appear to have borne good-will for each other.
The extortions and tyranny of Henry having excited dif-
contents at home, Montfort began to entertain ambitious
projects, by difplaying a zeal for reform, and by fomenting
public difaffeGtion. He even went fo far as to call a fecret
meeting of the moit confiderable barons, and concerted
with them a plan for reforming the government. In 1258,
Henry haying convoked a parliament for the purpefe of ob-
taining fupplies for the conquett of Sicily, the crown of
which the pope had conferred on his fon, the barons en-
tered the hall completely armed, and beldly remonftrated
with him upon his errors. ‘The king now found himfelf, as
it were, a prifoner in the hands of his fubjeéts, and the
power, which was, probably, at firft, neceflary for fecurity
againft the fovereign’s ufurpations, was foon abufed and
made fubfervient to the private intere*® of the barons, of
whom Leicelter was the chief mover. He {oon obtained
various fuccefles, andat length got poffeffion of the king’s
perfon. He now made ufe of the fuperiority which his
valour had won, without any regard to the di€iates of mo-
deration, and at length contrived to have the whole auths-
rity committed to himfelf, the bifhop of Chichefter, and the
earl of Glouceiter. He employed various methods of ex-
tortion to fill his coffers, of which fome were fo oppreffive,
that he drew upon himfelf the hatred of the people, and a
junétion was expeéted to be formed between the royalifts
and the difcontented barons. ‘To oppofe this he fummoned
a parliament in January 1265, compofed not only of the
two knights fent from every fhire, but of reprefentatives
from the borcughs, for the firft time on record. The dread
of Leicelter’s unbounded power detached from him the
earl of Gloucefter, who retired to his eftate and garrifoned
his feveral caftles. Leicelter proclaimed him and his adhe-~
rents traitors: a civil war commenced, in which Leicefter
was flain, with one of his fons; another of his fons was
taken prifoner, and the ruin and expulfion of his whole fa-
mily were the refult of this defeat. Hume. Henry.

Monrrort, in Geography, a town of France, and principal
place of a diftriGt, in the department of the Ille and Vilaine ;
30 miles S of St. Malo. ‘The place contains 1115, and the
canton 13,426 inhabitants, on a territory of 1774 kiliometres,
in 1r communes. N. lat. 48° 8!. E. long. 1° 52'—Alfo,
atown and ruinous caltle, where the ancient counts of Feld-
kirch refided, and from which they took their title, forming,
as it has been faid, a feparate county ; 12 miles S. of Bre-
gentz.—Alfo, a town of Holland, fituated on the river
iffel. It is a well-built town, and fortified, but not ftrong ;
23 miles S. of Amiterdam.—Alfo, a town of France, in
the department of the Landes, and chief place of a canton,
in the diltri& of Dax; nine miles E. of Dax. The place
contains 1410, and the canton 11,385 inhabitants, on a ters
ritory of 225 kiliometres, in 22 communes.—Alfo, a town
of Trance, in the department of the Sarthe, and chief place
of acanton, in the diftri& of Le Mans; nine miles E.N.E.
of Le Mans. The place contains 793, and the canton
12,606 inhabitants, on a territory of 2474 kiliometres, in 18
communes.

Montrorr-

MON

Monrrort-/ur-Rifle, a town of France, in the department
of the Eure, and chief place of a canton, in the diltric of
Pontaudemer ; feven miles S.E. of it. The place contains

42, and the canton 9275 inhabitants, ona territory of 1324
iliometres, in TF communes.

MONTGISCARD, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Upper Garonne, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftrict of Villetranche ; 7 miles N.W. of it. The
place contains rro0, and the canton 9789 inhabitants, on a
territory of 162 kiliometres, in 20 communes.

MONTGOLFIER, in Biography. See AERosTaTION.

MONTGOMERY, Gazrirt pe, Count of, a celebrated
French nobleman, was born of an ancient Scotch family.
In 1559 he had the misfortune to kill Heory II. by
accidentally wounding him in the eye as they were tilting
at a tournament given by that monarch, on occafion of
the marriage between his daughter Elizabeth and the
king of Spain. After this unfortunate difafter, Mont-
gomery went to Italy and other countries, till the civil
wars recalled him to France, where he attached himfelf
to the Proteftants, and became one of their principal
chiefs. He defended Roven in 1562, againft the royal
army, and when the city was taken by affault be efcaped
to Havre. In 1569 he raifed the fiege of Bearne, in Na-
varre, then clofely prefled by the Catholics ; after which he
followed the befiegers to Orthez, which he took by affault.
Montgomery was at Paris at the time of the maffacre of the
Protettants in 1572, but efcaped, though clofely purfued.
With his family he retired to Jerfey, and from thence to
England. In 1573 he returned to Normandy, where he was
joined by fome of the Protettant nobility at St. Lo, at
which place he was befieged by Matignon, lieutenant-ge-
neral in Lower Normandy, But Montgomery efcaped from
thence, and went to Dumfront, whither he was followed by
Matignon, who after a long combat made him prifoner.
This gallant nobleman was beheaded at Paris in 1574.
Moreri.

Montcomery, in Geography, a county of America, in the
upper diltri¢t of Georgia, on the N.E. fide of Alatamaha river,
containing 3180 inhabitants, and divided into 12 towns.—
Alfo, a county of New York, firlt called Tryon, but changed
into Montgomery in 1784, by an aé of the legiflature.
It contains 24,483 inhabitants. Its chief town is John{ton.
—Alfo, a townfhip in Uliter county, New York, W. of
New Windfor and Newburgh.—Alfo, a townhhip in Frank-
lin county, Vermont ; watered by Trout river, and con-
taining 36 inhabitants—Alfo, a townfhip in Hamphhire
county, Maflachufetts; 15 mules from Bofton; incorpo-
rated in 1780, and containing 560 inhabitants.—Alfo, a
county in Pennfylvania, 13 miles long, and 17 broad; N.W.
of Philadelphia. It 1s divided into 18 townfhips, and con-
tains 24,150 inhabitants. Its chief town is Norritown.—
Alfo, a townfhip in the laft mentioned county.—-Alfo, a
townfhip in Franklin county.—Alfo, a county in Salifbury
diftriét, North Carolina, containing 7677 inhabitants, in-
cluding 1373 flaves.—Alfo, a county of Virginia, S. of
Botetourt county ; about 100 miles long, and 44 broad. It
has fome lead mines. It contains 8076 free inhabitants,
and 968 flaves. Its chief town is Chrittianburg.— Alfo,
a county of Maryland, on Patowmac river; containing
15,058 inhabitants, including 6288 flaves.—Alfo, a county
in Tenneflee ftate and Mero diftrid@. This and Robertfon
county are the territory formerly called 'Tenneflee county,
the name of which ceafes fince the State has taken that
name. It contains 2899 inhabitants.—Alfo, a county of
Kentucky, containing 6999 inhabitants, of whom 749 are
flaves.

Vou. XXIV.

MON

Montcomrry, a borough, market town, and parifh, fitu-
ated in the C-wmwd of Yftradd Marchell, Cantref of Yit-
lyc, (now called the Lower Divifion of the hundred of
Montgomery ), Montgomerythire, North Wales. This town
was originally denominated T're-Faldwyn, 7 e. Baldwyn’s-
Town, from Baldwyn, a lieutenant of the Marches, who
lived during the reign of William the Conqueror ; and who,
at the command of his fovereign, ereéted a caftle here in
order to further his views againft the Welfh. That peo-
ple, however, feem not to have permitted him to retain it
long ; for we find it very foen after befieged and taken by
Roger Montgomery, earl of Arundel and Shrewfbury, who
refortified it, and gave it the appellation of Montgomery,
in honour of himfelf. The Welth again poffeffed them-
felves both of the town and cattle in the following year ;
and having demolifhed the latter, retired on the approach
of king William Rufus, who rebuilt it in greater ftrength
than before. On the retreat of the king’s forces, however,
the new fortrefs was likewife befieged by a large army un-
der the command of Gryffydd-a-Conan, who committed
moft dreadful depredations in the neighbouring country.
This condu& fo much incenfed the king, that he marched
once more into Wales, vowing to deftroy the Welfh power ;
but great as his means were, he found them infufficient for
the objeét, and was foon compelled to return to England
with the lofs of feveral thoufand of his braveft troops.
Flufhed with this fuccefs, the fiege of the caltle was re-
newed with redoubled ardour by the Welfh, who fucceeded
in making themfelves matters of it by ftorm, after a molt
heroic refiltance ; and again levelled it with the ground.
The earl of Shrewfbury rebuilt it in the fucceeding reign,
but in lefs than a century afterwards, this ereétion alfo
fhared the fate of the former. Henry III. next renewed
it, and gave the cuitody of it to Hubert-de-Burgh, during
whofe governorfhip it continued almoft conftantly in a {tate
of fiege, and was at laft taken and deftroyed by Llewelyn-
ap-Jorweth, who inhumanly put the whole garrifon to the
{word. By whom it was again re-edified fubfequent to this
period is uncertain ; but that it did not long remain in its
ruined condition is clear from the circumitance of a con-
ference being held here in 1268, when peace was concluded
between England and Wales, through the mediation of Ot-
toboni, pope Clement’s legate in Britain. After this, no
event of material confequence immediately conne&ted with
the hiftory*of this place happened till the era of the civil
wars in the reign of Charles I., when lord Herbert, the
then proprietor of the caftle, garrifoned it for the king ;
but was fo intimidated by the approach of the parliament-
ary army, that he wrote to their general, fir Thomas Mid-
dleton, declaring his readinefs to joi the republican ttand-
ard; which he accordingly did. The advance of the royal
forces, under lord Byron, however, foon after rendered it
prudent for fir Thomas to retire to Ofweltry, leaving only
avery {mall garrifon in the caftle ; but having been there
reinforced, he again marched back to its relief, when a moft
defperate engagement enfued, in which the royalifts, though
much fuperior in numbers, were completely defeated. The
caftle fubfequently met with the fame fate as mott of thofe
which had, at any time, declared for the king, being dif-
mantled by order of the houfe of commons, and never again
repaired. It flood on the extremity of an eminence, to the
north of the town; and apparently impending over it. From
the {mall remains, now in exiftence, it is impoflible to deter-
mine either its fhape or extent ; but it is faid to have been
of great fize, and magnificently built. That it was a
place of ftrength and importance in former times cannot
be doubted, if any credit is to be given to the records of

iy hiftory.

MON

hiftory, Indeed it ftill retains convincing proof of its
ftrength ; one fide of the ridge on which it was feated being
extremely lofty, and almoft perpendicular in acclivity ; while
the others, which are lefs fteep, have the defence of four
large foffes cut out of the folid rock, over which. draw-
bridges have been thrown.

The town of Montgomery is pleafantly fituated on an
eminence of inferior height to that on which the ruins of the
caftle appear. It is clean and neatly built, and {till bears
evident marks of its having been anciently furrounded by a
wall. In Leland’s time great part of this wall was ftand-
ing; and that writer mentions four gates then in ruins,
called ‘« Kedewen gate, Chirbury gate, Arthur’s gate, and
Kerry. gate,’’ and alfo fome remains “‘ of broken tourets,”’
of which the white tower was “the moft notable :’’ only
a few traces of thefe are now left. This town is governed
by a high fteward, two bailiffs, and twelve capital bur-
geffes, or common councilmen, and was ereéted into a free
borough in the reign of Henry III. It fends one repre-
fentative to parliament, who is ele€ted by the burgeffes, and
returned by the bailiffs. Llanydloes, Welfh-Pool, and
Lianfyllin formerly poffeffed a fhare in this privilege, but
they have been totally debarred from it fince the year 1728,
on the authority of a parliamentary decifion. The guild-
hall here is a very handfome edifice, at which all the public
bufinefs of the town is tranfa¢ted ; and near the {cite of the
caftle a large county gaol has been lately erected. The
church is built in the form of a crofs, and contains fe-
yveral monuments of the Herbert family. ‘That in honour
of Richard. Herbert, efq. father of the celebrated lord
Herbert of Cherburg, is particularly diftinguifhed for the
remains of former magnificence, which are yet apparent.
A market is held on Saturdays: here are held the quarter
feffions, and the petty feffions for the lower divifion of the
hundred. According to the parliamentary returns of 1801,
the population of the parifh amounted only to 992 perfons,
viz. 4.93 males, and 499 females.

On the fame fide of the town with the caftle, but at a
fhort diftance, is a ftupendous encampment, which probably
has been a Britifh poft. The fituation is on the fummit of
a lofty hill, fufficiently defended on one fide by its abrypt
afcent ; and on the more acceffible parts by deep fofles
which run dire€tly acrofs it. The approach was further de-
fended by four fhorter foffes, having two entrances com-
municating with the main work. 1n the vale between this
hill and that on which the caltle flood, are the remains of
a {mall fortification, which Mr. Evans conjeétures to have
been the {cite of the fortrefs built by fir Baldwyn, be-
caufe “ partaking of the Norman manner in defign and
fhape.”’ Chirbury priory {tandy about two miles from the
town on the road to Shrewfbury. This edifice wes founded
in the reign of king John for monks of the order of St.
Bennet ; and at the general diffolution was granted to Ed-
ward Hopton and his wife Elizabeth; but the rectory and
parfonage were both foon afterwards bellowed on the gram-
mar-fchool at Shrewfbury. The mountain, Mynydd, or
Cefn-Digoll, about five miles to the north-eaft, on the con-
fines of Shropthire, is diftinguifhed in the military hiftory
of Wales as the {cene of adefperate engagement, in which
Madoc, prince of that country, was defeated and flain.
Pennant’s Tour in Wales. Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. xvii.

MONT'GOMERYSHIRE, one of the counties of
North Wales, is bounded on the E. and N.E. by the county
of Salop in England; on the S.1. by Radnorfhire; on the
W. and S.W. by Merioncthfhire and Cardiganfhire ; and on
the N. by Denbighhhire. _ It extends, according to the mott

MON

accurate furveys, 35 miles in length, from the fartheft point
of Llangurig, on the borders of South Wales, to Piltyll-
Rhaiadr, a noted catara€t in the Berwyn hills; and in
breadth, from the town of Montgomery to that of Machyn-
Heth, 30 miles. The fuperficial area-is varioufly ftated ;
Templeman making it to’comprife 444;800 acres, while by
other computation 1t is fixed as high as 560,000; and again,
in'a very recent furvey, at 491,600. Of this extent only
60,000 acres are under cultivation, and 18,000 laid down in
pafturage ; the remainder of the county is either in a walte
condition or is appropriated to woodlands.
The firft inhabitants of this diltri€t, of whom mention is
made in hiftory, were a portion of the Ordovices, or Ordo-
vice, whofe territories extended at one time over the whole
fix counties of North Wales, with the exception of a {mall
part’ of Flinthhire, which belonged to the Carnabii. This
people, naturally brave, and defended by the lofty hills and
almoft impaffable ravines, with which their country abounds,
contrived, notwithftanding their deficiency in military fkill,
to baffle, for a period of two centuries, all the efforts of
Roman difcipline and courage to fubdue them. Julius |
Agricola, the celebrated general of Domitian, however, at
laft effefed, by his confummate and indefatigable condu&,
what his predeceffors had in vain attempted; and not only
compelled this county, but the moft remote corner of Wales,
to acknowledge and fubmit to the Roman yoke. But
though conquered, their ancient valour and love of country
fill continued to animate them, fo that no fooner were the
mighty conquerors of Europe forced to abandon their dif-
tant provinces and concentrate their troops for the defence of

Italy, than the natives again afferted their independence.

At this period, however, their country became divided into
two feparate kingdoms, or principalities ; of which Powif-
land was, for many years, the molt powerful and extenfive ;
and included Montgomerythire. During the heptarchy many
defperate battles were fought, either within this county, or
on its borders; efpecially in the reign of Offa, king of
Mercia, who, having routed the Powyfians in feveral a&tions,
compelled them to abandon all their poffeffions in Shrop-
fhire ; and in order the more effectually to reftrain their in-
curfions, built the celebrated “* dyke,’? which is {till vifible
at the eaftern boundary of the county. ‘Though thus re-
flrained, however, the Powyfian monarchs, who now fixed
their refidence at Mathraval, in the vale of Meivod, ftill
continued to be objeéts of terror to their Mercian neigh-
bours. The dyke of Offa was frequently a fcene of the
moft dreadful carnage. At Buttington, the generals of the
great Alfred completely deftroyed a large body of Danes,
who, having penetrated through Mercia, had pofted them-
felves here upon the approach of the Saxon army. By this
time the integrity of the kingdom of Powifland had been
again iuvaded, by its feparation into two fmaller principali-
ties, of which Montgomerythire alone formed that diflin-
guifhed by the name of Powis-Wenwynwyn. This diftriQ,
fubfequent to the Norman conqueft, fhared the fate of all
the border counties, being compelled to fubmit to the feudal
domination of the lords marchers, after a long and defpe-
rate {truggle to maintain its liberty. It ftill continued, how-
ever, to be diftinguifhed by its ancient name, till the divifion
of Wales into counties, in the reign of Henry VIIL, when
it received the appellation of Montgomeryfhire, from the
town of Montgomery, which forms the fubject of the pre-
ceding article.

The greater proportion of this county affumes a moun-
tainous characteriflic. This is particularly the cafe with the
midland, weltern, and fouth-weltern parts, which are ex-
tremely bleak and unfavourable to cultivation. A range of

mountains,

MONTGOMERYSHIRE.

mountains, commonly diftinguifhed by the title of “the
back-bone of Montgomeryfhire and Merioneihfhire,’’ com-
mences in the fouth-weltern diftri&, amd running nearly
through the whole fhire, in a curvilinear diretion, enters the
county of Merioneth near Aran Fowddwy. The Freiddin, or
Bridden hills, and the Long mountain, rear their lofty heads
on the eaftern fide of the county, and form a natural bound-
ary throughout their extent, between it and Shropfhire.
The Biga mountains are feen on the north, ftretching them-
felves along the northern fide of the valley of the Severn,
till they reach a collateral ridge of Plinlimmon. Befides
thefe there are numerous inferior ranges, ufually feparated
by long narrow vallies and a few ifolated hills, which rife to
a very confiderable height, like artificial mounts, in the cen-
tre of a level traét of country. The fubltrata of thefe hills
vary, but not fo much as in the adjacent counties. Lime-
{tone rarely enters into their compofition, except in the vi-
cinity of Llanymech and Porthwaun, at both of which
places a confiderable quantity of lime is wrought, chiefly for
the purpofes of manure. Slate ftrata, on the other hand, are
’ very abundant, and indeed conftitute the principal portion
of all the mountains in the county, which are not pre-emi-
nently lofty. Many quarries have been opened in different
diftri&s for the manufacture of this material, but the princi-
pal ones are confined to the hills around Llangynnog, where
the beft flates, perhaps in England, are procured. From
the elevated fituation of thefe quarries, the conveyance of the
flates from thence to the plain below is a tafk of confiderable
difficulty and hazard. ‘The method in ufe here to accom-
plith that object is nat a little remarkable, and to an obferver
unaccuftomed to the fight, muft appear fraught with extreme
danger. The flates are placed on a {mall fledge, adapted
to the work, which is faltened to the fhoulders of a man
who has the care of delivering the cargo at the bafe of the
mountain, by means of a rope, of which he lays faft hold
with both hands, and then turning his face towards the load,
he begins to move, gradually receding backwards till he
reaches the bottom. Apparently dangerous, however, as
this operation is, long experience has rendered it fo familiar
to the workmen in general, that accidents are very un-
common; and to many of them it is equally eafyias condu@-
ing a common wheel-barrow on level ground. ‘The other
mineral productions of this county are ceal, filver, lead and
copper. he coal mines are only found, in any confiderable
quantity, at Coedwae, on the borders of Salop. | Silver is
moft plentiful at Efgair-hir, where, as well as at Graig-y-
Mwyn, near Piftyll-Rhaiadr, Dolydan weft from Llanbryn-
Mair, and Llanydloes, lead mines have been opened. The
only copper mine js fituated in the vicinity of Efgair-hir,
on the confines of Cardiganthire.

Montgomerythire is abundantly fupplied with rivers; in-
deed it may juitly be faid that more ftreams take their rife in
this county than in any other of fimilar extent in Great Bri-
tain. Of thefe rivers the principal are the Severn, the Wye,
the Vyrnwy, and the Tanat. The Severn, rifing on the fide
of Plinlimmon hill, runs in a north-eafterly direction through
a. very confiderable portion of the county, and during its
courfe receives the waters of feveral auxiliary ftreams. The
Wye, which likewife has its fource from the fame ridge,
taking a fouth-eaft direction, is joined by the Bedw rivulet at
Llangerrig ; whence flowing more to the fouth it foon enters
Radnorfhire. The Vyrnwy rifes near Bwlch-y-Groes, and
after a very changeable courfe, during which it is joined by
the Tanat, falls into the Severn near Llandrinio. This river
is remarkable for the multiplicity and variety of fifh which
frequent it. Of thofe rivers which pafs through the county,
but have their fprings in another, the principal are, the Maw,

‘

the Traethbach, the Cieriog, the Dee, and the Dovey: all
of which will be found more particularly noticed in our ac-
count of the refpe€tive counties to which they feem more
properly to belong, under their appropriate names.

The climate of this county varies in different diftri€s. In
thofe parts which have been mentioned as more elevated than
the reft, it is extremely cold and bleak; and in the narrow
vallies the wind is almoft conftantly high, and very frequently
boifterous. The wefterly winds are prevalent during nine
months of the year, and the eafterly the remaining three.
Thefe laft are ufually accompanied with fleet and rains, but
feldom blow fo ftrong as thofe from the S.W. or N.W.
which commonly prove fatal to the fruit both on the higher
grounds and in the vallies. The foil of the mountains here,
partaking of the nature of their fubftrata, is for the moft
part of a {chiftofe kind; that in the vales was doubtlefs ori-
ginally of the fame defcription, but in confequerce of cul-
tivation now approaches very nearly to a clayey fubftance.

It has already been obferved, that not above one-half of
Montgomeryfhire is in a ftate of cultivation, the reft being
either covered with wood, or lying in a wafte condition. Of
the cultivated lands, about one-third has been mentioned as
arable; the other two-thirds being ufually laid down with
grafs. The moft common arable crops are oats, barley,
wheat and rye. Hemp is likewife grown in confiderable
quantity in the eaftern divifion of the county ; almoft every
cottage having what is called a hemp-yard attached to it.
Of the grafs lands only a {mall portion, compared with their
extent, are fufficiently fertile to be adapted for fattening
cattle. Indeed that obje& is feldom attempted, except in
fome particular {pots in the vales of the Severn, and of the
Vyrnwy. The woodlands comprehend feveral very valuable
and extenfive plantations. Montgomery hire, in fact, is ftill by
far the beft wooded county in Wales, and was formerly re-
garded as a valuable depdt of oak for the ufe of the navy.
Within the laft fifty years, however, large quantities of that
noble tree have been felled; and fo little care taken to replace
them, that the county has nearly loft all its importance in
this refpect. The watte lands here are chiefly appropriated
to the grazing of oxen, fheep, and horfes. ‘The oxen are of
different breeds, each of which have their provincial peculi-
arities. Thofe of the native,breed, which are ufually termed the
finch-backed kind, are of a brindled colour, fhort in the leg,
and of great depth in the carcafe. Thofe originally from
Devonfhire have, on the other hand, long legs, and a more
compact body, and are confequently better fitted for agri-
cultural purpofes than the native fort. A kind from Here-
ford, diftinguithed by their white faces, have of late years
become very prevalent in the eaftern diftri@. Of fheep there
are two kinds; the one peculiar to the Kerry hills, and the
other chiefly bred on the ridge called Long-Mountain, and
fome other hills on the borders of Shropfhire. The firft of
thefe breeds is fuppofed to be the only variety in Wales
which produces perfect wool; that of the other breeds bein
ufually more or lefs debafed by the intermixture of pitier
long hairs, denominated by dealers kemps. Its difcrimi-
nating charaéteriftics are large wide cheeks, covered with
wool, a bunchy fore-head, deftitute of horns, white woolly
legs, and a broad beaver-like tail. The fecond kind alfo
affords wool of a fuperior quality, but in much lefs quan-
tity. Horfes of very different fizes and properties are reared
in Montgomeryfhire. The hilly diftri€ts are remarkable for
a race of fmall ponies, called merlyns, which being left to
range over the mountains, as well during winter as f{ummer,
till at leaft three years old, are in confequence a very hardy
race. Thefe are chiefly ufed as bealts of burthen, by the
numerous packmen who traverfe the country to colle& the

F 2 manufactured

MONTGOMERYSHIRE.

manufaétufed articles, or to fell others which the inhabitants
may require. For this purpofe they are extremely well
fitted, cuftom having taught them to climb the rugged and
flippery afcents with a firm and fteady ftep ; and it is on that
account much to be lamented, that the negleéted ftate in
which they are allowed to remain has materially deteriorated
the breed. A larger kind.of horfe, apparently a crofs be-
tween the merlyn and the Englifh breed; is likewife a native
of the hilly diftri€&ts in Montgomerythire. The moft fizeable
of thefe animals are admirably adapted for the team on the
higher grounds, where heavier horfes would be egregioufly
mifapplied; and the lefler ones make good roadf{ters with a
light weight. A third breed, of a very fuperior quality to
either of thefe, is alfo reared in the more fertile vales here,
which fome fay was introduced from Spain by Robert, earl
of Shrewfbury. Queen Elizabeth is further {tated to have
greatly affiled in perpetuating this breed, by keeping a
famous ftud of horfes and brood mares at Park, in this
county.

The chief, or rather the only, manufa@tured production
of Montgomeryhhire, is flannel; for though hemp, as has
been already faid, is grown here in confiderable quantity, it
is feldom made into any article of ufe, till it has pafled mto
the hands of the manufacturers of other diftricts. In former
times, the only machinery employed in the manufaéture of
the flannel was the common weaving machine; all the pro-
cefs of carding the wool, and {pinning into thread, having
been executed, in the moft literal fenfe of the term, by the
tedious operation of the hand, by farmers and cottagers in
their own houfes. Of late years, however, the powerful
aid of more complicated apparatus has likewife been reforted
to; and there are now upwards of forty carding, and feveral
fpinning machines, driven by water, in different parts of the
county. The moft extenfive manufaGories for weaving are
thofe at Newtown, Berhiew, Welfh-Pool, and Dolydran ;
and one on the Dulas ftream, near Machynlleth, at which,
however, cloths are made as well as flanne's. Of thefe laft
the finer pieces generally meafure about 132 yards, and the
inferior ones 110: and as soo pieces of either kind are fre-
quently fold at the weekly markets, it does not feem to be
exceeding truth to average their amount at 300, thereby
making the whole arnual produce fold out of the county
7800 pieces; which, calculated at the low average of 8/.
a piece, gives the fum of 62,400/. as the total profit arifing
therefrom, including the value of wool, which may be fup-
pofed worth fomething more than 18,000/.

The roads in this county are, perhaps without exception,
the worlt within thie limits of North Wales, efpecially in the
vallies ; but this deficiency does not arife fo much from any
neglect on the part of the proprietors to their formation or
repair, a3 from the want of fuitable materials for the pur-
pofe; there being no granite or other- indurated rock here,
as in the other counties, which could be employed to render
them firm and compaét. ‘They are confequently moft com-
monly formed of the fhale and flate ftones, of which it has
been remarked that the mountains are chiefly compofed ;
and thefe foft and friable fubftances foon become reduced,
by the preffure and friétion they neceffarily fultain, to their

primitive clay. Hence the roads, even in fummer, are often
moilt and flippery ; and in winter are fo deep and clammy,
as to be nearly impaffable for carts of a heavy burthen.
But to the honour of the county, though the roads are thus
unavoidably of a bad texture, the bridges are generally ex-
cellent, and more numerous than thofe of any other county
in the principality, when confidered in reference to the com-

parative extent of its cultivated lands.
Many interetting remains of antiquity of various deferip-

tions have been difcovered or traced, at different periods
within the limits of Montgomeryfhire. ‘I'he Roman ftation,
Mediolanum, is fixed by feveral able antiquaries in the vi-
cinity of Meifod, or Meivod, which, as noticed above, after=
wards became the refidence of the Powytian monarchs.
The ftation Maglona is likewife, with great probability,
placed at or in the vicinity of Machynlleth, as many vef-
tiges of walls, and the remains of two forts evidently Ro-
man, are ftill diftin@ly vifible there. Many Roman coims
have alfo been dug up at this place ; and two miles from it
isa {pot, yet retaining the appellation of Cefn Caer, or the
back part of the city. Machynlleth afterwards became
noted as the town where the celebrated Owen Glyndwyr
affembled the eftates of Wales in 1402, when his title to
the principality was folemnly acknowledged. The fenate
houfe, in which this convocation was held, is now degraded,
by being converted into a ftab’e ; but its ipacious door-way
fufficiently evinces its occupancy to have been once more
honourable. (See MacnyNtLetH.) At Montgomery are
the ruins of the celebrated caftle of that name; and clofe to
it is a Britifh and a Saxon encampment, the former re
markable both for its ftrength and extent. On the welt
fide of the road from this town to that of Newtown itands
the ancient fortrefs of « Dolforwyn-Caitle,”’ faid by Dug-
dale to have been the work of Dafydd-ap-Llewelyn, a prince
who reigned from the year 1240 to 12463; but referred by
a Welth writer, John Dafydd Rhys, to a much earlier date.
Caer-Sws, or Caers-goofe catiley on the north bank of the
Severn, 1s confidered by fome to have been a Roman itation,
though not mentioned in any of the Jtimeraries. Extenfive
traces of buildings, ranged in ftreets interfeGing each other
at right angles, have been difcovered in the fields, adjacent
to the village. Two encampments are fituated at a little
diftance, where fome infcribed bricks have been dug up;
and clofe to them appear confiderable veftiges of a Roman
road, running in a direétion from Caer-Sws to Meifod.
Several encampments, both Roman and Britifh, are likes
wife difeovered in the neighbourhood of Lianfair and Welfh-
Pool. Near the latter town was fituated the abbey of
Yftrat-Marchell, founded in 1170; for monks of the Cif-
tercian order. A mile from hence is Powis caftle, a vene-
rable manfion, conitructed of red fand-ftone, and ftanding
dn the ridge of a lofty rock. This caftle makes a con-
fiderable figure on the pages of hiftory, and is now the chief
feat of the noble family of Clive, to which the: adjoining
village gives the title of marquis. (See Weusn-Poot.)
Befides thefe, many other relics of antiquity in Mont-
gomery fhire might be noticed, would the limits of an article
like the prefent allow of greater digreffion ; but as that can=
not be permitted, we fhall only further mention the * Dyke
of Offa,”? which runs nearly through the whole eaftern fide
of the county, and which is juftly ranked among the moit

extraordinary efforts of human labour in Great Britain.
Montgomerythire, in a political point of view, is divided.
into nine hundreds, comprifing forty-nine parifhes, one bo-
roughstown, Montgomery, and fix market-towns, iz.
Welfh-Pool, Llantyllin, Llanfair, Machynlleth, Newtown,
and Llapydloes. ‘The names of the hundreds are Llanfyllin,
Denddwr, Pool, Cawrfe, Mathrafal, Machynlleth, Llan-
ydloes, Newtown, and Montgomery. This county fends
two reprefentatives to parliament, one as knight of the
fhire, and another as burgefs for the borough. Its honoriak
dtitinétions are confined to two families; that of Clive, al«
ready mentioned, and that of Herbert, which helds the dig’
nity of earl of Pembroke and Montgomery. _ By the returns
made to parliament in 1801, the amount of its population
was 475558 perfons, viz, 22,494 males, and 25,064 fe-
males 5

MON

males ; of which number, 6233 were repotted as employed
in the various departments of trade and manufacture, and
13,082 in the labours of agriculture. The money raifed
here for the ufe of the poor, in 1803, amounted to the fum
of 22,9887. In refpeét to ecclefiaitical jurifdi€tion, the
whole county is included within the province of Canterbury,
but is divided among the three diocefes of Bangor, Here-
ford, and St. Afaph. Davies’s Agricultural Report of
North Wales, 8vo. Beauties of England and Wales, by
Mr. Evans, vol. xvii. Weynne’s Hiftory of Wales.

MONTGUYON, atown of France, in the department
of the Lower Charente, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Jonfac. The place contains 1298, and the canton
8847 inhabitants, on a territory of 3724 kiliometres, im 14
communes.

MONTH, in the Computation of Time, the twelfth part
of the year.

Among the ancient Greeks, the year was divided into
twelve months, which contained thirty and twenty-nine days
alternately ; but fo as the months of thirty days always went
before thofe of twenty-nine: the former were termed Anges,
full, and dexx$w01, as ending on the tenth day ; the latter
were called xo:A, hollow, and from their ending on the ninth
day, ev D9ivor.

In order to underftand their method of reckoning the days
of the month, it muft be confidered that every month was
divided into cpiz dexnepa, or three decads of days; the firft
decad they called the feevos weXOjAEVe, OF isaunvs ; the fecond,
peios pnsevioc; the third, puzvos Quovlo:, or wavopme, or Atyorloss
Whence the firft day of the month was called yeounna, as
falling upon the new moon, and warn apxouene, OF iscpeeve, aS
being the firft day of the firft decad; the fecond day was
termed d:vingx isapeve: the third, cptin t-aev8; and fo on
to the dxara ISLES.

The firft day of the fecond decad, which was the eleventh
day of the month; was called apuln pecevioc, or cpwiln exidexa 5
the fecond of this decad, devrnpe prcevioc, OF exidero 3 and
fo on to sixx:, the twentieth, which was the lait of the fecond
decad.

The firft day of the third decad was termed wpa'tn em eixcdi 5
the fecond, d:viepa ex axzds, and fo of the reft. Some-
times they inverted the numbers of this laft decad, the firft
being called gAivosfos Sexa’in; » the fecond, @Oswovles ewan; the
third; @8nov%s- oydon; and fo on to the laft day of the month,
which was called Anuripia:, Demetrias, from Demetrius Po-
liorcetes ; before whofe time, particularly in Solon’s laws, it
was called en nas vex, the old and new; becaufe the new
moon falling out on that day, part of it belonged to the
old moon, and part to the new. It was alfocalled rpsxx0-,
the thirtieth ; and that not only in the months which con-
fitted of thirty days, but alfo in thofe of twenty-nine: for
in thefe, according to fome accounts, the twenty-fecond day
was omitted; or, according to others, the twenty-ninth:
bat which day foever was omitted in computation, the thir-
titth was conftantly retained. Hence, according to Thales’s
firft {cheme, all the mouths were called months of thirty
days; -though, by Solon’s regulation, half of them con-
tained only twenty-nine; and the lunar year cf Athens was
called a year of three hundred and fixty days; though
really after Solon’s time, it confifted of no more than three
hundred and fifty-four. Vide Pott. Archzol. Gr. lib. ii.
cap. 26.

The names of the morths being various in different parts
of Greece, it will be fufficient particularly to confider thofe
of Athens, barely mentioning thofe of others that corre-
fpond withthem. 1. Hecatombzon, or Ecatombzon. 2. Me-
tagitnion.. 3, RBoedromion. 4. Mxmatterion. 5. Pyanep-

MON

fion. 6. Anthefterion. 7. Pofidion. 8. Gamelion. 9. Ela-
phebolion. 10, Munychion. 11. Thargelion. 12. Seirro-
phorion.

“As the Roman months were the fame with thofe now ih
ufe amiong the Europeatis, we fhall only refer to the articles
CALENDAR and CALENps, where the manner of their com-
putation is explained.

The Hebrew months were originally reckoned in order, as
the firft, fecond, &c. but after the Babylonifh captivity, the
Ifraelites borrowed the names of their months from the Chal-
deans and Perfians: and they were diftinguifhed in the fa-
cred and civil year as follows. In the facred year Nifan,
an{wering to our March, ljar to April, Sivan to May,
Thammuz to June; Ab to July, Elul to Auguit, Tizri to
September, Marfchevan to OGober, Caflei to November,
Thebet to December, Sebat to January, and Adaf to Fe-
bruary. In the civil year, Tizri correfponding to September,
Marfchevan to OGaber, Cafleu to November, Thebet to
December, Sebat to January, Adar to February, Nifan to
March, Ijar to April, Sivan to May, Thammuz to June,
Ab to July, and Elul to Augutt.

Time, we have obferved, 1s duration marked out for cer-
tain ufes, and meafured by the motions of the heavenly
bodies.

Hence refult divers kinds of years and months, accord-
ing to the particular luminary by whofe revolutions they
aré\determined, and the patticulat purpofes they are deftined
for ; as folar months, /unar months, civil months, aftronomi-
cal months, &c. ‘

Monru, Solar, is the [pace of time in which the fun
moves through one entire fign of the ecliptic. :

Hence, if regard be had to the fun’s true mbdtion, the

folar months will be unequal; fince the fun is longer in
paffing through the fummer figns, than through thofe of the
winter.
_ Butas he conftantly travels through all the twelve in 365
days, 5 hours, and 49 minutes, the quantity of a mean mouth
will be had by dividing that number by r2. On this prin-
ciple, the quantity of a folar month will be found 30 days,
10 hours, 29 minutes, 5 feconds.

Monrus, Lunar, are either /\viodical, periodical, or ikumi-
nalive. :

Moxtn, Lunar fynodical, called alfo, abfolutely, Junar
month, ard /unation, is the fpace of time between two con
junctions of the moon with the fun; or between two new
moons. (See SyNopicAL Month, and LunxAtion.) The
quantity of the fynodieal month, is 294 12" 44! 3" ri!"
See Moon.

Moxru, Lunar periodical, is the {pace of time in which
the moon makes her round through the zodiac ;. or in whieh
fhe returns to the fame point.

The quantity of this month is 274 7" 43' 8".

The ancient Romans made ufe of lunar months, and made
them alternately 29 and 30 days: and they marked the
days of eachemonth by three terms; viz. calends; ronés, and
ides.

Montu, Lunar illuminativs, is the fpace from the firft
time of the moon’s appearance after new moons, to her fir.
appearance after the new moon following.

Hence, as the moon appears fonietimes fooner after the
new moon;_and fometimes later; the quantity of the ilu-
Minative month is not always the fame. By this-month the
Turks and Arabs reckon,

Moxtn, Afronomical or Natural, is that meafured by fome
exact interval correfponding to the motion of the fun, o¥
moon.

Such aré the lunar and. folar. months above méntioned.

Where.

MON

Where note, that thefe months can be of no ufe in civil life,
where it is required that the months begin and end on fome
certain day. For this reafon, recourfe is had to another
form of months.

Mont, Civil or Common, is an interval of a certain num-
ber of whole days, approaching nearly to the quantity of
fome aftronomical, either lunar or folar, month.

Civil months are various, according to the aftronomical
month to which they are accommodated.

Monrtus, Civil Junar, are to confit alternately of 29 and
3odays. Thus will two civil months be equal to two aftro-
nomical ones, abating for the odd minutes; and, confe-
quently, the new moon will be thus kept to the firft day of
each civil month for a long time together. However, to
make them keep conftant pace with the civil months, at the
end of each 948 months, a month of 29 days mult be added ;
or elfe every 33d month mutt confift of 30 days.

This was the month in civil or common ufe among
the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, till the time of Julius
Cefar.

Monrus, Civil folar, are to confilt alternately of 30 and
31 days, excepting one month of the twelve, which for every
fourth year fhould confift of 30 days, and for the other
years of 29. The form of civil months was introduced by
Julius Cefar. :

Under Augutftus, the fixth month, till then from its place
called Sextilis, was denominated Auguttus, in honour of that
prince; and, to make the compliment yet the greater, a day
was added to it; fo that it now confilted of 31 days, though
till that time it ‘had only contained 30; to make up for
which, a day was taken from February: fo that hence-
forward it only confifted of 28 days, and every fourth, year
of 29; though before it had ordinarily confiited of 29 days,
&c. and fuch are the civil or calendar months which now ob-
tain through Europe. See CALENDAR.

Monrtn, Philofophical, among Alchemifls, is the {pace of
forty days and nights.

Montu, Dracontic, Embolifmic, Fence, Twelve. See the ad-
jetives.

Monrtu: Climate. See CLIMATE.

MONTHERME, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Ardennes, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftri&t of Méziéres; g miles N. of Charleville. The
place contains 1415, and the canton 5750 inhabitants, on a
territory of 132% kiliometres, in 11 communes.

MONTHLY Courses. Sce MEnsEs. «

MONTHOIS, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Ardennes, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftriét of Vouziers. The place contains 610, and the
canton 6606 inhabitants, ona territory of 195 kiliometres, in
21 communes.

MONTHOUMET, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Aude, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri&t of Carcaffone. The place contains 279, and the
canton 4354 inhabitants, on a territory of 2774 kiliometres,
in 18 communes.

MONTHUREUX-sur-Saéne, a town of France, in
the department of the Vofges, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftri€&t of Mirecourt ; 4 miles S.S.W. of Darney,
The place contains 1351, and the canton 7316 inhabitants,
on aterritory of 255 kiliometres, in 15 communes,

MONT Bay. See Port Muncrave.

MONTIA, in Botany, named by Micheli in honour of
a very meritorious author, Jofeph Monti, profeffor of Bo-
tany at Bologna, who flourifhed early in the laft century.
In 1719, he publifhed an account of the graffes in his
neighbourhood, and this treatife is one of the earlieft at-

MON

tempts to illuftrate the chara&ters of this curious but diffi-
cult tribe of plants. Scheuchzer, Micheli, and Monti, de-
voted their feveral labours to this fubje¢t much about the
fame period.—Mich. Nov. Gen. 17. Linn. Gen. 41.
Schreb. 56. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 487. Mart. Mill. Diét.
v.3. Sm. Fl. Brit. 161. Prodr. # Grxe.) Vn lshye
Ait. Hort. Kew.ed. 2. v. 1. 183. Juff. 313. Lamarck
Illuftr. t. 50. Gertn. t. 129. (Cameraria; Dill. Gen.
124.)——Clafs and order, Triandria Trigynia. Nat. Ord.
Portulacee, Jufi.

Gen. Ch. Cai. Perianth inferior, of two, ovate, con-
cave, obtufe, erect, permanent leaves. Cor. of one petal,
cloven into five fegments, of which the three alternate ones
are fmaller, and each bearing a flamen. Stam. Filaments
three, capillary, the length of the corolla, and inferted into
it; anthers {mall. Pi/f. Germen fuperior, top-fhaped ;
ftyles three, hairy, fpreading ; ftizmas fimple. Peric. Cap-
fule top-fhaped, obtufe, inclofed by the calyx, of one cell,
and three valves. Seeds three, roundifh. :

Obf. The calyx is frequently found with three leaves
inftead of two, in which cale there are often five ftamens.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of two leaves. Corolla of one irregular
petal. Capfule with one cell, three valves, and three feeds.

1. M. fontana. Water Chickweed, or Blinks. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 129.. Engl. Bot.t. 1206. Curt. Lond. fafe. 3.t. 8.
—Found chiefly in wet places, on the gravelly parts of
heaths where the water ftagnates in winter; alfo in rivulets
and marfhes. It flowers in the {prirg, and ripens its feeds in
June.—Rooi annual, fibrous. Stem much branched from its
very bafe, proftrate in the lower part, and frequently taking
root at the joints, leafy, tinged with red. Leaves oppofite,
fpatulate, entire. Flowers ftalked, in terminal clufters,
white, expanding only in the brighteft funfhine, at other
times nearly clofed, whence we prefume its vulgar appel-
lation, Blinks. —Sveds kidney-fhaped, large, rough, black.
—The whole herb is fmooth and fomewhat fucculent, much
refembling Zlatine Hydropiper in its general afpect.—Dr.
Smith obferves that ‘* Micheli’s name of JZontia was re-
tained by Linnzus, in preference to Cameraria previoufly
given to this genus by Diilenius, becaufe Plumier had al-
ready given the latter name to an American plant, more
worthy to commemorate fo great a botanilt as Camerarius.??

MONTICELLI, Ancero Mania, in Biography, firfk
appeared on the opera itage at Rome in the year 17303; and
having a beautiful face and figure, began in that city, where
no women are allowed to mount the flage, by reprefenting
female chara¢ters. His voice was clear, fweet, and free
from defeéts of every kind. He was, a chafte performer,
and never hazarded any difficulty which he was not certain
of executing with the utmoft precifion. To his vocal ex-
cellence may be added the praife of a good a¢ior; fo that
nothing but the recent remembrance of the gigantic talents
of Farinelli, and the grand and majeltic ftyle of Senefino,
who immediately preceded him, could have left an Englifh
audience any thing to with. >

He was invariably perfect as a finger and actor in every
part in which we faw and heard him perform ; but in the
opera of Olimpiade, fet by Pergolefi, whofe mufic, in 1742,
was heard in England for the firft time, inthe parting fcene
between Megacles and Ariltea, his finging and acting were
exquifite, particularly in the aria Srfantee “ Se cerca fe
dice."

He arrived here with Amorevoli and the Vifconti, and re-
mained in England in great and jult eflimation, till the re-
bellion broke out in 1745, when popular prejudice running
ftrong againft foreign pertormers, who were Roman Catholics,
the Lyric theatre was fhut up till the next year, 1746, when

Monticelli

MON

Monticelli performed in Gluck’s opera of “ La Caduta
de? Giganti,’’ and in “ Artamine.”’ :

He ine in an opera compofed by Bononcini in Vienna,
at the peace in 1748; went to Venice the next year ; then
quitting that city, he went to Drefden, where he died in
1758.
MONTICELLO, in Geography, a town of Corfica; 10
miles E.N.E. of Calvi.

MONTIEL, a town of Spain, in New Caftile, formerly
the fee of a bifhop; 18 miles W.S.W. of Alcaraz.

MONTIER-sur Saux, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Meufe, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri& of Bar-fur-Ornain ; nine miles W. of Gondre-
court. The place contains 1271, and the canton 5723 in-
habitants, on a territory of 200 kiliometres, in 14 com-
munes. :

MONTIERENDER, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Upper Marne, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftric&t of Wafly; 12 miles S. of St. Dizier. The
place contains 1478, and the canton 8133 inhabitants, on a
territory of 272+ kiliometres, in 15 communes. ‘

MONTIERRA, atown of the ifland of Sardinia; nine
miles E.S.E. of Bofa. :

MONTIFRINGILLA, in Ornithology, the name of a
bird, known in Englith by the name of the bramble, bram-
bling, or mountain-finch ; and called by the ancients, oro/piza.
_ Itisa fpecies of Fringilla ; which fee. ‘

MONTIGNAC, in Geography, a town. of France, in
the department of the Dordogne, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftri&t of Sarlat; 12 miles N. of Sarlat. The
place contains 3000, and the canton 12,688 inhabitants,
ona territory of 315 kiliometres, in 14 communes. N. lat.
Angee ks: longest? ta!

MONTIGNY-str-Auser, a town of France, in the
department of the Céte-d’Or, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftri of Chatillon; nine miles N.E. of Cha-
tillon, The place contains 690, and the canton 7869 in-
habitants, on a territory of 3225 kiliometres, in 16 com-
munes.

Monticxy-/ource-Meu/e, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Upper Marne, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri&t of Langres; 12 miles W.N.W. of Bourbonne.
The place contains 1061, and the canton 5714 inhabitants,
ona territory of 1924 kiliometres, in 15 communss.

MONTILLA, a town of Spain, in the province of
‘Cordova, containing two parifhes, feven convents, and about
4000 inhapitants; 18 miles S.S.E. of Cordova. N. lat. 37°
40’, W. Icng. 4° 40’. ,
MONTINIA, in Botany, named by Thunberg in honour
of his much efteemed friend Dr. Laurence Montin, a dil-
tinguifhed pupil of Linneus, who died in 1785, aged 62.
‘This gentleman was the maternal uncle of the late learned
Mr. Dryander, fo well known to all the botaniits of this
country, and has publifhed varions botanical tra€ts in the
Stockholm TranfaGions. His inaugural differtation, pub-
lithed under the prefidency of Linnzus, March 28th, 1750,
is a learned treatife on the genus Sp/achnum, with various bo-
tanical remarks made in’a journey to Lapland, undertaken
at the perfuafion of his great preceptor. This diflertation
is printed in the fecond volume of the 4menitates Academice.
—Thanb. Nov. Gen. 27. Linn. Suppl.65. Schreb. 681.
“Mart. Mill. Did. v. 3. Juff. 318. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 808.
Gertn. t. 33.—Clafs and order, Tetrandria Monogynia.
Nat. Ord. Calycantheme, Linn. Onagre, Juff.

’ Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, four-toothed, very
fhort, erect. Cor. Petals four, ovate, very obtufe, {pread-
ing, inferted into the calyx. Stam. Filaments four, within

3

MON

the teeth of the calyx, very fhort; anthers linear, erect.
Pift. Germen inferior, oval, fmooth ; ftyle cylindrical, thick,
half cloven, fhorter than the corolla; itigmas two, kidney-
fhaped. Peric. Capfule ovate-oblong, of two cells, burfting
longitudinally ; partition thick, two-lobed. Seeds numerous,
imbricated, ovate, comprefled, winged at the margin.

Obf. This genus was originally referred to the clafs Divecia,
where it is to be found in all the authors above quoted. ‘ We
think it moft convenient however to place it in Tetrandria,
whither it has been referred by Dr. Smith, who found both
ftamens and piftils, or at leaft their rudiments, in every
flower which he examined.

Eff. Ch. Calyx fuperior, four-toothed. Capfule two-
celled. Seeds feveral, flat.

1. M. caryophyllacea. -Glaucous Montiaia. Thunber
inthe Lund. Tranf. v.1. 109. Nov. Gen. 28. Sm. Spicih
Bot. 14. t. 15. (M. acris; Linn. Suppl. 427.)— Found
on fandy hills at the Cape of Good Hope, and introduced
into this country by Mr. Francis Maffon,in 1774. It flowers
in July. Root perennial. Stem Shrubby, roundifh, {mooth
and branched. Branches alternate, rather waved, round, glau-
cous, leafy. Leaves on fhort ftalks, alternate, lanceolate,
acute, entire, veined, flightly fucculent, glaucous. Foot-

Jlalks carinated, {preading at the bafe, ciliated at the margin,
concave, turning of arufty red. Flowers terminal, one or
more, erect, on fhort ftalks, white, fhaped like cloves, whence
the {pecific name, occafionally pentandrous according to
Thunberg. Cap/fule (in the Linnean herbarium) an inch
long, oval, coriaceous, ribbed.

MONTIJOILE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Roer, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrict of Aix-la-Chapelle. The place contains 2912, and
the canton 15,522 inhabitants, in 27 communes.

MONTJOUET, a town of France, in the department
of the Doria; ro miles S.E. of Aofta.

MONTJOY, La, atownof France, in the department
of the Lot and Garonne ; eight miles S.E. of Nerac. N.
lat. 44° 4!. E. long. 0° 36!.

MONTIRA, in Botany, fo named by Aublet, after
Monf. de Monti, member of the Superior Council of Cayenne,
one of his patrons, on whofe eftate at Aroura the plant was
found.—Aubl. Guian. v. 2. 637. Juff. 122. Lamarck
Iluftr. t. 523.—Clals and order, Didynamia Angiofpermia.
Nat. Ord. Perfonate, Linn. Scrophulariz, Juff.

Gen, Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in five deep,
lanceolate, acute, {preading, nearly equal fegments. Cor.
of one petal, funnel-fhaped ; tube much longer than the
calyx, {welling upwards, flightly inflated, incurved; limb
fpreading, in five deep, roundifh, acute, equal lobes. Stam.
Filaments four, much fhorter than the tube, inferted into
its lower part, thread-fhaped, fmooth, two of them longett ;
anthers oblong, fimple, of two cells. Pift. Germen {uperior,
of two round lobes, feated ona glandular difk; ftyle cylin-
drical, the length of the ftamens ; ftigma capitate, furrowed.
Peric. Capfule of two round lobes and two cells, with four
valves, feparating longitudinally at the outer fides. Seeds
very numerous, very minute, attached to the inner angle of
the cells.

Eff. Ch. Calyx deeply five-cleft, fpreading. Corolla
funnel-fhaped, incurved ; limb in five equal fegments. Cap-
fule of two round lobes, two cells, and four valves. Seeds
numerous, minute.

1. M. guianenfis. Aubl. t. 257.—Gathered by Aublet
in a cotton-field, at the place above-mentioned, and no where
elfe, flowering in June. Root fibrous, probably annual.
Stem feven or eight inches high, flightly forked, leafy, f{mooth,
with four fharp angles. Leaves oppoiite at each joint, feffile,

ipreading,

MON .

fpreading, lanceolate, acute, entire, three-ribbed, fmooth,
pale. Flowers three together, in feflile, folitary, fimple
cluiters, at the fork of the fem, and fummits of its branches.
Corolla white, fcarcely half an inch long. There is no ap-
earance of\any fifth, or barren, /famen. - :

MONTIRONE, in Geography’, a town of France, in
the department of the Mela; feven miles S. of Brefcia.

MONTIVILLIERS, atown of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lower Seine, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri@ of La Havre; fix miles N. of Havre. The place
contains 4000, and the canton 14,695 inhabitants, ona terri-
tory of 1224 kiliometres, in 20communes, ’ N. lat. 49° 33'.
E. long. o° 17’.

MONTLIEU, atown of France, in the department of
the Lower Charente, and chief place of a cantor, inthe dif-
tri& of Jonfac ; 33 miles S.S.E, of Saintes. The place con-
tains 635, and the canton 8072 inhabitants, ona territory of
1074 kiliometres, in 15 communes. N. lat. 45° 15’. W.
long. o° 11’.

MONT-LOUIS, a town of France, in the department
of the Eaftern Pyrenées, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri@ of Prades; 15 miles W.S.W. of Prades. The
town is well laid out, and fortified with a citadel, arfenal,
magazines, &c. The place contains 418, and the canton
6140 inhabitants, on a territory of 390 kiliometres, in 17
communes.

MONTLUC, Braise vz, in Biography, a celebrated
French general, was born in 1500, of a noble family near
Condom. He rofe through the different ranks in the army
to that of marfhal in France. His firft fervices were in
Italy, and at the battle of Pavia, in 1525, he was taken pri-
foner. Inthe wars of Piedmont he ferved with great reputa-
tion; and in 1546, he recovered Boulogne from the Englith.
The city of Sienna in Tufcany, having driven out the im-
perial garrifon, and folicited the proteCtion of France, Mont-
luc was appointed to command the forces fent thither in
1554. He fuftained a fiege of eight months again{t the im-
perial army commanded by the marquis of Marignon, who
was obliged, after feveral attacks, to convert the fiege into
a blockade. It was not till the garrifon and inhabitants had
endured the utmoft extremity of famine, that the place capi-
tulated, when Montluc and his troops marched out with the
honours of war. He commanded in Guienne, during the
wars which ravaged France on account of religion, and de-
feated the Calvinilts in feveral a¢tions. But he was guilty of
great cruelties to the vanquifhed, At the fiege of Rabaf-
tens, in 1570, he was fo feverely wounded in the face, as to
be obliged always to wear amafk to hide Ins deformity. He
died on hiseftate in 1575. At theage of 75 he wrote the
hiftory of his own life, printed at Bourdeaux, in 1592, folio,
and feveral times fince.. Moreri.

MONTLUCON, in Geagraphy, a town of France, and
principal place of a di(triét, in the department of the Al-
lier ; 33 miles E. of Guerit. The place contains 4420,
and the canton 13,784 inhabitants, on a territory of 315
kiliometres, in 16 communes. N. lat. 46° 20’. E. long.
2° 4o'.

MONTLUEL, atown of France, in the department of
the Ain, and chief place of a canron, in the diftrict of Tre-
youx. The place contains 3651, and the canton 11,308 inha-
bitants, on a territory of 185 kiliometres, in 15 communes.

MONTMARAULT, a town of France, in the cepart-
ment of the Allier, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trié&t of Montlucon; 22 miles S.W. of Moulins. The
place contains 8go, and the canton 9976 inhabitants, ona
territory of 355 kiliometres, in 19 communes. N. lat. 46
ig. I. long. 3 2.

MON
MONTMARTIN-sur-Mer, a town of France, inthe

department of the Channel, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri& of Coutances; four miles S.W. of Coutances.
The place contains 1168, and the canton 12,576 inhabit-
ants, ona territory of 1373 kilometres, in 11 communes.

MONTME'DY, atown of France, and principal place
of a diftriG, in the department of the Meufe; fituated on the
river Cher, and divided by it into Upper and Lower; 21
miles N. of Verdun. The placecontains 1889, and the can-
ton 11,491 inhabitants, on aterritory of 245 kiliometres, ia
27 communes. N. lat. 49 28'._ E. long. 5° 26'.

MONTMEILLON, a pleafant French mufcadel wine,
from the neighbourhood of Ricz, in Provence.

MONTMELIAN, in Geography, atown of France, in the
department of Mont-Blanc, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri&t of Chambery ; fituated near the Here, and containing
one church and two convents; the adjacent country 1s agree-
ably diverfified with hills and mountains, and for fix miles about
it covered with vines, which yield good wine. The fortrefs
is on an eminence, and inacceffible except towards the town,
and is well furnifhed with means of fecurity and defence.
The caftle is the refidence of the governor.. The importance
of this place depends upon its being the key of the whole
country, and therefore it is ufually well garrifoned; feven
miles S.S.E. of Chambery. The place contains 1165, and
the canton 11,239 inhabitants, on a territory of 172% kili-
ometres, in 18 communes.

MONTMIRAIL, a town of France, in the department
of the Marne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of
Epernay ; 12 miles N.W. of Sezannes. The place contains
2298, and the canton 8009 inhabitants, on a territory of
2674 kilometres, in 23 communes.— Allo, a town cf France,
in the department of the Sarthe, and chief place of a canton,
in the diltrict of Mamers; 24 miles N.E. of Le Mans.
The place contains $64, and the canton 7431 inhabitants,
ona territory of 140 kiliometres, in 10 communes. N, lat.
48° 52'8”". I. long. 37 32! 16”.

MontairaiL, Cajlelnau de, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Tarn, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Gaillac. The place contains 2523, and the canton
9715 inhabitants, on a territory of 1624 kiliometres, in 15
communes.

MONTMIREY-te-Cuareau, a town of France, in
the department of the Jura, and chief place of a canton, in
the diltri@ of Dédle; feven miles N. of Déle. The place
contains 416, and the-canton 6594 inhabitants, on a terrl-
tory of 120 kiliometres, jn 19 communes.

MONTMOREAU, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Charente, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrict of Barbezieux ; 12 miles E.S.E. of it. The place
coutains 411, and the canton 9449 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 220 kiliometres, in 16 communes.

MONTMORENCI, Anne pe, in Biography, fecond
fon of William, lord of Montmorenci, reprefentative of one
of the moft illuftrious houfes in France, was born in the
year 1493. He received the female chriltian name Anne
from his godmother, queen of France. He was brought
up at the court of Francis I., and-was prefent at the battle
of Marignan, in 1515. He was one of the train of that
king, at the celebrated foterview with Henry VIII. between
Guines and Ardres, and was afterwards fent to England to
oppofe the machinations of Charles V. He was made mar-
fhalof France in 1522, and in the following year obliged the
conttable of Bourbon to-raife the fiege of Marfeilles, For
his great fervices the government of Languedoc was con-
ferred upon him, and in 1525 he was made prifoner with his
king at the battle of Pavia. After his liberation he was

employed

MON

employed on many important occafions, and contributed to
the ruin of the army with which the emperor, in perfon, had
invaded Provence. By his fovereign, Francis, he was en-
trufted with the {word of conftable in 1538, whom he ac-
companied to Nice, where a truce was figned between the two
rival monarchs, in the prefence of the pope. When
Charles V., on accafion of the revolt of the people of Ghent,
had requefted a paffage through France, under promife to
reftore Milan, Montmorenci advifed his fovereign to rely on
his promife, which was not kept, and which afterwards ex-
cited the difpleafure of Francis againft his conftable, who
was banifhed from court, and not permitted to return till the
acceffion of Henry If. By this prince he was treated with
every refpect and confidence, and was fent by him, in 1548,
to Guienne to fupprefs an infurreétion on account of the tax
on falt, on which occafion he treated the people of Bour-
deaux with great feverity. After this he was again difgraced
by the intrigues of Catherine de Medicis, Charles IX. re-
called him, and he ferved again{ft the Caivimfts, diffipating
their affemblies, and burning the pulpits of their minifters ;
but in the year 1562 he was taken prifoner by them at the
battle of Dreux, which battle was remarkable for the cap-
ture of the oppofing generals Condé and Montmorenci.
Being liberated th. following year, he took Havre-de-Grace
from the Englifh. Onthe renewal of hoftilities between the
two religious parties, he attacked the army of the prince of
‘Condé at St. Dennis, in November 1567, and loft his life in
that a€tion. He received eight wounds, of which the laft
was a piftol-fhot in his loins, but he ftill retained ftrength
enough to beat out the teeth of his affailant with the hilt of
his fword. Finding himfelf mortally wounded, he began to
prepare for his latt moments : a monk offered to affiit him in
this important bufinefs, on which the dying general afked,
** Do you think that a man who has lived four-f{core years
with honour does not know how to die in a quarter of an
hour ?’" Almoft within that period he expired, at the age
of 74, and was interred with great honours at Paris. He
was one of the mott illuttrious chara€ters of the age in which
he lived, and was accounted very pious, though his religion
was much more that of a foldier than a Chriltian. Never-
thelefs'he has obtained the title of a “ Chriftian hero.” He
never omitted the repeating of his paternofters, but in the midft
of them he would frequently order his foldiers to be flogged,
or fhot, or whole villages to be burnt, and then proceed in
his prayers with the moft perfe&t fang froid. ‘The political
.maxim by which he was governed was “ One faith; one
law ; one king,” and he fteadily fupported the royal autho-
rity amidft all the ftorms and viciffitudes of faétion. Mo-
reri, Hift. of France, 1790.

Monrtmorenct, Henry, Duke of, grandfon of the pre-
ceding, was born in 1595. He was, in early life, diftin-
guifhed for a fine perfon, joined to the fplendid qualities
which attract general admiration. He was raifed to the
office of high admiral of France at the age of eighteen, and
ferved with great courage and fuccefs again{t the Proteftants
in Languedoc, and other places. For the important fervices
which he performed, he was rewarded with the ftaff of mar-
thal, added to the government of Languedoc, and he might
have attainedt! e higheft honours in the way of his duty, when
difappointment of the office of con{ftable rendered him a mal-
content, and brought on his ruin. He excited an infur-
rection, and put himfelf at the head of a body of forces,
with which he encountered marfhal Schomberg. In the
ation he was furrounded and taken prifoner. Knowing the
rigour of Richelieu’s government, he, from that hour, had
no hopes of a pardon. He was brought to trial, and con-
vided ; and on being advifed to appeal to ahigher court, he

Vor. XXIV. ;

MON

faid, «I will not ufe any chicanery even to fave my life.”’ His
guilt was clear, but no criminal was ever more pitied, and no
one for whom more interceflion was made. He died with
that humility and refignation which a fenfe of religion ia-
{pires ; and, leaving noJflue, the principal branch of the houfe
of Montmorenci terminated with him. Though he had not
been faithful as a hufband, yet his wife cherifhed his memory
with fo much affeétion as to quit the world, and retire into a
convent. Moreri.

MONTMORENCY, Marvruew ve, called the Great,
a diftinguifhed general, who fignalized his valour at the
battle of Pont a Bouvines in 1214, and the year following
was employed againft the Albigenfes in Languedoc, for
which fervices he received the {word of conftable of France,
and was made general of the army. He afterwards took
feveral places from the Englith. Louis VIII. committed
his fon to the care of the conftable, who, by his prudence,
diffolved a league which had been formed againft the queen
mother, during the minority of Louis LX. He died in
1230. Moreri.

Monrmorency, in Geography, a town of France, and
feat of a tribunal, in the department of the Seine and
Oife ; feven miles N. of Paris. N, lat. 48°59’. E. long.
Zima ye

Monrmorency, ariver of Canada, which, after purfuing
an irregular courfe through a woody and rocky country,
runs into the river St. Laurence, about feven miles below
Quebec. It defcends into the St. Laurence from the brink
of a precipice in an uninterrupted and nearly perpendicular
fall of 240, fays Mr. Weld, or as others have faid, 264 feet.
The breadth of the river at the top, from bank to bank, is
about so feet. In its fall, the water has the appearance of
fnow, as when thrown in heaps from the roof of a houfe,
and it feemingly defcends with a very flow motion. The
{pray at the bottom is confiderable, and when the fun hap-
pens to fhine bright in the middle of the day, the prifmatic
colours are exhibited in it in all their variety and luftre. At
the bottom of the precipice the water is confined in a fort of
bafin, as it were, by a mafs of rock, extending nearly acrofs
the fall, and out of this it flows with a gentle current to the
St. Laurence, which is about 300 yards diftant. The banks
of the Montmorency below the precipice are nearly perpen-
dicular on one fide, and on both inacceffible, fo that if a
perfon be defirous of getting to the bottom of the fall, he
mult defcend down the banks of the St. Laurence, and walk
along the margin of that river, till he comes to the chafm
through which the Montmorency flows. To a perfon fail-
ing along the St. Laurence, and pafling the mouth of the
chafm, the fall appears in great beauty. Weld’s Travele,
vol. i.

Monrmorency, atown of Lower Canada, on the fore-
mentioned river. It was on fome eminences near this town,
that general Wolfe began his attack on the French at Quebec,
which was unfuccefsful ; five miles N.E. of Quebec.

MONTMORILLON, a town of France, the principal
place of a diftri€, in the department of the Vienne, on the
Gartempe ; 22 miles S.E. of Poitiers, ‘The place contains
3036, and canton 8023 inhabitants, on a territory of 335
kiliometres, in nine communes. N, lat. 46° 26'. “E. long.
Oni57's
MONTMORIN, a town on the N. bank of Ohio river,
19 miles below Pittfburg, fituated on a beautiful plain, very
fertile, and abounding with coals.

MONTMORT, Perrer Raymonp bE; in Biography,
an able mathematician, was born at Paris im the year 1678.
He was intended for the profeffion of the law, to enable him
to qualify for a place in the er Finding his difguft

to

MON

to this plan infuperable, and that his father would not relax
in his intentions, he withdrew into England, whence he pafled

*over into the Low Countries, and travelled into Germany,
where he refided with a near relation, M. Chambois, the ple-
nipotentiary of France at the diet of Ratifbon. He returned
to France in 1699, and ina very fhort time his father died,
leaving him an ample fortune, and at perfe& liberty to purfue
the bent of his inclinations. From this time he devoted his
talents to the ftudy of philofophy and the mathematics, under
the diretion of the celebrated “ father Malebranche,”’ to
whom he had, fome years before, felt greatly indebted for
the conviction of the truth of Chriftianity, by perufing his
work on “ The Search after Truth.” In 1700 he went a
fecond time to England, and on his return affumed the eccle-
fiaftical habit, and fucceeded to a canonry in the church of
Notre-Dame, at Paris, on the refignation of his younger
brother. About this time he printed, at his own expence,
the works of M. Guifnée on ‘¢ The Application of Algebra
to Geometry,’ and that of Newton on the “ Quadrature
of Curves.” In 1703 he publifhed his «* Analytical Effay
on Games of Chance,’’ which was moft favourably received
by men of fcience in all countries, and contributed greatly
to increafe the number of his acquaintance and corre{pondents.
A fecond edition of the * Games of Chance,’’ enlarged and
improved, he publifhed in 1714. In the following year he
paid a third vifit to England, tor the purpofe of obferving
a folar eclipfe, which was to be total at London, and during
his ftay in the metropolis of England he was ele&ted a fellow
of the Royal Society, to which learned body he foon after-
wards tranfmitted an important treatife on ‘ Infinite Series,”
which was inferted in the Philofophical Tranfactions for the
year 1717. He was elected an aflociate of the Royal Aca-
cemy of Sciences at Paris in 1716, and died at the early age
of forty-one, of the {mall-pox. He fuftained all the rela-
tions of life in the moft honourable manner, and though fub-
jet to fits of paffion, yet his anger foon fubfided, and he
was ever afhamed of the irritability of his temper. He could
refolve the moft difficult problems in company, and among
the noife of playful children. He was employed feveral
years in writing “A Hiltory of Geometry,’ but he did
not live to complete it. Moreri.

Monrmort, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Marne, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Epernay. The place contains 622, and the can-
ton 7075 inhabitants, on a territory of 287% kiliometres, in
25 communes.

MONTOIRE, a town of France, in the department of
the Loire and Cher, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
tri of Vendéme. The place contains 2260, and the canton
11,475 inhabitants, on a territory of 2424 kiliometres, in
20 communes.

MONT ONA, a town of Iftria;
Umago.

Montona, an excellent fort of white wine, the produce
of Alcudia, in the ifland of Majorca.

MONTONE, in Geograph , an ifland in the gulf of Ve-
nice, near the coaft of Friuli. N. lat. 45°-50’.. E. long.
31° g'—Alfo, a river of Italy, which rifes in the Apen-
nines, and runs into the Adriatic below Ravenna.

MONTONG, atown of Africa, near cape Lopez Gon-
falvo; to miles N. of Olibato.

MONT-p'OR, a mountain of France, in the depart-
ment of the Puy de Déme, about 1030 toifes above the
level of the earth, abounding in curious plants and mineral
fprings

MONTORIO, a town of Italy, in the Veronefe; four
miles E. of Verona.—Alfe, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo

16 niles E.S.E. of

MON
Ultra; fix miles S.S.W. of Teramo. E.
long. 13° 51'.

MONTORO, a town of Spain, in the province of Cor-
dova.

MONTOUR, atown of Hindooftan, in Oude; 35 miles
W. of Currah.

MONTOYTO, a town of Portugal, in Alentejo ; 13
miles E. of Evora.

MONT-PAGNOTE, the foff of the invulnerable, an emi-
nence chofen without the reach of the cannon of a place be-
fieged: where curious perfons poit themfelves to fee an
attack, and the manner of the fiege, without being expofed
to danger:

MONTPAON, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Aveyron; 12 miles S. of Milhau.

MONTPELIER, in Geography, a city of France, and ca-
pital of the department of the Herault. This city was built
on a hill near the river Lez, after Charlemagne had demo-
lifhed Maguelone, the afylum of the Saracens in their depre-
dations, and the bifhop’s fee was eftablifhed in this city. An
univerfity for the ftudy of medicine was founded here in 1180,
and an academy of fciences was inftituted in 1706. The
{treets of this city are narrow, but the houfes good: the
citadel commands the town and its vicinity. The chief
manufaiure of this place is verdigris, and its trade, which
is confiderable, contifts of this article, and wool brought
hither from the Mediterranean; and alfo wine, aqua vite,
Hungary water, cinnamon water, capillaire, effence of ber-
gamot, lemons, &c. and great quantities of woollen c2rpets,
fuftians, and filk ftockings. ‘Thefe commodities are con-
veyed by the canal to Cette, which is the fea-port of Mont-
pelier. The city is divided into three fections ; occupying
.a territory of 270 kiliometres; the firft-contains 15,000,
and its canton 15,000 inhabitants, in one commune; the
fecond fection contains 13,419, and its canton 14,999 in-
habitants, in 5 communes; and the third fe@ion contains
5494,-and its canton 12,346 inhabitants, in 11 communes.
The environs of this city are delicious and highly orna-
mented, and its aqueduét is extenfive: it has been par-
ticularly celebrated for the falubrity of its air, and its ancient
{chool of medicine. The profpe& is fingularly extenfive
and interefling, as it embraces the Pyrenées on one fide,
and on the other the grander fummits of the Alps. Its
temperature, according to the eftimate of Kirwan, from
1777 to 1781, was 60.87. The flandard temperature
being 59°, Montpelier is 1.°87 warmer. Its ‘dittauce from
the Atlantic is a60 miles, by which it fhould be cooled
1.°6, but its temperature is governed chiefly by that of the
Mediterranean, which, lying to the fouth of it in {til warmer
latitudes, communicates its temperature to it both fummer
and winter ; but winters, during which eaiterly winds from
the mountains of Savoy and Piedmont prevail, muft be
much colder. The foil on which Montpelier ftands, which
is fandy and ftony, muft contribute much to its heat. N.
lat. 43° 36' 29". E. long. 3° 51' 45".

Monrre.ier, a polt-town of America, in Caledonia
county, Vermont, on the N.E. fide of Onion river; 43 miles
W. from lake Champlain.

MONTPELLAS, a town of France, in the department
of Mont Blanc; 7 miles E.N.E. of Chambery.

MONTPENSIER, Anne Marie Loutsa, Duchefs de, in
Biography, the daughter of Galton, duke of Orleans, brother
of Louis XILI., was generally known by the name of
Mademoifelle, and took the part of Condé in the civil wars,
She caufed the cannon of the Battile to be fired on the
French troops, and fhewed on many occafions a moft impe-
tuous fpirit. After trying in vain to efpoufe feveral fove-

reign

N. lat. 42° 33/.

MON

réign princes, among the reft Charles II. of England, the
fecretly married the count de Lauzun, who ufed her with
great difrefpet and cruelty. She died in 1693: Made-
moifelle wrote her memoirs, which are curious, and full of
anecdotes, 8 vols. 12mo.; fhe was alfo the author of two
books of devotion. Moreri.

MonTPEnsiER, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Piy-de-Déme; 9 miles N.N.E. of
Riom.

MONTPEZAT, a town of France, in the department
of the Ardeche, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri&t
of L’Argentiere ; 16 miles W. of Privas. ‘The place con-
tains 2115, and the canton 7709 inhabitants, on a territory
of 235 kiliometres, in 7 communes.—Alfo, a town of
France, in the department of the Lot, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftri€t of Montauban ; 14 miles N.N.E. of
Montauban. The place contains 2684, and the canton
voor inhabitants, on a territory of 140 kiliometres, in 9
communes. N. lat. 44” 14'. E. long. 1° 34).

MONTPONT, a town of France, in the department of
the Sadne and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Louhans; 7 miles S.S.W. of Louhans. The
place contains 2146, and the canton 5974 inhabitants, on a
territory of 135 kiliometres, in 5 communes.—A\fo, a town
of France, and feat of a tribunal, in the department of the
Dordogne ; 16 miles N.W. of Bergerac. N. lat. 44° 59’.
E long. 0° 14'.

MONTQUELAJT, a town of Perfia, in Farfiftan, on
the N. coait of the Perfian gulf; 120 miles S.S.W. of
Schiras.

MONTRACHET, one of the choiceft forts of white
Burgundy, the produce of Beaune, in Poligny. It is much
e{teemed both in France and abroad.

MONTREAL, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Aude, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftri& of Carcaffone; g miles W. of it. The place
contains 3163, and the canton 6484 inhabitants, on a ter-
ritory of 140 kiliometres, in g communes.— Alfo, a town
of France,-in the department of the Gers, and chief place
of a canton, in the diftri@ of Condom; 7 miles W. of
Condom. The place contains 2565, and the canton 11,090
inhabitants, on a territory of 2574 kiliometres, in 12 com-
munes. N. lat. 43° 58’. E. long. 0° 16'.—Alfo, a town
of France, in the department of the Sarre ; 17 miles W. of
Coblentz.

MontreAL, a town of America, reckoned the fecond
eity in rank in Lower Canada, fituated on an ifland in the
river St. Lawrence; and deriving its name from a very high
mountain, about the middle of it. [t lies on the oppofite
fide of the river to La Prarie ; the two towns being g miles
apart, and the river about 2} miles wide. The current of
the river is here very ftrong, fo that veflels encounter im-
menfe difficulties in arriving at Montreal; hence it is that
the paffage from Quebec to Montreal is generally more
tedious than that acrofs the Atlantic, and therefore thofe
fhips which trade between Europe and Montreal never
attempt to make more than one voyage in the year. Not-
withftanding the rapidity of the ftream, the channel of the
river is very deep, and particularly oppofite to the town ;
fo. that the largeft merchant-veffels can there lie fo clofe to
the banks, which are in their natural ftate, that they may
be nearly touched with the hand from the fhore. This town
was laid out in purfuance of the orders of one of the kings
of France, which were, that a town fhould be built as high
ap on the St. Lawrence as it were poffible for veffels to go
by fea; and his commands were [triétly obferved. The
town at prefent contains about 1200 houfes, of which 500

MON

only are within the walls, the reft being in the fuburbs,
which commence from the N., E., and W. gates. The
houfes in the fuburbs are moftly built of wood, but the
others are all of {tone ; none of them are elegant, but many
of them are comfortable habitations. In the lower part of
the town, towards the river, where moft of the fhops ftand,
they have a very gloomy appearance, and look like fo many
prifons, as they are all furnifhed, at the outfide, with iron
fhutters to the doors and windows, which are regularly
clofed towards the evening, in order to guard againtt fire,
from which the inhabitants have often fuffered ; and, there-
fore, as an additional fecurity they cover the houfes with
tin-plates inftead of fhingles. By law they are obliged to
have one or more ladders, in proportion to the fize of the
houfe, always ready on the roofs. The ftreets are all very
narrow, three of them run parallel to the river, and
thefe are interfected by others at right angles, but not at
regular diftances. On the fide of the town, fartheft from the
river, is a fmall fquare, called * La Place d’Armes,’’ de-
figned originally for the military to exercife in it; though
not now ufed for that purpofe. On the oppofite fide
of the town, towards the water, is another {mall f{quare,
in which the market is held. In Montreal there are fix
churches, one for Englifh Epifcopalians, one for Prefby-
terians, and four for Roman Catholics. The cathedral
church, belonging to the latter, is a very {pacious building,
containing five altars, all of which are very richly decorated.
Almoft all the chriftenings, marriages, and burials of the
Roman Catholic inhabitants are performed in this church,
on which occafions, as well as before and during the mafles,
they always ring the bells, which are five in number, to the
annoyance of thofe who are not fond of difcordant founds.
The funerals are conducted with great ceremony ; the corpfe
being always attended to the church by a number of
priefts chanting prayers, and by little boys in white
robes and black caps, carrying wax-lights. In Montreal
there are alfo four convents. The barracks are agreeably
fituated near the river, at the lower end of the town; they
are furrounded by a lofty wall, and calculated to contain
abeut 300 men. The walls round the town are generally
mouldering, and fome of them are in ruins; although the
gates are quite perfect. The walls were ereéted as a de-
fence again{t the Indians, and they have been found ufeful
even fo late as the year 1736. They were alfo ufeful on
occalion of the large fairs held in Montreal, to which the
Indians from all parts reforted with their furs ; becaufe they
enabled the inhabitants to fhut them out at night, when
danger might have attended their remaining in a ftate of
intoxication, to which they are much addi@ed. However,
Montreal has been always an eafy conqueft to regular troops.
The greater number of the inhabitants confifts of perfons
of French extraétion ; all the eminent merchants, however,
and the principal people of the town, are Englifh, Scotch,
Irifh, or their defcendants, all of whom pafs for Englifh
with the French inhabitants. The French retain, in a great
meafure, the manners and cuftoms, as well as the language,
of their anceftors. The people of this town are, in general,
remarkably hofpitable and attentive to itrangers; they are
fociable among themfelves, and extravagantly fond of con-
vivial amufements.

The ifland of Montreal is about 28 miles in length, and
10 in breadth. Its foil is luxuriant, and in fome parts much
cultivated, and thickly inhabited. It is agreeably diverlified
with hill and dale, and towards its centre, in the vicinity of
the town, there are two or three mountains. The bafe of
the largeft, at the diftance of a mile, from which the town
is named, is furrounded with neat country houfes and

G2 gardens ;

MON

gardens: on the fide towards the river is an old monaftery,
with extenfive enclofures walled in; and the open park ts
covered with a rich verdure, and it is encircled by woods,
among which perfons may roam about for miles, fhaded by
the lofty trees from the rays of the fun. The wine from
hence, {ays Mr. Weld, is good beyond defcription. A pro-
digious expanfe of country is laid open to the eye, with the
noble river St. Lawrence winding through it, which may be
traced from the remoteit part of the horizon, and which,
flowing in, pafles down the tremendous rapids above the
town, when tt is precipitated over huge rocks, with a noife
that is heard even vp the mountain. On the left below
appears the town of Montreal, withits churches, monatteries,
glittering {pires, and the fhipping under its old walls : feveral
little iflazds in the river near the town, partly improved and
partly overgrown with wood, add greatly to the beauty of
the fcene. La Prarie, with its large church on the diftant
fide of the river, is feen to the greateit advantage, and
beyond it is a range of lofty mountains, which terminates
the profpect.

‘The trade chiefly carried on at Montreal is that of fur;
and here the greateft quantity of the furs is fhipped, which
are fent from Canada to England. For an account of the
fur trade, as it is carried on by the Hudfon’s Bay company,
and by the N.W. company, fee the article Pun-trade.

MoxTREAL, a river which runs north-weltward into lake
Superior, in Uppér Canada, on the fouthern fide of the
lake.

Monrreat Bay, a bay that lies towards the E. end of
lake Superior, having an ifland at the N.W. fide of its
entrance, and N.E. of Caribou ifland. N. lat 47 g'. W.
long. 84° 50’. Y

Mowrreat J/e, a {mall ifland on the E. end of lake
Superior, fituated between the mouths of the rivers Mon-
treal and Charrion, and near the fhore.

MONTREDON, a town of France, in the department
of the Tarn, and chief place of a canton, in the diltriét of
Caftres. The place contains 4558, and the canton 5725 in-
habitants, on a territory of 120 kiliometres, in four com-
munes.

MONTREJEAU, a town of France, i the department
of the Upper Garonne, and chief place of a canton, in the
ditriG& of St. Gaudens; 6 miles E. of St. Gaudens. The
place contains 2515, and the canton 8788 inhabitants, on a
territory of 2274 kiligmetres, in 16 communes.

MONTRE’SOR, a town of France, in the department
wf the Indre and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri@ of Loches; g miles E. of Loches. The place con-
tains 700, and the caiton 8586 inhabitants, on a territory of

10 kiliometres, in 12 communes.

MONTRET, a town of France, in the department of
the Sadne and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the
difiri&t of Louhans. The place contains 811, and the
canton 5759 inhabitants, on a territory of 130 kiliometres,
in g communes.

MONTREVAULT, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Maine and Loire, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftriét of Peaupré; 13 miles N.N.W., of Cholet.
The place contains 492, und the canton 9373 inhabitants,

on a territory of 19 kiliometres, in 10 communes.
MONTREVEL, a town of France, in the department
of the Ain, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrié&t of

Bourg; 8 miles N.N.W. of Bourg, The place contains
1242, and the canton 13,659 inhabitants, on a territory of

1924 kiliometres, in 13 communes. N, lat. 46° 10’. E,
long. 5° 13’.
{ONTREUIL, a town of France, and principal place
3)

MON

of a diftri&, in the department of the Straits of Calais,
about fix miles from the fea. This town is fortified, lies on
an eminence, and contains feveral churches. ‘The place in-
cludes 3534, and the canton 14,129 inhabitants, ona terri-
tory of 210 kiliometres, in 25 communes. N. lat. 50° 28/.
E. long. 1° 51'.

Monrrevit-Bellay, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Maine and Loire, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftri&t of Saumur; 7 miles S. of Saumur. The
place contains 1614, and the canton 10,811 inhabitants, on
a territory of 240 kiliometres, in 15 communes.

Monrnreurt-Bonnin, a town of France, in the depart.
ment of the Vienne, in which was formerly a mint for coining
meney; 9 miles S.W. of Poitiers.

MONTRICHARD, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Loire and Cher, and chief place of a canten, in
the diltri& of Blois; 15 miles S. of Blois. ‘The place con-
tains 1814, and the canton 10,836 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 245 kiliometres, in 14 communes. N,. lat. 47° 20’, |
E. long. 1° 16.

MONTROSE, a royal borough and fea-port town,
fituated on the northern ocean, in the parifh of Montrofe,
and county of Forfar, Scotland, is one of the firft provincial
towns of its fize in that kingdom, or perhaps in the whole
ifland. It coniifts of a fine {pa€ious main tlreet, with bye-
lanes, the houfes of which are in general well built, but, like
the Flemifh towns, have their gables turned towards the
ftreet. This place is more diltinguifhed for its gaiety, and
as the refidence of perfons of opulence and fafhion, than for
its commerce and induftry, It has a theatre, monthly af-
femblies, and other pleces of amufement ; and, during the
laft twenty years, has been remarkable for its well attended
races. In the middle of the principal ttreet ftands the pri-
fon, formerly the old town-houfe. The new town-houfe is
a neat edifice, having piazzas below, and rooms for public
bufinefs above. The parifh church, a large edifice of late
erection, is finifhed with great elegance. The epifcopal
chapel, fituated in the Links, to the eaitward of the town,
is a neat building ; as is likewife the Lunatic hofpital, erected
in 1779, not only for the reception of lunatics, but alfo of
indigent fick, or asa dilpenfary for the relief of out-patients.
The public fchools here are remarkable both for the accom-
modation they afford, and for the excellent mode of educa-
tion adopted in them. Ln 1785 a public library was efta-
blifhed by fub{cription, on a moft liberal plan, which now
contains feveral thoufand volumes by the beft authors.
Many improvements have been made in this town within
thele few years; in particular, a handfome bridge has been
thrown over each of the two rivers, the North and South
Efk, which flow on either fide of it. From the bridge
over the South Ef a new ftreet now extends to the middle
of the main one, which was formed by cutting through a
contiderable hill, called the Fort-hill. The harbour of
Montrofe is very commodious, and capable of receiving
fhips of large burden; and there is, befides, a fafe anchor-
age in the river, a little below the town. A confiderable
number of veffels belong to this port, moit of them em-
ployed in the coafting and Baltic trade. ‘There are here a
dry and wet dock, for building and repairing fhips. ‘The
principal manufaciurcs are of linen yarn and thread, fheeting,
and fail-cloth.

Montrofe is governed by a provoft, three baillies, a
dean of guild, and a treafurer, affitled by thirteen, coun-
fellors. It unites with Aberdeen, Bervie, Brechin, and
Arbroath, in eleQing a reprefentative in the imperial par-
liament. The refident population here, according to the
parliamentary returns of 1801, amounted te 7974 perfonsy

3380

MON

3380 males, and 4594 females; of which number, 382 were
engaged in agriculture, and 1422 in different branches of
trade and manufactures.

The river South Efk, immediately above the town, ex-
pands into a beautiful circular fheet of water, nearly three
miles in diameter, called the bafon of Montrofe. This
bafon is perfeétly dry at low water; but at high water, vef-
fels of 60 tons can run up to its upper end without hazard.
Valuable falmon fifheries are eftablifhed on this river, as well
as on the North Efk, and form a confiderable branch of
commerce with England. Beauties of Scotland, vol. iii.

MONT-ROTIER, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Rhone and Loire; 15 miles W. of Lyons.

MONTROUES, a town on the weft part of the ifland
of St. Domingo, at the head of the bight of Leogane ;
5 leagues S.E. of St. Mark.

MONTS, a town of France, in the department of the
Vienne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Lou-
dun; 4 miles §.S.E. of Loudun. The place contains 689,
and the canton 6185 inhabitants, on a territory of 2774
kiliometres, in 15 communes.

MONT-SAINT-BERNARD.
Great.

MONT-SAINT-ELOY, a town of France, in the
department of the Straits of Calais; 6 miles N.W. of
Arras.

MONT-SAINT-JEAN, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Céte-d’Or; 12 miles S. of Semur-en-
Auxois.

MONT-SAINT-MICHEL, a town of France, in the
department of the Channel, about fix miles from the fea,
with a caftle upon a rock, about a quarter of a mile in cir-
cumference, in the midit of a fandy plain, covered by the
fea twice in 24 hours; and as the fands are fhifted by the
waves, travellers are obliged to take guides for directing
their courfe. Before the revolution, this caitle was a Bene-
diGtine monaftery, and the prior was governor of the town.
It gave name to an order of knights, founded by Lewis XT.
6 miles §.W. of Avranches. N. lat. 46° 36'. W. long.
lee Ne

MONT-SAINT-VINCENT, a town of France, in
the department of the Sadne and Loire, and chief place of
a canton, in the diftri& of Chalons-fur-Saone. The place
contains 700, and the canton 6446 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 227% kiliometres, in 12 communes.

MONTSALVY, a town of France, in the department
of the Cantal, and chief place of a canton, in the diltriét of
Aurillac ; 15 miles S. of Aurillac. The place contains 854,

See St. Brernanp,

Whither

1) 102}, 8

122/10,787

The articles above enumerated are produced by the labour
of 1300 whites, and almolt 10,000 negroes. .

Sugar. Rum. |Molaffes. anh

Shipping. Woods, | Articles, in Total..
a. ee jin Value. Value.
Ne. Tonnage|Men| Cwt. qrs. Ibs. Gallons. | Gallons. | hs. Ibs. oh NSeu0s & * sed, | of Sey [a>
o G. Britain 23| 51371 341,108,325 0 21] 4,406] 1,313 | 140 [91,972 | 352 7 6 1,162 3 2 185,709 To if
Amer. ain 20 1,850 1133, 1,895 O Of122,710) — — — — 70 10 A 13,98a:12 6
PrAmerica’ $| 7] © 379/40) 6p 0} 21,900) — of — fi soo] ome fo at 6.8) m03s. 24 3
r 71| 3,085 377 = 140,660] — — — —_ 89, 4.0] 12,396 19 0

904|110,284 © 21|289,076) 1,313

MON

and the canton 10,031 inhabitants, on a territory of 2524-
kiliometres, in 14 communes.

MONT-SAUCHE, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Nievre, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trict of Chateau-Chinon; 11 miles N. of it. The place
contains 1308, and the canton 11,117 inhabitants, on a ter-

‘ritory of 4374 kiliometres, in 10 communes.

MONTSEGUR, a town of France, in the department
of the Gironde, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri¢t
of La Reole; 7 miles N.E. of La Reole. The place con-
tains 1440, and the canton 7804 inhabitants, on a territory
of 130 kiliometres, in 15 cominunes,

MONT-SENI, a mountain of Spain, being a branch of
the Pyrenées, and the mott lofty in Catalonia: its fummit is
always covered with fnow.

MONTSERRAT, one of the Leeward Charaibean
iflands, in the Weft Indies; difcovered at the fame time
with St. Chriltopher’s, viz. in 1493, and deriving its name
from a fuppofed refemblance which Columbus perceived in
the face of the country to a mountain of the fame nameniear
Barcelona. ‘This ifland, though named by the Spaniards,
was planted by a {mall colony from St. Chriftopher’s, de-
tached in 1632 from the adventurers under Warner. The
colony confiited chiefly of natives of Ireland, of the Romifh
perfuafion: they were joined, foon after the firft fettlement,
by many perfons of the fame country and religion, fo that
they thus created a white population, which it has ever fince
poileffed, and which amounted, at the end of 16 years, ac-
cording to Oldmixon’s account, to upwards of 1000 white
families, conilituting a militia of 360 effective men. In 1712
Montferrat was invaded by a French forcé, and fuffered fo
much, that an article was inferted in the treaty of Utrecht,
for appointing commiffioners to inquire into the damages ¢
but thefe were never made good to the fufferers. It was
again invaded in a fubfequent war, and, with moft of the other
iflands, captured by the French, and rettored. with the reft.

The ifland is about three leagues in length, and as many
in breadth, and is fuppofed to contain about 30,000 acres
of land, of which almoit two-thirds are very mountainous or
very barrens

The land in cultivation is appropriated nearly as follows,
In fugar, 6000 acres ; in cotton, provifions, and patturage,
zoco each. None other of the tropical {taples are raifed.
Its average crop, from 1784 to 1788, was 2737 hogtheads
of {ugar of 1600 weight, 1107 puncheons of rum, and 275
bales of cotton. The exports of 1787, for Montferrat and
Nevis, and their value at the London market, will appear in
the following table :

Dyeing |Mifcellaneous

——

140 jo2472! 352 7,6] 15363 3 5{2tq.141 16 8

The government is admiriftered. in this, asin the other

ifands, by a legiflature of its own, under the captain esnect
ic.

MON

‘The council confifts of fix members, and the affembly of
eight, two from each of the four diftri€ts into which it is
divided ; and the proportion which Montferrat contributes
to the falary of the captain general is 400/. per annum. N.
lat. 16° 45’. W. long. 61° 6'.. _Edwards’s Hiftory of the
Wek Indies, vol. 1.

MonrseRRAT, a mountain of Spain, in Catalonia, famous
for its height and hermitage, to which pilgrims refort, to
implore the proteétion of the Virgin before her miraculous
image. The whole extent of this mountain is fuppofed to
be about 24 miles in circumference, confifting chiefly of
round lime-ftone, firmly conglutinated with a yellow calca-
reous earth and fand, with a farther addition of round white
quartz, flreaked with red, as well as touch-ftone, all ce-
mented together, and forming one folid mafs. In the courfe
of time, however, torrents of rain have wafhed away the
earth, formed by decompofition, and have fplit the moun-
tain into clefts and precipices of the moft grotefque and
frightful figures ; whilft other parts confift of immenfe rocks,
baré and blanched, in form of cones, pillars, and jagged
fragments, apparently fcaled upon one another to the height
of upwards of 3000 feet above the level of the fea. On the
fummit of this lofty mountain the profpect is extenfive and
{plendid. The lower part of the mountain, having been de-
compofed fooner than the upper parts, and converted into
foil, produces corn, vines, and olives; while the fhelving
rocks facilitate a paflage to the fummit, and exhibit to the
curious botanift above 290 forts of trees, fhrubs, and plants,
that feem to fhoot up {pontaneoufly. The direétion of this
mountain is from-eaft to weft, rather vifibly inclining to the
welt; 20 miles N.W. of Barcelona. -

MONTSERRATE, a town of Brafil, in the govern-
ment of St. Paul; 35 miles N.W. of St. Paul.

MONTSOLS, a town of France, in the department of
the Rhone, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét of
Villefranche ; 15 miles N. of it. The place contains 1232,
and the canton 10,126 inhabitants, on a territory of 200
kiliometres, in 12 communes.

MONT-SURS, a town of France, in the department of
the Mayenne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftric&t of
Laval; 9 miles E.N.E. of Laval. The place contains
1100, and the canton 6$03 inhabitants, on a territory of
195 kiliometres, in 10 communes.

ONT-TONNERRE, one of the thirteen departments
of the region of France, called the Re-united Country,
formerly a portion of the cleciorate of Mayence, of Hund{-
ruck, of the Palatinate, of the bifhopric of Spire, and of
the duchy of Deux-Ponts, feparated trom Germany on the
north and eaft by the Rhine, in N. lat. 49’ 35’. ‘This de-
partment contains 6015 kiliometres, or 277 {quare leagues,
and 342,316 inhabitants. It is divided into 4 diltriéts or
circles, 37 cantons, and 685 communes. Its circles are
Mayence, including 114,648 inhabitants ; Spire, 121,965 ;
Kaiferlautern, 50,135; and Deux-Ponts, 55,568. Its
capital is Mayence. _ Its contributions, in the year 11, were
3,458,473 francs, and its expences 304,100 francs.! ‘This de-
partment 18 hilly, but abundantly fertile in grain, wine, to-
bacco, timber, and excellent paflures. In the circle of
Kaiferlautern are mines of antimony, cobalt, fulphur, mer-
cury, coal, &c.

MONTUCLA, Jonny Sreruen, in Biography, a cele-
brated mathematician, was born at Lyons in the year 1725.

His father wifhed to bring him up to trade; in which ‘he

himfelf was engaged; but the youth gave early lindications

of a love of learning, and was placed under the inflructions

of the Jefnits, who carefully cultivated his opening genius.

In their feminary he acquired an intimate acquaintance with
4

MON

the ancient and modern languages, and made a confiderable
progrefs in the mathematics. When he left the Jefuits’

‘college, at the age of fixteen, having loft both his parents,

he went to Touloufe to itudy the law, and was, in due
time, admitted an advocate, though without much intention
of praétifing at the bar. Having completed his ftudies, he
went to Paris, cultivated an acquaintance with the moft
diftinguifhed literary charaéters, and attended all the meet-
ings at which fcientific men were accuftomed to meet, to
promote the interefts of knowledge. At thefe meetings he
formed an intimacy with Diderot, d’Alembert, and other
learned men; and it was owing to his intercourfe with them,
that he was ftimulated to the grand undertaking for which
his name is rendered illuftrious, viz. his «« Hiltory of the
Mathematical Sciences.”’

Before he engaged in the actual compofition of this great
work, he employed himfelf in giving new editions, with ad-
ditions and improvements, of fevyeral mathematical treatifes,
which were already held in the higheft eftimation.. The firft
of thefe was ** Mathematical Recreations,’’ by M. Ozanam,
which has been fince tranflated into Englifh, and publifhed
in London, in 4 vols. 8vo. To ail the works which he
edited, after Ozanam’s, he gave the initials of his name.
While thus occupied, he contributed his affiftance for fome
years to “ The French Gazette;?? and in 1755 he was
eleGted a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Berlin. In the following year, when the experiment of in-
oculation was about to be tried on the firft prince of the
blood, Montucla tranflated from the Englifh an account of
all the recent cafes of that practice, which had been’ fent
from Conftantinople, by lady Mary Wortley Montagu.
This tranflation he added to the memoir of De la Conda-
mine on the fubje&t. Previoufly to this publication, he had
given to the world his «‘ Hiftory of Inquiries relative to the
Quadrature of the Circle.” The encouragement which
this met with from very able judges of its merit, afforded
him great encouragement to apply with ardour to his grand
defign, “The Hiitory of the Mathematics.’’ The tafk he
propofed to himfelf was comprehenfive and laborious. ‘* He
had to trace the progrefs of the human mind from age to
age, and nation to nation; from one tran{fcendent genius to
another; to mark the gradual developement of important
truths, and their dependence on each other; to pafs in re-
view all the celebrated chara€ters who have adorned the an-
nals of f{cience, to appreciate their merits, to compare their
re{peiive pretenfions, and to refer difcoveries to their real
authors; to illuftrate the niceft theories, the moft profound
fy{tems, and the moft abftraG@ analyfes ; to extract materials
from an indefinite number of books, in almoft all languages,
ancient and moderr ; and to amalgamate the whole into a »
narrative ftyle, which fhould, if poffible, intereft the reader
by its hiltoric form, and infenfibly initiate him into all the
mytteries of the mathematics.’ /

In the year 1758 he publifhed his “ Hiftory,” in two
volumes, 4to., which terminates with the clofe of the 17th
century. It anfwered the expeétations of all his friends,
and of men of {cience in all countries, and the author was
inflantly elevated to a high rank in the learned world. His
fame was widely diffufed, and he was preffed from all quare
ters to proceed with the mathematical hiltory of the 18th
century, which he had announced for the fubject of a third
volume, and for which he had made confiderable prepara.
tions; but he was diverted from his defign, by receiving the
appointment of fecretary to the Tntendlande at Grenoble,
Here he {pent his leifure hours chiefly in retirement, and in
fcientific purfuits. In 1764, Turgot, being appointed to
eltablifh a colony at Cayenne, took Monvacks with him as

his

MON

his “ fecretary,” to which was added the title of * aftro-
nomer to the king.’? In about fifteen months he returned,
without attaining any particular object with regard to the
aftronomical obfervations, for which he went outs but the
voyage afforded him the opportunity of collecting fome
valuable tropical plants, with which he enriched the king’s
hot-houfes at Verfailles. Soon after his return, he was ap-
pointed chief clerk in an official department, fimilar to that
known in this country by the name of the “ Board of
Works.’ To the immediate bufinefs of the appointment he
devoted himfelf moft affiduoufly for the {pace of 25 years,
till the place itfelf was abolifhed in 1792. During this long
period, his progrefs in the ‘* Hiftory of Mathematics’? was
exceedingly flow; but he was continually rifing in the efteem
of the learned world, and was offered a feat in the Royal
Academy of Sciences, which he declined, from a perfuafion
that the duties of his bufinefs would not allow him fufficient
leifure for filling it in a proper manner. By the revolu-
tion in 1789 he was, as we have feen, deprived of his office,
and reduced to confiderable pecuniary embarraffments.
Under the preffure of thefe circumitances, he began to pre-
pare a new and much enlarged edition cf his “ Hiftory,”
which he prefented to the world in 1799, in two volumes,
4to. In this edition are many important improvements ;
and many facts, which were barely announced in the former
impreffion, are largely detailed gnd illuftrated in this. Af-
ter the publication of thefe two volumes, the author pro-
ceeded with the printing of the third; but death terminated
his labours, when he had arrived at the 336th page. The
remainder of the volume, and the whole of the fourth, were
printed under the infpection of Lalande. Montucla had
been a member of the National Inftitute from its original
eftablifhment. He had obtained various employments under
the revolutionary government, though he was but meanly
paid for his labour, and had to ftruggle «with many diffi-
culties to furnifh his family with the bare neceffaries of life.
At length he was reduced to feek the feanty means of fup-
port by keeping a lottery-office, till the death of Sauffure
put him in the poffeffion of a penfion of about r1oo/. per
annum, which he enjoyed only four months. He died in
December 1799, in the 75th year of his age. He was,
fays his biographer, ‘* modeft to a degree, which, when his
exalted merits are confidered, cannot but excite our admira-
tion; and he was diftinguifhed by aéts of generofity and
liberality, which will appear equally extraordinary, when
the fmallnefs of his means is recolleéted. He was a warm
friend, a lively cheerful companion, and his manners and
behaviour were fimple, innocent, and virtuous.’”? See Hitt.
of the Mathematics, vol. iv. ,

MONTVILLE, in Geography, a townfhip of America,
in New London county, Connecticut, about 10 miles N. of
New London ; containing 2231 inhabitants.

MONTUOSA, a {mall ifland in the Pacific ocean, near
the coaft of Mexico. N. lat. 8°15’. W. long. 83° 36’.

MONTUYRI, a very ancient town of the ifland of Ma-
jorca, which has a parifh church and a bailiff royal. Its vi-
cinity affords neither well nor fountain, fo that the inhabit-
ants are obliged to procure water from wells and cifterns.
The land produces corn, wine, and patture for cattle.

MONTWILISZKI, a town of Samogitia; 14 miles
E.S.E. of Rofienne.

MONTZBURG, a town of Saxony, in the margraviate
of Meiffen; g miles N. of Drefden.

MONTZEN, a town of the duchy of Limburg; 7
miles N. of Limburg.

MONUMENT, an edifice raifed to preferve the memory

MON

of fome eminent perfon, or deftined to perpetuate fome re-
markable event.

Monuments were at firft made of ftones ereGed over the
tombs of the deceafed, on which were engraved the names
and frequently the aétions of the perfon to whofe memory
they were reared.

Monuments received different names among the ancients,
according to their figure. When the bafe was fquare, and
the folid ere&ted thereon a prifm, the monument was called
Sieles ; whence {quare pilafters or attic columns are fuppofed
to be derived. When the bafe was circular, and the folid
ereéted thereon a cone, the monument was called Sylos.
Thofe monuments that were f{quare at the foot, and tapering
therefrom in planes to a point in which the planes ended, were
called pyramids. Others which had triangular bafes, and their
fides ending in a point, were cailed obeli/s, being conftru@ted
in imitation of the inftruments or {pits ufed in roaiting
facrifice.

Monument, The, abfolutely fo called among us, denotes
a magnificent pillar, defigned by fir Chriftopher Wren,
ereted by order of parliament, in memory of the burning
of the city of London, anno 1666, in the very place where
the fire began.

This pillar was begun in 1671, and finifhed in 1677.

It is of the Doric order, fluted, 202 feet high from the
ground, and fifteen feet in diameter, of folid Portland ftone,
with a ftair-cafe in the middle of black marble, containing
345 fteps. The loweft part of the pedeftal is 28 feet
{quare, and its altitude 40 feet; the front being enriched
with curious baffo relievos. It has a balcony within 32 feet
of the top, where is a curious and {pacious blazing urn of
gilt brafs.

Monument Bay, in Geography, a bay of America, on
the E. coaft of Maflachufetts, formed by the bending of
Cape Cod: it is fpacious and convenient for the protection
of fhipping. The cape in this bay is called «« Monument
Point.” N. lat. 41° 55’. W. long. 70° 31'.

Monument Jfland, one of the New Hebrides, which ap-
peared to be a rock of a pyramidal form, acceffible only to
birds ; N. of Montague ifland.

: era a town of Curdiftan; 50 miles W. of
etlis.

MONYCHA, formed of ows, fingle, and owk, hoof, an
epithet applied by naturalifts to thofe animals whofe hoofs
are fingle and undivided ; fuch are the horfe and the like.

MONZA, It Cavatiere, in Biography, a judicious and
excellent opera compofer, in the fervice of the court at Mi-
lan in 1770. A mafs in mufic of his compofition, which we
heard performed at a church in that city, excited hope and
expectation that he would foon be ranked among compofers
of the firft clafs: and we were not difappointed ; for in 1777
he compofed two operas for Venice, “ Nitetti,’’ and « Cajo
Majo,” which eftablifhed his reputation.

The firft air which Pacchierotti fung on our flage in the
patticcio opera of ‘* Demofoonte,’? was “ Mifero pergo-
letto,”’ by Monza, a capital production, in which the com-
pofition was matterly, the melody touching, the accompani-
ments clear and full of effeéts in painting parental affeGtion
and diftrefs, and the motive and general condué& of the air
grand and judicious.

The late Mrs. Sheridan was fo much ftruck with this
compofition, that fhe eagerly fought and procured all the
productions of Monza that could be found.

Monza, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the depart-
ment of the Olona, on the river Lambro, chiefly deferving
notice on account of the treafury of John the Baptift, where,

among

MOO

among other articles, is the iron crown with which the
ancient Italian kings, and afterwards the emperors of Ger-
many, were crowned, whenever they afferted their rights as
kings of Lombardy. It takes this name from an iron ring
within it, though the crowra itfelf is of gold and enriched
with jewels. Charlemagne was crowned here in 774, after
taking prifoner Defiderius, king of Lombardy; 8 miles
N.N.E. of Milan.

_ MONZAMBANDO, a town of Italy, in the department
of the Mincio; 14 miles N.N.W. of Mantua.

MONZE, Carg, a cape on the coaft of Sindy, W. of
the Indus. N. lat. 24° 45’. E. long 65° 46'.

MONZINGEN, a town of France, in the department of
the Rhine and Mofelle; 42 miles E. of Treves. N. lat.
49° 45'. E. long. 7° 32'.

MONZKGUTH, a diftri&t of Pomerania, forming a
peninfula in the S.E. part of the ifland of Rugen.

MOO, atown of Sweden, in Welt Gothland; 26 miles
N.N.W. of Uddevalla.—Alfo, a town of Sweden, in Welt
Bothnia; 30 miles N.W. of Tornea.

Moo Ong, 2 {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, near
the W. coalt of the ifland of Naffau. S. lat. 2°58’. E.
long. 99° 49".

MOOBAD, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; 12 miles
W. of Lucknow.

MOOD, or Mone, in Logic, called alfo Syllogi/tic Mood,
is a proper difpofition of the feveral propofitions of a fyllo-
gifm in refpeét of quantity and quality.

By proper difpofition, we mean fuch in which the antete-
dent being true, the confequent, in virtue of the form, can-
not be falfe. So that all thofe moods or manners of fyllo-
gifm are at once excluded, where no conclufion formally
follows; or where the antecedent being true, a falfe conclu-
fion may be drawn from it.

There are two kinds of moods; the one dire, the other
indired.

Moop, Direa, is that in which the conclufion is drawn
from the premifes directly and immediately: as, every animal
is a living thing: every man is an animal; therefore every
man is a living thing.

Moon, Jndire@, is that in which the conclufion is not in-
ferred immediately from the. premifes, but follows from
them by means of aconverfion: as, every animal is a living
thing ; every man is an animal; therefore fome living thing
isa man, ‘There ave fourteen dire&t moods; of which four
belong to the firft figure ; four to the fecond ; aud fix to the
third. See Ficure.

They are denoted by fo many artificial words framed for
that purpofe: wiz. 1. Barbara, celarent, daril, ferioque.
4. Baralip, calentes, dibatis, fefpamo, frefifom. 2. cehre.
cameltres, feftino, baroco. 3. Darapti, felapton, difamis,
datifi, bocardo, ferifon.

The ufe and effeét of which words lie wholly in the fyl-
lables and the letters of which the fyllables confift. Each
word, ¢. gr. confilts of three fyllables, denoting the three
propofitions of a fyllogifm; viz. major, minor, and con-
clufion. Add, that the letters of each fyllable are either
vowels or confonants: the vowels are a, which denotes an
univerfal affirmative propofition; ¢, an univerfal negative :
f, 2 particular affirmative, and 9, a particular negative.

Thue, barbara is a fyllogifm or mood of the firit figure,
confilling of three univerfal affirmative propolitions: baralip,
of the fourth figure, confifting of two univerfal affirmative
premifes, and a particular affirmative conclufion. The
sonfonants are chiefly of ule in the reduction of fyllo-
gifs.

MOO

Moon, or Mode, in Grammar, is ufed to fignify the dif.
ferent manners of conjugating verbs, agreeably to the dif-
ferent a€tions or affections to be expreffed ; as frewing, com~
manding, wifhing, &c.

Hence arife five moods; wix. the indicative, imperatives
optative, fuljunfive, and infinitive ; which fee.

Some grammarians reckon but four moods, confounding
the optative with the fubjunétive ; and fome make fix, di-
viding the optative into potential and optative.

The Greek have five moods of verbs different in termina-
tion; but the Latins have only four, In Englifh the ter-
minations are the fame in all the moods.

With refpeét to the origin of moods, it may be obferved,
that verbs are of that kind of words which fignify the man-
ner and form of ourthought: of which the principal is af-
firmation. Verbs are alfo formed to receive different in-
flexions, as the affirmation regards different perfons and
different times: whence arife the tenfes and perfons of
verbs. See VERB.

But, befides thefe, men have thought fit to invent other
inflexions, to explain what paffes in their minds ftill more
diftin@tly : for, in the firft place, they confidered, that be-
fides the fimple affirmations, as he loves, he loved ; there were
others modified and conditional, as if he loved, though he
Should love: and the better to diftinzuifh thefe affirmations
from the others, they doubled the inflexions of thofe tenfes
or times; making fome fetve for fimple affirmations, as, 7
love, he loved; and referving the reft for affirmations that
were modified, as, if he /hould love, might he have loved.
Yet they kept not fteadily to their rules; but fometimes
made ufe of fimple inflexions to exprefs affirmations that
were modified: as, et/t vereo, for etfi verear. And it is from
this kind of inflexion, that grammarians have formed the
mood they call /udjundive.

But farther, befides the affirmation, the a&tion of our
will may be taken for a mood, or manner of our thought ;
and men have found themfelves under a necefflity of ex-
prefling what they will, as well as what they think. Now we
may will a thing in feveral manners ; of which there are three
that may be confidered as the principal. Firft, then, we
fometimes will things which do not depend on ourfelves ; and
in that cafe we only will them by a bare wifh, which the
Latins exprefs by the article utinam ; and we by plea/e God.
Some languages, for inftance the Greek, have invented par-
ticular inflexions for this end; whence the grammarians have
taken occafion to call this the optative mood : and there feems
fomething like it in the French, Italian, and Spanifh tongues,
as thefe have a kind of triple tenfes; but in Latin, Englifh,
&c. the fame inflexions ferve for the fubjunctive, andl for
the optative. For this reafon, one may very well retrench
this mood from the Latin conjugations; becaufe they are
the different inflexions that make moods, not the different
manners of fignifying, which may be varied to infinity.

We fometimes will in another manner: as when we are
content a thing fhould come to pafs, though we do not ab-
folutely defire it; as when Terence fays, profundat, perdat,
pereat, let him fpendh Jink, perio. Men might have invented
a particular inflexion to exprefs this movement, as in Greek
they have done to exprefs a fimple defire: but they have not
done it ; and, in lieu of it, they make ufe of the fubjunétive.
In Englifh, we add the particle /ef, let him fpend, &c. Au-
thors call this the potential, or conceffive mood.

The third manner of willing is, when what we defire de~
pends on another perfon, of whom we can obtain it, and we
Agaify our will that he do it. This is the motion we ufe,
when we command or pray; and to exprefs this motion, was

invented

MOO

invented the mood we call imperative ; which has no firft pers
fon in the fingular, becaufe a man, properly fpeaking, can-
not command himfelf; in fome languages it has no third
perfon, becaufe, in ftrictnefs, a man cannot command any
perfon, but him to whom he fpeaks and addrefles himfelf.
And becaufe the command or prayer always relates to what
is to come, it happens that the imperative mood, and the
future tenfe, are frequently ufed for each other (efpecially
in the Hebrew): as, non occides, thou fhalt not kill, tor do net
kill. Hence fome grammarians place the imperative among
the number of futures.

Of all the moods we have mentioned, the oriental lan-
guages have none but the laft, which is the imperative ; and,
on the contrary, none of the modern languages have any
particular inflexion for the imperative. ‘The method-we take
for it in Englifh, is either to omit the pronoun, or tranfpofe
‘it: thus, [ love, is a fimple affirmation ; love, an impera-
tive ; we love, an affirmation; love we,an imperative. Ah
infinitive verb is fometimes ufed by the poets to exprefs a
command ; the imperative verb being underitood.

In explaining the origin of moods, the ingenious Mr.
Harris obferves, that the foul’s leading powers are thofe of
perception and volition; and that all {peech or difcourfe is
a publifhing either a certain perception or volition. Hence
then, according as we exhibit it either in a different part, or
after a different manner, the variety of moods. If we
fimply declare or indicate fomething to be, or not to be,
whether a perception or volition, this conftitutes the dec/a-
rative or indicative mood. If we affert of fomething poffible
only, and in the number of contingents, this makes the
potential mood. When this is fubjoined to the indicative,
and ufed, as it moftly is, to denote the end or final caufe,
it is the /ubjun@ive. When we addrefs others, in order to
have fome perception informed, or fome volition gratified,
we form new modes of {peaking : if we interrogate, it is
the interrogative mood: if we require, it is the requifitive,
which, with refpeé& to inferiors, is imperative ; and, with
refpect to equals and fuperiors, precative or optative. The
indicative, potential, interrogative, and requifitive moods,
have their foundation in nature; and, therefore, certain
marks or figns of them have been introduced into language,
that we may be enabled by our difcourfe to fignify them to
one another; fo that moods are, in fat, no more than fo
many literal forms, intended to exprefs thefe natural diftinc-
tions. All thefe moods, with their refpeétive tenfes, the
verb being confidered as denoting an attribute, have always
reference to fome perfon or fubftance. But there is another
mood or form, under which verbs fometimes appear, where
they have no reference at all to perfons or fubftances : thefe,
from their indefinite nature, are called infnitives. Hermes,
Pp- 140, &c.

Moon, or Mode, in our old Mufic, was a term only ap-
plied to the divifions of time or meafure, which was fo
embarrafling a ftudy, that a very confiderable portion of
Morley’s treatife is beftowed on that fubjeét. - Previous to
the ufe of bars, all meafures, however complicated, were
determined by the modal figns placed after the clef cf every
compoiition, Thefe figns were circles, femicircles, pointed,
or without points, followed by the figures 2 or 3 differently
combined. See Mone, Monat, and Pro.arion.

Rouffeau gives twelve examples of ancient charaters of
quantity ; but as thefe were charaéters referred to notes now
out of ule, as the maxima, the Jong, and the breve, thefe
explanations can be of little confequence but to thofe who
are ambitious of knowing the ftate of meafured mufic at
every period of its cultivation.

Moon, in Philefophy and ATufic.

Vor. XXIV.

See Mops.

MOO

MOODUL, in Geography, a town of Hindooflan, in Vi-
fiapour ; 13 miles S.S.W. of Galgala. ‘

MOODYPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bengal; 28
miles N. of Pucculoe,

MOOGONG, a town of Hindooftan, in Goondwanah ;

o miles N. of Nagpour.

MOOGPOUR, atown of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ; 31
miles E.N.E. of Janagur.

MOOGRY, a town of Hindooftan, in Vifiapour; 31
miles W. of Poonah.

MOOKANOOR, a town of Hindooftan, in Baramaul ;
1§ miles S.S.W. of Darempoory.

MOOKER, atown of Cabuliftan ; 40 miles from Ghizni.
—Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in Madura; 40 miles E. of
Coilpetta.

MOOK I, a fea-port town of Japan, ina bay onthe S.E,
coaft of the ifland of Niphon; 80 miles S.E. of Jedo.
N. late 35°30’. E. long. 40° 40’.

MOOLa, a town of Hindooftan, in Vifiapour; 10 miles
E. of Poonah. ,

MOOLILLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore; 20
miles W.N.W. of Allumbaddy.

MOON, Luna, ¢, in Afronomy, one of the heavenly
bodies belonging to that clafs of planets, accounted fatellites
or fecondary planets.

The moon is an attendant of our earth, which fhe re-
fpects as a centre, and in whofe neighbourhood fhe is con-
ftantly found; infomuch as, if viewed from the fun, fhe
would never appear to depart from us by an angle greater
than ten minutes.

As all the other planets move primarily round the fun,
fo does the moon round the earth : her orbit is an ellipfis,
in which fhe is retained by the force of gravity ; performing
her revolution round the earth, from change to change, in
29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, and round the fun with it
every year; fhe goes round her orbit in 27 days, 7 hours,
43 minutes, 5 feconds, moving about 2290 miles every
hour ; and turns round her axis in the time that fhe goes
round the earth, which is the reafon of her keeping always
the fame fide towards us ; and that her day and night taken
together are as long as our lunar month. See LisraTion
of the Moon.

The mean diftance of the moon from the earth is 604
Con dissmetes of the earth; which is equivalent to 240,000
miles.

The diameter of the earth is to that of the moonas 11 : 3,
or as 1: 0.2727 (fee ParaLtax),; therefore, the magni-
tude of the earth is to that of the moon as 1 :.02028, or
very nearly as 49: 1; and the denfity of the moon being te
that of the fun as 2.44: 1, and the denfity of the fun being
to that of the earth as 0.252 : 1, it follows that the denfity of
the earth is to that of the moon as 1 ; 0.6149; therefore,
the quantity of matter in the earth is to that of the moon
as 1: 0.1245. But if, with fome authors, we aflume the
denfity of the moon to that of the fun as 2.5: 1, the quan-
tity of matter in the earth is to that in the moon as 78: I,
or1:.0128. Alfo, the gravity of a body upon the earth
is to that upon the moon as 1:0.1677. ‘The apparent dia-
meter of the moon, as feen from the earth, varies, according
to M. de la Lande, from 29! 22" when the moon is in
apogee and conjunction, to 33! 31! when in perigee and
oppolition : its mean diameter being nearly equal to tbe
leait apparent diameter 8f the fun, it may be taken at 31/8",
and that of the fun at 32/2". M. de la Lande makes it
to be 31! 26". (See Deciinarion and Diamerer.) Its
mean diameter, as feen from the fun, is 4.6. ‘The mean
diameter, in Englifh miles, is 2180. ‘The mean diameter,

as

MOON.

as above ftated from M. de la Lande, isthe arithmetic mean
between the greateft and leaft diameters: the diameter at
the mean diftance is 31! 7".
ferent altitudes above the horizon, it is at different dittances
from the fpegtatur, and, therefore, there is a change of the
apparent diameter; which is inverfely as the moon’s dif-
tance. The diameter of the moon may be meafured, at
the time of its full, by a micrometer; or it may be mea-
fured by the time of its pafling over the vertical wire of a
tranfit telef[cope, which muft be done when the moon pafles
within an hour or two of the time of the full, before the
vifible dife is fenfibly changed from a circle. The moon’s
furface contains 14,898,750 fquare miles, and its folidity
5,408,246,000 cubical miles. "The mean excentricity of the
moon’s orbit is 0.05503568 of her mean diltance, which is
equal to about 13,200 miles; and this makes a confiderable
variation in that mean diftance. This excentricity, how-
ever, is fubjeét to a variation, the greateft variation. from
the mean being 0.00986; the excentricity being increafed
whilft the apfides move from quadratures to fyzygies, and
decreafed whilit they move from fyzygies to quadratures.
(See the annexed table.) The corref{ponding greatelt equa-
tion is 6° 18! 31.6, which Mayer makes to be 6° 18’ 32" in
his laft Tables, publifhed by Mr. Mafon, under the direétion
of Dr. Mafkelyne. The inclination of the moon’s orbit
is alfo fubje& toa variation. When the moon is in fyzygies,
the variation (= 2! 40".7) is the diminution of the inclina-
tion in the tranfit of the moon from the nodes (in quadra-
tures) to fyzygies; the half of which (1' 20!) is the vari-
ation from the mean inclination in that time. Hence, in the
tranfit of the nodes from fyzygies to quadratures, when the
moon is in quadratures, the variation of the inclination has
been 16! 10” — 1! 20''= 14! 50!', and when the moon is in
fyzygies, the variation has been 16! to!’ + 1' 20! = 17’ 30";
therefore, if the ifclination be 5° 17! 20", when the nodes are
in fyzygies, the leaft inclination becomes 4° 59! 50’, and the
mean = 5° 8! 35".

In order to determine the inclination of the moon’s: orbit
to the plane of the ecliptic, obferve the moon’s right afcen-
fion and declination when it is go” from its nodes, and thence
compute its latitude; which will be the inclination at that
time. Repeat this obfervation for every diftance of the fun
from the earth, and for every pofition of the fun in refpe&
to the moon’s nodes, and the inclination at thofe times. will
be thus found. Hence it will appear, that the inclination
of the orbit to the ecliptic is variable, as we have already
fated, the leaft inclination occurring when the nodes are
in quadratures, and the preateft when they are in fyzygies.
This inclination partly depends upon the fun’s diitance from
the earth. Asthe axis of the moon is nearly perpendicular
to the plane of the ecliptic, this planet has fearcely any
difference of feafons. The place of the moon’s nodes may
be determined in the manner ttated under Nodes ; which fee.
To determine the mean motion of the nodes, find the place
of the nodes at different times, and thus will be obtained
their motion in the interval; and the greater this interval,
the more accurate will be the refult.

The mean motion of the moon is found by obferving its
place at two different times, and thus we obtain the mean
motion in that interval, {appofing that the moon has had
the fame fituation in refpeét to its apfides at each obfer-

vation; if not, provided there be a great interval of the
time, it will be fufficiently exact. Por determining this, we

mult compare together the moon's places, firft at a {mall inter-
val of time from each oiher, in order to get nearly the
meati time of a revolution; and then ata greater interval, in

order to obtain it more exactly. ‘The moon’s place may be

When the moon is at dif-

determined direStly from obfervation, or deduced from an
eclipfe. ‘The mean time of a reyolution of the moon was
found from eclipfes at a difiant interval to be 274 7 43'5"',
which maybe confidered as very exact. Hence, the mean
diurnal motion is 13° 10' 35", and the mean hourly motion
32' 56! o7"Z. M. de la Lande makesthe mean diurnal mo-
tion 13° 10! 35".02784394. This is the mean time of a
revolution in refpe& to the equinoxes. But, as the pre-
ceffion of the equinoxes is 50!'.25 in a year, or about 4!" ina
month, the mean revolution of the moon in refpeét to the
fixed ftars muft be greater than that in refpeét to the
equinox, by the time which the moon takes to defcribe 4!
with its mean motion, i.c. about 7". Hence the time of a
fidereal revolution of the moon is 27% 7" 43’ 12",

The mean horary motion ef the nodes of the moon’s or-
bit in one fynodic revolution is equal to half their horary
motion when the moon is in fyzygies, whatever be the po-
fition of the nodes. When the nodes are in quadratures
and the moon is in fyzygies, their horary motion is 32’42"7!l! 5
hence the mean horary motion of the nodes when in quadra~
tures is 16' 21" 34", in an elliptic orbit, and in a circular
orbit 16” 35!" 16'" 36". The mean annual regreffion of
the nodes is 19°23'. Allowing for the inclination of the
orbit, this motion will be about 4! lefs; and we may,
therefore, {uppofe the mean annual motion to be 19° 1g/.
Mayer makes the mean annual motion of the nodes to be
12° 19! 43'.1. The motion of the nodes is not affected
the excentricity of the orbit, as fir Ifaac Newton fuppofed.

The motion of the apogee in one mean periodic revo-
lution of the moon is 3° 2! 32.3916; hence, 279 7 43/s
365% 6" of s: 3° 2! 32.3916 : 40° 4o! 20" the mean pro-
greflive motion of the apogee in a year. According to
Mayer’s Tables, it is 40° 41! 33".

To determine the mean motion of the apogee, find its
place at different times, and compare the difference of the
places with the interval of the time that had elapfed between
them. For this purpofe, compare, firft, obfervations at a
{mall diftance from each other, in order to prevent being
deceived in a whole revolution, and then we may compare
thofe at a greater diflance. The mean annual motion of
the apogee in a year of 365 days, is thus found to be 40°
39' 50", according to Mayer. MHorrox, long ago, from
obferving the diameter of the moon, found the apogee fub-
ject to an annual equation of 12°.5. The following table
fhews the times of the revolutions of the moon, of its apogee
and nodes, as determined by M. de la Lande.

Tropical revolution - - 274 M43! 4!.6795
Sidereal revolution ~ ~ 27-7 43 «11-5259
Synodic revolution + - 29 12 44. 2.8283
wre See “ - 27 13 18 33-9499

volution in retpect to the

Te iciy Sole’ | he
Tropical revolution of the F

Sitbest- ooool wit t: oC eee
Sidereal revolution of the?

apopee! sis < : 8 312 Ir 11 39.4089
Tropical revolution of the

paar “ : 7 } 18 228 4 52 52.0296
Sidereal revolution of the ) 8 4 es

node a Z py S29, 223) 7 8S 17744,
Diurnal motion of the moon bi Being sae

in refpet to the equinox Sc he AS BDO Saree
Diurnal motion of the y © 6 41.069815195

apogee - - ‘
Diurnal motion of the node " © 8 10.638603696

‘The years here taken are the common years of 365 days.
A. TABLE

MOON.

A Taste of the great Equation of the Moon's Apogee, and of the Excentricity of its Orbit.

Sig. I, VII. + Sig. II. VIII. +

Excentricity Excentricity Excentricity
Ann. | Equation of of the Equation of of the Equation of of the Ann.
Arg. | )’s Apogee} Moon's D’s Apogee. Moon’s | )’s Apogee.| Moon’s | Arg.
Orbit. Orbit. Orbit.

—

Deg. | D. M. Ss. ray
fe) G JOu-8 .066777 57 .0617 54 Ii 40 © -050224 | 30
I -066771 12 .061434 11 30 39 -049838 2
2 -066754 58 .O61107 II 20 14 -049457 28
8 -066724 14 -060772 ir 8 44 -04908 2 27
4 -066683 58 -060429 Io 56 8 .0487T4 26
5 .066630 9 -060080 Io 42 26 6048354.

6 47 +050725 27 38 -048001
7 49 | -059363 11 45 | .047656
8 15 058995 54 47 1047321
9 4 | .058621 36 44 | .046995
° 14 | 058243 17 37 | -046679
57 25 -046374

36 II -046081

-045800

045531
1045275

rm
Ma Aa NN OO CH wowond
”
Ys
Ww
lony

1 21 .045033
35 19 -044805
8 26 -044592
4045 044394
12 18 +O44212

————

4 43 10 044046 9

4 13 23 043896 8

343 1 043763 7

312 9 043647 6

2 | 052215 2 40 49 043548 5

:062952 2). Omnre -O51811 Zh kG 9 043467 4
-062665 2. aA -051409 1.37 %6 043404 3
-062370 toy isislee sO51010 theghiga 043359 2
-062066 Ir 48 17 -O50615 © 32 28 043332 I
061754 II-40 Oo -050224 a 0 0 043323 °

Sig. IV. X. — Sig. III. IX. —

B. The preceding table is taken from Dr. Halley’s “ Aftronomical Tables ;”? the argument, called the « annual
preceding fers : ) tai ae
argument,”’ is the diftance of the fun from the mean place of the apogee correéted by its annual equation.

Hz The

MOON.

tion with him, and its dark fide will be turned towards the -

moon; in which pofition the earth will difappear to the
moon as that does to us at the time of the new moon, or in
her conjunétion with the fun. After this, the lunar inhabit--
ants will fee the earth in an horned figure. In fine, the earth
will prefent all the fame phafes to the moon, as the moon
does to the earth. But from one-half of the moon, the
earth ig never feen at all; from the middle of the other half
it is always feen over head, turning round almoft thirty times
as quick as the moon does. From the circle which limits
our view of the moon, only one-half of the earth’s fide next
her is feen ; the other ha!f heing hid below the horizon of
all places on that circle. ‘To her the earth feems to be the
biggeft body in the univerfe ; for it appears thirteen times as
big as fhe does tous. As the earth turns round its axis, the
feveral continents, feas, and iflands appear to the moon’s in-
habitants like fo many fpots of different forms and bright-
nefs, moving over its furface; but much fainter at fome times
than others, as our clouds cover or leave them. By thefe
f{pots, the Lunarians can determine the time of the earth’s
diurnal motion, juft as we do the motion of the fun; and
perhaps they meafure their time by the motion of the earth’s
{pots ; for they cannot have a truer dial.

Dr. Hooke, accounting for the reafon why the moon’s
light affords no vifible heat, obferves that the quantity of
light, which falls on the hemifphere of the full moon, is
rarefied into a {phere 288 times greater in diameter than the
moon, before it arrives at us; and, confequently, that the
moon’s light is 104,368 times weaker than that of the fun.
It would, therefore, require 104,368 full moons to give a
light and heat equal to that of the fun at noon. The light
of the moon, condenfed by the beft mirrors, produces no fen-
fible heat upon the thermometer.

Dr. Smith has endeayoured to fhew, in his book on Optics,
that the light of the full moon is but equal toa gogoodth
part of the common light of the day, when the fun is hid-
den by acloud. For other obfervations on this fubject, fee
Licnr.

Moon, Courfe and Motion of the. Though the moon
finithes its courfe in 277 7" 43' 5, which interval we
eall a periodical month, yet fhe is longer in pafling from
one conjunétion to another; which {pace we call a /ynodical
month, or a /unation. ‘The reafon is, that while the moon
is performing its courfe round the earth in its own orbit, the
earth and moon are making their progrefs round the fun,
and both are advanced almoft a whole fign towards the ealt ;
fo that the point of the orbit, which in the former pofition
was ina right line pafling through the centres of the earth
and fun, is now more weiterly than the fun; and, therefore,
when the moon is arrived again at that point, it will not yet
be feen in conjunétion with the fan; ner will the lunatioa
be completed in lefs than 29 days anda half, or 294 12"
44' 2". 8,

The moon’s periodical and fynodical revolution may be
familiarly reprefented by the motions of the hour and mi-
nute hands of a watch round its dial-plate, which is divided
into 12 eqnal parts or hours, as the ecliptic is divided into
‘2 figns, and the year into 12 months.

Let us fuppofe thefe 12 hours to be 12 figns, the hour-
hand the fun, and the minute-hand the moons then the
former will go round once in a year, and the latter once in
a month; but the moon, or minute-hand, mult go more
than round from any point of the circle where it was laft
conjoined with the fun, or hour-hand, to overtake it again;
for the hour-hand being in motion, can never be overtaken
by the minute-hand at that point from which they ftarted at

their laft conjunétion. The firft column of the annexed
table fhews the number of conjun@tions which the hour and
minute-hand make whilft the hour-hand goes once round the
dial-plate ; and the other columns fhew the times when the
two hands meet at each conjunGion. Thus, fuppofe the
two hands to be in conjunétion at XII, as they always ares
then, at the firft following conjunGtion it is 5 minutes 27
feconds 16 thirds 21 fourths 49 7, fifths paft I, where they

_meet ; at the fecond conjunétion it is 10 minutes 54 feconds

32 thirds 43 fourths 38 7, fifths patt IL ; and fo on. This,
though an eafy illuftration of the motions of the fun and
moon, is not precife as to the times of their conjunctions ;
becaufe, while the fun goes round the ecliptic, the moon

‘makes 12} conjun@tions with him ; but the minute-hand of

a wateh or clock makes only 11 conjunétions with the hour-
hand in one period round the dial-plate. But if, inftead of
the common wheel-work at the back of the dial-plate, the
axis of the minute-hand had a pinion of 6 leaves turning a
wheel of 74, and this lait turning the hour-hand, in every
revolution it makes round the dial-plate, the minute-hand
would make 123 conjunctions with it; and fo would be a
pretty device for fhewing the motions of the fun and moon ;
efpecially as the floweft moving hand might have a little
fun fixed on its point, and the quickeft a little moon.

Conj. H. M. | S. hh uit ota Dees
I I 5 27 16 21, | 497,
z it ro | 54 | 32 | 43 | 38rr
3 Ill 16 21 49 5. sda Biers
4 lV ar | 49 5 | 27>} 16g,
5 Vy 27 | 10 | 21 | 49 | Sie
6 vi 2 43 38 10 | 54%
% ipod 3 10 | 54 | 32 | 43%
8 Vill 43 38 10 SAcsl S25
9 Ix 49 5 27 "16, | 212)

10 x 5404 1G? sJo43s | 188 oor
II XII ° ° ° ° °

Were the plane of the moon’s orbit coincident with the
plane of the ecliptic, i.e. were the earth and moon both
moved in the fame plane, the moon’s way in the heavens,
viewed from the earth, would appear juft the fame with that
of the fun; with this only difference, that the fun would be
found to defcribe his circle in the {pace of a year, and the
moon her's ina month. But this is not the cafe; for the
orbits of the two planets cut each other in aright line, paffing
through the centre of the earth, and are inclined to each other
in an angle of about five degrees eighteen minutes.

Suppole, e.g. A B (fg. 7.) a portion of the earth’s or-
bit, T’ the earth, and C E D F the moon’s orbit, in which
is the centre of the earth; from-the fame centre T, in the
plane of the ecliptic, defcribe another circle CGDH,
whofe femi-diameter is equal to that of the moon’s orbit.
Now thefe two circles, being in feparate planes, and having
the fame centre, will interfe&t each other in a line DC,
pafling through the centre of the earth, Confequently,
CED, one-half of the orbit of the moon, will be raifed
above the plane of the circle CG H, towards the north:
and D FC, the other half, will be funk below towards the
fouth. The right line DC, in which the two circles in-
terfeét each other, is called the line of the nodes, and the
points of the angles C and D, the nodes: of which that
where the moon afcends above the plane of the ecliptic,
northwards, is called the afcending node, and the head of the
dragon; and the other D, the defcending node, and the dragon's

a+ tail ;

MOON.

vai]; and the interval of time between the moon's going
from the afcending node, and returning to it, a dracontic
month,

If the line of the nodes were immoveable, that is, if it
had no other motion but that by which it is carried round
the fun, it would ftill look towards the fame point of the
ecliptic ; 7. ¢. it would always keep parallel to itfelf; but it
is found by obfervation, that the line of the nodes con-
ftantly changes place, and fhifts in fituation from éaft to
weit, contrary to the order of the figns; and, by a retro-
grade motion, finifhes its circuit in about nineteen years ; in
which time each of the nodes returns to that point of the
ecliptic whence it before receded. .

ence it follows, that the moon is never precifely in the
ecliptic, but twice each period; wiz. when fhe is in the
nodes. Throughout the reft of her courfe fhe deviates
from it, being nearer or farther from the ecliptic, as {he is
nearer or farther from the nodes. In the points F and E
fhe is at her greatett diftance from the nodes; which points
are therefore called her /imits of north and fouth latitude.

The moon's diftance from the nodes, or rather from the
ecliptic, is called her /atitude, which is meafured by an arc

_of a circle drawn through the moon, perpendicular to the
ecliptic, and intercepted between the moon and the ecliptic.
The moon's latitude, when at the greateft, as in E or F,
never exceeds 5 degrees and aboyg 18 minutes ; which lati-
tude is the meafure of the angles at the nodes.

It appears by obfervation, that the moon’s diftance from
the earth is continually changing; and that fhe is always
either drawing nearer, or going farther from us. The
reafon is, that the moon does not move in a circular orbit,
which has the earth for its centre; but in an elliptic orbit
(as reprefented in fig. 8.), one of whofe foci is the centre of
the earth: A P reprefents the greater axis of the ellipfis,
and the line of the apfides; and T C the excentricity ; the
point A, which is the higheft apfis, is called the apogee of
the moon; and P, the lower apfis, is the moon's ferigee, or
the point in which fhe comes neareft the earth.

Befides, there is reafon to believe, that the moon is fome-
what nearer the earth now than the was formerly; her
periodical month being fhorter than it was in former ages.
For our altronomical tables, which in the prefent age fhew
the time of folar and lunar eclipfes to great precifion, do
not anfwer fo well for ancient eclipfes.

The fpace of time in which the moon, going from the
apogee, returns to it again, is called the anomaliflic monih.

If the moon’s orbit had no other motion but that with
~ which it is carried round the fun, it would ftill retain a po-
fition parallel to itfelf, and always point the fame way, and
be obferved in the fame point of the ecliptic; but the line
of the apfides is likewife obferved to be moveable, and to
have an angular motion round the earth, from weit to eail,
according to the order of the figns, returning to the jamie
fituation in the fpace of about nine years.

The irregularities of the moon’s motion, and that of her
orbit, are very confiderable. For, 1. When the earth is in
her aphelion, the moon is in her aphelion likewife ; in which
cafe fhe quickens her pace, and performs her circuit in a
fhorter time; on the contrary, when the earth is in its peri-
helion, the moon is fo too, and then fhe flackens her motion:
and thus fhe revolves round the earth, in a fhorter {pace,
when the earth is in her aphelion than when in her perihe-
lion ; fo that the periodical months are not all equal.

2. When the moon is in her fyzygies, 7. e. in the line that
joins the centres of the earth and fun, which is either in her

conjunion or oppofition, fhe moves fwifter, ceteris paribur,
than when in the quadratures.

3. According to the different diftances of the moon from
the fyzygies, 7. e. from oppofition to conjunction, fhe changes
her motion ; im the firft quarter, that is, from the conjune~
tion to her firlt quadrature, fhe abates fomewhat of her
velocity ; which in the fecond quarter fhe recovers; in the
third quarter fhe again lofes ; and in the laft fhe again re-
covers. Hence the areas deferibed are accelerated and re-
tarded ; and the mean place differs from the true. This in-
equality was firft difcovered by ‘Tycho Brahe, who called it
the moon’s variation. At different diltances of the earth
from the fun, the difturbing forces vary, and, therefore, the
equation, called the ‘* variation,” being firft calculated for
the mean diltance of the earth from the fun, will be fubjeé
to a variation from the variation of that diftance ; and hence
fome new equations will arife.

4. The moon moves in an ellipfis, one of whofe foci'is in
the centre of the earth, round which the deferibes areas pro-
portionable to the times, as the primary planets do round the
fun; whence the motion in her perigee mult be quickeft,
and it mutt be floweft in the apogee.

5. The very orbit of the moon is changeable, and does
not always preferve the fame figure ; its excentricity being
fometimes increafed, and fometimes diminifhed: it is greatett,
when the line of the apfides coincides with that of the fyzy-
gies ; and leaft, when the line of the apfides cuts the other
at right angles.

The moon’s orbit being dilated or contraéted as the earth
approaches to or recedes from the fun, its motion will ac-
cordingly be diminifhed or increafed; and hence arifes an
annual equation, affigning the difference between the mean
motion at the mean diftance of the earth from the fun, and
the mean motion at any other diltance of the fun. The va-
riation depending on the true diltance of the fun from the
moon, will produce feveral other equations, arifing from the
different correGtions that are made. The change of the ex-
centricity caufes a change of the equation of the centre, called
the evedlion, and hence new equations mult be applied. See
thefe terms refpectively and ExcenTRIcITY.

6. Nor is the apogee of the moon without an irregularity;
being found to move forward, when it coincides with the
line of the fyzygies ; and backward, when it cuts that line
at right angles. Nor are this progrefs and regrefs in any
meafure equal; in the conjunétion or oppofition, it goes
brifkly forward; and in the quadratures it moves either
flowly forward, {tands ftill, or goes backwards. Upon the

«whole, however; the motion of the apogee is progreffive.
Hence arifes an equation of the motion of the apogee, which
depends upon its diltance from the fun; and there is alfo a
fmaller annual equation, arifing from the difturbing forces
being different at different times of the year.

7. The motion of the nodes is not uniform ; but when
the line of the nodes coincides with that of the fyzygies at
richt angles, they go backward, from eaft to welt; and
this, fir Ifaac Newton thews, is at the rate of 36" 19’
o4/" in an hour. See the preceding part of this article,
and Noprs.

The only equable motion the moon has, is that with which
fhe turns roond her axig exactly in the fame {pace of time
in which fhe revolves round us in her orbit ; whence it hap-
pens, that fhe always turns the fame face towards us.

For as the moon’s motion round its axis is equal, and yet
its motion, or velocity, in its orbit, is unequal, it follows,
that when the moon is in its perigee, where it moves {wifteit
in'its orbit, that part of its furface, which, on account of

its

MOON.

its motion in the orbit, would be turned from the earth, is
not fo entirely ; by reafon of its motion round its axis.
Thus fome parts in the limb or margin of the moon, fome-
times recede from the centre of the difc, and fometimes ap-
proach towards it; and fome parts, that were before invi-
fible, become confpicuous; which is called the moon’s k-
bration.

Yet this equability of rotation occafions an apparent irre-
gularity ; for the axis of the moon not being perpendicular
to the plane of her orbit, but a little inclined to it; and this
axis, maintaining its parallelifm, in its motion round the
earth; it mutt neceflarily change its fituation, in refpect of
an obferver on the earth; to whom fometimes the ene, and
fometimes the other pole of the moon becomes vifible ;
whence it appears to have a kind of wavering, or vacillation.
See LrpraTion.

The irregularities above enumerated, and fome others of a
fimilar kind, have been urged as objeCtions to the Newtonian
theory of gravity, though they were anticipated by the 1l-
luftrions author, who not only evinced their confiftency with
it, but fuggefted the explication of them which might be de-
duced from that theory, properly underftood and applied.
Sir Ifaac Newton having found, in the manner which we fhall
prefently explain, that the moon was retained in its orbit by
a force, which, at different diftances from the earth, varied
inverfely as the fquares of the diftances, and concluding
from analogy that the fame law of attraction might take
place between all the bodies in the fyftem, applied this
theory to compute the effect of the fun’s attraction upon
the earth and moon, fo far as it might affe@ the relative fitu-
ation of the latter as feen from the former ; and hence he
difcovered, befides the irregularities already mentioned, other
fmaller inequalities of the moon's motion, which were alfo
found to agree with obfervations. From this, and other
applications of his theory, he was confirmed in his conjectures
concerning: the principle of univerfal gravitation ; and the
farther inveftigation of the fame principle, and the difcovery
that it produced conclufions conformable to obfervation,
ferved firmly to eftablifh his theory. M. Clairaut, indeed,
in the year 1747, publifhed a memoir which was read before
the Academy of Sciences at Paris, and urged as an objection
againft it, that it would not account for the motion of the
moon’s apogee, but that this motion, deduced from it by
his calculations, was only one-half of what it was found to be
by obfervations. But foon after difcovering his miltake,
and pofleffing candour eriough to acknowledge it, he was
the firft who gavea complete theory of the moon, in which
he fhewed that fir I. Newton’s law of gravity would not
only account for the motion of the moon’s apogee, but alfo
for all the other irregularities of the moon. M. Euler alfo
retraéted'his own erroneus opinion, in deference to the judg-
ment of M, Clairaut; and concurs with him in doing ample
juftice to the Newtoniantheory. ‘* After mott tedious cal-
culations,” fays Euler, « I have at length found, to my fa-
tisfaétion, that M. Clairaut was in the right, and that this the-
ory is entirely fufficient to explain the motion of the apogee of
the moon. As this enquiry is of the greateft difficulty, and as
thofe, who hitherto pretended to have proved this nice agree-
ment of the theory with the truth, have been much deceived,
it is to M. Clairaut that we are obliged for this important
difcovery, which gives quite a new luftre to the theory of the
Great Newton ; and it is but now that we can expect good
aftronomical tables of the moon.”? Others, and particularly
Mr. Machin and M. Frifé, have profecuted a fimilar inveftiga-
tionof this theory, and contributed to eftablifh it. What Euler
}ed altronomers to expect, they have new actually obtained

in Mayer’s tables, «as corrected by Dr. Mafkelyne, which,
founded upon a very elegant theory conformable to ob-
fervations, are the moft correét, and do not err more than
half a minute in longitude. See Loncirupe and Lunar
Ob/ervations.

Moon’s Motions, Phyfical Caufe of the. The moon, we
have obferved, moves round the fie by the fame laws,
and in the fame manner, as the earth and other planets
move round the fun. The folution, therefore, of the lunar
motions, in general, comes under thofe of the earth and
other planets.

As for the particular irregularities in the moon’s motion,
to which the earth, and other planets, are not fubje@,
they arife from the fun, which aéts on, and difturbs her in
her ordinary courfe through her orbit ; and are all mechani-
cally deducible from the fame great law by which her ge-
neral motion is dire¢ted ; viz. the Jaw of gravitation and
attradion. , ;

Other fecondary planets, v. g. the fatellites of Jupiter
and Saturn, are, doubtlefs, fubjeét to the like irregularities
with the moon ; as being expofed to the fame perturbating
or dilturbing force of the fun; but their diftance fecures
them from our obfervation,

The laws of the feveral irregularities in the fyzygies,
quadratures, &c. fee under SyzyGies, QUADRATURES,
&e. ;
It would not be content with the limits or nature of this
work to inveftigate, by tedious and elaborate procefles of an
analytical and geometrical kind, the various equations that
have been explored for the illuttration of thefe laws, and for
furnifhing a complete theory of the moon. Much has been
done in this way by feveral learned mathematicians, and of
late by profeffor Vince, who is eminently qualified for the un-
dertaking; and we fhall therefore refer the reader, who may
be defirous of farther information, and who has no accefs to
a variety of other publications, to the fecond volume of
Vince’s Complete Syftem of Altronomy, chap. xxxii.

We hall, however, in this place, introduce a general
view of the Newtonian theory of gravity, as it is applied to
the folution of the irregularities of the moon’s motion.

We have already, under the article GRaviraTion, illuf-
trated and confirmed the Newtonian theory of gravity, as it
regards the moon and the other planets ; but as the fubje&
is of importance, and as it is immediately conneéted with
what follows, we fhall here give a concife ftatement of the
leading fat by which the identity of the centripetal force,
as it refpects the moon, and that of gravity, was originally
explained and eftablifhed, referring for a more detailed ac-
count to the article juit cited. :

{t is well known, and univerfally allowed, that the planets
are retained in their orbits by fome power which is continu-
ally aéting upon them ; that this power is directed towards
the centres of their orbits ; that the efficacy of this power
increafes upon an approach to the centre, and diminifhes by
its reeefs from the fame ; and that it increafes according to
a certain law, viz. that of the {quares of the diftances, as the
diftance diminifhes ; and that diminifhes in the fame manner
as the diftance increafes. Now by comparing this centripe-
tal force of the planets with the rorce of gravity on earth,
they will be found perfeétly alike. ‘This we fhall illuftrate in
the cafe of the moon, the nearelt to us of all the planets.
The reétilinear {paces defcribed in any given time by a¥falling
body, urged by any powers, reckoning from the beginning of
its defcent, are proportionable to thofe powers. Confequently
the ceneripetal force of the moon, revolving in its orbit, will
be tothe Ae of gravity on the furface of ae earth, as the

{pace

MOON.

fpace which the moon would defcribe in falling any litde
time, by her centripetal force towards the earth, if fhe had
no circular motion at all, to the fpace which a body near
the earth would defcribe in falling, by its gravity towards
the fame. By a very eafy and obvious calculation of thefe
two {paces it will appear, that the firit of them is to the fe-
cond, #.e. the centripetal force of the moon revolving in her
orbit isto the force of gravity on the furface of the earth,
as the fquare of the earth’s femidiameter to the fquare of the
femidiameter of her orbit, which is the fame ratio.as that of
the moon’s centripetal force in her orbit to the fame force
near the furface of the earth. The moon’s centripetal force
is, therefore, equal to the force of gravity. Thefe forces,
confequently, are not different, but they are one and the
fame; for if they were different, bodies acted upon by the
two powers conjointly, would fall towards the earth witha
velocity double to that arifing from the fole power of gravity.
It is evident, therefore, that the moon's centripetal force,
by which he is retained in her orbit, and prevented from run-
ing off in tangents, is the very power of gravity of the earth,
extended thither. This reafoning may be farther illuftrated
and confirmed in the following manner. Let R A E (Plate
XVII. Afronomy, fig. g.) reprefent the earth, T its centre,
V Lthe orbit of the moon, and L C apart of it defcribed by
the moon ina minute, which is equal to --4,, of the whole
periphery, or 33 feconds of a degree; becaufe the moon
completes her whole courfe in 27 ays, feven hours, 43 mi-
putes, Or in 39343 minutes. Moreover, the circumference
of the earth, according to M. Picart’s menfuration, is
123249600 Paris feet, and therefore its femidiameter TA
= 19615800 feet ; and T L, the femidiameter of the moon’s
orbit, will be 1176948000 feet, or = 60 times T A; and
the verfed fine L D of the arc LC = 33", computed by
means of tables, or BC, will be 15 ,*, feet, nearly: or
LD may be found without tables thus; the whole cir-
cumference of the moon’s orbit, cr 60 x 123249600, is
equal to 7394976000, which divided by 39343, will give the
are L C= 187961 feet; but by a well-known theorem in
geometry, fuppofing the arc LC, which is a very {mall part
ef the moon’s orbit, to be reCtilinear, LC? = LD x

: LC
Bea git, é0 ) = oLT
is 353293375 21,divided by 2353896000, will give 15.013, &c.
It may be here obferved, that a diftance of the moon fome-
what greater than 60 times the diameter of the earth would
afford a more exaét refult ; and the force by which the
moon is re{trained in its orbit fhould alfo be increafed in the
proportion of 1772. to 17822, in order to have the exact
centripetal force of the moon, fuch as it would be undimi-
nifhed by the ation of the fun, and with this correétion the
above number 15.013, &c. will become 15.097, &c. or 15-4,
very nearly. (See Newton’s Principia, lib. 1. prop. 45. cor. 2.
and lib. iit. prop. 3.) In cither way of calculation it appears
that the force, by which the moon is drawn off from the
tangent L B, or retained in its orbit, impels it towards the
centre of the earth about 15 4, Paris feet in one minute:
but this force, being known from the elliptic figure of her
orbit to be reciprocally proportional to the {quare of the
diftance, would impel the moon, fuppofed to be at the fur-
face of the earth, through a [pace equal to60 x 60 x 15/5
feet in one minute. But bodies, impelled by the force of
gravity, fall near the furface of the earth through the {pace
of 15,1, Paris feet in one fecond, and the {paces being as the
{quares of the times, through 60 x 60 x 15%, inaminute.
Confeguently, as the force by which the moon is retained in its
orbit, and the force of gravity, produce the fame effects in

Vor. XXIV.

2

, or the fquare of 187961, which

the fame circumftances, and tend towards the fame point,
they are the fame forces.. The moon, therefore, gravitates
towards the earth, and the earth reciprocally towards the
moon ; and this law is further confirmed by the phenomena
of the tides. See Trpes.

The like reafoning might be applied to the other planets.
For, as the revolutions of the primary planets round the
fan, and thofe of the fatellites of Jupiter, Saturn, and the
Georgium Sidus, round their primaries, are phenomena of
the fame kind as the revolution of the moon round the earth ;
as the centripetal powers of the primary are directed towards
the centre of the fun, and thofe of the fatellites towards
the centres of their primaries; and, laftly, as all thefe
powers are reciprocally as the {quares of the diftances from
the centres ; it may fafely be concluded, that the power and
caufe are the fame in all. ‘Therefore, as the moon gravi-
tates towards the earth, and the earth towards the moon, {o
do all the fecondaries to their refpeétive primaries ; the pri-
maries to their fecondaries ; and fo do, alfo, the primaries
to the fun, and the fun to the primaries, &c. Newton’s
Princ. lib. iti. prop. 4, 5,6. Gregory’s Aft. lib. i. § .7.
prop. 46 and 47.

In folving the irregularities of the moon’s motion, agree-
ably to the theory of gravity, previoufly eftablifhed, it
mult firft be confidered, that if the fun aéted equally
on the earth’ and moon, and always in parallel lines, this
action would ferve only to reftrain them in their annual mo-
tions round the fun, and no way affect their actions on each
other, or their motions about their common centre of gra-
vity. But becanfe the moon is nearer the fun, in one half of
her orbit, than the earth is, and farther in the other half of
her orbit, and the power of gravity is always greater at a
lefs diftance, it follows, that, in one half of her orbit the
moon is more attraéted than the earth towards the fun, and
in the other half lefs attracted than the earth: and hence ir-
regularities neceffarily arife in the motions of the moon ;
the excefs, in the firft cafe, and the defect, in the fecond, of
the attraction, becoming a force that ditturbs her motion :
and befides, the aétion of the fun on the earth and moon,
is not direéted in parallel lines, but in lines that meet in the
centre of the fun.

In order to underftand the effects of thefe powers, let us
fuppofe that the projectile motions of the earth and moon
were deftroyed, and that they were allowed to fall freely
towards the fun. If the moon was in conjunétion with the
fun, or in that part of her orbit which is neareft to him,
the moon would be more attracted than the earth, and fall
with greater velocity towards the fun; fo that the diftance
of the moon from the earth would be increafed in the fall.
If the moon was in oppofition, or in the part of her orbit
which is fartheft from the fun, fhe would be lefs attraéied
than the earth by the fun, and would fall with lefs velocity
towards the fun than the earth, and the moon would be left
behind by the earth; fo that the diftance of the moon from
the earth would be increafed, in this cafe alfo. If the
moon was in one of the quarters, then the earth and moon
being both attra¢éted towards the centre of the fun, they
would both direétly defcend towards that centre, and, by
approaching to the fame centre, they would neceflarily ap-
proach at the fame time to each other, and their diitance
from one another would be diminifhed, in this cafe. Now,
wherever the action of the fun would increafe their diftance,
if they were allowed to fall towards the fun, there we may
be fure the fun’s aétion, by endeavouring to feparate them,
diminifhes their gravity to each other; wherever the ac-
tion of the fun would diminifh their diftance, there the
fun’s aGion, by endeavouring to make them approach to

one

MOON.

one another, increafes their gravity to each other: that is,
in the conjun@ion and oppofition, their gravity towards
each other is diminifhed by the a@tion of the fun; but in
the two quarters it is increafed by the aétion of the fun.

To prevent miftaking this matter, it muft be remembered, —

itis not the total aétion of the fun on them that difturbs
their motions, it is only that part of its action, by which
it tends to feparate them, in the firft cafe, toa greater dif-
tance from each other ; and that part of its aGtion, by which
it tends to bring them nearer to each other, in the fecond
cafe, that has any effect omtheir motions, with refpeG to
each other.. The other, and the far more confiderable part,
has no other effet but to retain them in their annual courfe,
which they perform together about the fun. i

In confidering, therefore, the effects of the fun’s action
on the motions of the earth and moon, with refpe& to
each other, we need only attend to the excefs of its action
on the moon above its a¢tion on the earth, in their conjunc-
tion; and we mutt confider this excefs as drawing the
moon from the earth towards the fun in that place. In
the oppofition, we need only confider the excefs of the ac-
tion of the fun, on the earth, above its a€tion on the moon,
and we muft confider this excefs as drawing the moon from
the earth, in this place, in a direGtion oppofite to the
former, that is, towards the place oppofite to where the
fun is; becaufe we confider the earth as quiefcent, and refer
the motion, and all its irregularities to the moon. In the
quarters, we confider the a€tions of the fun as adding
fomething to the gravity of the moon towards the earth.

Suppofe the moon fetting out from the quarter that
precedes the conjunction, with a velocity that would make
her defcribe an exact circle round the earth, if the fun’s
ation had no effeét on her; and becaufe her gravity is in-
creafed by that action, fhe mutt defcend towards the earth,
and move within that circle: her orbit, there, will be more
curve than otherwife it would have been: becaufe this ad-
dition to her gravity will make her fall farther at the end
of an are below the tangent drawn at the other end of it;
her motion will be accelerated by it, and will continue to
be accelerated, till fhe arrives at the enfuing conjunétion ;
becaufe the direGtion of the aGtion of the fun upon her,
during that time, makes an acute angle with the direCtion
of her motion. At the conjunétion, her gravity towards
the earth being diminifhed by the action of the fun, her
orbit will be lefs curve there for that reafon; and fhe will
be carried farther from the earth, as fhe moves to the next
quarter; and becaufe the action of the fun makes then an
obtufe angle with the direétion of her motion, fhe will be
retarded by the fame degrees by which fhe was accelerated
before.

Thus fhe will defcend a little towards the earth, as fhe
moves from the firlt quarter towards the conjunction, and
afcend from it, as fhe moves from the conjunction to the
next quarter. ‘The action which difturbs her motion will
have a like, and almoft equal effet upon her, while fhe
moves in the other half of her orbit, that is, that half of
it which 4s farthelt from the fun: fhe will proceed from the
quarter that follows the conjunétion with an accelerated
motion to the oppofition, approaching a little towards the
earth, becaufe of the addition made to her gravity, at that
quarter, from the a€tion of the fun; and receding from it
again, as fhe goes on from the oppolition to the quarter,
from which we fuppofed her to fet out. The areas de-
{cribed in equal times, by a ray drawn from the moon to
the earth, will not be equal, but will be accelerated by the
confpiring action of the fun, as fhe moves towards the con-
junétion or oppofition from the quarters that precede them §

and will be zetarded by the fame action, as fhe moves from
the conjunétion or oppofition to the quarters that fucceed
them. Newton has computed the quantities of thefe irre-
gularities from their caufes.
to the gravity of the moon, in her quarters, is to the gravity
with which fhe would revolve in a circle about the earth, at
her prefent mean diftance, if the fumhad no effect on her,
as 1 to 17832. He finds the force fubdu€ted from her
gravity, in the conjunctions and oppofitions, to be double of
this quantity, and the area defcribed in a given time in the
quarters, to be to the area defcribed in the fame time in the
conjunctions and oppofitions, as 10973 to r1073. He finds,
that in fuch an orbit, her diftance from the earth in her
quarters, would be to her diftance in the conjunétions and
oppofitions, as 70 to 69. This is the variation of the form
of the orbit arifing from the force of the fun, fuppofing
that the orbit would have been a circle without that ‘difturb-
ing force. And as the orbit of the moon is an ellipfe,

having the earth in its focus, and approaching nearly to a.

circle, the fame caufe muft produce very nearly the fame
effect in the moon’s orbit. Dr. Halley firit took notice of
this contra¢tion of the lunar orbit in fyaygies, from the
phenomena of the moon’s motion, and made the ratio of
the diameter as 44.5 : 45.5, from obfervation.

From the alteration of the form of the orbit and from
the acceleration of the areas, there will arife two correc--
tions to be applied tofthe mean motion of the moon, in
order to give the true motion ; and the joint effect of thefe-
two conftitutes an equation, called the ‘* variation.”’

As to the effeét of the a¢tion of the fun on the nodes,
and, confequently, on the inclination of the moon’s orbit
to the ecliptic, fee Noprs, and the preceding part of this
article.

Moreover, the action of the fun diminifhes the gravity
of the moon towards the earth, in the conjunétions and op-
pofitions, more than it adds to it in the quarters, and, by
diminifhing the force, which retains the moon in her orbit,
increafes her diftance from the earth and her periodic time =
and becaufe the earth and moon are nearer the fun in their
perihelion than in their aphelion, and the fun ats with a
greater force there, fo as to fubdu& more form the moon's
gravity towards the earth; it follows, that the moon muft
revolve at a greater diftance, and take a longer time to
finifh her revolution in the perihelion of the earth, when her
orbit is dilated, and fhe moves flower, than in the aphelion,
when the moon’s orbit is contra&ed, and fhe moves fafter..
The annual equation, by which this inequality is com
penfated, is nothing in aphelion and perihelion; and at the
mean diltance of the fun it is 12' 55", according to pro-
feffor Vince’s determination. Sir Iiaac Newton makes it
11! 50": according to Mayer, it is 11/16’: M. d’Alem-
bert makes it 12’ 57": Halley makes it about 13': ac-
cording to M. de la Lande, it is 11'8".65; and this alfo is
conformable to obfervation.

There is another remarkable irregularity in the moon’s
motion, that alfo arifes from the aétion of the fun: which
is the progrefiive motion of the apfides. The moon de-
{cribes an ellipfe about the centre of the earth, having one
of the fociin that centre. Her greateft and leaft diflances
from the earth are in the apfides, or extremities of the
longer axis of the ellipfe. This is not found to point al-
ways to the fame place in the heavens, but to move with
a progreflive motion forwards, fo as to finifh a revolution
round the earth’s centre in about nine years.

To underftand the reafon of this motion of the apfides,
we mutt confider, that, if the gravity of a body decreafed
lefs as the diftance increafes, then according to the regular

ff courfle

He finds, that the force added ~

——

ie

MOON.

courfe of gravity, the body would defcend fooner from the
higher to the lower apfis, than in half.a revolution ; and
‘therefore the apfis would recede in that cafe, for it would
"moye in a contrary direétion to the motion of the body,
“meeting it in its motion. But if the gravity of the body
fhould decreafe more, as the diltance increafes, than accord-
‘ing to the regular courfe of gravity, that is, in a higher
proportion than as the fquare of the diftance increafes, the
body would take more than half a revolution to move from
the higher to the lower apfis; and, therefore, in that cafe,
the apfides would have a progreflive motion in the fame di-
rection as the body.

In the quarters, the fun’s ation adds to the gravity of
the moon, and the force it adds is greater, as the diftance
ef the moon from the earth is greater; fo that the action
of the {un hinders her gravity towards the earth from de-
creafing as much while the diltance increafes, as it ought to
do according to the regular courfe of gravity ; and, there-
fore, while the moon is in the quarters, her apfides mult ré-
cede. In the conjunétion and oppofition, the aétion of the
fun fubduéts from the gravity of the moon towards the
-earth, and fubducts the more the greater her diftance from
the earth is, fo as to make her gravity decreafe more as
her diftance increafes, than according to the regular courfe
of gravity ; and, therefore, in this cafe, the apfides are in
a progreflive motion. Becaufe the aétion of the fun fub-
du&ts more in the conjun@ions and oppofitions from her
gtavity, than it adds to it in the quarters, and, in general,
diminifhes more than it augments her gravity ; hence it is
that the progreflive motion of the apfides exceeds the re-
trograde motion; and, therefore, the apfides are carried
round according to the order of the figns. The annual
equation of the aplides, according to fir Ifaac Newton, is
19' 43". See Maclaurin’s Account of fir Ifaac Newton’s
Phil. Difc. lib. iv. c. 4. We have fome obfervations and
tables concerning the moon’s motion, by Mr. Richard
Dunthorn, in the Philofophical TranfaGtions, N° 482.
fect. 13, where he gives 100 obferved longitudes of the
moon compared with the tables, wiz. 25 eclipfes of the
moon, taken (except the firft) from Flamtteed’s Hiftoria
Ceeleftis, the Philofophical Tranfa&tions, and the Memoirs
of the Royal Academy of Sciences ; the two great eclipfes
of the fun in 1706 and 1715; 25 feleét places of the moon,
from Flamfteed’s Hiftoria Ceeleftis; and 48 of thofe lon-
gitudes of the moon, computed from Flamiteed’s Obferva-
tions by Dr. Halley, and printed in the firft edition of the
Hittoria Ceelettis.

Theory of the Moon’s Motions and Irregularities —The tables
of equation, which ferve to folve the irregularities of the
fun, do likewife ferve for thofe of the moon.

But then thefe equations mutt be corre€ted for the moon,
otherwife they will not exhibit the true motions in the
fyzygies. ‘The method is thus: Suppofe the moon’s place
in the zodiac, required in longitude, for any given time;
here, we firft find, in the tables, the place where it would
be, fuppofing its motion uniform, which we call mean, and
which is fometimes fafter, and fometimes flower, than the
true motion; then, to find where the ¢rue motion will place
her, whichis alfo the apparent, we are to find in another
table at what diftance it 1s from its apogee ; for, according
to this diftance, the difference between her true and mean
motion, and the two places which correfpend thereto, is the
greater. The true place thus found, is not yet the ¢rue
place ; but varies from it, as the moon is more or lefs re-
mote both from the fun, and the fun’s apogee: which va-
riation refpeéting, at the fame time, thofe two different dif-
tances, they are to be both confidered and combined together,

as in'a tablé apart. Which table gives the corre@tion to be
made of the true places firft found That place, thus cor-
rected, is not yet the true place, unlefs the moon be either
in conjunction, or oppofition : if fhe be out of thefe, there
mutt be another correétion, which depends on two things
taken together, and compared, vig. the diftance of the
moon’s correéted place from the fun; and of that at which
fhe is with regard to her own apogee ; this laft diftance
having been changed by the firft corre€tion.

_ By all thefe operations and correétions, we at length ar-
rive at the moon’s true place for that infant. In this, it
muft be owned, there occur prodigious difficulties : the lus
nar equalities are fo many, that it. was in vain the aftrono-
mers laboured to bring them under any rule, before the
great fir Ifaac Newton; to whom we are indebted. both for
the mechanical caufes of thefe inequalities, and for the me«
thod of computing and afcertaining them: fo that le has
given us a world, in a great meafure, of his own difcover-
ing, or rather fubduing.

From the theory of gravity he fhews, that the latger
planets, revolving round the fun, may carry along with them
{maller planets, revolving round themfelves ; and fhews alfo,
@ priori, that thefe {maller muft move in ellipfes having
their umbilici in the centres of the larger; and muft have
their motion in their orbits varioufly difturbed by the mo-
tion of the fun; andin a word, muil be affe@ed with thofe
inequalities which we a€tually obferve in the moon. And
from this theory, he argues analogous irregularities in the
fatellites of Saturn.. j

From the fame theory he examines the force which the
fun has to difturb the mcoon’s motion, determines the ho-
rary increafe of the area which the moon would defcribe
ina circular orbit by radii drawn to the earth—her dif-
tance from the earth—the horary motion in a circular and
elliptic orbit—the mean motion of the nodes—the true mo-
tion of the nodes—the horary variation of the inclination
of the moon’s orbit to the plane of the ecliptic. Lattly,
from the fame theory he has found the annual equation of
the moon’s mean motion to arife from the various dilatation
of her orbit ; and that variation to arife from the fun’s force,
which being greater in the perigee, diftends the orbit ; and,
being lefs in the apogee, fuffers it to be again contracted. In
the dilating orbit fhe moves more flowly ; in the contraéted,
more fwiftly ; and the annual equation, whereby this ine-
quality is compenfated, in the apogee and perigee, is nothing
at all; at a moderate diftance from the fun, it amounts
to 11’ 50"; and in other places it is proportional to the
equation of the fun’s centre, and is added to the mean mo-
tion of the moon, when the earth proceeds from its aphe-
lion to its perihelion; and fubtra@ted when in the oppofite
part.

Thus, fuppofing the radius of the orbis magnus 1000,
and the earth’s excentricity 167; this equation, wher
greatelt, according to the theory of gravity, comes out
Il 49".

He adds, that in the earth's perihelion, the nodes move
{wifter than in the aphelion, and that in a triplicate ratio of
the earth’s diltance from the fun, inverfely. Whence arife
annual equations of their motions, proportionable to that of
the centre of the fun. Now the fun’s motion is in a dupli-
cate ratio of the earth’s diftance from the fun inverfely, and
the greateit equation of the centre which this inequality
eccalions, 1s 1~ 56! 26”, agreeable to the fun’s excentricity
1614. If thefun’s motion were in a triplicate ratio of its
diitance inverfely, this inequality would generate the greateft
equation 2° 56 9! and therefore the greateft equations
which the inequalities of the motions of the moon’s apogee

12 and

MOON.

and nodes occafion, are to 2° 56! 9", asthe mean diurnal
motion of the moon's apogee, and the mean diurnal motion
of her nodes, are to the mean diurnal motion of the fun.
Whence the greateft equation of the mean motion of the
apogee comes out 19! 42!; and the greateft equation of the
mean motion of the nodes 9! 27. The former equation is
added, and the latter fubtragted, when the earth proceeds
from its perihelion to its aphelion, and the contrary in the
oppofite part of its orbit.

From the fame theory of gravity, it allo appears that the
fun’s ation on the moon muft be fomewhat greater when
the tranfverfe diameter of the lunar orbit paffes through the
fun, than when it is at right angles with the line that joins
the earth and fun; and, therefore, that the lunar orbit is
fomewhat greater in the firft cafe than in the fecond. Hence
arifes another equation of the mean lunar motion, depending
on the fituation of the moon’s apogee with regard to the
fun, which is greateft when the moon’s apogee 1s in an oc-
tant with the fun; and none, when fhe arrives at the quad-
rature, or fyzygies; and is added to the mean motion, in
the paflage of the moon’s apogee from the quadrature to
the fyzygies, and fubtra¢ted in the paflage of the apogee
from the fyzygies to the quadrature.

This equation, which fir Ifaac calls /eme/fris, when greateit,
wiz. in the o¢tants of the apogee, rifes to 3! 45", atamean
diftance of the earth from the fun; but it increafes and di-
minifhes in a triplicate ratio of the fun’s diftance inverfely ;
and therefore, in the fun’s greateft diftance, is 3' 34/5 in
the fmalleft, 3' 56", nearly. But when the apogee of the
moon is without the oétants, it becomes lefs, and is to the
greateft equation, as the fine of double the diltance of the
moon’s apogee from the next fyzygy, or quadrature, to the
radius.

From the fame theory of gravity it follows, that the fun’s
action on the moon is fomewhat greater when a right line,
drawn through the moon’s nodes, pafles through the fun,
than when that line is at right angles with another joining the
fun and earth:~ and hence arifes another equation of the
moon’s mean motion, which he calls /ecunda /emefiris, and
which is greateft when the nodes are in the {un’s o¢tants,
and vanifhes when they are in the fyzygies, or quadratures ;
and in other fituations of the nodes, is proportionable to the
fine of double the diftances of either node from the next
fyzygy, or quadrature.

It is added to the moon’s mean motion while the nodes
are in their paflage from the fun’s quadratures to the next
fyzygy, and fubtra&ed in their paflage trom the fyzygies to
the quadratures in the odtants.

When it is greatett, it amounts to 47", at a mean diltance
of the earth from the fun; as it appears from the theory of
gravity ; at other diftances of the fun, this equation in the
oétants of the nodes is reciprocally as the cube of the fun’s
diftance from the earth ; and therefore in the fun’s perigee
is 45''; in his apogee nearly 49".

By the fame theory of gravity the moon’s apogee proceeds
the fa{teft when either in conjunétion with the fun, orin op-
pofition to it; and is retrograde when in quadrature with
the fun. In the former ae the excentricity is greatelt,
and inthe latter fmalleft. Thefe inequalities are very con-
fiderable, and generate the principal equation of the apogee,
which he calls /emeffris, or femimenfirual. The greatett fe-
mimentftrual equation is about 12° 48!.

Horrox firlt obferved the moon to revolve in an ellipfis
round the earth placed in the lower umbilicus: and Halley
placed the centre of the ellipfis in an epicycle, whofe centre
revolves uniformly about the earth: and from the motion
wi the epicycle arife the inequalities now obferyed in the

progrefs and regrefs of the apogee, and the quantity of the
excentricity.
Suppofe the mean diftance of the moon from the earth
divided into 100,000; and let T ( Plate XVII. Afronomy,
jig. 12.) reprefent theearth, and I'C the mean excentricity
of the moon 5505 parts; produce TC to B, that CB may
be the fine of the greateft femimehftrual equation 12° 18’,
to the radius TC; the circle BDA, defcribed on the |
centre C, with the interval C B, will be the epicycle where-
in the centre of the lunar orb is placed, and wherein it re-
volves according to the order of the letters BD A. Take
the angle BC D equal to double the annual argument, or
double the diftance of the true place of the fan from the
moon’s apogee once equated, and C TD will be the femi-
menttrual equation of the moon’s apogee ; and T D the ex-
centricity of its orbit tending to the apogee equated a fe-
cond time. From hence the moon’s mean motion, apogee,
and excentricity, as alfo the greater axis of its orbit 200,000,
the moon’s true place, as alfo her diftance from the earth,
are found, and that by the moft common methods. In the
earth’s perihelion, by reafon of the greater force of the {un,
the centre of the moon's orbit will move more {wiftly about
the centre C than in the aphelion, and that ina triplicate ra-
tio of the earth’s diftance from the fun inverfely. By rea-
fon of the equation of the centre of the fun, comprehended
in the annual argument, the centre of the moon’s orbit will
move more fwiftly in the epicycle B D A, ina duplicate
ratio of the diftance of the earth from the fun inverfely.
That the fame may ftill move more f{wiftly in a fimple
ratio of the diftance inverfely from the centre of the orbit D,
draw D E towards the moon’s apogee, or parallel to TC;
and take the angle E DC equal to the excefs of the annual
argument, above the diftance of the moon’s apogee from the
fun’s perigee in confequentia; or, which is the fame thing,
take the angle C D F equal to the complement of the true
anomaly of the fun to 360°; and let DF beto DC as
double the excentricity of the orbis magnus to the mean dif-
tance of the fun from the earth, and the mean diurnal mo-
tion of the fun from the moon’s apogee, to the mean diurnal
motion of the fun from it own apogee, conjunlly, i.e. as
332 is to 1000, and 52! 27" 36” to 59! 8" rol”, con-
junétly ; or as 3 to 100. Conceive the centre of the moon’s
orbit placed in the point F, and to revolve in an epicycle,:
whofe centre is D, and its radius D F, while the point D
proceeds in the circumference of the circle DABD: thus
the velocity, with which the centre of the moon’s orbit
moves in a certain curve, defcribed about the centre C, will
be reciprocally as the cube of the fun’s diltance from the
earth.
The computation of this motion is difficult ; but it will
be made eafy by the following approximation : if the moon’s
mean diftance from the earth be 100,000 parts, and its ex-»
centricity T'C 5505 of thofe parts, the right line CB or
CD will be found 11723, and the right line DF 351.
This right line, at the diftance TC, fubtends an angle to
the ak, which the transferring of the centre of the orbit
from the place D to F generates in the motion of this centre ;
and the fame right line doubled, in a parallel fituation, at
the diftance of the upper umbilicus of the moon’s orbit
from the earth, fubtends the fame angle, generated by that
tranflation in the motion of the umbilicus; and at the dif-
tance of the moon from the earth fubtends an angle, which
the fame tranflation generates in the motion of the moon;
and which may therefore be called she /econd equation of the

contre.
This equation of a mean diftance of the moon from the
earth, is as the fine of the angle contained between the right
line

MOON.

line DF, and a right line drawn from the point IF to the
moon, nearly ; and when greateft, amounts to 2' 25". Now
the angle comprehended between the right line DF anda
line from the point D, is found either by fubtraéting the
angle EDF from the mean anomaly of the «moon, or by
adding the moon’s diftance from the fun to the diftance of
the moon’s apogee from the apogee of the fun. And as
radius is to the fine of the angle thus found, fo is 2! 25"
to the fecond equation of the centre; which is to be added,
if that fine be lefs than a femicircle; and fubtraéted, if
greater: thus we have its longitude in the very fyzygies of
the luminaries.

If a more accurate computation be required, the moon’s
place thus found muft be correéted by a fecond variation.
The firft and principal variation we have already confidered,
and have obferved it to be greateft in the octants. The fe-
cond is greateft in the quadrants, and arifes from the dif-
ferent aGtion of the fun on the moon’s orbit, according to
the different pofition of the moon’s apogee to the fun, and
is thus computed ; as radius is to the verfed fine of the dif-
tance of the moon’s apogee from the fun’s perigee, in con-
fequentia, fo is a certain angle P to a fourth proportional.
And as radius is to the fine of the moon’s diftance from the
fun, fo is the fum of this fourth proportional and another
angle Q to the fecond variation; which is to be fubtraéted,
if the moon’s light be increafing; and added, if dimi-
nifhing. 2 ;

Thus we have tke moon’s true place in her orbit; and
by redution of this place to the ecliptic, we have the moon’s
longitude. The angles P and Q are to be determined by
obfervation m the mean time, if for P be affumed 2, and for
Q 1', we fhall be near the truth.

The refults of computations of this kind are rendered more
accurate, in confequence of modern difcoveries; and the
labour of them is in a great meafure fuperfeded by the va-
luable lunar tables, which the aftronomer has now in his
poffeffion. We fhall therefore refer for thefe tables to the
Nautical Almanack, and to Vince’s Complete Aftronomy,
vol, iii.

Moon’s Path with refped to the Sun, Figure of the. The
path of the moon is concave towards the fun throughout.

In other fecondary planets, as the fatellites of the fuperior
planets, that part of the path of thefe fatellites which is
neareft the fun, is convex towards the fun, and the reft is
concave. And we often find in elementary treatifes of
aftronomy, the moon’s path reprefented in the fame manner ;
that is, as partly convex and partly concave towards the
fun: but this is a miftake. For it is to be obferved, in ge-
neral, that the force which bends the courfe of the fatellite
into a curve, when the motion is referred to an immoveable
plane, is, at the conjunction, the difference of its gravity
towards the fun, and of its gravity towards the primary.
When the former prevails over the latter, the force that
bends the courfe of the fatellite tends towards the fun ; and,
confequently, the concavity of the path is towards the fun;
and this is the cafe of the moon. When the gravity towards
the primary exceeds the gravity towards the fun, at the con-
junétion, then the force which bends the courfe of the fatel-
lite tends towards the primary, and therefore towards the
oppofition of the fun ; confequently the path is there convex
toward the fun; and this is the cafe of\the fatellites of Ju-
piter. When thefe two forces are equal, the path has, at
the conjunétion, what mathematicians call a point of reéti-
tude; in which cafe, however, the path is concave towards
the fun throughout.

If, indeed, the earth had no annual motion, the moon’s
motion round the earth, and her track in open {pace, would

be always the fame. Butas the earth and moon move round
the fun, the moon’s real path in the heavens is very different
from her vifible path round the earth; the latter being in a
progreflive circle, and the former in a curve of different de-
grees of concavity, which would be always the fame in the
fame parts of the heavens, if the moon performed a com-
plete number of lunations in a year, without any frac-
tions,

Mr. Fergufon has fuggefted the following familiar idea of
the earth’s and moon’s path. Let a nail in the end of a
chariot-wheel reprefent the earth, and a pin in the nave the
moon: if the body of the chariot be propped up, fo as to
keep that wheel from touching the ground, and the wheel
be then turned round by hand, the pin will defcribe a circle
both round the nail, and in the {pace it moves through.
But if the props be taken away, the horfes put to, and the
chariot driven over a piece of ground which is circularly
convex ; the nail in the axle will deferibe a circular curve,
and the pin in the nave will ftill deferibe a circle round the
progreflive nail in the axle, but not in the fpace through
which it moves. In this cafe, the curve defcribed by the
nail will refemble in miniature as much of the earth’s annual
path round the fun, as it deferibes whilft the moon goes as
often round the earth as the pin does round the nail; and the
curve defcribed by the nail will have fome refemblance to the
moon’s path during fo many lunations.

Let us now fuppofe that the radius of the circular curve,
defcribed by the nail in the axle, is to the radius of the
circle, which the pin in the nave defcribes round the axle,
as 3374 to 1; which is the proportion of the radius or femi-
diameter of the earth’s orbit to that of the moon’s; or of
the circular curve A 1234567 3B, &c. (Plate XVII.
Afironomy, fig. 10.) to the little circle 2, and then, whilit
the progreffive nail defcribes the faid curve from A to E,
the pin will go once round the nail, with regard to the centre
of its path, and, in fo doing, will defcribe the curve abcde.
The former will be a true reprefentation of the earth’s path
for one lunation, and the latter of the moon’s for that time.
Here we may fet afide the inequalities of the moon’s motion,
and alfo the earth’s moving round its common centre of
gravity, and the moon’s: all which, if they were truly
copied in this experiment, would not fenfibly alter the figure
of the paths defcribed by the nail and pin, even though
they fhould rub againft a plain upright furface all the way,
and leave their tracks vifible upon it. And if the chariot
was driven forward ‘on fuch a convex piece of ground, fo as.
to turn the wheel feveral times round, the track of the pin
in the nave would ftill be concave toward the centre of the
circular curve defcribed by the pin in the axle ; as the moon’s.
path is always concave to the fun in the centre of the earth's.
annual orbit.

In this diagram, the thickeft curve line A BC DE, with
the numeral figures fet to it, reprefents as much of the earth’s
annual orbit as it defcribes in 32 days from welt to eaft; the
little circles at a, 4, c, d, e, fhew the moon’s orbit in due
proportion to the earth’s; and the fmalleft curve abcde f
reprefents the line of the moon’s path in the heavens for 32
days, accounted from any particular new moon at a.

The fan is fuppofed to be in the centre of the curve
A 1234567 B, &c. and the fmall dotted circles upon.
it reprefent the moon's orbit, of which the radius isin the
fame proportion to the earth’s path, in this f{cheme, that the
radius of the moon’s orbit, in the heavens, bears.to-the radius
of the earth’s annual path round the fun; that is, as 240,000:
to $1,000,000, or as 1 to 3374.

When the earth is at A, the new moon is at a; and inthe
feven days that the earth defcribes the curve 1 2 3 4 56 7

the

MOON.

¢he meon, in accompanying the earth, defcribes the curve
ab; and isin her firft quarter at ), when the earth is at B.
As the earth deferibes the curve B § 9 10 11 12 13 14, the
moon defcribes the curve bc; and is at c, oppolite to the
fun, when the earthisat C. Whilft the earth deferibes the
curve 15 1617 18 19 20 21 22, the moon defcribes the
curve cd; and is in her third quarter at d, when the earth
isat D. And, laftly, whilft the earth defcribes the curve
D 23 2425 2627 28 29, the moon defcribes the curve de;
and is again in conjunction at ‘e with the fun, when the earth
is at E, between the 2gth and 3oth day of the moon’s age,
accounted by the numeral figures from the new moon at A.
In defcribing the curve a bcde, the moon goes round the
progreffive earth as really as if the had kept in the dotted
circle A, and the earth continued immoveable in the centre
of that circle.

And thus we fee, that although the moon goes round the
earth ina circle, with refpeét to the earth's centre, her real
path in the heavens is not very different in appearance from
the earth’s path. To fhew that the moon’s path is concave
to the fun, even at the time of change, it is carried on a
little farther into a fecond lunation, as to fA

The moon’s abfolute motion from her change to her firft
quarter, or from a to 4, is fo much flower than the earth’s,
that fhe falls 240,000 miles, {equal to: the femi-diameter
of her orbit) behind the earth at her firft quarter in 4,
when the earth is in B; that is, fhe falls back a {pace equal
to her diftance from the earth. From that time her motion
is gradually accelerated to her oppofition or full at c, and
then fhe is come up as far as the earth, having regained
what fhe loft in her firft quarter from a to 8. From the full
to the laft quarter at d, her motion continues accelerated, fo
as to be juft as far before the earth at d, as fhe was behind it
at her firft quarter in 2. But from d to e her motion is fo
retarded, that fhe lofes as much with refpe& to the earth,
as is equal to her diftance from it, or to the femi-diameter of
her orbit ; and by that means fhe comes to ¢, and is then in
conjunction with the fun, as feen from the earth at E.
Hence we find, that the moon’s abfolute motion 1s flower
than the earth’s, from her third quarter to her firft; and
{wifter than the earth’s, from her firft quarter to her third:
her path being lefs curved than the earth’s in the former cafe,
and more in the latter. Yet it is ftill bent the fame way
towards the fun; for if we imagine the concavity of the
earth’s orbit to be meafured by the length of a perpendi-
cular line Cg, let down from the earth’s place upon the
ftraight line 6d, at the full of the moon, and connecting
the places of the earth at the end of the moon’s firft and
third quarters, that length will be about 640,000 miles;
and the moon, when new, only approaching nearer to the
fun, by 240,000 miles, than the earth is, the length of
the perpendicular let down from her place, at that time,
upon the fame ftraight line, and which fhews the concavity
af that part of her path, will be about 400,000 miles.

The gravity of the moon towards the fun has been found
to be greater, at her conjunGtion, than her gravity towards
the earth, fo that the point of equal attraction, where thofe
two powers would fuftain each other, falls then between the
moon and earth; and fince the quantity of matter in the
fun is almoft 230,000 times as great as the quantity of
matter in the earthy aod the attra¢tion of each body dimi-
nifhes as the {quare of the diftance from it increafes, it may
be ealfily found, that this point of equal attraétion between
the earth and the fun, is about 70,000 times nearer the
earth than the moon is at her change: whence fome, and
particularly Mr. Baxter, author of Matho, have appre-
hended, that either the parallax of the fun is very different

from that which is affigned by aftronomers, or that the moom
ought neceffarily to abandon the earth; becaufe fhe is con-
fiderably more attracted by the fun than by the earth at that
time. This apprehenfion may be removed eafily, by attend-
ing to what has been fhewn by fir Ifaac Newton, and is
illuftrated by vulgar experiments concerning the motions of
bodies about one another, that are all ated upon by a third
force in the fame direction. Their relative motions not
being in the leaft difturbed by this third force, if it a&
equally upon them in parallel lines; as the relative motions
of the fhips in a fleet, carried away by a current, are no
way affected by it, if it a€&t equally upon them; or as the
rotation of a bullet or bomb, about its axis, while it is pro-
jected in the air; or the figure of a drop of falling rain, are
not at all affected by the gravity of the particles of which
they are made up towards the earth. The mvon is fo near
the earth, and both of them fo far from the fun, that the
attractive power of the fun may be confidered as equal on
both; and, therefore, the moon will continue to circulate
round the earth in the fame manner as if the fun did not at-
tra them at all. It is to the inequality of the aétion of
the fun upon the earth and moon, and the want of parallel-
ifm in the directions of thefe aétions, only, that we are te
afcribe the irregularities in the motion of the moon.

But it may contribute farther towards removing this dif-
ficulty to obferve, that if the abfolute velocity of the moon,
at the conjunGtion, was lefs than that which is requifite to
carry a body ina circle there around the fun, fuppofing this
body to be aéted on by the fame force which acts there on
the moon, (i.e. by the excefs of her gravity towards the
fun, above her gravity towards the earth,) then thé moon
would, indeed, abandon the earth. For, in that cafe, the
moon having lefs velocity than would be neceflary to pre-
vent her from defcending within that circle, fhe would ap-
proach to the fun, and recede from the earth. But though
the abfolute velocity of the moon, at the conjunction, be
lefs than the velocity of the earth in the annual orbit, yet
her gravity towards the fun is fo much diminifhed, by her
gravity towards the earth, that her abfolute velocity is ftill
much fuperior to that which is requifite to carry a body in a
circle there about the fun, that is ated on by the remain-
ing force only. Therefore, from the moment of the con-
junction, the moon is carried without fuch a circle, receding
continually from the fun to greater and greater diftances,
till fhe arrives at the oppofition; where, being aéted on by
the fum of thofe two gravities, and her, velocity being now
lefs than what is requifite to carry a body in a circle there
about the fun, that is aéted on by a force equal to that fum,
the moon thence begins to approach to the junagain. Thus
fhe recedes from the fun, and appreaches to it by turns, and
in every month her path hath twe apfides, a perihelion at the
conjunétion, and an aphelion at the oppofition; between
which fhe is always carried in a manner fimilar to that in
which the primary planets revolve between their apfides.
The planet recedes from the fun at the perihelion, becaufe
its velocity there is greater than that with which a circle
could be defcribed about the fun, at the fame diftance, by
the fame centripetal force ; and approaches towards the fun
from the aphelion, becaufe its velocity there is lefs than
requifite to carry it in a circle, at that diltance, about the
un,

If we fuppofe the earth to revolve in a circular orbit
round the fun as its centre, and the moon to revolve round
the earth in the fame manner; the planes of their orbits to
coincide ; the diameters of their orbits to be as 340 to 1;
and the moon to perform 13,368 revolutions to every fingle
revolution of the earth; it 1s eafy to invefligate the nature

and

MOON.

and defcription of the curve generated by the centre of the
moon; and to determine whether this curve, in one lunation,
be any where convex towards the fun.

Let S (fg. 11.) reprefent the fun; E the earth; Ec
an arc of the orbit of the earth paffed over by its centre,
in one lunation of the moon; the circumference of the cir-
cle EAF = the concentric arc Aa; then, (becaufe
313,368 — 1 = 12,368 = the number of lunations in the
year, or one revolution of the earth, and therefore SA :
E A :: 12,368 : 1,) when the moon is in conjunétion with
the fun, the diftance between the fun and moon will be
greater than the diftance or radius SA. Now the curve,
defcribed by the centre of the moon, is the fame as that
defcribed by a point M (EM being the femi-diameter of
the moon’s orbit), carrjed round by the rotation of the
circle E AF on the arc Aa: it is therefore of the cy-
cloidal kind, having a point of inflexion, if every cycloid,
defcribed by a point within the generating circle, is in-
flected, as well upon a circular as upon a rectilinear bafe.
To determine which,

PutSSA orSR=a, EAoreR=& EMorem
=e, Rm=r, Rd=s; and let mC be the radius of
curvature at any point m, which, it is evident, mult pafs
through the point of conta& R. Suppofe the point # inde-
finitely near to m; then, Rx and Rr being the indefinitely
{mall contemporary atcs with mn, and, confequently, the
triangles R m rand R xr equal in all refpects; if we con-
fider the faid little arcs Rr and Rr as little right lines
perpendicular to the radii er and Sr, we fhall have the
<mRua= <rRr= (becaufe the anglese Rrand S Rr,
added to either fide of the equation, make it two right
angles) <Rer+ <RSr. NowSR:eR:: < Rer
< RSr, andSR:SR + Re:: < Rer: Rer
< RSr, thatis a:a thi: < Rer: <mRa=

de Pee er:

a
a mdr, mrd, and Rmr, the complement of the ob-
tule angle to two right angles, be indefinitely {mall, they
will be proportional to the oppofite fides mr, md, anddr;
that is, dr:md:: < Rmrz < mrd; anddr —md:
dr: < Rmr— <mrd: < Rmr, thatis, mR:dR
Seco ME mick Riwts Of, 135s: tower: <i Rar =

Fe
va Again, in any triangle, as d mr, if the

a7 <Rer. And agains < RCa2: < RnaC:: Ra:
RC; that iss ¢mRn— < Rar: < Rar:: Rm,

Rc, eee =) < Rer:——<Rersr:RC

ars
= sap babrcy Comfequently, mR + RC = mC
2 a a
es ee ee = 2 = the radius of
2zar+ 2br—as ae
Worry:

curvature at any point m,

Now, it is evident, that, at the point of inflexion, the
radius of curvature muft be infinite : or that, on one fide of
the faid point, the expreflion for the radius of curvature
muft be affirmative, and on the other negative; therefore,

yr muft be more than on one fide of the faid point,

as
2a+ 26
and on the other lefs; and, confequently, at the point of in-

flexion, = ; which, fubftituted for r, makes

a
2a+ 26

(de xmR=) rs—r? = (becaufe

dmx mR=fmx ma =) 6>—e’; from which equa-

fb? — GF

Sa Or, to find r, fay

2ar+ 2br

a

afr? + 2br*
a

tion we have s =

; then (dm x

2ar + 207 = As, Ors =

mR=)rs—r? = = (fm x ma=) 5

“3

the point m becomes a point of inflexion,
Now, as m R (r) mutt, by the nature of the circle, always be

greater than ma; thatis, as \/

ab* — ac* h
= when
@+26’

—c¢?; which equation gives r

ab*— ac?
a+26

2 2

more than 6 —¢; and, confequently, ab’ —ac

a+ 26

x h—c be more than

muft always be

be more

ab+ ac

—.

than b— al >, that is, rears

b—c x b—c; therefore, c mutt always be more than

2

et ; that is, E M’ muft be more than a third proportional’
to ES and E A, in order to havea point of inflexion take
place in the curve ; but in the prefent cafe, ES, EA, and!
EM, being as 13.368.1, and —
EM is lefs than the faid third proportional ; and; confe-
quently, the curve Mmu, generated by the centre of the
moon, has not a point of inflexion, or is no where convex-
towards-the fun. See Fergufon’s Aftronomy, p. 129; &c.-
Maclaurin’s Account of Sir Ifaac Newton’s Phil. Difc.
book iv. ch. 5. p. 336, &c. 4to. Rowe's Fluxions,.p. 127,
&e.

Moon, Affronomy. of the. 1. To determine the period of
the moon’s revolution round the earth, or the periodical
month ; and the time between one oppofition and another,.
or the /ynedical month.

Since in the middle of a lunar eclipfe the moom is: op=
pofite to the fun, compute the time between two eclipfes,
or oppofitions, between which there is a_great interval of
time ; and divide this by the number of lunations that have:
paffed in the mean time ; the quotient will be the quantity
of the fynodical month. Compute the fun’s mean motion,
during the time of the fynodical month, andadd this to the
entire circle defcribed by the moon.—fhen, as the fum is to-
360°,.fo is the quantity of the-fynodical month to» the-
periodical.

Thus, Copernicus, in the year 1500, November 6, at
twelve at night, obferved an abate of the moon at Rome ;:
and Augult 1, 1523; at 4" 25’, another at Cracow: hence
the quantity of the fynodical month is thus determined 3-
Obf. 2 An. 15239 237" 4.25¢
Obf.1.An. 1500 310 2.20

8
» Or .039; therefore

Interval of time An, 224 292" 2,5!
Add the intercalary days 5

Exact interval An. 224 297" 2.5!
or 11ggroos*
Which; divided by 282 months, elapfed in the mean times.
gives the quantity of the fynodical month 42521! 9" 9!’’;
that is, 29% 12> 41/,
Brom:

MOON.

From two other obfervations of eclipfes, the one at Cra- epaéis in the canon, viz. 2 days in April, 3 in May, &c.

cow, the other at Babylon, the fame author determines

more accurately the quantity of the fynodical month to be
42524! 3" tol oll,

That is, 297 ri" 43! 3" zo!, But this is lefs than the

true fynodical month, which is 294 12° 44! 3!.

The fun’s mean motion in the time 9° 6! 24! 19!"

The moon’s motion - - 389 6 24 18

Quantity of the periodical month 274 7 43! ¢'!

Hence, 1. The quantity of the periodical month being
given, by the rule of three we may find the moon’s diurnal
and horary motion, &c. And thus may tables of the
mean motion of the moon be conftruGted.

2. If the fun’s mean diurnal motion be fubtrafed from
the moon’s mean diurnal motion, the remainder will give
the moon’s diurnal motion from the fun: and thus may a
table thereof be conftruéted.

3. Since, in the middle of a total eclipfe, the moon is in
the node, if the fun’s place be found for that time, and to
this be added fix figns, the fum will give the place of that node.

4. From comparing the ancient obfervations with the
modern, it appears, that the nodes have a motion, and that
they proceed in antecedentia, i.e. from Taurus to Aries,
from Aries to Pifces, &c. If, then, to the moon’s mean
diurnal motion be added the diurnal motion of the nodes,
the fame will be the motion of the moon from the node;
and thence, by the rule of three, may be found in what
time the moon goes 360° from the dragon’s head, or in
what time fhe goes from, and returns to it: that is, the
quantity of the dracontic month.

5. If the motion of the apogee be fubtra¢ted from the
mean motion of the moon, the remainder will be the moon’s
mean motion from the apogee ; and thence, by the rule of
three, is determined the quantity of the anomaliffic month.
See the preceding part of this article.

To find the Moon’s Age or Change —The following canon,
in which the twelve numbers an{wer to the twelve months,
beginning with January, will ferve for this purpofe.

Janus 0, 2, 1, 25 3, 4, 55 6,

8, 8, 10, 10, thefe to the epaét fix,

The fum, bate 30, to the month’s day add,
Or take from 30, age or change is had.

The reafon of adding thefe numbers to the epaét in the
feveral months, is becaufe the lunar fynodical months fall
fhort of the calendar months; fo that the epaét, which
exprefles how much the lunar year falls fhort of the folar,
or calendar year, muft be confidered as continually in-
creafing ; and, therefore, to find the new moons, which
are the beginnings of the fynodical months, an addition mult
be made to the epaét in every month, and more and more as
the year advances; which additional numbers are called the
menttrual epaéts. Only nothing is to be added to the
epaét in January, becaufe the annual epact, together with
the day of the month, does then exprefs the true age of the
moon: but as January has 31 days, which is near 2 days
niore than a fynodical month, therefore the beginning of
the lunar month in February will fall 2 days fooner than it
did in January ; confequently 2 is the menftrual epact of
February ; and then, as February has but 28, or at molt
29 days, which may be accounted 1 day lefs than a fyno-
dical month, the next lunar month will begin 1 day later
in March than it did in February ; confequently the men-
firual epaé& of March decreafes inftead of increafing, and is
but 1. If from thence you reckon the lunar months to
confi't of 30 days and 2y interchangeably, the new moons
will fall fo much earlier in the following: months ‘than the
new moon did in January, as is exprefled by the menitrual

until they amount to rr days at the end of the year, which
are then added to the annual epact.

Tasie I.—Epatits of Years.

et me LD
is)
a

bo

-
OCwoOnrN O WTI

Tasie Il.—Epaés of Months.

Months. Epads. Months.

January of o!
February
March
April

July
16 | Augult
16 | September
48 October

4 November
20 | December

May
June

I
29
I
1
3

In leap years, a day is to be fubtra&ted from the fum
of the epacts, in the months of January and February,

MOON.

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LEaplanatice

XXIV.

Vou.

MOON.

Explanation of the Tables. —By Tabies I. and II. the mean
age of the moon, at any given time, may be found to the
neareft minute, by adding the epaéts of the given year and
month, and the propofed time reduced to the meridian of
Greenwich. If this {um exceeds a mean lunation, or 29°
12 44', dedu@ it therefrom. The mean time of new
moon is found by fubtra@ting the fum of the epacts of the
given year and’month, from 29% 12" 44’; but if greater
than that quantity, fubtra& it from 59% 1" 29!, to which
add the longitude, in time, if eaft, but fubtraé it if weft.
The mean time of the preceding, or following full moon, is
found by fubtraéting, or adding 14% 18" 22/5 and the
quarters, by applying 7° gh 11'. See Epacr and Metonic
CYCLE.

By Table ITI. the moon’s age is found by infpeétion only,
from the year 1800 until 1894, inclufive ; and the method
of extending it a few years before or after the limits of the
table is obvious.

This table is divided into two parts; the firft of which
contains the months and Gays, and the other the years,
with the moon’s age. In this laft part, N ftands for new
moon, and F for full moon. In order, therefore, to find
the moon’s age on any given day of any given year, within
the limits of the table, find the propofed day under the
given month, then, on the fame horizontal line, and under
the given year, is the moon’s age required. Thus, March
12th, 1869, it is anew moon, and on the 18th of the fame
month, in the year 1878, it is full moon.

The epact for any given year within the limits of the
table, is found at the bottom of the column immediately
under the given year. Thus the epact for the year 1850
is 17. Mackay’s Complete Navigator.

To find the Time of the Moon's being in the Meridian, or
Southing —Multiply her age by 4, and divide the produét by

: the quotient gives the hour, und the remainder, multi-
plied by 12, the minute.

The reafon of this rule is, that as the moon at the change
comes to the fouth with the fun, or at twelve o’clock, and
as there are thirty days, nearly, from one new moon to an-
other, and twenty-four hours in aday ; therefore fhe lofes
one day with another 74ths, or 4ths of an hour in the time
of her fouthing : now the moon’s age, a number of days
from the changes being multiplied by four, the product is fo
many fifths of an hour as fhe has loft, which, divided by
five, is reduced to hours, and the remainder, if any, multi-
plied by 12, will be minutes.

Moon, For the Eclipfes of the, fee Ecurrses.

For the Moon’s Parallax, fee PARALLAX.

Moon, Nature and Furniture of the. 1. From the various
phafes of the moon: from her only fhewing a little part il-
lumined, when following the fun ready to fet: from that
part's increafing as fhe recedes from the fun, till at the dif-
tance of 180° fhe fhines with a full face : and again wanes as
fhe re-approaches that luminary, and lofes all her light when
fhe meets him: from the lucid parts being conftantly turned
towards the weft, while the moon increafes ; and towards
the ealt when fhe decreafes: it is evident, that only that part
fhines on which the fun’s rays fall. And, from the pheno-
mena of eclipfes happening when the moon fhould fhine with
a full face ; viz. when fhe is 180° diftant from the fun; and
the darkened parts appearing the fame in all places; it is
evident the has no light of her own, but borrows whatever
light fhe has from the fun; for if the did, being globular,
a fhould always fee her with a round full orb, like the
un.

a. The moon fometimes difappears in a clear heaven, fo

as not to be difcoverable by the beft glaffes ; little ftars of
the fifth and fixth magnitude all the time remaining vilible.
This phenomenon Kepler obferved twice, anno 1580 and
1583, and Hevelius in 1620. Ricciolus, and other Je-
fuits at Bologna, and many people throughout Holland, ob-
ferved the like April 14, 1642, yet at Venice and Vienna
fhe was all the time conf{picvous. Weccuker 23, 17035
there was another total obfcuration. At Arles fhe firft ap-
peared of a yellowifh-brown ; at Avignon ruddy and tranf-
parent, as if the fun had fhone through ; at Marfeilles, one
part was reddifh, the other very dufky ; and, at length,
though in a clear fky, fhe wholly difappeared. Here it is
evident that the colours appearing different at the fame time,
do not belong to the moon ; but they are probably occafioned
by our atmofphere, which is varioufly difpofed, at different
times, for refra€ting of thefe or thofe coloured rays.

3. The eye, either naked, or armed with a telefcope, fees
fome parts in the moon’s face darker than others, which are
called macule, or fpots. Through the telefcope, while the
moon is either increaling or decreafing, the illuminated parts
in the macule appear evenly terminated ; but in the bright
parts, the boundary of the light appears jagged and uneven, -
compofed of diffimilar arches, convex and concave. ae
Plate XVI. Aftron. fig. 13.) There are alfo obferved lucid
parts difperfed among the darker; and illumined parts are
feen beyond the limits of illumination ; other intermediate
ones remaining ftill in darknefs ; and near the maculz, and
even in them, are frequently feen fuch lucid fpecks. Be-
fide the macule obferved by the ancients, there are other
variable ones, invifible to the naked eye, called xew macule.
always oppolite to the fun ; and which are hence found among
thofe’ parts which are the fooneft illumined in the increafing
moon. and in the decreafing moon lofe their light later than
the intermediate ones; running round, and appearing fome-
times longer fometimes {maller.

Hence, 1. As all parts are equally illumined by the fui
inafmuch as they are equally diftant from him: if fome me
pear brizhter, and others darker ; fome refleé& the fun’s rays
more copioufly than others ; and therefore they are of dif-
ferent natures. And, 2. Since the boundary of the illumin-
ed part is very {mooth and equable in the maculz, their fur-
face muft be fo too. 3. The parts illumined by the fun
fooner, and deferted later, than others that are nearer, are
higher than the reft ; .e. they ftand up above the other fur-
face of the moon. 4. The new macule an{wer perfeétly to
the fhadows of terrettrial bodies.

. Hevelius writes, that he has feveral times found, in
fkies perfe€tly clear, when even ftars of the fixth and feventh
magnitude were confpicuous, that at the fame altitude of the
moon, and the fame elongation from the earth, and with one
and the fame excellent telefcope, the moon and its macul do
not appear equally lucid, clear and perfpicuous, at all times ;
but are much brighter, purer, and more diitinét, at one
time than another. From the circumitances of the obferva-
tion, it is evident the reafon of this phenomenon is not cither
in our air, in the tube, inthe moon, or in the fpectator’s eye;
but it mult be looked for in fomething exilting about the
moon.

s. Caffini frequently obferved Saturn, Jupiter, and the fixed
{tars, when hid by the moon, near her limb, whether the il-
lumined or dark one, to have their circular figure changed
into an oval one ; and in other occultations he found no al-
teration of figure at all. In like manner, the fun and moon
rifing and fetting in a vaporous horizon, do not appear cir-
cular, but elliptical.

Hence, as we know, by fure experience, that the circu.
lar figure of the fun and moon is only changed into an ellip-

tical

MOON.

tical one by means of the refraction in the vapoury atmo-
{phere ; fome have concluded, that at the time when the cir-
cular figure of the ftars is thus changed by the moon, there
is a denfe matter encompafling the moon, wherein the rays,
emitted from the ftars, are refracted ; and that, at other
times, when there is no change of figure, this matter is
wanting.

This phenomenon is well illuftrated by the following ex-
periment.

To the inner bottom of any veflel, either plain, convex,
or concave, with wax faften a circle of paper; then pouring
in water, that the rays, reflected from the circle in the air,
may be refraéted before they reach the eye; viewing the
circle obliquely, the circular figure will appear changed into
an ellipfis.

' 6. The moon, then, is a denfe opaque body, furnifhed with
mountains and yallies. That the moon is denfe and imper-
vious to the light, has been fhewn: but fome parts fink be-
low, and others rife above the furface ; and that confider-
ably, inafmuch as they are vifible at fo great a diftance as
that of the earth from the moon; wheuce it has been con-
cluded that in the moon there are high mountains, and very
deep vallies. Ricciolus meafured the height of one of the moun-
tains, called St. Catharine; and found it (as he conceived)
nine miles high. ‘The method of meafuring the height of
the lunar mountains is as follows. Suppole E D (fg. 14.)
the moon’s diameter, EC D the boundary of hght and
darknefs, and A the top of a hill in the dark part begin-
ning to be illumined: with a telefcope and micrometer ob-
ferve the proportion of A E, or the diftance of A from
the line where the light commences to the diameter E D ;
here we have two fides of a rectangled triangle A E,
CE; the fquares ef which added together give the fquare
of the-third ; whence the femi-diameter C B being fubtraét-
ed, leaves A B, the height of the mountain.

Ricciolus, v. gr. found the top of the mount St. Catha-
rive illumined at the diftance of -4.th of the moon’s diameter
from the confines of light. Suppofing, therefore, C E 8,
and A Ex, the {quares of the two will be 65, whofe root
is S062, the length of AC; {ubtraéting, therefore, BC
= §, the remainder is A B = 0.062. The moon’s femi-
diameter, therefore, is to the mountain’s height as § is to
0.062; ze. as 8000to 62. Suppofing, therefore, the femi-
diameter of the moon 1152 Englifh miles, by the rule of
three we find the height of the mountain g miles.

Galileo takes the diftance of the top of a lunar mountain
from the line that divides the illumined part of the dife from
that which is in the fhade to be equal to a 2oth part of the
moon’s diameter ; but Hevelius affirms, that it is only the
26th part of the fame. If we calculate, in the manner
above {tated, the height of fuch a mountain, it wil! be found,
in Englifh meature, according to Galileo, almott 5£ miles ;
and, according to Hevelius, fomewhat more than 34 miles,
admitting the moon’s diameter to be 2180 miles. ‘The ob-
f{ervations of Hevelius have been always held in great efteem ;
and thisis probably the reafon why later altronomers have not
repeated them. M. de la Lande, one of the moft eminent mo-
dern aftronomers, concurs in his fentiments. Mr, Fergufon
fays, that fome of the mountains of the moon, by comparing
their height with her diameter, are found to be three times
higher than the higheit hills on our earth ; and Keill, in his
«© Aftronomical Letures,’’ has calculated the height of St.
Catharine’s hill, according to the obfervations of Ricciolus, in
the manner above ftated, and finds it nine miles. Dr. Herfchel,
the moft accurate as well as induitrious obferver of modern
times, has direéted his attention to this fubject. He obferves, with
regard tothe method purfued by Hevelius, that it will only

avail when the moon/is in her quadratures ; for in all other po-
fitions, the projection of the hills muft appear much fhorter
than it really is. Let S LM, ors/m (fig. 15.) be aline
drawn from the fun to the mountain, touching the moon at
L or /, and the mountain at M orm. Then to an obferver
at E or ¢, the lines L M, or /m, will not appear of the fame
length, though the mountains fhould be of an equal height ;
for I, M will be projected into on, and/m into ON. But
thefe are the quantities that are taken by the micrometer,
when we obferve a mountain to proje& from the line of illu-
mination. From the obferved quantity on, when the moon
isnot in her quadrature, to find LM we have the following
analogy. The triangles oO L, r ML, are fimilar ; there-

fore, Lo: LO::Lr: LM, or ae
0

but L O is the radius of the moon, and Lr, oro a, is the
obferved diftance of the moon’s projeftion, and L 0 is the
fine of the angle RO L = o LS, which we may take to be
the diftance of the fun from the moon, without any material
error, and which, therefore, we may find at any given time
from an ephemeris.

£.G. On June, 1780, at feven o’clock, De. Herfchel
found the angle under which L M, or Lr appeared, to be
40".625, for a mountain in the fouth-eaft quadrant ; and the
fun’s diftance from the moon was 125° 8’, whofe fine is
-81045 hence, 40!'.625 divided by .8104, gives 50!'.13, the
angle under which LM would appear, if feen direétly.
Now the femi-diameter of the moon was 16! 2”.6, and tak-
ing its length to be 1ogo miles, we have 16! 2".6 : 50.13
:: 1090: LM = 56.73 miles; hence, Mp = 1.47 miles,

The inftrument ufed by Dr. Herfchel in his obfervations
was a Newtonian refleétor of fix feet eight inches focal
length, to which a micrometer was adapted confitting of two
parallel hairs, one of which was moveable by means of a fine
{crew. His obfervations were numerous, and from the re=
fult of all, he concludes, that the height of the lunar moun-
tains in general is greatly overrated ; and that, with the ex--
ception of a few, they do not generally exceed half a mile
in their perpendicular elevation. Our author had not an
opportunity of particularly obferving the three mountains ,
mentioned by Hevelius ; nor that which Ricciolus found to
project a fixteenth part of the moon’s diameter. If Keill,
he fays, had calculated the height of this hill according to
the theorem which he has given, he would have found (fup-
pofing the obfervation to have been made, as he fays, on the

‘fourth day after new moon) that its perpendicular height

could not wel! be lefs than between 11 and 12 miles. Phil.
Tranf. vol. Ixx. pt. 2. art. 29. ;
The heights, &c. of the lunar mountains being meafur-
able, aftronomers have taken occalion to give each its name,
Ricciolus, whom moft others now follow, diftinguifhed them
by the names of celebrated altronomers ; and by thefe names
they are ftill exprefled in obfervations of the lunar eclipfes,
&e. (Sez fig. 16.) For anaccount of the Votcanos in
the Moon, {ee'that article. See alfo Lunar Srors,
Atronomers are now generally of opinion, that the moon
has no atmofphere of any vilible denfity furrounding her, as
we have: for if fhe had, we could never fee her edge fo weil
defined as it appears: but there would be a fort of mift or
hazinefs around her, which would make the {tars look fainter,
when they are feen through it, But obfervation proves,
that the ftars which difappear hehind the moon retain their
full luftre until they feem to:touch her very edge, and then
they vanifh ina moment. This has been often obferved by
aftronomers, but particularly by Caffini of the ftar y in the
breaft of Virgo, which appears fingle and round to the bare
Kz eyes;

MOON.

eye; but through a refraGting telefcope of fixteen fect, ap-
pears to be two ftars fo near together, that the diftance be-
tween them feems to be but equal to one of their apparent
diameters. ‘Ihe moon was obferved to pais over them on
the 21ft of April, 1720, N.S. and as her dark edge drew
near to them, it caufed no change in their colour or fituation.
At 25 min. 14 fec. palt twelve at night, the moft wefterly
of thefe ftars was hid by the dark edge of the moon; and
in 30 feconds afterward, the molt eafterly ftar was hid: each
of them difappearing behind the moon in ar inftant, without
any preceding diminution of magnitude or brightnefs; which
by no means could have been the cafe if there were an at-
mofphere round the moon; for then, onerof the flars falling
obliquely into it before the other, ought by refraétion to have
fuffered fome change in its colour, or in its diftance from the
other ftar, which was not yet entered into the atmofphere.
But no fuch alteration could be perceived, though the ob-
fervation was performed with the utmoft attention to that
particular ; and was very proper to have made fuch a dif-
covery. The faint light, which has been feen ali around the
moon, in total eclipfes of the fun, has been obferved, dur-
ing the time of darknefs, to have its centre coincident with
the centre of the fun; and was therefore much more likely
to arife from the atmofphere of the fun, than from that of
the moon; for if it had been owing to the latter, its centre
would have gone along with the moon’s.

If there were feas in the moon, fhe could have no clouds,
rains, nor ftorms, as we have ; becaufe fhe has no fuch at-
mofphere to fupport the vapours which oceafion them. And
every one knows, that when the moon is above our horizon
in the night-time, fhe is vifible, unlefs the clouds of our
atmofphere hide her from our view; and all parts of her
appear conftantly with the fame clear, ferene, and calm
afpeét. But thofe dark parts of the moon, which were
formerly thought to be feas, are now found to be only valt
deep cavities, and places which refle& not the fun's light fo
ftrongly as others, having many caverns and pits whofe
fhadows fall within them, and are always dark on the fides
next the fun, which demonftrates their being hollow: and
mott of thefe pits have little knobs like hillocks ftanding
within them, and catting fhadows alfo; which caufe thefe
places to appear darker than others which have fewer, or
lefs remarkable caverns. All thefe appearances fhew that
there are no feas in the moon; for if there were any, their
furfaces would appear fmooth and even, like thofe on the

arth.
* There being no atmofphere about the moon, the heavens
in the day time have the appearance of night to a lunarian
who turns his back towards the fun; and when he does, the
ftars appear as bright to him as they do in the night to us.
For it is entirely owing to our atmofphere that the heavens
ave bright about us in the day. Some, however, have fuf-
pected that at an occultation of a fixed {tar by the moon, the
ftar did not vanith inttantly ; whillt the general opinion has
been that’ which we have above ftated. Mr. Schroeter, of
Lilienthal, in the duchy of Bremen, has endeavoured to
eftablifh the exiflence of an atmofphere from the following
obfervations. 1. He obferved the moon when two days and an
half old, in the evening foon after fun-fet, before the dark
part was vifible, and continued to obferve it till it became
wifible. ‘The two cufps appeared tapering in a very fharp,
faint prolongation, each exhibiting its fartheft extremity
faintly illuminated by the folar rays, before any part of the
dark hemifphere was vifible. Soon after, the whole dark
limb a ypeared illuminated. ‘This prolongation of the cufps
beyond the femicircle, he thinks, mutt arife from the refrac-

tion of the fun’s rays by the moon’s atmofphere. He com-

putes alfo the height of the atmofphere, which refra&ts
light enough into its dark hemifphere. to produce a twilight,
more luminous than the light reflected from the earth when
the moon is about 32° from the new, to be 1356 Paris feet ;
and that the greateit height capable of refraéting the folar
rays is 5376 feet. 2. At an occultation of Jupiter's fatel-
lites, the third difappeared, after having been about 1! or 2!
of time indiftin@ ; the fourth became indifcermible near the
limb ; this was not obferved of the other two. Phil. Tranf.
vol. Ixxxii. pt. 2. art. 16. :

Moon, 4s to the Influence of the, on the changes of our
weather, and the conititution of the human body, we fhall
obferve thac the vulgar doétrine concerning it is very ancient,
and has gained credit among the learned, without fufficient
examination ; but it is now generally exploded by philofo-
phers, as equally deltitute of all foundation in phyficat
theory, and unfupported by any plaufible analogy. The
common opinion is, that the lunar influence is exerted at the
fyzygies and quadratures, and for three days before and
after each of thofe epochs. There are twenty-four days,
therefore, in each fynodic month, over which the moon at
this rate is f{uppofed to prefide, and as the whole confits but
of 29 days, 123 hours, only 54 days are exempt from her
pretended dominion. Hence, though the changes of the
weather fhould happen to have no conne¢tion whatever with
the moon’s afpeéts, and they fkould be diftributed in an
equal proportion through the whole fynodic month; \yet
any one who fhall predict, that a change fhall happen on
fome one of the twenty-four days afligned, rather than in
any of the remaining 54, will always have the chances 24 to
54 in his favour. Men may, therefore, eafily deceive them-
felves, efpecially in fo unfettled a climate as ours. More-
over, the writers who treat of the figns of the weather, de-
rive their prognoftics from circumftances, which neither argue
any real influence of the moon as a caufe, nor any belief
of fuch an influence, but are merely indications of the
ftate of the air at the time of obfervation: fuch are, the
fhape of the horns, the degree and colour of the light, and
the number and quality of the luminous circles which fome-
times furround the moon, and the circumitances attending
their difappearance. (See the Atornusa of Aratus, and the
Scholia of Theon.) The vulgar foon began to confider
thofe things as caufes, which had been propofed to them
only as figns: and the notion of the moon's influence on all
terreftrial things was confirmed by her manifeft eflect upon
the ocean. See on this fubjeét, Phil. Tranf. vol, lxv.
part 2. p. 178, &c.

The famous Dr. Mead was a believer in the ihfluence of
the fun and moon on the human body, and publifhed a book.
to this purpofe, intitled ‘De Imperio Solis ac Lune in
Corpore humano:?’’ but this opinion has been exploded by
philofophers, as equally unreafonable in itfelf, and contrary
to faé&t. As the moft accurate and fenfible barometer is not
affected by the various pofitions of the moon, it is not
likely that the human “body fhould be affefted by them,
See Lunatic.

Moon, Harveft. It is remarkable, that the moon, during
the week in which fhe is full in harveft, rifes fooner after
fun-fetting than fhe does in any other full-moon week in the
year. By doing fo, fhe affords an immediate fupply of light
after fun-fet, which is very beneficial to the farmers for reap-
ing and gathering in the fruits of the earth: and therefore
they diftinguith ¢his full moon from all the others in the year,
by calling it the Aarve/-moon. Mr. Fergufon has given a
full account of the harvelt-moon in his Aftronomy; the fub-
{tance of which is as follows, in a problem on the common
celettial globe.

Make

MOO

Make chalk-marks all round the globe, on the ecliptic,
at 12! degrees from each other (beginning at Capricorn)
which is equal to the moon's daily mean motion from the
fun: then elevate the north pole of the globe to the latitude
of any place in Europe; fuppofe London, whofe latitude
is 51% degrees north.

This done, turn the ball of the globe round, weftward,
in its frame; and you will fee that different parts of the
ecliptic make very different angles with the horizon, as thefe
parts rife in the eaft: and therefore, in equal times, very un-
equal portions of the ecliptic will rife. About Pifces:and
Aries, feven of thefe chalk-marks will rife in little more than
two hours, as meafured by the motion of the index on the
horary circle: but, about the oppofite figns, Virgo and
Libra, the index will go over eight hours in the times that
feven marks will rife. The intermediate figns will more or
lefs partake of thefe differences as they are more or lefs re-
mote from thofe above-mentioned.

Hence it is plain that when the moon is in Pifces and
“Aries, the difference of her rifing will be little more than
two hours in feven days; but in Virgo and Libra it will be
eight hours in feven days: and this happens every month of
the year, becaufe the moon goes through all the figns of the
ecliptic in a month, or rather in 27 days, 8 hours.

The moon is always oppofite to the fun when fhe is full,
and the funis never 1a Virgo and Libra but in our harvett
months ; and, therefore, the moon is never full in Pifces and
Aries (which are the figns oppofite to Virgo and Libra) but
in our harveft months. Confequently, when the moon is
about her full in harvett, fhe rifes with lefs difference of time,
or more immediately after fun-fet, than when fhe is full in
any other month of the year. In our winter, the moon is in
Pifces and Aries about the time of her firft quarter, and
rifes about noon; but her rifing is not then taken notice of,
becaufe the fun is above the horizen.

In {pring the moon is in Pifces and Aries about the time
of her change ; and then, as fhe gives no light, and rifes with
the fun, her rifing cannot be perceived.

In fummer, the moon is in Pifces and Aries about the time
of her laft quarter; and then, as fhe is on the decreafe, and
rifes not till midnight, her rifing generally paffes unobferved.

But in harveft, the moon is full in Pifces and Aries (thefe
figns being oppofite to the fun in our autumnal months) and
rifes foon after fun-fet for feveral evenings fucceilively ;
which makes her regular rifing very con{picuous at that time
of the year, as itis fo beneficial then to the farmers in afford-
ing them an immediate fupply of light after the going down
of the fun. ; :

This would always be the cafe if the moon’s orbit lay in
the plane of the ecliptic. But as the moon moves in an orbit
which makes an angle of 5 degrees 18 minutes with the
ecliptic, and croffes it only in the two oppofite points called:
the nodes, her rifing when in Pifces and Aries, will fome-
times not differ above an hour and forty minutes through the
whole of feven days; and at other times, in the fame two
figns, fhe will differ three hours and a half in the time of her
rifing in a week, according to the different pofitions of the
nodes with refpe& to thefe figns ; which potitions are con-
ftantly changing, becaufe the nodes go backward through.
the whole ecliptic in 18 years and 225 days.

This revolution of the nodes will caufe the harveft moons
to go through a whole courfe of the moft and leaft beneficial
ftates with refpe& to the farmers every nineteen years. The
following table fhews in what years the harveit moons are
leaft beneficial as to the times of their rifing, and in what
years mott, from 1807 to 1861. ‘The columns of years under
the letter L, are thofe in which the harvelt moons are leat

MOO

of all beneficial, becaufe they fall about the defcending
node; and thofe under M are the molt of all beneficial, be-
caufe they fall about the afcending node. In al! the columns
from N to S, the harvelt moons gradually defcend in the
lunar orbit, and rife to lefs heights above the horizon, From
Sto N, they afcend in the like proportion, and rile to
greater heizhts above the horizon. In fe the columns un-
der S, the areal moons are in the lowelt part of the moon’s
orbit, that is, fartheft fouth of the ecliptic ; and in the,co-
lumns under N, the reverfe.. And in both thefe cafes, their
rifings, though not at thefame time, are nearly the fame with
regard to the difference-of time, as if the moon’s orbit were
coincident with the ecliptic.

Years in which the harvelt moons are leaf beneficial,

N L- S
1807 1808 1809: 1810 1811 1812 1813 1814 1st
1926, 1827) 1628 1829 1830 1881 1832 ‘1833 1834
1844 1845 1846 1847 1848 1849 1850 1851 1852

Years in which they are moft beneficial.

S M N
1816 1817. 1818 1819 1520 1821 1922 1993 1894 1825
1835 1836 1837' 1838 1839 1840 1841 1842 18943
1853 1854 1855 1856 1857 1858 1859 1860 1861

We may: obferve farther, that in fummer with us the full
moons are low, and their ftay is fhort above the horizon,
when the nights are fhort and we have the leait occafion for
moon-light : in winter they go high, and {tay long above the
horizon, when the nights are long, and we want the greatett
quantity of moon-light. Moreover as the fun is above the
horizon of the north pole from the zoth of March till the
23d of September, it is plain that the moon, when full, being
oppofite to the fun, ‘muft be below the horizon during that
half of the year. But when the fun is in the fouthern half
of the ecliptic, he never rifes to the north pole, during which
half of the year, every full moon happens in fome part. of
the northern half of the ecliptic, which never fets, Confe-
quently, as the polar inhabitants never fee the full moon in
fummer, they have her always in the winter, before, at, and
after the full, fhining for fourteen of our days and nights.
And when the fun is at his greatelt depreffion below the ho-
rizon, being then in Capricorr, the moon is at her firft quarter
in Aries, fullin Cancer, and at her third quarter in Libra.
And as the beginning of Aries is the rifing point of the
ecliptic, Cancer the higheft, and Libra the fetting point,
the moon rifes at her firit quarter in Aries; is molt elevated
above the horizon, and full, in Cancer; and fets at the be-
ginning of Libra in her third quarter, having continued yi-
fible for fourteen diurnal rotations of the earth. Thus the
poles are fupplied one half of the winter time with conitant
moon-light in the fun’s abfence ; and only lofe fight of the
moon from her third to her firft quarter, while the gives but
very little light, and could be but of little, and fometimes of
no fervice to them..

Moon, Acceleration of the. See ACCELERATION.

Moon-Dial. See Diat.

Moon, Horizontal.. See Apparent MaGNitune.

Mvoy, Prime of the. See Prime..

Moon-£yes, inthe Manege.. A horfe is faid to have moon-
eyes when the weaknefs of his eyes increafes or decreafes ac-
cording to the courfe of the moon; fo that in the wane of the
moon his eyes are muddy and troubled;. and at new moon
they clear up ;, but ftill-he isin danger of lofing his eye-fight
quite,

Moox-~

MOO

Moow-Fifh, in Ichthyology, a name given to the fifh called
by authors orbis.

Moon-Seed, in Botany. See MENISPERMUM.

Moow-Trefoil. See Mepicaco.

Moon-Wort. See OsmuNDA.

Moon, Mountains of the, in Geography, mountains in the
interior part of Africa, which extend from Negroland,
through Abyfinia, to the Indian fea.

MOONAGURRA, a town of Hindooftan, in Gol-
conda; 35 miles E.N.E. of Golconda. “

MOONYGURRY, atown of Hindooftan, in the cir-
car of Schaurunpour ; 25 miles S.E. of Merat.

MOOR, Karet pe, in Biography, a portrait painter of
confiderable and well-merited repute, who was born at
Leyden in 1656. He was at firft a difciple of Gerard
Douw, afterwards of Francis Mieris, and then of Schalken.
He pra@tifed in his native city with very great fuccefs, and
fome of the mott illuftrious princes of Europe were folicitous
to employ his pencil. The grand duke of Tufcany re-
quefted his portrait by himfelf, for the Florentine gallery ;
and on the receipt of it, honoured him with a gold medal
and chain.

He was employed alfo by the emperor of Germany to
paint the portraits of prince Eugene and the duke of Marl-
borough on horfeback ; and his produ@tions fo gratified lis
royal patron, that he created De Moor a knight of the em-
pire. He died in 1738, aged 82.

Moor, Mora, a word fometimes ufed to exprefs a heath,
or barren traét of ground.

The word is fometimes alfo ufed for a mora/s, mo/s, or

en. ,
Mora muffa, in Ancient Writings, particularly denotes a
mofs, or peat mofs.

Moor-Berry, in Botany. See WHorRTLE-Berry.

Moor-Buzzard, in Ornithology. See Buzzarp and Faveo.

Moor-Cock, an Englifh name for the red game, or our
lagopus, more commonly called the gor-cock. It is a very
delicate bird, larger than a partridge, and common on the
hills in Derbyfhire and Yorkthire. See Terrao Lagopus.

Moor- Hen is, according to fome authors, the name of a
genus of water-birds. See GALLINULA. f

The common moor-hen, called Gallinula chloropus by au-
thors, and by Linnzus Fulica chloropus, is a very well known
bird. This bird is commen about our rivers, breeds twice
or thrice in the fummer, {trikes with the bill hke a hen, and
in the {pring has a fhrill call; and is a very well-tafted bird.
See Furica Chloropus.

Moor: Land, in Agriculture. See Moory Land.

Moor-Stone, the name of a very remarkable ftone found
in Cornwall, and fome other parts of England, and ufed in
the coarfer works of the prefent builders.

This is truly a white granite, and is a very valuable ftone.
It is very coarfe and rude, but has beautiful congeries of va-
rioufly conftruéted and differently figured particles, not dif-
fufed among, or running into, one another, but each pure
and diftin€t, though firmly cohering with whatever it comes
in conta& with. Its colours are principally black and
white ; the white are of a foft, marbly texture, and opaque,
formed into large congeries, and emulating a fort of tabu-
lated ftruéture ; among thefe are many of a pure cryftalline
fplendour and tranfparence ; and in fome are lod gel in dif-
ferent direétions many {mall flaky mafles of pure talcs of fe-
veral colours ; fome are wholly pellucid, others of an opaque
white, others of the colour of brown cryt{tal, and a vat num-
ber perfeétly black. It is found in inimenfe {trata in fome
parts of Ireland, but is difregarded there.

It is found with us in Devonfhire, Cornwall, and fome

12+

MOO

other counties; and brought thence in vaft quantities to
London. It never forms any whole ftrata there, but is fouhd
on the furface of the earth in immenfe and unmanageable
maffes ; and to feparate thefe into portable ones, they dig a
hole with a wedge in fome part of them, and furrounding it
with a ridge of clay they fill it up with water; this by de-
grees foaks in, and finding its way into the imperceptible
cracks, fo far loofens the cohefions of the particles there,
that the day after they drive a larger wedge into the hole,
and the ftone breaks into two or more pieces. It is ufed in
London for the fteps of public buildings; and on other ec-
cafions, where great ftrength and hardnefs are required.
The people of Cornwall, who have this ftone in great

‘plenty, ufe it in their tin-works, and particularly in theia

tin-kiln, on the good effet of which a great deal depends.
This kiln is four-fquare, and at its top is placed a large
block or moor-ftone ; the ufual fize of this block is fix feet
in length, and four in breadth. In the middle of this block
there is made a hole of about fix inches in diameter. This
ftone ferves as a head to cover another like ftone placed be-
neath it; but this under one is not fo-long as the upper by
fix inches. The reafon of this is, that it muft not reach the
innermoft or back part of the wall, which is the open place
throagh which the flame afcends from another place below
that, where a very {trong fire of furze is conitantly kept
up; and there is another little hole alfo on the outfide.
The fore-part is like a common oven, and has fucha fort of _
chimney.

The tin-ore is roafted in this kiln, to burn away the mun-
dic, in this manner: the ore is brought in powder, and
poured out in heaps on the furface of the top-ftone; aman
ftands there, and thrutts it down through the hole in this
ftone into the kiln, that is, to the furface of the under-ftone :
a perfon who ftands below fpreads this as it falls with an
iron rake, and gives notice to the perfon above when there
is enough down, that is, when the furface of the lower
{tone is covered three or four inches thick. When this is
done, the hole at the top is covered with green turfs, that
the flame may reverberate the ftronger; and the heat that
the moor-ftone acquires helps to roait the ore: while the
flame that comes up from the ore is blue, there yet remains
mundic among it; but when this is burnt off, the flame is
yellow. Phil. Tranf. N° 69.

The miners in fome parts of Carnwall ufe the name moor-
ftone for a fort of coarfe free-ftone, which lies very often
over the tin-ore: this is of a greyifh colour, and is fome-
what fofter than that ufually employed in building. See
Growan.

Moor-Titling, in Ornithology, a common Englifh name for
the cenanthe, more frequently called the /fone-chatter, See
Moracitta Ribicola.

Moor's-Head, in Chemifiry, a copper cap made in form of
a head, to be fet over any veflel, or over a reverberating
furnace.

Moor’s-Head alfo denotes the head of a copper or glafs
ftill or alembic, which is luted on to the body or cucurbit,
and hath a beak or pipe to let the fpirit run down into the
receiver.

Moonr’s-Head, inthe Manege. See Moor’s-Heap.

Moor’s //land, in Geography, one of the {maller Bahamas.
N. lat. 26° 45’. W. long. 77° 40!

MOORBAD, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Baglana; 40 miles E. of Bafleen.

MOORDAMPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the
cirear of Hindia; 9 miles 8.W. of Hurdah.

MOORE, Jacos, in Biography, a native of Edinburgh,
who painted landfcape. He went to Rome about 1773,

where

MOORE.

where he praétifed till he acquired confiderable reputation.
He was employed by the prince Borghefe to condu& the
alteration made in the gardens of his villa, near the Porta
Pinciana, which he conduéted with the tafte of the modern
Englifh fchool of gardening, and was liberally remunerated
by the prince. He died young, and left but few works
behind, but for which he was more than duly extolled during
his life. He was the pupil of Alex. Runceman.

Moors, Sir Jonas, an eminent Englifh mathematician
in the 17th century, was born at Whitlee, in Lancahhire,
about the year 1620. He applied himfelf principally to the
ftudy of the mathematics, for which, from his childhood,
he had difcovered a ftrong partiality. This favourite pur-
fuit he cultivated with great diligence and fuccefs, and ac-
quired fuch a reputation, that during one of the expeditions
of king Charles I. into the northern parts of England, he
was introduced to his majefty as a perfon ftudious and
learned in thofe fciences. Upon converfing with him, the
king expreffed much approbation of his acquirements, and
gave him a promife of encouragement, which laid the found-
ation of his future fortune. He was afterwards appointed
mathematical tutor to the king’s fecond fon James, to in-
ftru& him in arithmetic, geography, and the ufe of the
globes. During Cromwell’s government, he appears to
have fodowed the profeflion of a public teacher of the mathe-
matics; for he is ftyled in the title-pages of fome of his pub-
lications, “ profeffor of the mathematics.’? Mr. Granger
fays, in his “ Biographical Hiftory of England,” « that he
was employed by the commiffioners for draining and dividing
the fens ;’' and in his furvey, he obferved that the fea
made a curve line on the beach, from which he took the hint
to keep it effe€tually out of Norfolk. This added much to
his reputation ; but no mention is made of the period of his
lite when he- was thus occupied. After the reftoration of
king Charles IJ., he was noticed and employed by that
prince, who beftowed on him the honour of knighthood,
and at length promoted him to the important office of fur-
veyor-general of the ordnance. He frequently availed him-
felf of his intereft at court for the advancement of learning,
the encouragement of merit, and the eftablifhment of intti-
tutions highly favourable and beneficial to the interefts of
the public, and of fcience in general. He patronized the
famous Mr. Flamftead, who had but a very fcanty income
at Cambridge, when he took him under his proteétion. In
conneCtion with fir Chriftophe? Wren, he urged the king to
ere&t Flamitead-houfe at Greenwich for a public obferva-
tory in 1675, recommending Mr. Flamttead to be the king’s
aftronomer, ta make obfervations there; and being furveyor-
general of the ordnance himfelf, was the reafon why the
falary of the aftronomer-royal was made payable out of the
office of ordnance. Being ele&ted a governor of Chrift’s
hofpital, he was very inftrumental in perfuading the king to
found a mathematical {chool there, with the allowance of a
handfome falary for a matter to inftruét a number of boys in
the fea-fervice. The fchool being eftablifhed, there was thll
wanting a methodical work neceflary for the inftru@tion of
the yonng people. This fir Jonas Moore undertook, but
death put an end to his labours before the work was com-
pleted. We are not informed of the year when that event
took place, but it was probably in 1681, or rather before
this, as the work referred to was publifhed in that year by
his fons-in-law, Mr. Hanway and Mr. Potinger, who {pared
neither expence nor labour to have it finifhed in the bett
manner, and fecuring proper affiftants for the purpofe. Be-
fides the «* New Syitem of Mathematics,” in 2 vols. 4to.,
which was the title of his pofthumous work, fir Jonas pub-
lithed “* Arithmetic, in two Books, viz. Vulgar Arith-

metic and Algebra;’’ ‘* A Mathematical Compendium,’
which went through feveral editions; and he tranflated from
the Italian “'A general Treatife of Artillery,” by Mo-
retus.

Moore, Joun, an Englifh prelate, educated at Clare-
Hall, Cambridge, where he took his degree of D.D. in
1681. He was confecrated bifhop of Norwich in 1691,
and tranflated to Ely in 1707. He died in 1714. His
fermons were publifhed by his chaplain, Dr. Samuel Clarke,
in one volume, 8vo.; and his library was purchafed by
king George II., who gave it to the univerfity of Cam-
bridge.

Moore, Puitir, a learned clergyman of the church of
England, was born in 1706. In due time he was admitted
into holy orders, and was appointed chaplain to the vene-
rable Dr. Wilfon, bifhop of Sodor and Man, whofe friend
and companion he was for many years. At the funeral of
that excellent prelate, he was appointed to preach the fer-
mon, which has been publifhed in Cruttwell’s edition cf the
bifhop’s works. Mr. Moore was chaplain to Douglas, ia
the Ifle of Man, and obtained the reGtory of Kirkbride.
He devoted much of his time to the inftruétion of young
perfons, and in reviling the tranflation of the holy Scrip-
tures into the Manks language. He engaged in this work
at the recommendation of «The Society for promoting
Chriftian Knowledge,” at whofe requeft he alfo tranflated
into the fame language the book of Common Prayer, bifhop
Wilfon on the Sacrament, and other pious and praétical
pieces. He died in 1783, in the 78th year of his age.
His remains were attended to the grave by a great number
of the moft refpectable inhabitants, and by the whole body
of the clergy of the ifland, all of whom, with the exception
of four, had been educated by him.

Moore, Epwarp, a poet and dramatic writer, was born
in 1712 at Abingdon, where his father was fettled as a dif-
fenting minifter. He’was deitined for bufinefs, and, at a
proper age, was placed with a wholefale linen-draper in
London; after leaving him, he went as a linen-faétor to
Ireland, where he remained fome years. Upon his return
he entered into partner{hip with an Irifh gentleman, but
they were not fuccefsful in their commercial {peculations.
He determined to quit trade, and devote himfelf to the pro-
feffion of an author ; and his firft publication was “ Fables
for the Female Sex,”? which were printed in 1744. He was
affiited in this work by Mr. Henry Brooke, author of Guf-
tavus Vafa. It was very well received, and obtained for
the author the patronage of Mr., afterwards lord, Lyttel-
ton. In 1748 Moore appeared as the defender of his pa-
tron’s political character, and his panegyrift, in a poem, en-
titled «* The Trial of Selim the Perfian for high Crimes and
Mifdemeanours,’’ in which, under the mafk of irony, he
pays him many elegant compiiments. In the fame year he
brought on the ftage a comedy, entitled “« The Founding,”
which was not very fuccefsful, though aided by the ating
of Garrick, and the other principal performers of the time.
From Garrick he afterwards received fubftantial benetit :
when, in 1754, he produced his comedy of ** Gil Blas,” it
was, by the influence of the manager, forcibly carried
through nine nights at Drury lane, notwithitanding a violent
oppolition. Garrick alfo exerted himfelf moft vigoroufly in
favour of his friend’s tragedy of «¢ The Gametter,” brought
on the ftage in 1755. This is the principal dramatic per-
formance by which Moore is known; it being now, at the
diftance of nearly 60 years, frequently reprefented. The
ftory being taken from common life, is thereby rendered
more impreffive ; and the horror inf{pired by the cataftrophe,
though painful to the feelings, is falutary in enfercing the

moral

MOORE.

‘moral ‘leffon intended by the writer. In 1758 he begana
‘periodical paper, entitled ‘ The World,’ by Adam Fitz-
adam, which is among the few works of the kind that have
obtained fuccefs fince thofe of Addifon and Steele. For
-this he was chiefly indebted to the contributions of the wits
of the age. The names of the earl of Chefterfield, Horace
Walpole, Richard Owen Cambridge, Soame Jenyns, and
others, are fufficient to atteft the editor’s refpe@table cha-
waéter and conneGtions, and to enfure the high value of many
of the papers. While engaged in this publication, he died
_of an inflammation of the lungs, in the month of February
1757, at the age of 45. “ He had publifhed,” fays his
biographer, “ in 1756, a colleGion of his works by fub-
{cription, in a 4to. volume, dedicated to the duke of New-
cattle, and delicately complimenting his brother Mr. Pel-
ham; but it was his fate to live on the verge of that indi-
gence, which is generally the lot of thofe who truft to their
pen alone for a fubfiftence. He was aman greatly beloved
in fociety, for the fimplicity of his manners, and the vivacity
of his converfation. He left a widow and an only fon,
whofe education and fettling in the world were generoully
undertaken by lord Chefterfield. Mr. Moore, as a poet, is
chiefly remembered by his §¢ Fables,’’ which are {prightly,
ingenious, and inftru@ive. His other verfes are, for the molt

art, effufions of the light familiar kind, and fongs; of which

aft, feveral were fet to.mufic, and became popular in theiz
day.

Moons Joun, archbifhop of Canterbury, was fon of a
grazier at Gloucefter, and educated at the grammar fchool
of that city, after which he was entered at Pembroke col-
lege, Oxford. Being taken into the family of the duke of
Marlborough, as tutor to one of his fons, he obtained,
through that intereft, a prebendal ftall in the cathedral of
Durham; in 1771, the deanery of Canterbury; and in
1776, the bifhopric of Bangor; from whence, in 1783, he

was raifed to the archbifhopric of Canterbury. He died
in 1804.
Moore, Dr. Joun, a native of Scotland; born in 1730

at Stirling, the ancient refidence of the Scottifh kings, was
the fon of the Rev. Charles Moore, a clergyman of the
eftablifhed church, who was in high eftimation among his
people for the purity of his manners, and the amiablenefs of
his difpofition. He was one of the minifters of Stirling, and
contrived, at that period, to live in a refpe¢table manner on
the ufual ftipend of 120/. per annum. On the death of his
father, about the year 1735, John, then but five years old,
removed with his mother to Glafgow, of which city fhe was
a native, and where a {mall eftate bequeathed to her by her
father was fituated. The lady, poflefling great ftrength of
mind, was enabled to fuperintendy with propriety and effect,
the education of her fon, and his three filters. Being herfelf
eminent for piety, fhe initilled the fame principle into the
minds of her offspring. After the neceflary preparation in
grammar learning, the fubjec& of this article was matri-
gulated at the univerfity of Glafgow, and attended its va-
rious claffes. As he was intended for the profeflion of me-
dicine, he was placed under the care of Dr. Gordon, who
did not difdain to unite the kindred arts of furgery and phar-
macy. After he had obtained a fufficient knowledge of the
practice of medicine, he went abroad to exercife the art in
the army under the duke of Cumberland, in the Low
Countries. On his return to England, he pafled fome time
in London, attending the lectures of his countryman, Dr.
Hunter, and obtaining every affiftance in the way of his pro-
feffion that the metropolis could afford. From London he
went to Paris for farther improvement. Here he relided
about two years, and aéted as forgeon to the houthold of

it

the earl of Albemarle, the Britifh ambaflador, On his re-
turn, he again attended the le€tures of Dr. Hunter, and
went through a courfe under Dr. Smellie, then a very cele-
brated accoucheur. He now fettled at Glafgow, firft in con-
neGtion with Dr. Gordon ; and when this gentleman quitted
the general practice, Mr. Moore chofe for his affociate Mr.
Hamilton, profeffor of anatomy. In 1769 he was intro-
duced to the family of the duke of Hamilton, by attending
the young duke, James-George, then labouring under a
confumptive complaint, of which he died in the fifteenth
year of his age. In 1772 he obtained the diploma of deétor
of phyfic from the univerfity of Glafgow, and was foon
after engaged by the duchefs of Hamilton and Argyle to
accompany her fon onthe continent. They {pent five years
together in this tour, and vifited France, Italy, Switzer-
land, and Germany. ‘This journey, added to his former
refidence in France and Flanders, gave him that intimate
acquaintance with foreign manners, which he has fo happily
difplayed in his feveral publications. On their return in
1778, Dr. Moore brought his family from Glafgow to
London; and in the following year he publifhed «“ A View
of Society and Manners in France, Switzerland, and Ger-
many,’ in two volumes, 8vo. ‘This work was followed, in
1781, by another, intended as a continuation, entitled «A
View of the Society and Manners of Italy.’’ ‘Thefe works
were extremely well received by the public, who feemed to
confider them as among the moft entertaining books of
Travels that had appeared for many years, replete with
amufing and: charaéteriftic fketches, and remarkably free
from national prejudice or fplenetic cenfure. They went
through feveral editions, and were quickly tranflated into
various foreign languages. As if unwilling to fuffer his
medical charaéter to fink into that of an author, he pub-
lifhed, in 1786, a volume of «‘ Medical Sketches,” treating
in a popular manner on feveral important topics relative to
health and difeafe. This was weil received; but the author
was fuppofed to have given fome offence to a few narrow
minded men among his brethren, by the difclofure of certain
arcana, which they, for the fake of intereft, wifh to conceal.
It proved that he had ftudied his profeffion with diligence,
accuracy, and fuccefs; but it probably had little effe& in
extending his medical practice. Dr. Moore, as a writer,
next appeared in a new charatter, when in 1789 he pub-
lifhed a novel, entitled “¢ Zelauco; various Views of Human
Nature.”? The tendency of this work, which abounds with
many interefting events, is direted towards the education
of youth; and it evinces very fully the fatal effeéts refultin
from uncontrolled paffion on the part of a darling fon, ant
unconditional compliance of that of a fond mother. In
Zeluco, Dr. Moore has difplayed a knowledge of mankind,
and a force of moral painting, which rendered that work
much fuperior to the ordinary compofitions of this clafs, and
at once placed him high among the writers of fictitious nar-
ratives. Che French revolution was the topic that next
employed his pen. Dr. Moore, inftead of furveying it at a
diftance, like the bulk of mankind, contemplated a very
critical portion of it on the fpot: he was not, indeed, pre-
fent at the deflruCtion of the Baltille, a ftruGture dedicated
for centuries to the crimes of a capricious and unbridled
defpotif{m ; but he refided in France when the foreign armies,
who aflumed to give law to an independent ftate, were driven
back by the enthufiafm of a whole people, who at that
period feemed refolved' to be free. In 1793 he publithed
“A Journal during a Refidence in France, from Auguit
to the middle of December 1792, &c.”? In this work,
which confilted of two volumes, he followed his ufual me-
thod of anecdote and defcription, intermixed with remarks ;
and

MOORE.

and of the many writers on this interefling fubject, he has
been ranked among the molt difcerning and impartial. The
fame charaéter will deferved!y attach to his «* View of the
Caufes and Progrefs of the French Revolution,’ which was
- publifhed in 1795 in two volumes, Svo. ‘I'he doétor begins
with the reign of Henry 1V., and ends with the deftruction
of the royal family in 1793. Recurring to fiction, Dr.
Moore publifhed, in 1796, “ Edward; various Views of
Human Nature, taken from Life and Manners, chiefly in
England.” Edward is a foundling, like Tom Jones, ori-
ginally brought up in a work-houfe; but his real name and
family being difcovered, he is finally united to Caroline.
In 1800 he publifhed his «* Mordaunt,’’ a novel, in three
volumes, being ‘* Sketches of Life, Characters, and Man-
ners, in various Countries; including the Memoirs of a
French Lady of Quality.” He is fuppofed to have had his
own fon; general Moore, the fubje& of our next article, tn
view, when he comes to Mordaunt’s arrival in Corfica, fram
Gibraltar, and is the eye-witnefs of and aétor in the fiege of
Calvi; and he feizes this opportunity of defcribing the
merits and talents of that fon, who has done fo much honour
to his family and country. Dr. Moore fpent the lait years
of his life in retirement at Richmond, where he died in 1803,
regretted for his focial and domettic virtues.

Moore, Lieutenant-General Sir Joun, fon of the pre-
ceding, was born on the 13th day of November 1761, in
the city of Glafgow. At the proper age he went to the

rammar-{chool; but his father, on his going abroad with
the late duke of Hamilton, tock John, who was his eldett
fon, with him, being then only ten years of age. He re-
mained abroad, fometimes with his father, and fometimes at
different private {chools at Geneva, and other places, during
a great part of five years that Dr. Moore pafled in France,
Germany, and Italy. By this mode of education, he be-
‘came early acquainted with the French, German, and Italian
languages, and had the advantage of feeing thefe countries,
being at the fame time under the eye of his father.

Having, from his early youth, always fhewn a’ decided
inclination for the army, the duke of Hamilton obtained for
him an enfigncy in the 51{t regiment of foot, in the year
1776, then quartered at Minorca. He returned to Scot-
land in the fame year, and from thence he went to join his
regiment, and continued to ferve with it till he obtained a
lieutenancy in the 82d, commanded by that exeellent of-
ficer, brigadier-general Francis Maclean, with which he
went out to North America. The 82d was ftationed, for
she greater part of the remainder of the American war, in
Nova Scotia; fo that Mr, Moore had but little oppor-
tunity, while ifthe regiment, of feeing real fervice, except
in the expedition to Penobfcot, where, for the firft time, he
was in aétion, being then a captain-lieutenant. He com-
manded a piquet, {tationed on the river to oppofe the land-
ing- of the American force, was very fharply engaged,
and nearly cut off with lys party, before he regained the fort
from which-he had been fent, and which had been raifed by
general Maclean.

At the peace in 1783, captain Moore was reduced with
his regiment. He was foon after brovght into parliament,
for the boroughs of Lanerk, &c., by the intereft of the
duke of Hamilton. In the year 1787, or 1788, he ob-
tained the majority of the gth battalion of the 6oth regi-
ment, then quartered at Chatham; and very foon after,
major Moore negociated an exchange into his old regiment,
the 51ft, then in Ireland. He now devoted himfelf to the
ftudy and practice of his profeffion, which was, through life,
the obje& to which all his wifhes pointed, and the road in
which he determined to march in purfuit of fame and ho-

Vou. XXIV.

nourable diinGtion. Lt was on the occafion of the Spanith
armament in 1790 that he fucceeded, by purchafe, to the
leutenant-colonelcy of the srft; in which regiment he went
to Gibraltar in the year 1791, or 1792. Lieutenant-colonel
Moore continued with his regiment at Gibraltar, till after
the affair of Toulon under lord Hood. About the time of
the capture of general O’Hara, and the fubfequent evacua-
tion of Toulon, he was fent with his regiment, part of a re-
inforcement from Gibraltar, to join the army under lieu-
tenant-general David Dundas, then with the fleet under lord
Hood in Hieres bay. He was foon after fent with major
Kochler, the deputy quatter-mafter-general, to Corfica, to
gain information, to negociate with Paoli, and to bring a
military report of the practicability of an attack on Corfica.
He was afterwards very aétively employed under lieutenant-
general Dundas, in the attack of the works a: Martella bay,
and commanded the troops which ftormed the Convention
fort. On this occafion, he entered the works at the head of
the grenadiers of the royals. The French, who were
old troops of the line, defended themfelves with great
{pirit ; and this was one of the very few inftances where
the oppofing bayonets were fairly croffed. In the month
of May 1794, general Charles Stuart, brother to the
marquis of Bute, having fucceeded to the command of
the army in Corfica, appointed colonel Moore to com-
mand the referve. The fiege of Calvi followed very foon
after, in which he aéted a confpicuous part under the
immediate command of the lieutenant-general, who was
a man of extraordinary ability, and. poffeffed of great .
military talents, as he evinced, by the maiterly manner in
which he conduéted this fiege; obliging the garrifon, though
more numerous than the befieging army, to furrender, with-
out having made a fingle trench of approach, taking up his
firft pofition within 700 yards of the Mozzello fort, a re-
gular cafemated work. This fort, being filenced by the
batteries thrown up againit it, was ftormed by colonel
Moore at the head of the grenadiers of the referve, on the
twentieth day from the commencement of the fiege. In the
affault he received his firft wound, after he had entered the
work. The fall of this out-work decided the fate of Calvi,
which furrendered foon after.

The military operations in Corfica made Moore’s charac-
ter known to general Stuart, and a friendfhip commenced,
which continued during the general’s life. The fituation of
adjutant-general to the army in Corfica becoming vacant at
this time, he beftowed it on his friend Moore, and ever after,
and on all occafions, fhewed him every mark of confidence
and efteem.

Colonel Moore left Corfica in O&ober 1795, in confe-
quence of a difagreement with the viceroy, who kad occa-
fioned the recal of general fir Charles Stuart, and that
of the patriotic Paoli. The viceroy in the end difgutted
the Corlicans, and loit the ifland. Colonel Moore arrived
in England in the latter end of November 1795, and was
immediately appointed a brigadier-general in the Weft
Indies, and attached to a brigade of foreign corps, which
confifted of Choiffeul’s huffars, and two corps of emigrés.
On the 25th of February 1796 he received an order to take
charge of, and embark with general Perryn’s brigade, going
out with the expedition to the Weft Indies, under fir Ralph
Abercrombie ; that officer having unexpeétedly failed in the
Vengeance 74, and left his brigade behind. General Moore,
having had no previous intimation that he was to embark,
was not at all prepared to fail fo foon as the next day. He
was, however, determined to make no difficulties. He hur-
ried from Southampton to Portfmouth, where the fleet was
on the point of failing; and as no tranfport had been ov-

L dered

MOORE.

dered to receive tim, he had to folicit the agent of tranfports
to find one; and having purchafed bedding, and a few ready
made fhirts and ftockings, failed for the Welt Indies with
the fleet at day-light on the 28th, with no other baggage
than a {mall portmantear, and what he could purchafe the
evening before he failed at Portfmouth. Not one regiment
of his own brigade was in the fleet, and he had the profpect,
when he arrived in the Welt Indies, of finding himfelf with-
out a command, as general Perryn would of courfe take the
command of his own brigade.

On his arrival at Barbadoes, on the 13th of April 1796,
he had an opportunity of waiting, for the firft time, on the
commander-in-chief, and {tating to him his fituation. This
was the commencement of his acquaintance with fir Ralph,
and that fagacious and attentive obferver very foon diftin-
guifhed him. It had been intended to fend him to St. Do-
mingo, but on his expreffing an earnett defire to be employed

in the expedition about to be undertaken by fir Ralph in per-_

fon, his requelt was granted, and in the courfe of the ope-
rations againit St. Lucie, which immediately followed, the
commander-in-chief employed him in every arduous and
difficult fervice which occurred. It was alfo during the
operations againft St. Lucie, that lieutenant-general fir
John Hope, at that time a brigadier-general and adjutant-
general to the army, and general Moore became known to
each other. A friendfhip commenced, which gradually
increafed as they faw more of each other in the arduous
and brilliant fervices on which they were employed in
different parts of the world, under their illuftrious com-
mander-in-chief, and continued without iuterruption till the
fubje& of this memoir finified his noble career, when it
fell to the lot of the furviving friend to complete the latt
a¢tion of his life—to pay the final fad tribute to his fame ; and
record his merits in the manly and high-minded {tyle of an ac-
complifhed foldier. General Moore certainly had oppor-
tunities, during the fiege of Morne Fortunée at St. Lucie,
which lafted from the 26th of April to the fame day in May,
of eminently diftinguithing himfelf ; he did not let thefe op-
portunities flip, and his conduét, as fir Ralph expreffed in
lis public orders, was the admiration of the whole army.
Sir Ralph, immediately on the capitulation, beftowed the
command and government of the ifland on general Moore,
paying him, at the fame time, the higheit compliments on
his conduét: this public approbation, from fo good a judge
of military merit, was very honourable to, and highly
valued by, the general; he, however, did all he could to
induce fir Ralph to keep him with the army, aud employ
him in the reduétion of the other iflands, but without effect.
Sir Ralph, in a manner, forced this important command upon
him, at the fame time giving him the mott flattering reafons
for wifhing him to accept oF its
The admiral and general failed from St. Lucie on the 3d
of June, leaving brigadier-general Moore ina fituation which
required, from what remained to be done in fuch a climate,
perhaps more military talent, and a greater degree of exertion
and perfonal rifk, than even there had been oceafion for
during the reduction-of the iland. The French commanding
officer, and the ave pott in the ifland, had furrendered,
but numerous bands of armed negroes remained in the woods.
The proprietors of the ettates were afraid to remain on them,
and were chiefly aflembled in the towns. The Morne was
uite open, and there was no accommodation for a garrifon.
‘The works and guns mounted were left as they were when
it furrendered ; all the ftores of ammunition and provifions
for this poll were to be brought froma very confiderable
diftance, the rainy feafon was juft begun, and there was no
hofpital for the fick. The utmolt activity and exertion were

requifite to arrange every thing, and put the ifland in a tenabie
ftate. He had at firft between 4.and 500 men, moftly re-
cruits, and they were falling fick very fatt: im lefs than a
month,,of three regiments ftationed in Morne Fortunée, only
between 6 and 700 men could be furnifhed ficforduty. He
found it neceflary, in order to infpirc confidence in the owners
of eltates, and reduce the blacks in the woods, to be con-
tinually onthe alert; he traverfed the ifland in every direétion,

_vifiting and eftablifhing {tations for the proteétion of the

peaceable inhabitants, and preventing fupplics being fent to
the brigands from Guadaloupe. He expofed his perfon in
this obf{cure but neceffary warfare almoft inceffantly, being
frequently engaged in the woods with the infurgents, whoa:
at lalt he fucceeded in completely reducing.

He had two narrow efcapes from violent attacks of yellow
fever; the laft rendered it neceffary that he fhould be relieved
from the command of the ifland, and he returned to England
m the monghof July or Augult 1797.

In the month of November 1797, ir Ralph Abercrombie
having been appointed commander of the forces in Ireland,
cefired that brigadier-general Moore might be put upon the
ftaif in that country, which was dore, and he accompanied
fir Ralph to Dublin on the 2d day of December 1797.

During the time that fir Ralph commanded in Ireland,
which was at a very critical period, immediately preceding
the rebellion in 1798, Moore had an important command in
the fouth of Ireland, which was very difaffected at the time,
and was alfo the quarter where the enemy were expeéted to
make a landing. His head-quarters were at Bandon, and
the troops under his command amounted to 3000 men,
amongit which were 12 companies of light infantry of the
Trifh mititia remarkably fine mea; his troops were con-
fidered as the advanced corps of the fouth. Almoft imme-
diately after fir Ralph gave up the command in Ireland, the
rebellion broke out. The brigadier was very much em-
ployed during this unhappy warfare, firft under major-ge-
neral Johnftone, at New Rofs, where the infurgents fuffered
much. He was immediately afterwards detached towards
Wexford, at that time in the hands of the rebels. He had
on this occafion only the 60th yagers, or fharp fhooters, goo
light infantry, 50 of Hompefch’s cavalry, and fix pieces of
artillery. He was direéted to proceed to Fooke's mill, where
he was to be joined by the queen’s and 29th regiments from
England, which had landed at Duncannon fort. With
thefe he was to proceed to Taghmone. On the 2oth of June,
the day after his moving from New Rofs, he waited at the
place appointed for the two regiments to join till three in
the afternoon, when, hearing nothing of them, he began to
be apprehentive that as by the general plan it had been fet~
tled he fhould be at Taghmione that day, his not arriving
might perhaps fruftrate the plan of operation ; he therefore
determined to move on with the force he had, about roco
men, great part of whom were Irifh militia. THe had not
marched above a mile before alarge body of rebels appeared
on the road, marching to attack him. ‘There avas no want
of courage or good will on the part of the Irifh militia, but
at that time they were very ill dilciplined. The brigadier-ge-
neral had examined the ground, as well as the fhort time
would allow, in the morning, and thus was able to form his
men to advantage on the right and left of the road, while the
yagers were fent on to fkirmifh, and the guns advanced to a
commanding pofition at the crofling of two roads. “Lhe
rebels attdeloed with great fpirit, but, after an obitinate con-
teft, were driven from the field, and purfued with great lofs.
They amounted to about 6000 men, and were commanded
by general Roche, a prieft. After the action, the two re-
giments under lord Dalhoufie arrived from Duncannon fort.

I It

MOORE.

It was then too late to proceed to Taghmone, the bri-
gadier therefore took pott for the night on the ground
where the a€tion began. Next day, the a1ft, he continued
his march ; on the road he was met by two men, one in red,
with a white haadkerchief in his hand; they proved to be
from Wexford, one of them an officer of militia, who had
been taken prifoner fome time before, with propofals from
the rebels to lay down their arms, on condition of their lives
and properties being. fecured to them. As the brigadier
had no authority to treat, he made no aufwer, but deter-
mined, inftead of ftopping at Taghmone, to proceed en to
Wexford, and take a polition to command the town, with-
out entering it antil general Lake and general Johnitone
fhould arrive. On approaching the town, a great crowd of
people were feen running out of it, and ahoufe was obferved
on fire: this led general Moore to fufpe& that the rebels
meant to burn the place and perhaps muider the prifoners in
their pofeffion. He therefore advanced rapidly, fent lord
Daihoufie into the town with two hundred men to releale
the prifoners, and fecure tranquillity ; here they witnefled
the mof affecting fcene that can-be imagined, fathers and
hufbands meeting their wives and children whom they thought
had been maflacred.’ Many of the gentlemen, whofe fa-
milies were prifoners in the town, had attended him as guides.
The rebels had piked and fhot 40 of their prifoners the day
before, on the bridge at Wexford, and that very evening it
was intended to have murdered the relt, if the general had
not haftened to fave them. He thus had the good fortune,
by his energy and decifion, to perform one of the mott
pleafing fervices that could fall to the lot of an officer.
Next morning general Johnftone, and afterwards general
Lake, arrived with their different columns from Ennifcorthy,
where the day before they had jointly attacked, beat, and
difperfed the rebels on Vinegar hill, with little lofs on their
fide, but great flaughter on that of the rebels. Brigadier-
general Moore continued to ferve in Ireland under lord Corn-
wallis, until the latter end of June 1799, when lie was or-
dered to return to England, to be employed on the expedition
under fir Ralph Abercrombie. He had been employed un-
der lord Cornwallis from the time of that nobleman's arrival
in Ireland during the rebellion on all occafions of importance,
and treated in the moft confidential manner by him. While
general Moore was in Ireland, he fucceeded to the rank of
major-general, and had a regiment given him. He left Ire-
land oa the 22d of July 1799, and arrived in London on the
28th. Being appointed one of the major-generals to the
army aflembling under fir Ralph Abercrombie at the camp
of Shirley, near Southampton, he joined the troops very
foon after his arrival. The expedition failed from Ramfgate
and the Downs on the 13th day of Augult. On the 27th
the army landed tothe fouthward of the Helder fort, in the
face of the esemy, who were driven fromthe beach. It was
intended that major-general Moore fhould ftorm the Helder
with his brigade the fame might: fortunately the garrifon,
amounting to 2000 men, evacuated it in the evening, and
marched to join the reft of the enemy’s troops, and he took
quiet poffefiion of it. The furrender of the Dutch fleet
smmediately followed the occupation of the Helder, which
enabled admiral Mitchell to enter the Texel. Thus a
very important piece of fervice was performed, though at
firft every thing had looked moft unpromifing, the enemy,
perfeétly apprized of the intended attack, and occupying a
very {trong po. Sir Ralph thewed, on this occafion, a great
deal of enterprize, and fuccefs rewarded his fpirit and de-
cifion.

On the merning of the roth of September, fir Ralph’s
pofition was ‘attacked before day-lght by the combined

force of French and Dutch, amounting to about 13,060
men. They were repulfed with great lofs. Major-general
Moore’s pott was warmly attacked, and he received a mufket
ball en the finger of his nght hand; his {py-glafs, which was
{hattered in his hand, fortunately turned the ball, and pre-
vented it going through his body. ‘The fame evening the
duke of York arrived at the Helder, and in the courle of
the two following days the reinforcement of Ruffians and
Englith difembarked, and made the united force amount to
between 30 and 40,000 men, Major-general Moore’s bri-
gade continued in the divifion of the army commanded by
fir Ralph Abercrombie. The general attack, on the ene-
my’s line, which took place on the 19th, entirely failed,
owing to the mifeconduét of the Ruffians. Sir Ralph’s di-
vilion accomplished the fervice allotted to it with complete
fuccefs and very little oppofition; but the failure of the at-
tack on the left occafioned the recal of fir Ralph, and
the abandonment of all the advantages which he had ob-
tained. On the 2d of OGtober the enemy were again at-
tacked. Vhe fourth brigade under major-general Moore,
with two troops of dragoons and. two mounted fix-
pounders, formed the advanced guard of fir Ralph’s divi-
fion. The firlt brigade of guards under major-general
Doyle followed, then the fixth brigade under major-general
Hutchinfon. The referve was commanded by colonel
MsDonald. The infantry moved in column along the beach,
the artillery on, the right, and the cavalry, about 1100,
under lord Paget, on the right alfo. The advance of the
column depended on the tide. At fix in the morning it was
low enough for them to advance, and they moved forward.
Sir Ralph directed major-general Moore to form part of his
brigade, fo as to oppofe the enemy {tationed on the fand-
hills. About this time, their light troops and huffars be-
gan to fkirmifh with the advanced guard. General Moore
had fcarcely formed two regiments, namely, the 25th and
79th, in purfuance of fir Ralph’s orders, when they were
attacked. Thefe two regiments repulfed the enemy with
great gallantry, charged them, and drove them for a con-
iiderable diftance, though not without lofs, general Moore
himfelf being fhot in the thigh, which, however, did not
prevent him from doing his duty. Thefe regiments were re-
inforced by the royals and 4gth, and fome time afterwards by
the grenadier battalion of the guards. The enemy on the
fand-hills continued to retreat as thefe regiments advanced,
till they reached within a couple of miles of Egmonteon-Zee,
where they were met by a {trong referve of the enemy,
which advanced on them with great intrepidity. Major-
general Moore’s brigade in the courfe of five hours con-
{tant movement and action, forming the advance, and at
the fame time covering the flank on the fand-hills, were
much difperfed and intinitely fatigued. He faw himfelf oa
the point of being furrounded, and feeing the impoflibility
of rallying the men under fo hot a fire, great numbers
continually falling in every direction, he had jaft determined
to let them fall back to a certain diftance to the rear, and
then to endeavour to rally and bring them back. At this
moment he received a mutket-ball through -his face that
knocked him down. He was ftunned, and could make no
effort to rife. Two foldiers:of the g2d lifted him up and
fupported him to the rear. When the g2d came sip,
thofe who were before retiring returned to the charge, at-
tacked the enemy with fpirit, and drove them off wath
flaughter, but not without great Jofs. Of major-general
Moore’s brigade alone, the killed and wounded amounted
to 44 officers, and upwards of 600 rfon-commilflioned officers

and privates,
General. Moore, being unfit for further exertion, was caz-
L 2 ried

MOOKE.

tied to the rear, where. his wounds were dreffed. He was
then placed on his horfe, and, fupported by his groom, he
was conveyed back to his quarters, a diftance of ten miles.
After general Moore was carried off, the column advanced
no farther; the reft of the day was pafled in fkirmifhing.
Towards dufk, the enemy, who had brought up fome can-
non on the beach, made a charge withtheir cavalry, and got
poffeffion of two guns, but were inftantly charged, by
lord Paget, with a few light dragoons and a good many
- officers who happened to be with him, repulfed, and the guns
retaken. ,

The column under fir Ralph was too much jaded for fur-
ther effort ; he had expofed himfelf very much during the
whcele day, and two horfes had been killed under him.
General Moore had one horfe fhot under him in the in-
terval between his wounds. It afterwards appeared, that
the referve, on joining general Coote’s brigade, fell in with
the enemy upon the fand-hills, clofe to the right of the
Ruffians, and were engaged, in fome degree, the whole
day. Had they not inclined to the left from Camperduyn,
but continued to move along on the flank of fir Ralph's
column, they would have arrived frefh and in good order at
the point of its deftination by twelve or one o’clock ; but,
as it was, the column was fo harafied, the regiments, one
after another, being brought into aétion, Moore’s brigade,
in particular, being rendered quite ufelefs, that they were
forced to ftop fhort, not having, at the clofe of the day,
2000 men who had not been in aétion, and thofe, from fa-
tigue, unfit for any further exertion. ‘The enemy were,
however, forced to quit the field, and Bergen, Alkmaar,
and Egmont-on-Zee, were entered by our troops the follow-
ing day.

As foon as major-general Moore could be moved from
his quarters, he was taken to the Helder, where he em-
barked on board the Amethyft frigate, and arrived at the
Nore on the 24th; from thence ke proceeded to London.
Soon after his return to England from the Helder, a fecond
battalion was added to the 52d regiment, and the command
of it was beltowed by the king, in the moft gracious man-
ner, on major-general Moore. ‘The major-general had by
nature an excellent conititution, which he had ftrengthened
by exercife, and never having addiéted himfelf to intemper-
ance, his wounds clofed in the courfe of five or fix weeks.
He joined his brigade at. Chelmsford on the 24th of De-
cember, 1799. Inthe early part of the year 1800, it had
been intended to fend a body of troops to the Mediter-
ranean under fir Charles Stuart; he wrote to general
Moore and propofed to him to ferve under him, which was
accepted with the greateft pleafure. It was at firft intended
that fir Charles fhould take out of England 15,000 men,
but it was afterwards found tbat the regiments allotted for
this fervice, and which had been’ part of the expedition to
Holland, were infufficient, and only amounted to 10,000
effe@tive. About the middle of March, the firlt divifion,
amounting to 5000 men, embarked under major-general
Pigot. At this time a change took place in the plan of
the expedition ; fir Charles had fome dilagreement with mi-
niftere, and refigned his_fituation, Sir Ralph Abercrom-
bie was appointed to the command, aud major-general Moore
was named as one of his major-generals, with Hutchinfon
and Pigot, who failed about the end of April with the 5000
men. Sir Ralph was appointed commander-in-chief in Por-
tugal and the Mediterranean; he embarked on board the
Sea-Horfe frigate on the 13th of May, and failed the fame
day, accompanied by Hutchinfon and Moore. They ar-
rived at Gibraltar the 6th day of June, failed again the
1ith, aud assived at Minorca on the 22d of June. Sir

Ralph, on his arrival at Mahon, found letters from lord
Keith informing him of the furrender of Genoa to the
Auttrian general Melas, who had left a garrifon of between
2 and 3000 men in it,and had marched to oppofe Bonaparte,
who had croffed the Alps with 35,000 men, and was marchi-
ing into Italy. Lord Keith communicated to fir Ralph the
requeit of general Melas, that’ he would lofe no time in
going to Genoa. The troops were formed in two divi-
fions, the firft under major-general Hutchinfon and brigadier-
general Doyle, and the fecond under major-general Moore
and brigadier-general Oakes. In the courfe of the 23d of
June, the whole were embarked and failed for Genoa. By
baffling winds and calms they were kept back, and did not
get within fight of Genoa until the 30th, when they met a
floop of war, which informed fir Ralph that the Anftrians
had evacuated Genoa, and that lord Keith, with the fleet,
was in Leghorn road. On the arrival of fir Ralph with
the troops off Leghorn on the rft day of July, he Jearned
the news of the battle of Marengo, with all its confe-
quences. Sir Ralph had not above 5000 men with him, fo
that he had no reafon to regret the delay, as with fo {mall a
force he could not have turned the courfe of events in fa-
vour of the Auftrians. The troops returned to Minorca,
part of them being fent under major-general Pigot to
Malta, to affift the Maltefe in the blockade of the French
garrifon there. Jt was not long after this that the troops
which had been employed under brigadier-general Maitland
in Quiberon bay arrived at Minorca, under lord Dalhoufie,
confifting of 3800 men. A frefh arrangement was made
in the brigading of the army. It confifted of two divifions
before, and now was formed into three brigades and a re-
ferve ; the latter was given to major-general Moore. The
whole embarked at Mahon in the courfe of the 29th, 30th,
and 31ft of Auguit, amounting to about 10,000 men, and
arrived at Gibraltar on the 14th of September., On the
1gth, the army under fir James Pulteney arrived from the
attempt on Ferrol. The whole ferce, under fir Ralph,
failed on the 20th from Gibraltar for Tetuan bay; it
amounted, after the junction of fir James Pulteney’s army,
to 20,000 infantry fit for duty. They anchored in the
evening in Tetuan bay, where they were employed water-
ing until the 27th of September. The fleet was under the
command of lord Keith, and the obje&t of this expedition
was an attempt upon Cadiz. The fleet was detained im the
{traits, and in Tetuan bay, until the 2d of O@ober, by
weiterly winds, when the whole, confifting of about 15e
fail, paffed through the Gut, and anchored in fight ot
Cadiz on the 4th. It is not neceffary to difcufs the merits
of this undertaking. The intention was to land to the
northward of Rota, to march round and endeavour to
dettroy the arfenal at the Caraccas and the Spanifh fleet.
Major-general Moore was to land firft with the brigade of
guards and the referve, in all about sooo men. Sir Ralph
wifhed to have a decided opinion from lord Keith whether
or not he might depend upon a conftant communication
being kept up with the fleet during the operations on
fhore, and a fecurity for the re-embarkation of the army
when the fervice was over. It was the opinion of the fea-
officers, that on the wind coming to the S.W. all communi-
cation muft ceafe with the fhore, and the fleet put to fea.
Under {uch circumftances, it is furprifing that even an at-
tempt fhould have been made. On the morning of the 6th of
O@tober, the fleet being under way, the fignal was made for
the troops to prepare to land. The honourable captain
Cochrane, of the Ajax, had the direétion of the landing,
and major-general Moore was on board with him: when
the boats were aflembled they were found not fufficient to

contain

MOORE.

contain more than 3000 men, which was very fhort of the
number Moore was ordered to make the landing with : it was
at this time one o'clock, and before they could be landed, and
the boats returned to the fhip for more, it would be dark.
The troops were therefore re-embarked, and preparations
were ordered for making the attempt next day. That
night it began to rain and blow from the S.W. right on
fhore, and the next morning the whole fleet, at the ex-
pence of fome cables and anchors, got to fea. From that
day until the 21ft of OGober, this large fleet was beating
about from Tetuan bay to Jeremie, according as the wind
was; on the 22d the greateft part of them had got to
Gibraltar, and it was intended to have gone to the Tagus
to water the fhips and refrefh the troops. On the 24th,
orders arrived from England for the armies to feparate.
Six battalions were ordered to ferve under fir James Pul-
teney, and were to go to Lifbon, the relt of the army
were to continue under fir Ralph Abercrombie, and to go
to Egypt. Major-general Moore failed with the firft di-
vifion, confifting of thofe fhips that were moft ready, on
the 27th of Oétober, and arrived at Minorca on the 5th
of November. From thence they failed to Malta, where
the whole armament met, and were detained for fome time
by contrary winds. While preparations were making for
the defcent on the coaft of Egypt, which was at this time
’ intended to be near Damietta, to take pofleffion of that
and from thence march dire@tly upon Cairo, fir Ralph fent
major-general Moore to vifit the Turkifh army near Jaffa,
to communicate with the grand vizier, and to form an opi-
nion of their force, and how far any effeGtive co-operation
could be expeGted fromit. He landed at Jaffa on the gth
of January, from on board the Camelion floop of war, and
immediately proceeded to the vizier’s camp. The firft news
he heard on his landing was the death of brigadier-general
Kochler, the chief of the miffion with the Turkifh army,
who was an able officer, full of zeal and intelligence, who had
refided a long time with them, and was the only man that
could have given him information, to be depended on, of the
true ftate of their magazines and the organization of their
armies. He found the vizier a weak-minded old man, with-
out talent or military knowledge, who received him perfe@tly
well: he remained five days inthe camp, in the courfe of
which he gained fufficient information of the ftate of the
army and its refources, to fatisfy himfelf that fir Ralph
mutt truft entirely to the Britifh fleet and army, as the vizier
had not, at this time, the means of providing for his army
during their croffing the defert. Their force, at this time,
confifted of about 15,000 men, compofed of an equal num-
ber of cavalry and infantry, and 50 pieces of field artil-
lery. The plague was never out of their army, which, from
all he could learn or obferve, feemed to him little better
than a wild ungovernable mob. They had loft in the latt
feven months 6900 perfons by the plague, and the lofs in
the camp in one day was eftimated at about zoo men. He
left Jaffa on the 14th, and joined the army on the 2eth. Sir
Ralph was not at all difappointed with the report and
opinion general Moore gave him; he had always been con-
vinced that he had only the Britifh force to depend upon,
but it was neceffary to afcertain the charaéter and ftate of
the Turkifh army by the report of an officer fele&ted for
that purpofe. Sir Ralph then determined to land in the
bay of Aboukir, and march immediately upon Alexandria.
At this time it was the opinion of the naval officers that
the army, until they got pofleffion of Alexandria, muft de-
pend upon the navy entirely for their fupply of water,
which was to be effected by boats following the line of
the coaft between Aboukir bay and Alexandria, for at this

time it was not known that the fupplies could be forwarded
by the lake Madie. Aboukir is 18 miles from Alexandria.

Every thing was ready for failing from Marmorice on the
18th of February. During the time the expedition re-
mained there it was very ufefully employed for making this
very formidable attempt on an enemy at that time fup-
pofed to amount only to about 14,000 French foldiers, be-
fides the Greeks and natives, whom they had armed and
difciplined. Whereas, it afterwards appeared, that there
were not fewer than 32,000 French troops in Egypt, The
army was exercifed in praétifing landing, and every necef-
fary arrangement made that the genius and experienced
fkill of fir Ralph could devife. Horfes and mules for the
artillery were procured, and about 400 cavalry were mounted.
On the 22d of February the expedition, confilting of up-
wards of 15,000 foldiers, failed in 180 veflels of zat detest
tions, On the 2d of:March they anchored in the bay of
Aboukir. The weather was fo bad that no attempt
could be made to land before the 7th, fo that the enemy
had plenty of time to make every preparation to oppofe
them. The chief engineer, major M‘Kerras, and major
Fletcher, had been fent from Marmorice fome time before to
reconnoitre the coaft; they had gone toe near in an open
boat, were attacked by an armed germ from Aboukir,
major M‘Kerras was killed, and the boat, with major
Fletcher, was taken. This was a ferious lofs, particularly at
that time. Major-general Moore was fent, accompanied by
colonel Liutendahl, two days before the landing was made,
to reconnoitre the place which was pitched upon for the
purpofe. From a bomb veflel which lay about a mile and a
half from the beach, they made their obfervations. On the
right was a high fand hill, on the left the lake Madie: the
{pace between, about a mile in length, was the place for
the landing. The ground tw the left was woody and uneven,
and favourable for covering and concealing an enemy clofe
to the fhore. They fhewed no force, except their patroles
and piquets extended along the line. The ground to the
right of the fand hill was fearched and commanded by the
guns of the fort of Aboukir. No works could be feen,
but as the fleet had appeared off Alexandria on the 1ft of
March, and had anchored in the bay on the 2d, it was
reafonable to fuppofe that every preparation was made to
oppofe the landing. Major-general Moore, on reconnoi-
tring the beach, was convinced that the high fand-hill muft
either be the right or the centre of the enemy’s pofition, he
believed it to be their right, and determined to carry it with
the right of the referve, as it commanded the beach on each
fide of it. On the 7th, the wind having abated, and the
furf on the beach confiderably gone down, the referve, the
guards, and two regiments of major-general Coote’s bri-
gade, received orders in the evening to get into the boats at
two o’clock the next morning. They formed the firft de-
barkation. The reft of the troops were moved in the even-
ing from the,large fhips without, to thofe drawing lefs water
and lying farther in fhore, for the purpofe of fupporting
the firft difembarkation more expeditioufly.

Captain Cochrane, of the Ajax, had the diretion of the
landing. ‘Two veffels were anchored in the evening near the
fhore, one to mark the right of the landing, and the other
the intermediate point on the fame line for the centre, and
the boats, as they received the troops, were to rendezvous
along-fide thefe two yeffels, where captain Cochrane, and the
captains of the navy under his command, were to arrange
them according to their refpeCtive divifions, and to the dif-
ferent brigades and regiments, as they were intended to form
in order of battle. Soon after day-light in the morning of
the 8th, the boats were at the rendezvous, The referve

which

MOORE.

which formed the right was dire€ted to the centre of the
high fand-hill, the rett of the boats drefled by them. Major-
eeneral Moore, and the honourable colonel Edvard Paget,
were in the boat with captain Cochrane. At eight o’clock in
the morning the fignal was madé to advance. The French
had been looking at them for two hours. ‘They were drawn
up tooppole them. They fired on the boats from 15 pieces
of cannon, as foon as they were within reach, firft with
round fhot, then with grape, and the infantry began as
foon as they came within mufket fhot. The boats continued
to row on fteadily, the failors and foldiers cheering as they
approached the beach. Many were killed and wounded,
and fome of the boats were futk. . The: fire from the enemy
of grape and mulquetry was very fevere. As foon as the
boats touched the ground, the officers and men f{prung out
on the beach and loaded. Maje r-general Moore, at the head
of the grenadiers and light infartry of the goth, with the
23d and 28th regiments in line, aicended the fand-hiil. They
did not fire a fhot until they gained the fummit, when they
charged the enemy, drove them, and tock four pieces of can-
non, with part of their hortcs. ‘The French retreated to
the border of a plain, where general Moore halted, as upon
the left a heavy fire of mufquetry was kept up. _brigadier-

eneral Oakes, with the left of the referve, confifting of the
42d Highlanders, the 55th regiment, andthe Corfican ran-
gers, landed to the lefi of the fand-hill, and were attacked
by both infantry and cavalry, which they repulfed and fol-
lowed into the plain, taking three pieces of artillery. The
guards and part of general Coote’s brigade landed to the left
of the referve, they were vigoroufly oppofed, but repulfed
the enemy, and followed them into the plain. The want of
cavalry and artillery (for it was fome time before the guns
that were landed could be dragged through the fand) faved
the enemy from being deftroyed. This was one of the moft
fplendid inftances of Britifh intrepidity that perhaps ever
happened. The enemy had eight days to affemble and pre-
pare, and the ground was extremely favourable to them.
The lofs of the enemy was contiderable, that of the Britifh
amounted to 600 killed ana wounded, of which the referve
lolt 400. In the courfe of the afternoon the reft of the army
landed, and the whole moved forward a couple of miles,
where they took polt for the night.

On the morning of the gth, major-general Moore and lieu-
tenant-colonel Anttruther, the quarter-mafter-general, went
forward with the g2d Highlanders, the Corfican rangers,
and fome cavalry, to look for a new pofition. ‘I'he country
was unequal, fandy, and thickly interfperfed with palm and
date trees. He polted the g2d at a place about two miles
in front, where there was a {mall redoubt, and where the
{pace became more narrow than any where elfe, by the fea
and lake Madie running up on each fide, He then went
forward with the cavalry, until they were met by a ftrong
patrole of the enemy, on which they retired. On reporting
to fir Ralph, he directed major-general Moore to take pott
with the referve on the ground where he had placed the
g2d: by uoon he had taken poffeffion of the poft with
the referve, and placed his out-polts. Onthe 1oth there was
fome {kirmithing with the out-polts of the referve and the
enemy’s cavalry. The main body of the army was detained
in their polt-polition, till, by the exertions of the navy,
the flores and provifions were landed and forwarded to
them. On the sith, fir Ralph went to the referve, the
brigade of guards moved forward, and took polt half way
between them and the reft of the army. ‘l'e lake Madie
was ordered to be examined, with a view to the practicabili-
ty of conveying the army flores by it, which it was after-
wards fina could be done. On the 12th, the army moved

forward in two columns, each compofed of a wing. The
referve, in two columna, formed the advanced guard to cach
column. The enemy’s cavalry retired fkirmithing a3 the
army advanced. The army halted at a tower that they found
evacuated, from the top of which a body of infantry was feen
advancing. The line was inttantly formed, and the army
advanced with the utmott regularity and fteadinefs. The
enemy, on feeing this movement, firlt halted, and after-
wards retired to fome heights which terminated a plain,
where the Britifh army took poft for the night, and lay on
their arms. Major-general Moore had the direction of the
advanced pofts; and the goth and g2d regiments, though
not belonging to tke referve, werc placed under his orders
for the night.

' The out-pofts cf the enemy and the advanced guard of
the Britifh were fo near each other, that it was impoffible
that either army could move without bringing on a general
action. At fix o'clock in the morning of the 13:h the army
moved forward in two columns from the left, each compofed
ofaline. The referve, in one column from the left, marched
on the right of the other two, to cover the flank. Sir
Ralph’s intention was to attack the enemy's right, and, if
pofhble, to turn it. The goth and g2d regiments tormed
the advanced guards to tke two columus.of the army, and,
having got tov far a-head of the columns, were attacked by
the main body of the enemy, and fuffered feverely before the
columns could come to their fupport. Thefe two regiments,
however, maintained their ground, and defeated a body of
cavalry that attempted to charge them. The a€ticn now be-
came Pee along the line ; the French, being forced back, re-
treated, covered by a numerous artillery, halting and firing
wherever the ground favoured them. ‘he Britifh army ad-
vanced rapidly without artillery, as their guns, being dragged
through fand by the feamen, could not keep up with the infan-
try. The referve remained in column on the right flank covers
ing the two lines, and though mowed down by the enemy's
cannon in front, and expofed to mufketry from huflars and
light infantry on their flank, continued to move forward with
fuch fteadinefs and regularity, that at any time during the
aGtion and purfuit, they could have been wheeled to a flank
without an interval. The two lines advanced with equal or-
der until they reached a rifing ground, where there were
the ruins of an ancient building of confiderable extent ; from
this height they faw the enemy retreating in confufion through
a plain, under cover of the fortified heights in front of Alex-
andria. Sir Ralph followed them into the middle of the
plain, where a confultation was held, and it was then in-
tended that general Hutchinfon, with part of the fecond
Ime, which had been leaft engaged, fhould attack the ene-
my’s right, while major-general Moore, with the referve
fupported by the guards, attacked their left near the fea. ©

General Hutchinfon had a confiderable circuit to make to
get to the ground where he was to make his attack, and the at+
tack of the referve was to be regulated by his. When he got
to his ground, the pofition of the French was found to be fo
ftrongly defended by a numerous artillery, and covered
befides by the guns on the fortified heights near Alexandria,
that the atrempt was given up, and as the army were in
their preient pofition expofed to the enemy’s cannon with-
out being able to retaliate, a pofition on the height in the
rear was marked out, to which the army fell back as the
evening advanced. ‘his fevere action colt the Brith army
1300 In kilicd and wounded. ‘Phe enemy had between @
and 7ooo men in the field, their artillery was exceedingly
well ferved, and being abundantly fupplied with artillery
horfes, and having befides fo great a fuperiority of cavalry,
that the few Lelenging to the Britifh could not ad, they

were

MOORE.

were enabled to make good their retreat under a tremen-
dous cannonade, galloping off with their guns, as the
Britifh clafed, to wherever the ground favoured them, and
then renewing their fre. The French Isfs could not have
been equal to that of the Britifh, from the circumitances
above flated.

The pofition of the Britifhh was not a bad one, with
the right to the fea, and the left to the lake of Madie and
the canal of Alexandria. A redoubt was thrown upon the
right in front of the referye, and two upon the canal on the
left, which was the weak fide, having an extenfive plain in
front and rear of it. Heavy cannon were landed and placed
in thefe field-works, which made the pofition of the army
tolerably fecure. Water was found by dizging wells, fo
that the harafling operation of fupplying the army with
that neceflary acticle was not required; their chief want, at
this time, was that of fuel. The Situation of the Britith
army at this period was certainly a very critical one. The
French army which had fought them on the 13th was a
{mall portion of the troops they had then in Egypt. They
were potted oppofite to them on very {trong ground, from
whence they could not be driven without heavy cannon ;
after which, the fiege of Alexandria was to be undertaken
by an army very inferior in numbers. It was quite evident
that when government ordered fir Ralph on this expedition,
they were ignorant of the force that the French had in
Egypt, and had {uffered themfelves to be deceived by erro-
neous information, and mifled by the intercepted letters.
Sir Ralph was well aware of the arduous tafk he had to per-
form, and of the improbability of final fucce’s; he was,
however, deterisined that no efforts fhould be wanting on
his part to fulfil the fervice he was fent on, and, at all
events, to fupport tlie honour and reputation of the Britifh
army. He knew that at this time Menou was collecting a
force at Demenhur: the army that had as yet oppofed him
. was commanded by general Friou. It was fir Ralph’s inten-
tion, as foon as the heavy cannon and intrenching tools were
got up, to attack the enemy on both their flanks; if he
failed, he would retire to their prefent pofition, until another
was prepared in the rear to favour their retreat, and the
re-embarka*ion of the army. The camp of the Britifh was
about four or five miles from Alexandria. In front of the
referve, which formed the right of the army, was a very
extenlive ancient ruin, which the French called Czfar’s
camp: it was twenty or thirty yards retired from the right
flank of the redoubt, and commanded the {pace between the
redoubt and the fea. In the redoubt and the ruin, major-
general Moore had polted the 28th and 58th regiments, and
had made his arrangements with brigadier-general Oakes, in
cafe of attack, to fupport this poft, which was the place for
the referve to fight: indeed, from the nature of the ground,
if the enemy carried it, it would have been impoflible for the
Breitifh army to remain in this pofition. He was the major-
general of the day on the 20th. After vifitiug the piquets,
he remained with the left piquet of the referve until four in
the morning of the 2rit, ‘The enemy had been perfetly
quiet durins the night. Nothing had been obferved from
them but fome reckets, which they were accuftomed occa-
fionally to throw. Thinking every thing quiet, he had left
orders with the field officers to retire to their pots at day-
light, and was riding towards the left to give fimilar orders.
Juit as he reached the left piquet of the guards, who were
tothe left of the referve, he heard a fire of mufketry on the
left, but every thing continuing quiet on the right, from the
ityle of the firing, and from other obfervations he had made
the evening before, he fufpected it was a falfe alarm; he
was, however, riding along towards the left, when a firing

commenced from the piquets of the referve ; he inftantly
turned, faying to his aide-camp, “ this is the real attack,
Jet us gallop to the redoubt.”? He met the piquets falling
back, and by the time he reached the redoubt, io which
colonel Paget with the 2oth were potted, he found it warmly
attacked. The day was not yet broken, and the fmoke
made it darker. The general orders were for the troops
to ftand to their arms an hour before day-light, and for-
tunately they had fallen in befare the attack began. The
honourable colonel Paget with the 28th manned the re-
doubt, and he had two companies in referve, which he
formed on the left of it, as the redoubt was open in the rear:
the 58th regiment lined the old ruin, and, when the attack
commenced, brigadier-general Oakes brought down the left
wing of the 42d Highlanders to the left, according to the
previous arrangements. Major-general Moore had {ent cap-
tain Anderfon, his aide-camp, for the right wing of the
42d, and with orders for the 23d, and four flank companies
of the goth, to fupport the ruins. He was {peaking to
colonel Paget on the platform of the redonbt, when his
horfe was fhot in the face, and colonel Paget received a
wound in the neck, which knocked him down. The dark-
nefs prevented the motion of the enemy from being feen,
but their drums were beating the charge, and their voices
were heard encouraging one another to advance.

About this time, fome perfon faid to major-general
Moore that the French had turned the left of the referve.
He at firft thought they had miftaken the 42d for the
enemy, as he faw them forming on the left where he had
ordered them ; but colonel Paget, who had recovered from
the ftun of the blow he had received, and had been placed
on his horfe, rode up to him and faid, « I affure you the
French have turned us, and are moving towards the ruin.?”
He looked, and faw a column of French completely in the
rear. At this inftant, the right wing of the 42d came up,
he ran to them, ordered them to face to the right-about, and,
pointing to the French column, ordered them to charge the
enemy, whom, he cried out, were completely in their power.
He charged them with the 42d, ufing the bayonet, drove
them into the ruin, where they vere received by the 58th,
and not a man of that column efeaped being killed or taken
prifoners. ‘The inftant this was done, he led them back
to the flank of the redoubt, and on the way met another
column of the French, that had alfo penetrated. He at-
tacked them with the 42d and part of the 28th, and drove
them back. In this charge he was fhot through the leg. The
42d and 28th, purfuing the enemy too far, got into diforder,
and were charged fidhenly by the cavalry. Major Hony-
man, feeing that general Moore had difficulty in walking
from his wound, lent him his horfe. The French cavalry
had got completely among the 42d and 28th; but thefe
gallant regiments, though in diforder, rallied, and brought
down fo many men and horfes with their fire, that the
cavalry were driven off. ‘The great obje& of the French
was to carry the redoubt, and turn the right of the army :
accordingly their great effort was againit the referve. They
made another defperate attack with a line of infantry in
front and on both flanks of the redoubt. The 58th regi-
ment in the ruins allowed them to approach within fixty
yards, and then gave them their fire fo effectually as to
knock down great numbers, the reft went off. Upon the
left of tne redoubt the 42d and 28th repulfed what was in
front, but, while following, were again charged, and pene-
trated by a large body of cavalry, who pafled quite through
and ito the rear of theredoubt. Sir Ralph was furrounded,
and muit have been taken or killed, but a foldier of the
42d fhot the huffar who was attacking him. Major-general
Moore

MOORE.

Moore had to clap fpurs to his horfe to get clear, and gal-
loped to the ruins, to bring up fome of the troops from
thence, which he knew were formed, and in good order.
The ‘28th regiment, who were lining the parapet of the
redonbt, feeing the cavalry enter the rear of the redoubt,
faced about, without quitting their ground, and killed all
the dragoons who had entered it.
and penetrated by the cavalry, were individually fighting,
intermixed with them: major-general Moore ordered the
four flank companies of the 4oth from the ruins to fire
high, and pour in a couple of vollies, though at the rif of
hurting the 42d, and part of the 28th.

In an inftant the field was covered with men, and horfes
galloping without their riders. This body of cavalry was
deftroyed. Every attack the French made was repulfed
with great flaughter. Ia the early part of the action, and
in the dark, fome confufion was unavoidable, but wherever
the French appeared, the Britifh went boldly up to them,
even the cavalry breaking in had not in the leaft difmayed
them. As the day broke, the foreign brigade under briga-
dier-general, afterwards fir John Stuart, who fought the
battle of Maida, came to the fecond line to the fupport of
the referve, fhared in the a€tion, and behaved with great
fpirit. Day-light enabled major-general Moore to get the
referve into order, but there was a great want of ammuni-
tion. The guns could not be fired for a very confiderable
time, otherwife the French muft have fuffered much more
feverely, while retreating from their different unfuccefsful
attacks, than they did. The enemy’s artillery continued to

all the Britifh feverely with fhot and fhells, after the in-
Entry and cavalry had beenrepulfed. The Britifh could not
return a fhot. ~ Had the French attacked again, the Britith
had nothing but their bayonets, which they unqueltionably
would have ufed, as never was an army more determined to
do their duty, But the enemy had fuffered fo feverely, that
the men could not be got to make another attempt. They
continued in front at’a diftant mufket fhot, until the ammu-
nition for the Englifh guns was brought up to enable them
to fire, when they very foon retreated. While the attacks
were made on the Britifh right, a column attacked the guards
on the left of the referve, but were repulfed with lofs. The
French general, Menou, had concentrated the greateft part
of the force in Egypt for this attack: the prifoners ftated
his force in the field at about 13,000 men, of whom be-
tween three and four thoufand were killed or wounded.
The Britith army loft about 1300 men, of which upwards
of 500 belonged to the referve. This battle commenced at
half paft four in the moraine) and terminated about nine.
The French made three different attacks, with fuperior
numbers, the advantage of cavalry, and a numerous and well
ferved artillery. The Britifh infantry here gave a decided
proof of their fuperior firmnefs and hardihood. Sir Ralph,
who always expofed his perfon very much, in this laft battle
carried the praétice perhaps farther than he had ever done
before.’ Major-general Moore met him early in the action,
clofe in the rear of the 42d, without any of the officers of
his family ; and afterwards, when the French cavalry charged
the fecond time and penetrated the 42d, major-general
Moore faw him again and waved to him to retire, but he
was inftantly furrounded by the huffars; he received a cut
from a fabre on the breaft, which penetrated his clothes and
jult grazed the flefh, He received a fhot in the thigh, but
remained in the field until the battle was over, when he was
conveyed on board the Foudroyant. Major-general Moore,
at the clofe of the aétion, had the horfe killed under
him that major Honeyman ‘had lent him When the
battle was over, the wound in his leg became fo {iff and

The 42d, though broken, »

painful, that as foon as he could get a horfe, he gave
the command of the referve to colonel Spencer, and re-
tired with brigadier-general Oakes, who commanded the
referve under him, and who was wounded in the leg
alfo, to their tents in the rear. Brigadier general Oakes
was wounded nearly at the fame time, and in the fame
part of the leg that major-general Moore was, but they
both continued to head the referve until the battle was over.
When the furgeon had drefled their wounds, finding that they
mutt be fome time incapable of aétion, they returned to the
Diadem troop fhip. Captain Anderfon, one of Moore’s aide-
camps, and who had ferved with him ever fince he was
a general officer as brigade-major, or aide-camp, was fur-
rounded and in the hands of the huffars at the time that they
charged the 42d, and was fhot through the fhoulder and
fell: when he recovered his fenfes, he found himfelf lying
among dead huffars and their horfes. :

Sir Ralph Abercrombie died of his wound on board the
Foudroyant on the 28th day of March, deeply lamented by —
the army, and by none more than by major-general Moore,
who had ferved fo much with him, had been fo diftinguifhed
by him, and who, being honoured with his complete confi-
dence, knew how to eltimate his upright and honourable
chara&ter. He was a man of excellent judgment and great
fagacity, which, aided by long miiitary experience, and the
greateft zeal in his profeflion, made him an excellent officer.
He poffeffed great firmnefs and decifion, the enterprifing
fpirit of youth and bravery to excefs. The great difadvan-
tage he laboured under was being extremely fhort-fighted,
which made him ftand in need of good executive general
officers under hirn. On his death the command devolved on
major-general Hutchinfon,

The French, after their defeat on the 21ft of March,
ftrengthened and contraéted their line of defence in front of
Alexandria, and after leaving a fufficient force for the de-
fence of the place, detached the greater part of their force .
to Rhamanie, which was the key of their communication
with Cairo. Major-general Hutchinfon at firft detached
colonel Spencer to Rofetta, with about 1206 Britifh and
a body of between 4 and 5000 Turks, which had arrived
about the time of fir Ralph’s death.

The town was evacuated by the enemy on his approach.
It is unneceffary here to detail the operations in Egypt that
followed the battle of the 21ft, as major-general Moore was
confined on board the Diadem with his wound until the roth
of May, when he was removed to Rofetta for the benefit of
a change of air. He fuffered very feverely ; the ball had
pafled between the two bones of his leg ; he endured a long
confinement and much torment, from mflammation and fur-
gical operations. When at length he could move on crutches,
and was removed to Rofetta, where he got a houfe on thé
banks of the Nile, agreeably fituated, he began to reeover
rapidly. On the 26th of June the wound, though not
yet clofed, being in a healing {tate, he could no longer refilt
the defire he had to rejoin the army under lord (then major.
general) Hutchinfon ; he embarked in a germ on the Nile,
and arrived within a few miles of the canyp before Cairo on
the 28th: onthe 29th he joined the army and took the
command of the referve. ‘Vhe treaty for the furrender of
Cairo, and evacuation of Egypt by the garrifon, was jult
brought to a conclufion. ‘The Turkifh army under the
grand vizier was encamped on the eatt fide of the Nile; they
were in confiderable force, and had a fhort time before de-
feated a body of 4020 French who had marched againft them
from Cairo. The Britifh, the Turks under the captain pacha,
aod the Mameluks, were encamped on the wett fide of the Nile;
the communication with the viziec’s army was kept up by a

4 Brite

MOORE.

bridge of boats; onthe roth of July the French evacuated
Cairo. General Hutchinfon and general Craddock, being
both indifpofed, the former ordered major-general Moore to
take the dire€tion of the march of the army to the place
of embarkation. Every previous arrangement being made
with the French general, the march commenced on the 15th
‘of July, at day light, in the following order. ‘The Turks,
the baggage of the Britifh, the firlt line, the cavalry, the rear
guard, the French army, and the Mameluks. In this manner
they proceeded to. the place of embarkation at Rofetta,
encamping every night: the ground for the French army,
being given to them every evening by the Britifh quarter-
matter-general, was about two miles from the Britith, who
encamped with their front to the French, and who, agreeably
to the capitulation, preferved their arms, and a certain quan-
tity of ammunition.

This extraordinary march lafted till the 31f of July,
the greatelt order being preferved in both armies. No com-
munication between them was fuffered but by fpecial leave.
The moment they came to their ground, every evening the
piquets were polted. The French army that furrendred at
Cairo did not confiit of lefs than 10,000 fighting men, of
which about Soo were cavalry, and they had 50 pieces of can-
non well horfed and equipped. About 2000 of the French
army were on board the germs that attended the army down
the Nile. Major-general Moore continued to ferve in the
army of Egypt until after the furrender of Alexandria, when
he returned to England, the peace having been very foon
concluded after that event. tHe received the honour of
knighthood, and the order of the Bath, almoft immediately
after his return to Egypt.

During the fhort peace he was conftantly on the home
flaff, and on the breaking out of the war in 1803, he was fta-
tioned in command at Sandgate, on the coaft of Kent, which,
during the alarm of an invalion from Boulogne, was an im-
portant poft. His brigade confifted of the two battalions
of his own regiment, the 52d, the 43d, the gsthrifle regi-
ment, the 4th or king’s own, and the 78th Highlanders.
The 52d and 43d had begun to be formed on a plan of his
own as light corps, which was the beginning of the light
divifion, that has been found fo ufeful on the peninfula of
Spain ; and their great fuperiority having now been efta-
blifhed by real fervice in the field, many other regiments
have fince been formed upon the fame fyitem. eneral
Moore’s object was to combine the knowledge and prac-
tice of the duties of light troops, with the’ general fyitem
for the movements of the army, and to form thefe regiments
fo as to be ready to act either as light troops, or in the ufual
mode, according to circum({tances. :

In the mosth of June 1806, lieutenant-general fir John
Moore was fent to Sicily to ferve under general Fox, as
fecond in command.
the month of July 1807, when general Fox, whofe health
was unequal to active operations, returned to Englatid, and
fir John Moore was appointed commander-in-chief in the
Mediterranean. He continued in Sicily till the latter end
of September 1807, when he received orders to embark
with part of the army and proceed to Gibraltar, leaving
the co:;nmand in Sicily to general Sherbrook. He em-
barked on the 24th of Oxtober on board the Chiffone
frigate. The general officers he was directed to take with
him were named, and alfo the regiments, in all upwards
of 7c90 men.

It was now intended that he fhould afford affittance to
‘Portugal, at the time of the firft invafion of that kingdom
by Junot. Inftead, however, of accepting the proffered
aid, the prince regent of Portugal adopted, as he imagined,

Vor. XXIV.

He continued in that fituation till”

the only meafure by which he could preferve his own ha~
nour and fafety, and afford a chance to fuch of his fubjeGs,
as preferred hberty and tranquillity in the Brazils to the
tyranny of the French, of accompanying him in his emi-
gration. His fleet, which had long been in a ftate of pre-
paration, failed, under the prot@¢tion of the Englifh, to
the Portuguefe fettlements in South America, the king
embarking on board the {hip commanded by captain Gra-
ham Moore, brother to fir John, on whom the command
of the expedition devolved.

Sir John returned, according to the inftru@tions pre-
vioufly given him, to England, without landing in Portugal,
and he was in the {pring of 1808 difpatched to Sweden
with 10,000 men, to affilt again{t a combined attack from
Ruffia, France, and Denmark. On the 17th of May thia
army reached Gottenburgh ; and it was focn intimated, that
the troops muft not land. The foldiers and horfes, con-
fequently, remained tofling on board the crowded tranf-
ports for feveral weeks. Sir John Moore prudently fup-
preffed the feelings excited by fo inhofpitable a reception,
and fo oppofite to what he had been led to anticipate. He
repaired, however, to Stockholm to communicate his orders,
and to concert meafures for the fecurity of Sweden. He
there found that the king of Sweden was bent on conquelt,
though he had not an army adequate even to defend his own
country. He propofed, that the Britifh fhould remain in
their fhips, till fome Swedifh regiments could be colle&ed,
and that the combined forces fhould land and conquer Zea-
land. Sir John was too experienced an officer not to fore-
fee the abfolute impracticability of the project. He repre-
fented, in the molt refpeétful manner poffible, that the
difficulties were fuch, as not to be furmounted by the
bravelt troops. It was next propofed, that the Britith
alone fhould land in Ruffian Finland, ftorm a fortrefs, and
take a pofition there. This notion was confidered by the
Britifh general as more prepolterous than the former, and
he endeavoured to prove that 10,000 Britith were infufficient
to encounter the principal force of the Ruffian empire,
which would quickly be brought againft them. The ob-
jections which he was obliged to make to thefe and to other
fchemes equally abfurd, drew upon him the refentment of
his Swedifh majefty, who arrefted him in his capital. He,
however, with confiderable addrefs, withdrew from the
thraldom of Sweden without committing his government.
On his return, he was honoured with the approbatioa of
the minifters and his fovereizn, and there feems no doubt,
that with a general poffeifed of lefs good fenfe and political
firmnefs, the army would have been expofed to imevitable
deftruction. After having acted in the Mediterranean and
alfo in Sweden as commander-in-chief, fir John Moore was
fuperfeded by fir Harry Burrard, and was called upon to
ferve in Portugal,-as third in command. Upon fuch trear-
ment many an officer would initantly have refigned, but
fir John Moore was fuperior to modera military etiquette :
he loved his country, and was ready to ferve it in any fitua-
tion fingled out for him by his fovereign. He failed with
his commanding officer in the fleet to Portugal on the
grit of July. They did not arrive at Lifbon with their
army till after the battle of Vimiera, and the fubfequent
armiltice. Luttle of importance occurred for {ome weeks ;
but on the refignation of fir Harry Burrard, fir Joha
Moore was, on the 6th of Odtober, appointed to the
chief command of an army to be employed in Spain. It
had been the defign of government, fince the month’ of
Auguft, to fend an army to the north of Spain; the
proje& was now to be put into execution, and Gallicia, or
the borders of Leon were fixed upon by the war minilter

M . a3

MOORE.

as the place for affembling the troops. | Sir John was or-
dered to fend the cavalry by land, but it was left to his
own difcretion to tranfport the infantry and artillery either
by fea or land. He was alfo affured, that 15,000 men
were ordered to Corunna,,and he was direéted to give fuch
orders to fir David Baird, their commander, as would
moft readily effect a junction of the whole force. an
David had arrived at the place of his deftination on the
13th of OGober, and was altonifhed, difappointed, and
mortified to find, that the junta of Gallicia refufed him
permiffion to land his troops, and when this favour was
ranted him, his reception was fo extremely cold, that he
was difpofed to doubt whether the Sparifh Earmae
really wifhed for the co-operation, of Great age
fimilar impreffion was made on the mind of fir John Moore
when he arrived at Salamanca on the 1 3th of November.
Indeed it was not for the firft time that he now learnt that
little reliance could be placed on the Spaniards. The go-
vernment of the country had recommended Burgos as the
point of union for the Britifh troops, and Madrid and Valla-
dolid were the places appointed for the magazines. ‘ine
commander-in-chief had been led to expeét, through lor
Bentinck, that 60 or 70,coomen would be affembled under
Blake and Romana, in Atturias and Gallicia. He had not
got far into the country before all his hopes were completely
difappointed. Setaro, who had agreed to fupply the Aig:
fions of the army with rations on the march to Portugal,
failed in his contract, ard but for the conftant and unremit-
ting exertions of the generals themfelves, they could not
have proceeded for want of fubfittence. A thovfand incon-
veniences refulted alfo through the great want of money, the
inhabitents of Spain and Portugal being unufed tn |paper
currency. With refpe& to the central junta, of whofe
exertions we, in England, heard fo much, it was {oon evident
to fir John Moore, that “ {elf-intereft, mutual jealoufy, and
ifcord ditra@ed their councils. There was no predomi-
nant leader to give uniformity to their acts, no animating
paffions to elevate their minds. By cold languor, and foggy
dulnefs, they chilled and damped the {pirits of the nation.
From Corunna fir David Baird wrote, “ They (the govern-
ment of Spain) promife every thing but give nothing.”? It
was at this period that fir John Moore began to antictpate
the refult which followed: he forefaw that the enthutiafm
of his army, and of the people of England, could not
avail in the great caufe in which he had embarked ; and in
a letter addreffed to lord William Bentinck, on the day of
his arrival at Salamanca, he mentions with indignation the
deception which had been practifed in England with regard
to the flourifhins fituation of affairs in Spain, by the agents
of his own government, and urged upon his lordihip and
Mr. Frere the neceffity of unfolding to their principals the
yeal truth; and he adds, ‘the Englifh army, I hope, will
do all which can be expected from their numbers 3 but the
fafety of Spain depends upon the union of its inhabitants; their
enthufia(m in their caufe, and their firm*and devoted deter-
mination to die, rather chan fubmit to the I rench : nothing
fhort of this will enable them to refift the formidable attack
about to be made upon thent. If they will adhere, our aid
can be of the greatelt ufe to them ; but, if not, we fhall foon
be out-numbered, were our force quadrupled. Lam, there-
fore, much more anxious to fee exertion and energy in the
government, avd enthuliafm in their armies, than to have
iny force augmented. ‘The moment 1s a critical one ; my
own fituation is particularly fo—I have never feen it other-
wife, but L have pufhed into Spain at all hazards—this was
the order of my government, and it was the will of the

people of England.”

Two nights after writing this letter, fir John was awaken
ed from his fleep by an exprefs to inform him that the
French army had advanced, and taken poffeffion of the city
of Valladolid, which is but twenty leagues from Salamanca:
We have before obferved that fir John was politively informed
that his entry into Spain would be covered by 60 or 70,000
men ; and that Burgos was the city intended for the point
ef union for the different divifions of the Britifle army.
But already not only Burgos, but Wailadolid, was in pof-
feffion of the enemy; and. he found himfelf with an ad-
vanced corps in an open town, at three marches diltance
only from the French army, without even a Spanifh pigquet
to cover his front! He had at this time only three brigades
of infantry, without a gun in Salamanca. * The remainder,
it istrue, were moving up in fuccefiior, but the whole could
not arrive in lefs than ten days.

At this critical time the Spanifh main armies, inftead of
being united either among themfelves, or with the Britifh,
were divided from each cther almeit by the whole breadth of
the peninfula. The fatal confequences of this want of
union were but too foon made apparent ; Blake was de-
feated, and a report reached fir David Baird that the French
were advancing upen his divifion in two different direétions,
fo as to threaten to furronnd him. He, confeqnently, pre-
pared to retreat upon Corunna; but fir John Moore, hav-
ing afcertained that the report was unfounded, ordered fir
David to advance, in order, if poffible, to form a junction
with him.

It was at this moment that Mr. Frere, the Britifh am-
baffador at Madrid, firft commenced his official communi-
cations with fir John Moore. Either from an excefs ef
zeal and hope which clouded the knowledge which he pot-
fefled cf Spanifh affairs, or from a total ignorance of them,
unbecoming and difgraceful in a diplomatic character, fitu-
ated as he was, where he had accefs to the beit fources ot
information ; he reprefented the defeat of the armies. of
Blake and of Eftramadura, and the confequent {iucceis of
the French, as of trivial moment, and ftrongly preffed the
Britifh to prefs forward to the capital. Sir John Moore,
however, fortunately had more accurate and earlier means of
learning the operations of the Spanifh and French armies. On
the 28th of November he received information that Caftanos
was completely defeated, and now there was no army re-
maining, againft which the whole French force might be
directed, except the Britifh; and it was in vain to expect
that they, even if they had been united, could have refifted or
checked the enemy. Sir John Moore, therefore, determined
to fall back on Portugal, to halten the junction of general
Hope, who had gone towards Madrid, and he ordered fir
David Baird to regain Corunna as expeditioufly as poffible.
‘This determination to retreat created diffatisfaction among
the army, who could not be judges of the necellity of the
movement. Mr. Frere alfo wrote exprefsly againit it, men-
tioning the Frenci: force as about eleven thoufand only ;”’
though if he were at all qualified for the duties of the high
office to which he had been appointed, he might have known
that Bonaparte was rapidly advancing with nearly eighty
thoufand men, Is it a fuflicient excufe for Mr. Trere, that
he was deceived by the traitor Morla; ought he to have
truited to the information of a fingle man, when he had the
means of getting at real faéts from unquetlionable fources
of authority? ‘The fate of Spain and of the whole Briufh
army depended upon the knowledge of the truth; and had
the requifitions and advice of Mr. Frere, who, perhaps,
followed the counfels of Morla, been literally obeyed, not
a man of the Britith army could have efcaped.

W len fir Joh; Moore had determined upon a retreat, he af-

fembled

MOORE.

fembled the general officers, and fhewed them the grounds of
his refolution : he told them he had not affembled them, in or-
der that they might be induced to commit themfelves by giving
aay opinion upon the fubject ; he took the whole refponfi-
bility upon himfelf; all that he requited of them was, that
they would immediately prepare for carrying it into effec.
The idea of retreating was {till very generally difapproved,
and murmurs againft it f-om officers of rank were heard in
every quarter. “ Even the ttaff officers of fir John Moore's
family lamented it, and, for the firlt time, doubted the
wifdom cf his decifion.”? He, however, had the fatisfaction
of learning, very foon after, that general Hope completely
agreed with him.

Had fir John Moore followed the dictates cf his own
judgment, and a¢ted on what he knew was the real ftate
of Spanith affairs, and the ftrength, po‘iuon, and probable
movements of the French armies, he would have carried his
determinations of retreat into immediate and complete exe-
cution, But unfortunately for his country, before he could
carry his plars into effeét, he received letters from Mr.
Frere, dated the 30th of November, itrongly preffing him
to advance to Madrid, and giving a moit flattering picture
of the enthufiaftic and determined {pirit of the people, and
of the ample refources of the country. This communi-
cation was foon followed by a meffenger fent exprefsly by
the prince Caftelfranca and Morla, the governors of Ma-
drid, with a paper figned by them, in the name of the fu-
preme junta, and dated on the fecond of December. This
paper was an exaggerated flattering reprefentation of the
zeal and refources of the Spaniards, and the ftatements con-
tained in it were farther recommended to fir John Moore’s
attention by another letter from Mr. Frere, dated even the
third of December, from Talavera, in which he _prefies
the general, in the itrongett terms, to advance to the capital,
although that capital had, unknown to him, been abandoned
to the enemy oa the preceding day without {triking a fingle
blow. Inan evil moment, the Britifh general, not fufpect-
ing the traiterous intentions of Morla, fuffered his own
judgment to give way to the reprefentations of the traitors
in Madrid, and Mr, Frere. He fufpended his retreat, and
even ordered fir David Baird to advance ; for it could never
enter into the conception of fir John Moore, that the two
chiefs of the junta had confpived to betray the capital of
their own country, and toentice the army of their ally into
the power of the enemy. Nor could he fufpect, when a
confidential agent of Mr. Frere was reprefenting Madrid as
in little danger, that, in faét, it had already fubmitted at the
very fight of the Frencharmy ; that the Spanith chiefs were
crouching at the feet of Bonaparte; and that the people at
large were overwhelmed with terror and defpair. Nor was
it imaginable, to an ingenuous mind, like that which fir John
Moore poffeiled, that the Britifh minifter fhould be fo grofsly
deceived, as to fend, for his inftruction, inteliigence the re-
verfe of the truth, and to require of him, in fo pofitive a
manner, to fuccour a city which had aually furrendered.
Yet this Mr. Frere, on the day after the furrender of Ma-
drid, urges on the general ‘the propriety, not to fay the
neceffity, of fupporting the determination of Spanith people
(in defending Madrid) by all the means which have been
entrulted to you for that purpofe. I have no helitation in
taking upon myfelf any degree of refponfibility that may
attach itfeif to this advice.”

As, however, fir John Moore had now completely effected
his junction with general Hope, and had removed every
obitacle to his junctio& with fir David Baird, whenever it
might be deemed expedient, he determined to perfitt in his

refolution of advancing, though that refolution had bcen

formed, under the idea that Madrid not only held out, but

was capable of oppofing the French for a confiderable-
length of time, if not with ultimate and complete fuccefs.

Sir John was anxious to meet the wifhes of his troops, by

leading them againft the enemy ;phe determined, therefore,

to attack Soult, who was pofted at Saldanha, by which he

thought he fhould draw off the French armies to the north

of Spain, and thus afford an opportunity for the Spanifh

armirs to rally and re-unite. Soult was probably potted in

that {pot, with fo {mall a body of men, for the purpofe of
enticing the Britifh army farther into Spain, or at leaft of
occupying their attention; while Bonaparte, in perfon,

with his whole difpofable force, endeavoured to place him-

felf between the Britifh army and the fea. At length the

two armies met ; and the fuperiority of the Britith cavalry

was eminently difplayed in a moft brilliant and fuccefsful
fkirmifh. About 600 of the imperial guards of Bonaparte

were beaten, and driven off the field by half the number

of Britifh, leaving 55 killed and wounded, and 70 pri-
foners, among whom was general Le Febre, the commander
of the imperial guard. Notwithitanding this and other ad-
vantazes gained over the enemy, a retreat was become indif-
penfibly neceflary, and the only difficulty was to determine
the route that ought tobe purfued. ‘The French that were
now difpatched after fir John Moore, upon the loweft caleu-
lation, amounted to 70,020 men, while the troops under
the Britifh commander were not more than 27,000. Sir
John Moore was anxious to have defended the paffes of
Gallicia, but this he was often prevented from doing, owing
to the immenfe fuperiority of the enemy, want of provifions,
and the danger of having his pofitions turned. So rapid was
the march of the main body of the French army under

Bonaparte, and fo clofely did they purfue fir John Moore,
that the advanced guard of the enemy entered Fordeiillas

on the fame day that the Britifh began to retreat from

Sahagun, fo that the diftance between them was fcarcely 30

miles.

Sir John Moore, in his retreat, inftead of being benefited
or aided by the Spanifh troops under Romana, was greatly
impeded by them. He had given {trict directions to that
commander to leave the route to Aftorga open for the
Englih; yet when he arrived at that town, he found it
completely occupied by Romana’s troops, and it was not
without the utmott difficulty, and the exertion of much {kill
and activity, that fir John Moore was able to draw off his
army from it before the arrivalof the French. he iitua-
tion of the Britifh at this time was mott dreadful. In the
midft cf winter, in a dreary and defolate country ; the fol-
diers, chilled and drenched by deluges of rain, wearied by
Jong and rapid marches, in bad roads, were almolt entirely
deltitute of fuel, either to drefs their food or dry their
clothes, and when they did halt, found it extremely difh-
cult, frequently impoffible, to procure fhelter. Their pro-
vifions were fcanty, and procured with great labour, and in
an irregular manner ; the wagyons, in which were their ma-
gazines, baggage, and itores, were often deferted in the
night-time by the Spanilh drivers, terrified at the approach
of the French: the bullocks and mules by which they
were drawn could not be made to move, except by their
native drivers; it was, therefore, frequently neceflary to
deftroy the provifions and ftores, in order that they might
not fall into the hands of the enemy. In one inftance there
were even two carts with dollars to the amount of. 25,000/.,
which, for want of proper cattle to draw them, feil behind,
and after every effort to fave the money, fo neceflary at that

M2 moment,

MOORE.

moment, the cafks were obliged to be rolled down a precipice,
and the advanced guasd of the French paffed the place in a
few minutes afterwards.

In the midit of this diftrefs the Spanifh peafantry offered
no affiltance, and fhewed no fympathy ; they did nothing
to harafs or retard the purfuing army; they even fled at
the approach of the Englifh, their allies, carrying with
them every thing that could alleviate their diftrefs, or con-
tribute to their comfort or prefervation. The whole beha-
viour of thefe people, for want of being organized by their
officers, during the retreat of fir John Moore’s army, was
calculated to excite the flrongeft difguft in the minds of
the Britifh, againft the fervice in which they had engaged,
who faw themfelves expofed to = fuperior force, and {uffer-
ing under the moft cruel privations for the fake of people
who would neither ftir in their own behalf, nor affift thofe
who were encountering every evil on their account.

The difficulties and anxieties of the Britifh commander
were increafed by the relaxation which took place in the dif-
cipline of the army. The difappointment which they had
experienced in not having an opportunity of meafuring their
{lrength with the enemy, the privations and diltreffes under
which they fuffered, ma retreat which they regarded, from
their ignorance of the numbers of the French, as an unne-
eeflary and difgraceful flight ; and above all, the indifference
to their fuflerings which the Spaniards uniformly manifelted,
contributed to weaken their habits of order and difcipline.
‘As, however, it was of the utmof importance to reftore
them to an army.who might every moment be compelled to
refit the attack of a far fuperior force, fir John Moore
was compelled to iffue fuch orders as might unequivecally
point out his knowledge of the extent to which the want of
difcipline had proceeded, the perfons to whom he principally
attributed it, and his pofitive and unalterable determination
to punifh it in the moft fevere and exemplary manner. At
Lugo, on the fixth of January, in his general orders, the com-
mander-in-chief fays, ‘the advanced guard of the French is
already clofe to ux and it is prefumed that the main body is
not far diftant ; an @&tion may, therefore, be hourly expected.
If the generals and commanding officers of regiments with
to give the army a fair chance of fuccefs, they will exert
themfelves to reitore order and difcipline in the regiments,
brigades, and divifions which they command.

“ The commander of the forces is tired of giving orders,
which are never attended to; he, therefore, appeals to the
honour and feelings of the army he commands ; and if thofe
are not fufficient to induce them to do their duty, he mutt
defpair of fucceeding by any other means. He was forced
to order one foldier to be fhot at Villafranca, and he will
order all others to be executed who are guilty of fimilar
gnormities ; but he confiders there would be no occafion to
proceed to fuch extremities, if the officers did their duty ;
as it is chiefly from their negligence, and from the want of
proper regulations in the regiments, that crimes and irre-

rularities are committed, in quarters, and upon march.’”

The remarks in this order are extremely fevere, but they
were nece(fary, and the circumftances of the cafe would not ad-
mit of palliation. In the retreat, hundreds of foldiers were left
behind ina {tate of intoxication, which nothing but complete
infubordination could have admitted. On the firlt of Ja-
uuary, the general found the little town of Bembibre filled
with ttragglers of the preceding divifions. And when he
marched with the referve and cavalry to Villafranca on the
fecond, he left a detachment of cavalry to cover the town,
while parties were fent to warn the ftragglers, amounting to
fearly a thoufand men, of their danger, and to drive them, if

poflible, out of the houfes. Some few were preveiled upon
to move on, but neither threats nor the approach of the
enemy could induce the greater number to quit the houfes.
At length the rear guard was compelled to march and leave
thefe fenfelefs people to their fate. The road was filled with:
Spanifh and Britifh ftragglers, armed and unarmed, mules,
carts, women and children, all mingled in ftrange confufion.
As the French dragoons galloped through this long line of
ftragglers, they flafhed them with their {words mercilefsly to.
the right-and left: and thefe men were often fo infenfible
from ]:quor, as neither to make refiltance nor get out of
the way. :

At Lugo fir John Moore was anxious to engage the

‘enemy ; and he was fatisfied that the general orders, already

cited, had produced fuch an effe& in his army, as to: give
an earneft of victory. A flight fkirmifh enfued, in which
the Britith rufhed forward with charged bayonets, and drove
the enemy’s column down the hill with confiderable flaughter.
After this, marfhal Soult, having experienced the talents.
of the general, and the intrepidity of the troops he had to-
encounter, did not venture to renew the attack ; from this,
it was concluded, that his intertion was to harafs the
Britifh as much as poffible during their march, and to defer
his attack till the embarkation. This was on the feventh of
January, and on or before that day the Spanifh central junta
had pledged themfelves, and fo alfo had Mr. Frere, that
44,000 Spanifh foldiers fhould be united to his army, whereas
not afingle Spanifh foldier was to be feen, The Britifvarmy
had been followed and aflailed by all the difpofable French:
army, and was totally abandoned by the Spaniards, who
neither united. with them, according to their ftipulation,.
nor had a fingle Spanifh corps advanced to attack, or even
to threaten the French pofts, now weakened by the abfence
of their army. Thus was fir John Moore again deceived
by a miffion from the Spanifh government, and the Britifh
minifter, and the devoted troops had nothing on which they
could depend but their arms.

The general, thus fituated, judging it neither fafe to a@&
offenfively, nor to delay his retreat any longer, quitted his.
ground in the night, Jeaving fires burning to deceive the-
enemy. The French did not difcover their retreat till long
after day-light, fo that the Briufh army got the ftart of
them confiderably. On the eleventh of January, the whole-
of the Britifh reached Corunna, the port where they hoped
to ‘embark, not, however, without the probability of a bat-
tle. In this they had to encounter many adverfe circum-
{tances ; they were exhaufted and almoit worn out by a.
rapid march of 250 miles of a dreadful country, in the moft
inclement feafon of the year, deprived of every accommo-
dation, and often deititute of food and fhelter. They had
been obliged to facrifice molt of their baggage, and fome
of their artillery ; the greater number of their horfes had
been put to death, to prevent them from falling into the
hands of the enemy, Notwithttanding thefe and other diffi-
culties ; notwithitanding they were aifeppointed in not find--
ing the tranfports at Corunna, the Britifh army rejoiced
that before they quitted the fhores of Spain, they {hould:
have an opportunity to front their enemies. At the fight
of them their wearied and exhautled limbs were braced with
new vigour, and the native valour of Britith foldiers fup-
plied the place of refrefhment and rett. ;

The enemy gave no particular indications of attack till
about noon of the 16th of January: at this time fic,
John Moore was giving directions for the embarkation ;
but the moment intelligence was brought that the enemy’s
line were getting under arms, he {truck fpurs to his horfe,

ig and

MOORE,

and flew to the field. The advanced piquets were already
beginning to fire at the enemy’s" light troops, who were
. pouring rapidly down the hill on the right wing of the
Britith. Early in the aétion, fir David Baird, leading on
his divifion, had his arm fhattered witha grape-fhot, and
was forced to leave the field. At this inftant, the French
artillery plunged from the heights, and the two hottile
lines of infantry mutually advanced beneath a fhower of
balls. They were {till feparated from each other by ftone-
“walls and hedges. A fudden and very able movement of
the Britith gave the utmoft fatisfa€tion to fir John Moore,
‘who had been watching the. maneeuvre, and he cried out,
« That is exa@tly what I wifhed to be done.’’ He then rode
up to the sath regiment, commanded by majors Napier and
Charles Banks Stanhope, who had got over an inclofure ia
their front, and were charging moft valiantly. The ge-
neral, delighted with the gallantry of the two majors, who
had beer recommended by himfelfto the military rank they
held, exclaimed, “ Well done the goth! Well done my
majors !”” The plaudits of their generat and beloved friend
excited them to new efforts, and they drove the enemy out
of the villaye of Elvina with great flaughter. In the con-
‘iG, major Napier, advancing too far, was feverely wounded
and taken prifoner, and major Stanhope received a ball
through his heart, which inftantly put an end to a moft
valuable life. So inftantaneous mu{t have been the death
of major Stanhope, that a fenfe of pain had not torn from
his countenance the {mile which the bravery of his foldiers
and the applau‘e of his commander had excited.

Sir John Moore proceeded to the 42d, and addrefled
them in thefe words, * Highlanders, remember Egypt.”
They rufhed on, driving the French before them. He fent
captain Hardinge to order up a battalion of guards to the
Yeft flank of the Highlanders, upon which the officer com-
manding the light company, conceiving that, as their ammu-
nition was nearly expended, they were to be relieved by
the guards, began to fall back; but fir John, difcovering
the miftake, faid, ** My brave gad, join your comrades,
ammunition is coming, and you have your bayonets.”? They
inftantly obeyed, and moved forward. While the general
was fpeaking, a cannon ball itruck him to the ground. He
raifed himfelf, and fat up with an unaltered countenance,
looking moft intently at the Highlanders, who were
warmly engaged; captain Hardinge affured him the 42d
were advancing, upon which his countenance immediately
brightened. The general was carried from the field, and
on the way he ordered captain Hardinge to report his
wound to general ‘Hope, whoaffumed the command. Many
of the foldiers knew that their two generals were carried off
the field, yet they continued the fight till they had achieved
a decifive and brilliant victory, over a very fuperior force.

The fall of general Moore is thus defcribed by captain
Hardinge: ‘+I had been ordered by the commander-in-chief
to defire a battalion of the guards to advance ; which bat-
talion was at one time intended to have diflodged a corps of
the enemy from: a large houfe and garden on the oppolite
fide of the valley ; and I was pointing out ‘o the general the
fituation of the battalion, and our horfes were touching,
at the moment that a cannon-fhot from the enemy’s battery
_narried. away his left: fhoulder, and part of the collar-bone,
leaving the arm hanging by the flefh.

« The violence of the ftroke threw him off his horfe on
his back. Not a mufcle-of his face altered, nor did a fizh
betray the lea{t fenfation of pain.

«.[ difmounted, and, taking his hand, he preffed mine
forcibly, calting his eyes very anxioufly towards the 42d
regiment, which was-hotly engaged-5. and his countenance

exprefféd fatisfa&tion when I informed him that the regiment
was advancing. Affilled by a foldier of the 42d, he was
removed a few yards behind the fhelter of a wall.

** Colonel Graham Balgowan and captain Woodford
about this time came up, and, perceiving the ftate of fir
John’s wound, inftantly rode off for a furgeon.

“ The blood flowed fa‘t, but the attempt to ftop it with
my fafh was ufelefs, from the fize of the wound,

*¢ Six John affented to being removed in a blanket to the
rear. In raifing him for that purpofe, his word, hanging
on the wounded fide, touched his arm, and became entangled:
between his legs. I perceived the inconvenienae, and was
in the aé& of unbuckling it from his wailt, wheh he faid in
his ufual tone and manner, and in a very diftin@ voice, It:
is as well as it is; I had rather it fhould go out of the field
with me.””

The account of this difafter was brought to fir David
Baird while the furgeons were dreffing his flattered arm.
He ordered them inftantly to defift, and run to attend on
fir Jon Moore. When they arrived, he faid to them,
“© you can be of no fervice to me;-g0 to the-foldiers, te.
whom you may be ufeful.”’

As the foldiers were carrying him flowly along ina blanket,
he made them turn him round frequently to view the
field of battle, and to liften to the firing, and was pleafed
when the found grew fainter. On his arrival at his lodgings
he was in much pain, and could {peak but little, but at inter-
vals he faid to colonel Anderfon, who for one-and-twenty
years had been his friend and companion in arms-—* Ander-

fon, you know that I always wifhed to die in this way.??”

He frequently afked ‘are the French beaten; and at
length, when he was told they were defeated in every point,
he faid, ‘ It is a great fatisfaction for me to know we have
beaten the French.”—* I hope the people of England will
be fatisfied, I hope my country will-do me juftice.”” Having
mentioned the name of his venerable mother, and the names
of fome other friends for whofe welfare he feemed anxious
to offer his laft prayers, the power of utterance was loft,
and he died in a few minutes without a ftruggle.

Thus fell, at the age of forty-feven, at the conclufion of
a critical victory, which preferved! the remainder of his
army from deftruction,. lieutenant-general fir John Moore,.
a name that mult be long dear to his country, which was
well difpofed to do jultice to his memory, and gratefully te
acknowledge, in every poflible way, the important fervices
which he had achieved for. it.

We have devoted a longer fpace than ufual to comme-
morate the actions of this hero; but in fo doing, we have
had an opportunity of putting: on record, in a work that
is likely to be durable, the brilliant exploits not only of the
fubje@t of this article, but of the Britith military, whofe
valour and intrepidity were never more diftinguifhed than in»
thofe ations in which fir John Moore took a diftinguifhed
part, and in which, as we have feen,. he received no fewer
than fix wounds ;. one inthe head, from a fhell, in Corfica ;
three in Holland, before he could be prevailed on.to leave the
field ; a muflcet-fhot in Egypt, which, however, did not inter-
rupt his exertions till the battle was won ;_ and a cannon-ball:
in Spain, which bereaved his country for ever of his-fervices.

Sir John Moore fpent his life in the army,,and his popu--
larity among the officers: and foldiers was never excceded,.
which was owing to his modeft and unaffaming manners ;.
to firmnefs, tempered with kindnefs, towards thofe under:
his command, and to a condné to all ferupuloufly juft. He
was indefatigable in the duties of his-profeflion: when en-
gaged in actual warfare, he always rofe between three and’
four in the morning, lighted his fire and candle by a lamp,

which

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awhich was placed in his room, and employed himfelf in
-writing till eight o’clock, when the officers of his family
were aflembled for breakfaft. After breakfaft he received
the general officere, and all perfons with whom he had bufi-
snefs; and the neceflary orders were iffued. He always
rode before dinner, either to view the troops, or reconnoitre
the country.

On the 25th of January, the earl of Liverpool, in moving
the thanks of the houfe to the officers who had gained the
battle of Corunna, referred to the lofs which the nation
had fuftained in the death of fir John Moore, * whofe whole
life,” he faid, ‘* had been devoted to the fervice of his
country; for there was fcarcely any action of importance,
during the two laft wars, in which be had not participated.”
An the fame evening Jord Caitlereagh exprefled his forrow
“at the lofs of one of the ablett of our generals, poficfling,
in an eminent degree, every valuable quality that can dignify
the man, and enhance the fuperiority of the foldier; giving,
jn the evidence of his palt life, the beit afflurance of what
-might have been expected in future, had he lived, from his
zeal, intrepidity, and talents.” Sle concluded by moving,
s© That an addrefs be prefented to his majefty, requeiting
that a monument be erected in the cathedral of St. Paul’s,
to the memory of the late licutenant-general fir Jobn Moore,
knight of the Bath, who, after an honourable and meri-
torious life, fell by a cannon-ball, in the aétion near Coruzra,
on the 16th of January 1809, after having, by his judicious
difpofitions, fkill, and gallantry, repulfed an enemy of fu-
perior force, and. fecured to the troops under his command
a fafe and unmolefted embarkation.”’ !

To all which we may fubjoin the following very hand-
fome tribute of refpe& paid to his memory, by his royal
highnefs, the commander-in-chief, in the general orders,
aflued from the Horfe-Guards, February 1, 1809. °

«¢ The benefits derived to an army, from the example of
a diftinguifhed commander, do not terminate at his death:
Jhis virtues live in the recolle€tion of his aflociates, and his
fame remains the flrongeit incentive to great and glorious
actions. »

‘In this view, the commander-in-chicf, amidft the deep
and univerfal regret, which the death of lieutenant-general
fir John Mcore has occafioned, recals to the troops the
military career of that illultrious officer for their inftruction
and imitation.

“¢ Sir John Moore, from his youth, embraced the pro-
feffion with the feelings and fentiments of a foldier: he felt,
that a perfe knowledge, and an exaét performance of the
humble, but important duties of a fubaltern officer, are the
beft foundations for fubfequent military fame; and his ar-
dent mind} while it looked forward to thofe brilliant achieve-
ments for which it was formed, applied itlelf, with energy
and exemplary affiduity, to the duties of that flation.

«* In the {chool of regimental duty, he obtained that cor-
rect knowledge of his profeffion, fo effential to the proper
direétion of the gallant {pirit of the foldier ; and he was en-
abled to eftablih a charaéterillic order, and regularity of
conduét, becaufe the troops found in their leader a ilriking
example of the difcipline, which he enforced on others.

«¢ Having rifen to command, hie fignalized his name in the
Wett Indies, in Holland, andin Egypt. ‘The unremitting
attention with which he devoted himfelf to the duties of
every branch of his profeffidn, obtained for him the confidence
of fir Ralph Abercrombie; and he became the companion
in arms of that illuitrious officer, who fell at the head ot his
victorious troops, in an action which maintained our national
{uperiority over the arms of Trance.

Thus fir Joho Moore, at an early period, obtained,

MOO

with general approbation, that confpicuous ftation, in
which he glorioufly terminated his ufeful and honourable
life.

“Ina military charafter, obtained amidft the dangers of
climate, the privations incident to fervice, and the fufferings
of repeated wounds, it is difficult to feiect any one point as
a preferable fubjeét for praife; it exhibits, however, one
feature fo particularly charaGteriilic of the man, and fo im-
portant to the beft intereft of tle fervice, that the com-
mander-in-chief is pleafed to mark it with his peculiar ap-
probation. i '

“The life of fir John Moore was fpent among. the
troops.

‘* During the feafon of repofe, his time was devoted to
the care and inftruction of the officer and foldier; in war,
he courted fervice in every quarter of the globe. Regard-
lefs of perfonal confiderations, he eiteemed that to which
this country called him, the poit of honour; and by his un-
daunted fpirit, and unconquerable perieverance, he pointed
the way to victory. ° '

« His country, the obje& of his lateit folicitude, will
rear a monument to his lamented memory; and the com-
mander-in-chief feels he is paying the beit tribute to his
fame, by thus holding him forth as an example to the
army.” :

pi the works referred to for the faéts of which this
article is compofed, we may mention the volumes of the
New Annual Regifter; An Hiltorical Sketch of the laft
Years of the Reign of the late King of Sweden; and
above all, to Mr. James Moore’s valuable and very intereft-
ing Narrative of the Campaign of the Briufh Army in’
Spain, &e.

Moore, in Geography, a county of North Carolina, in
Fayette diftri& ; containing 4767 inhabitants, including 600
flaves. Its chief town is Altordtion.

Moore Bay, a imall bay cf the Atlantic ecean, on the
weflern coait of the county of Clare,- Ireland. It merely
ferves for {mall craft, and is frequented by fifhermen; but
indifferent as it is, it is the only break in the rocks to which
the name can be applied, from the mouth of the Shannon to
Dunmore, a coatt peculiarly dangerous to navigators. (See

Maxsay.) N. lat. 52° 38’. W. long. 9° 35’. Cruttwell.
M‘Kenzie. Beaufort.

Moone Town, a town of Jamaica; 22 miles E.N.E. of
Kingtton.

MOOREAH, a town of Hindooftan, in Robilcund;
20 miles N.E. of Bereilly.

MOOREFIELD, or Moortstowy, a poft-town of ~
New Jerfey ; 13 miles I. of Philadelphia.

MOOREN, a town of Bengal; 9 miles S, of Doefa.

MOORFIELDS, a pott-town ot America, and capital
of the county of Hardy, in Virginia, fituated on the ealt
fide of the fouth branch of Patowmac river; containing a
court-houfe, gaol, and between 60 and 70 houfes; 25 miles
from Romney.

MOORGONG, a town of Hindoottan, in Berar; 13
miles N.W. of Chanda.

MOORGULL, a town cf Hindooltan, in the circar of
Cicacole ; 21 miles W.N.W. of Coflimcotta.

MOORHYU, a town of Bengal; 30 miles E. of Doefa.

MOORJA, a town of Africa, in Bambarra; 130 miles
E. of Sego.

MOORING, at Sea, is the act of confining and fecuring
a fhip in a particular tlation, by chains or cables, which are
either fallened to the adjacent fhore, or to anchors i the
bottom.

A thip, when launched from the flocks, is furnifhed with

one

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one ftream-anchor, and another which is termed a launching-
ancher, fomewhat heavier than the {tream-anchor, hanging
by {toppers to the cat-heads ; by one or both of which the 1s
firlt brought up, and afterwards warped to her ‘ head and
ftern moocings,’? which are as follow. Acrofs the bottom
of the harbour or river, two chains, parallel to each other,
if the bed of the river will admit of it, are extended at the
diftance of 200 feet from each other, by means of anchors,
haying only one fluke, which is funk, and fecured in the
ground by piles, on the oppofite fides, near low-water mark.
To the rings of the anchors thefe chains are attached by a
peculiar fort of link, called a “ fhackle.’”? Each of thefe
chains has, at about one-third of its length, a large iron
ring, to which is faftened a chain, called an “ up-and-down
{pan ;"’ which, lying on the ground, connects the parallel
chains, and ferves to keep them fteadily in their places.
At about 30 or 4o feet diitance from each other, along each
chain, chain-pendents, from five co nine in number, are faf-
tened, having, at the end which conneéts with the ground
work, a fhackle; and at the other end, a link called as Jew’s-
harp,’ through which the bridle or hawler ofa fhip, when
moored, is pafled. The centre chain-pendent is fixed to the
ring of the chain; and the number of the chains mult depend
upon the number of tiers required, each tier occupying two
chains, becaufe the fhips are moored head and ftern, But
every tier does net always occupy two whole chains; be-
caufe, unlefs a paflage between the tiers is requifite, the
chain to which the head chain-pendent of one tier is affixed,
has likewife fattened to it the ftern chain-pendent of the next
tiers. Thefe moorings are ufed in rivers or harbours of
fmall extent, to which they are adapted; but in other
places, not frequented by many fhips, or of confiderable ex-
tent, there is another fort in ule, called « {winging moor-
ings.” Thefe differ from the former only in this; the
ground work being the fame. To the ring of the chain is
fixed one chain-pendent, the end of which is pafled through
a large buoy ; and to that is connetted a {wivel-ring by a
fhackle, and thus kept conftantly from finking into the
grounds. This is ufed for mooring one or two fhips to.
Near each end of the chain is fixed one chain-pendent, or
more, fupported likewife by a buoy, ufed only for the
purpofe of warping fhips from the middle to any intended
e.

ao the «head and ftern moorings,’”? fhips are thus faf-
tened: clench the end of a bridle to the Jew’s-harp of the
chain-pendent, and pafs it into the hawfe-hole; then heave
it up, and bit it, hke the after-bridles, into the gun-room
port, or in upon the quarters, and take a round turn round
the beam of the after-hatch, and crofs it with a throat and
round feizing ; or, if more convenient, round the jeer-bits.
To moor to * {winging :noorings,’’ pafs out the ends of the
bridle, one on each fide, through the hawfe-hole next the
flern; then pafs them through the {wivel-ring of the chain-
pendent; then return them into the fhip through the after
hawfe-hsies, and bit them. In this fituation a {hip is fitted
for fea, by regularly ftowing her ballatt, and getting on
board her rigging, ftores, &e. See Bavvasr. ’

A great number of moorings of this fort are fixed in the
harbours adjacent to. the king’s dock-yards, as Deptford,
Chatham, Portfmouth, Plymouth, &c. Falconer.

When a fhip is come to anchor ina fituation where fhe is
to remain, fhe is fecured by moorings. It is of effential im-
portance that fhe fhould be well fecured by mooring; the
practice of which mult depend upon the variety of fituations,
the fettings of the tides, and other circumiftances: W hen
the belt bower is gone, and about the length of two. cables
is run out, the fmall bower is let go; and, when that has

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taken the ground, you heave in one cable’s length upon the
belt bower, and veer away a cable’s length of the {mall
bower ; and thus a fhip is kept at an equal diltance between
both, the one lying to the head, and the other to the ftern.
In roads where there is much tide, and frefhes are expected,
fhips moor according to the fet of the current, one anchor
riding to the flood, and the beft anchor and cable to the ebb.
In roads where there is little or no tide, fhips moor according
to the fet of the moft prevailing wind on the coait. It may
fo happen, according to circumttances of fituation, that the
veflel mutt ride by a greater fcope on one cable than the
other, but ftill the manner of letting go the anchors is
the fame.

Another method of mooring is by carrying the la{t anchor
out in a boat to the place appointed, and then letting it go.
Steadying or mooring with a kedge is ufuaily done in this
manner.

Mooring with two, three, or more anchors a-head is per-
formed by letting go the number of anchors neceflary, and
veering away. ‘This praétice is adopted in cafes of danger,
and mult be guided by circumitances; e. g- if one fhip can-
not clear the fhore under her lee by failing, on account of a
{trong wind and high fea, the only refource is to let go all
the anchors in the moft advantageous manner poffible. For
this purpofe, let the cables that are bent be got clear for
mooring; then furl all the {quare fails as {peedily as poffible,
and {hoot the fhip along the fhore under the ftay-fails.
When the f{quare fails are furled, let go the weather-moft
anchor, and veer away the cable quickly ; then let go the
next weather-moft, and fo on, till all the anchors are gone
nearly in a line along the fhore: thus when the fhip becomes
windward, all the cables may be made to bear an equal
ftrain, and are feparated from each other. For other
methods of mooring in a tide’s way, or in a ftorm, of back-
ing an anchor, by lettiag go a {mall anchor a-head of a large
one, to which it is faltened, and of keeping a clear hawie,
we refer to the « Elements and Praétice of Rigging and
Seamanthip,’’ vol. ii.

To Moor acrofs, is to lay out one of the anchors on one.
fide.

Lo Moor alonz/?, is to have an anchor in a river, anda
hawler on fhore.

To Moor quarter foot, is to moor quartering between the
two firlt ways.

MocrinG for eaft, weft, &c. is when they obferve which
way, and on what point of the compafs the wind or fea
is molt likely to endanger the fhip, and there lay out an
anchor.

Moonne a fair lirth, at Sea, is mooring ina place free
from any annoyance.

MoorinG @ provi/o, is to have an anchor out, and ahaw-
fer afhore ; then the {hip is moored with her head athore :
and two cables are the leait, and four the be{t to moor by.
See Ancuor.

MoorinG waterfbot, is to moor. neither alongft nor
athwart the tide, but quartering between both.

Moorinxe Point, in Geography, a cape on the S. coalt of -
the ifland of St. Chrittopher; two miles S.E. of Bafle-
terre.

MOORKYN, a town of Hindooftan, in the -circar of
Gangpour ; 10 miles N.E.of Gangpour.

MOORLEY, atown of Bengal, capital of the circar of

Jaffore ; 55 miles N.E. of Calcutta... N. lat. 23° 10’, Ew.
long. go? 21.
MOORS. Sce Morocco.

Moors, in the-Ifle of Man, thofe who fummon the.
courts for the feveral headings ; {uch are the lord’s bailift.,
6 Every

MOO

Every moor has the like office with our bailiff of the
hundred. J ;
MOORSHEDABAD, in Geography, a city of Hindoof-
tan, in Bengal, fituated on the weltern arm of the Ganges,
which is here very low in the dry feafon, about 12 miles
from it, and about 120 miles above Calcutta. It was the
capital of the Bengal provinces, until the eftablifhment of
the Britifh power ; and even long after, it was the feat of
the colleGor-general ef the revenues; being a more cen-
trical fituation than Calcutta. It is very large, but ill
built ; and in its plan fo very irregular, that it 1s difficult
to eftimate the quantity of ground upon which it ftands.
Tt is a modern city, and does not contain any magnificent
buildings, either public or private: nor was it ever for-
tified, except by an occafional rampart thrown up round
it, on the intrufions cf the Mahrattas in 1742. It is
now decaying, efpecially fince the removal of the board of
revenue to Calcutta, in 1771. N. lat. 2q>11'. E. long.
226%
pas city was founded by Jaffier Khan, then called Mur-
fhed Culi, who removed the feat of nee: oro from
‘Dacca, and gave his own name to the new metropolis.
OORSOON, atown of Hindooitan, in Oriffla; N.E.
‘ oad.
of MOORUDE, atown of Hindooftan, in Dowlatabad ;
10 miles W. of Carmulla. ;
MOORY Earth, in Agriculture, that fort of earth or foil
‘that is prevalent on moors. Icis in general a very fine black
mould, fometimes found under a pretty thick fward or grafs,
‘but more frequently under mofs, or ftraggling - plants of
heath. It differs from peat in that it does not ftick together,
nor has the fibrous roots, or bituminous adhelive quality of
it: peat, when dry, becomes hard and firm ; this falls into
powder. It is of a {pongy nature, and ready to imbibe
moifture, which adds confiderably to its weight. There is
commonly underneath it, as under mott earths of this kind,
a bed of clay, or fome fubftance impervious to water: fo that
the particles of bodies decayed on the furface, not being ad-
mitted into the foil, remain upon that furface dry, and in-
creale its thicknefs, according to the continuance of the
caufe. When this kind of foil is colle&ed ina place where
running water, in rainy feafons, brings with it loam or other
rich foils from the neighbouring grounds, it then acquires
a greater degree of cohefion, hardens when dry, and refem-
bles the cleanfing of ponds more than the former.
But the moft confiderable foil of this kind is the fort
-cailed peat. This is ufually full of roots of weeds, and
even of trunks and branches of trees and other plants. It
always contains a bituminous fubitance, which renders it very
inflammable when dry ; at which time it alfo becomes very
hard, though it is quite foft when in the bed in which it lies ;
being eafily cut. It is obferved by Mr. Maxwell, « that
the whole mafs and body of this foil is a dunghill made up
of rotten timber, grafs, weeds, and often mud wafhed from
the higher, grounds about it, by the land-floods ; than which
there are few richer compotts.”’
it is believed that ** the qualities of moory grounds, efpe-
cially the mofly kind, differ very little from one another in
any other refpeét, than with regard to the better or worfe
quality of the earthy material which makes a part of their
compofition, and the difference of their depths. T hey are
more or lefs fpongy, in proportion as this rich material fills
up the cavities of the component vegetables, which are pre-
ferved from putrefaction by the acid in the water. The
Jefs fpongy, and the more rotten the earthy matter is, the
fi:ter it is for the vegetation of any thing planted in, or fown
on them.”

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Moory Land, fuch fort of land as is principally conflituted
of earth or foil of the moory or moffy kind. Thefe lands
are of different forts according as the earthy ftratum is of
greater orlefs depth. Mr. Marfhall has obferved, that “ the
foil of the Highlands of Scotland, compared with that of
the moor lands of Yorkshire, hasa decided preference ; unlefs
upon the fummits of the higher mountains, and where the
rock breaks out at the furface, or where this is encumbered
with loofe {lones or fragments of rock; the hills of the ©
Highlands enjoying fome portion of foil or earthy flratum
between a thin coat of moor. while on the Yorkfhie hills,
the moory earth, generally of a greater thicknefs, lies ona
dead fand, or an infertile rubble without any intervening
foil."” And * from the fort of general knowledge which
he muft neceffarily have of both diftri€ts, he is of opinion,
that the Highland hills (apart from the fummits of the
higher mountains) are of three or four-fold the value ef the
ealtern moor lands of Yorkfhire; more efpecially of the
central and fouthern fwells: the narrow tract which
hangs to the north between Guifborough and Whitby, is of
a better quality ; very fimilar in foil to the lower hills of
the Highlands.””

A great part of the moory lands of Lancafhire is proba-
biy equal if not fuperior to either of the above, as having
more depth and a better fub-foil.

It is evident that the improvement of moory lands mutt
be effected in different methods according to their particular
natures, fituations, and circumftances. The firit thing to
be done, in order to the improvement of moory lands, is
to divide them into proper inclofures: not only to fecure
their future produce, but alfo to have a means of procur-
ing rich earth to cover the otherwife infipid ufelefs mould
on the iurface, and give root to the plants which may af-
terwards be cultivated on them. Then, as the natural _
produce of this earth is of no value, its furface fhould
be pared off, in order to be burnt. If the depth of the
moory earth be not very confiderable, the furrounding
ditches, which make the inclofure, will afford a rich ftrong:
foil, which fhould be fpread about three or four inches
thick all over the furface. When the clods are burnt, their
athes fhould be mixed with this new foil. Tf no proper
earth can be got from the ditches, fand or gravel may be
ufed with fuccefs. Gravel is fingularly beneficial to fuch
lands. The Berne fociety, which long fince recommended
this method of improvement as founded on repeated expe-
rience, very properly ftates, that the good effets of the
fand and gravel will be confiderably increafed by a moderate
mixture of dung, and that, efpecially if the ground be in-
tended for ploughing, this covering fhould be at leaft a
hand's breadth in thicknefs. Dung alone would undoubt-
edly be extremely efficacious on all fuch foils, in which it is
remarked to be of longer fervice than any other; buta
farmer can feldom fpare a {ufficient quantity of it to go far
enough unmixed, or indeed for mixing. In this cafe, other
ingredients muft be recurred to, though the fand, or gravel,
will generally do great things without any mixture. Well
preferved athes will be of excellent fervice, and fo will the
rubbifh of old buildings, or any other fimilar fubftance,
when mixed with fand or gravel, even of the coarfer kind,
and incorporated with this naturally rich earth, which, were
its real value known, and the proper method of managing it
underitood, might claim a preference to any other {oil
Loam is itill better than either fand or gravel. This fhould
be brought on before the fires are lighted to burn the fur.
face of the moor, and fhould remain in heaps till it can be
equally mixed with the afhes. Lime, where it can be had, will
alfo contribute to the meliorating of moffy grounds, and is

very

MOORY LAND.

very effectual in removing the heath of thofe of the moory
kind, as is experienced in Lancafhire. The moory earth,
thus covered, is fitted for various kinds of crops.

A late practical writer has fuggetted, in refpect to the
thinner forts of lands of this defcription, that ‘ heath,
is a fort of plant that for the moft part infeéts thofe

foils that are of a moory nature, ‘and in which there is but a+

{mall proportion of vegetable matter, on account of there
being few leaves or other vegetable produdts, except the heath
itfelf, to be converted into mould ; and that the recrements of
this plant are not found to afford improvement to the foil on
which it grows, in the way that is experienced to take place
from the decay of many other more faccharine, mucilagi-
nous, and juicy plants. Hence it probably is, that the
heathy foils are moftly fo poor and unfriendly to the growth
of ufeful crops, whether of the grain, leguminous, or
grafs kinds.” Inbringing this fort of land into the ftate of
cultivation—“ as it has been found from repeated trials,
that where the heath is turned down without being removed
or completely deflroyed, it keeps the furrow-flices from com-
ing into intimate contaét with each other, fo as that by
confining and retaining a due degree of moifture, the de-
compofition and decay of the heath may be quickly effeCted,
and the foil of courfe in too open and loofe a ftate for the
growth of almoft any crop; it fhould be cut as clofe to the
furface of the ground as it can be conveniently done; or,
what is probably a better practice, removed, by paring off
a very thin flice of the furface ground withit, and then either
confumed by means of fire, or applied to fuch other purpofes
as may be neceflary.”’ h
And after noticing the ufes of long heath in thatching,
forming rinces for milk veflels, and in making concealed
drains, Mr. Headrick, ina paper in the fecond volume of
Communications to the Board of Agriculture, remarks, ‘that
in the dry {pring months it is capable, in many cafes, where
it grows high and of confiderable clofenefs, of being burned
without the labour and expence of either of the above ope-
rations. But inall cafes where fire is employed, as the ftaple
of foils of this kind is feldom deep, care fhould be taken that
the combuttion be not carried to too great a height, fo as
to prove injurious by cenfuming the {mall portion of vegeta-
ble material that may be prefent. The operation of cutting
the heath, may be moft conveniently performed by an imple-
ment of the {cythe kind, only made much fhorter and of greater
itrength, fo as not to give way or break by the ftiffnefs of the
ftems of the plants.” And that “ the heath having been re-
moved in fome of thefe ways, lime in its cauftic or moft
aétive ftate is to be applied in large proportions, either over
the whole of the furface before the ground is ploughed, or
‘upon the foil when turned up. The former method is, how-
ever, to be preferred, as coming more intimately in contac
with the plants, where lime is fcarce, and cannot be laid on
in large quantities ; but where it is plentiful, the employing
it in both ways might be more beneficial, by its thus tending
more readily to the deftruétion of the roots as well as the
items of the plants. Where it can be procured; lime fhould,
however, always be put on in large proportions on firft
bringing heathy or moory foils into the {tate of cultivation,
as little favings in this refpeét, in the firft inftance, may often
prove highly difadvantageous in the end.’’ It has been ob-
ferved by an able writer, that experience has proved that
the addition of lime to the afhes of the pared furface operates
much more beneficially than if fpread in any other manner :
and that the larger the quantity the greater the effect, and
probably the greater the proportional effe&; that is, fix
chaldrons an acre will do more than twice the good of three
chaldrons ; the chemical effeét both in neutralizing the acids
Vor. XXIV.

found in all thefe foils, and alfo in deftroying the reots left
of the fpontaneous growth, depending in fome meafure on
the effect taking place fuddenly.

A writer in the twentieth volume of the Annals of Agri-
culture, ftates, <« that eight chaldrons an acre, laid on at once,
have converted a moor ito meadow worth twenty-five fhil-
lings an acre; but the fame moor, under one chaldron per
acre per annum for eight years, has not been worth feven
fhillings and fixpence an acre. The effe& of lime on all
foils long in cultivation is problematical, and does not
anfwer the expence in one in ten; but in new moor lands
the effet is prodigious and hardly credible: laid on ling
mountains without tillage, without paring, or other opera-
tion than merely cutting the ling, and {preading the lime,
fuch moors have been changed from one fhilling to twenty
fhillings per acre; but the quantity has been fifteen or
twenty chaldrons ger acre.”? t is, however, noticed, that
** the application muft always be regulated by the circum-
ftances of the cafe. Where the expence ger acre is forty
or fifty fhillings, the improvement will ultimately come
high. And in order that the calcareous matter may be as
intimately as poffible blended with the particles of the foil,
and thereby exert its effects moft extenfively, it fhould be
applied over the land in the moft perfe& ftate of pulveriza-
tion, and as equally as it is poffibleto {pread it out. Where
the lime is applied with fufficient attention to thefe circum-
{tances, it generally deftroys the heath in a fhort time, pro-
bably in fome meafure by its powers of attracting moifture
from the foils, and combining with the acid aitringent juices
of the heath plant, and rendering them incapable of afford-
ing that kind of fupport which is requifite for its healthy
growth, as well as by the alteration of texture that is pro-
duced in the land, and’ the cauftic deftru@ive a@ion that
may take place in confequence of its coming into contaé
with the roots in that ftate. This is probable, from its
being found to be the moft effe@tual, when laid on fuch
lands in the ftate of quick-lime, though fomething may no
doubt depend on the eagernefs with which moifture is at-
traéted by it in fuch cafes. After the lime has been ap-
plied, efpecially where the furface has been pared off and
confumed by fire, the ploughing fhould only be flight, fo
as to blend it and the afhes with the foil, but not to place
them at a great depth below the furface of the land.

However, where heathy or moory land has a higher de-
gree of furface wetnefs, and is not fo much over-run with
the plant as to prevent its being employed as pafture, it may
fometimes, it is obferved, be brought into cultivation by
merely removing the fuper-abundant moifture by proper
drains, burning the heath in the {pring months when fuit-
ably dry, and afterwards pafturing it clofely with fheep, fo
as to keep it from feeding ; as in this way, in time, it in
fome cafes becomes wholly removed from the foil. And
when this fort of ground has been broken down and pul-
verifed as much as poffible, by the operations of ploughing
and harrowing, it fhould always, where not ‘too {ftiff, be
fown with fome fort of clofe luxuriant green crop, fuch as
turnips, peas, and tares, that may be fed off by fheep; but
where it has a four quality, and is more {tiff, clayey, and
adhefive, thofe plants that {trike more deeply into the foil,
as beans, Swedifh turnips, buck-wheat, rye, and oats of
the grey kind. In many cafes too, rape, peas, clover, and
vetches, will fueceed in a very beneficial manner. But as
the principal intention in moft cafes of breaking up this
fort of land, is that of bringing it ina cheap and expedi-
tious manner to a fuitable condition, after a grain crop or
two, for growing grafs, the green crops, of whatever de-
{cription they may be, snes be confumed by animals upon

the

MOORY LAND.

the ground, efpecially where the foil is fuch as to admit
them without injury ; as in this method, a high degree of
fertilization and improvement may fpeedily be obtained, at
little or no expence, from the great benefit the animals re-
ceive. If it can be conveniently done, two or more of this
fort of crops may be confumed on the land, in the fame
feafon with ftill more beneficial confequences, Where the
foil is too wet, ftiff, and poachy, to admit of this practice,
the crops may be drawn or cut, and converted to the feeding
of cattle in the houfe. It has been well fuggefted in the
Annals of Agriculture, that proper cropping ‘is the key-
ftone of the arch ;”’ and that if it be not attended to with
great care, the whole of the improvement may turn out dif-
advantageous.

There is alfo another method of improving thefe foils by
fuch crops as the above, which is that of turning them
down, when in their moft fucculent ftates, by the plough.
This may be a judicious and ufeful mode on the drier and
more fandy defcriptions of thefe foils, where they may
readily undetgo putrefattion and decay, but in the more
tenacious forts, and where there is a four difpofition that
would greatly retard the procefs, it would feem to be much
lefs beneficial than that of feeding them off by fome fort of
live ftock. On the whole it is concluded, that in whatever
method they may be brought into the ftate of cultivation,
the proceffes of tillage fhould not be carried further than
the deftruétion of the heathy or other coarfe plants, and
the removal of the four and unfriendly difpofition of fuch
foils for the growth of ufeful vegetable productions. They
fhould be then reftored as foon as poffible to the ftate of

rafs or pafture, as that is the proper application of them.

In the Perththire Agricultural Report, it is flated, that
fome practical improvers on thefe thin moory foils pare and
burn, then fpread the afhes with a little lime, fow turnips,
to be fed off the firft year by theep, the fecond year plough
again for turnips, and feed them off in the fame manner,
then lay the lands down with barley and grafs feeds. This
is, the writer fays, the praGtice en the Nairn eltate betwixt
Perth and Dunkeld. On the oppofite fide of the Tay, it is
the practice of another improver to plough the:moor in the
winter, letting it lie in this ftate all the next fummer, plough-
ing it from three to five times in the following fummer, as
may be neceflary; then to lime and fow oats the third {pring,
laying down with a crop of barley and grafs feeds in the
fourth year. Some, with the intention of being more ex-
peditious, begin by trenching through the winter, at the
expence of four pounds the acre, for a crop the fucceeding
f{pring. This is the praétice in the diftrict between Perth
and Coupar. Some fuppofe that paring and burning fhould
be praétifed on the thinneit foils of this fort, when the fub-
foil is gravel or fand, under tke idea that all moory lands
fhould be treated in the fame way, and that not a particle
of earth can be deftroyed by the procefs, which puts the
able writer in mind of boys, who white a ftick for a certain
purpofe, yntil it be fo worn down that it becomes ufelefs
for any purpofe whatever. And an opinion of other im-
provers of moor is, “ that the land ought to be ploughed,
and lie 1n that furrow for one year; that again{t the fucceed-
ing {pring and fummer, it ought to be crofs-ploughed and
harrowed, till the clods are reduced, limed the next autumn,
drawn in ridges, and ploughed for the feed furrow in {pring.
This method of reclaiming meors is recommended by a gen-
tleman’s factor in Strathearn, and is very fimilar to the
practice betwixt Perth and Coupar. Both have this to re-
commend them, that the quantity of foil is not diminished,
where there feems fo little to {pare.”” And Mr. Buchanan
of Camfinore, in the neighbourhood of Perth, who has im-

proved upwards of five hundred and fifty acres of new
ground of this kind, (which is as much perhaps as any
other perfon in Perthfhire has done,) ¢¢ lays lime on the fur-
face in the fummer or autumn, and leaves it generally for
two or three feafons, {pread in this manner, that it may fink
into the ground and mix intimately with the foil. If the
land has been well limed, the firft crop will be tolerably
good; the fecond heavy; and the land is by this time fo
well pulverifed, that it is eafily made for barley and grafs
feeds the following year. In fome cafes, he interpoles a
fallow crop of potatoes or turnips, between the fecond crop
of oats and the barley crop. By this management, he has
feen on his new ground, the two firft crops of oats remark-
ably good; the fecond efgecially, which exceeded fix bolls
an acre. His moors cultivated in this manner, where the
ground was high, the heath as tall as a perfon’s knee, and
the foil not worth one fhilling an acre in its former ftate,
have continued to carry grafs crops, and let at between nine
and ten fhillings of yearly rent, for the {pace of twenty
years, without any future drefling, and without any fymp-
toms of the heath attempting to arife. Farmers may
grudge to lofe the intereft of money laid out in lime, for the
two or three years before the land be in crop ; but this is a
fallacy ; the intereft is not really loft. The foil is melio-
rated to fuch a degree by the top-drefling of lime, that the
grails raifed thereby does more than repay the intereft of the
lime. Much expence is alfo faved by ploughing only once
for every crop of oats.”? he writer further remarks, that
“‘ there is a certain barrennefs of foil, in which the heath de-
lights ; and whenever that barrennefs is removed it does not
thrive; neither does it thrive in the other extreme of the
pooreit foil, and moft expofed fituation. To every plant
there is a particular quality of foil, a certain degree of
moifture, of warmth, and expofure which is natural. Dif-
ferent plants, as well as different animals, have peculiar cli-
mates, which are accommodated to their conftitution; and
even in the fame country, one fpecies of plant is found in
the vallies and another in the hills; nay, in the fame field
and foil, if its nature and qualities be changed by cultiva-
tion, its producttons will change of courfe. Allow your
drains to itop ina field which had once been properly dreffed ;
let it become four, {pouty ground, it becomes inftantly
filled with /pris, rufhes, and other aquatics."’ But ‘ drain
and cultivate the fame field again; thefe coarfe grafles dif-
appear, and others which are peculiar to dry laud fucceed
in their place. Fold fheep, lead rivulets, or lay enriching
manure on the molt barren ground, which is not over-
charged with water, and the richeit carpet of clofe fine
gras will {pring up {pontaneoufly. Remove thefe before it
be fully faturated, and it wiil gradually return to its former
fterility. Were all plants fitted by nature to thrive only in
the fame circumitances, we fhould have, at leaft, half of the
globe without any plants at all; what might therefore ap-
pear, by fuperficial obfervation, to be a miggardnefs in na-
ture, or a defeét in the bounty of heaven, is, upon a clofer
infpection, recognized to be the effect of confummate wifdom,
and of goodnels without bounds. rom the frozen tops of
the higheft mountains down to the bottom of the warmelt
vallies, every degree of heat and cold, of barrennefs and fer-
tility, of wetnefs and drynefs of foil, providence has adapted
to the nature of particular plants, which come to perfection

where another [pecies could not hve; and thefe various plants
are the food of different animals, that no creature might be
deprived of nourifiment peculiar to its kind.’’ In fhort,

‘« without entering on that polemical peint in agriculture,
the food of plants, (which has been long a problem, and
will probably remain to be folved by future ages,) we ae

fafely

MOORY LAND.

fafely remark, that whatever is their food, they are taught
by nature to feek after that food which fuits their kind.
They uniformly reject other food ; and when forced, by the
unfiilfulnefs of man, to accept of food unfuitable to their
conttitution, they foon decay. It is, therefore, probable,
that the food of all plants is not the fame; but that fome of
them prefer one kind of food, and fome another, and thefe
in various degrees. At any rate, whatever their natural ali-
ment is, or when the earth is brought by induftry to have
that aliment, there we uniformly fee them making their ap-
pearance ; and yet we cannot rightly tell how.”

There have lately been great improvements made on dif-
ferent forts of moory lands in Yorkfhire, where there are
immenfe traéts of moors. Inthe Agricultural Report of
the North Riding of Yorkhhire, itis {tated, «that an improve-
ment was made upon Lockton moor, about fix years fince,
on a quantity of land of about feventy acres, which would
not let for more than Is. fer acre, before it was inclofed.
Of this, forty-eight acres were pared and burnt, and fown
with rape, except about an acre fown with rye; the pro-
duce about fixty quarters. The rye grew very ftrong, and
in height not lefs than fix feet, and was fold, while ftand-
ing, for five guineas the acre. The land was only once
ploughed, otherwife the crop of rape would prebably have
been much better. One hundred and twenty chaldrons
(each thirty-two bufhels) of lime were ploughed into the
field; which, for want of more frequent ploughing, pro-
bably was not of the fervice it otherwife might have heen.
Part of the land was afterwards fown down with oats and
feeds ; the former of which afforded but a moderate crop,
the latter a very good one, and has fince produced two
loads, 120 ftones each, per acre. The feeds fown were
rye-grafs, rib-grafs, white clover, and trefoil; of thefe, the
firft fucceeded amazinyly, the others not fo well; potatoes
throve very well; turnips not equal to them, Afarm-
houfe has been built upon it, which now, along with five
acres more of the fame kind of land, is let on leafe, at 30.
per annum. The foil confifted, in general, of benty peat,
upan red grit-ftone, with a mixture of clay upon lime-{tone ;
this laft is, in fome places, at a confiderable depth, in others,
fufficiently near the furface for lime to be burnt upon the
premiles.””

But it is ftated ‘that the greateft and moft profitable im-
provement the reporter has met with, is one made by Richard
Simpfon, at Samtoft, upon Pickering moors, of which he has

iven the following circumftantial account. The land was
allotted to him on the inclofure of the common of Picker-
ing and Newton. The allotment contained 315 acres, and
was fituated-on the northern verge of thofe lime-{tone
heights which border the valley in an eaft and weft direGion
for above thirty miles, from near Helmfley to Scarborough.
To the north of this traét of limeftone, which, in moft
places, rifes with a gentle flope from the plain of the vale,
and bears a breadth of two or three miles, lies the wild,
and chiefly uncultivated tra&, called Black moor, which
cannot contain lefs than 300 fquare miles, not one-tenth
part of which is in a ftate of cultivation. The foil of the
farm may be claffed in this way.

Clafs t.—One hundred acres pretty {trong loam, of a ma-
derate depth, upon limeftone.

Clafs 2. —Seventy acres of a deep fandy foil, with more or
lefs of ared-ftone earth intermixed. Thefe two clafles
were over-run with heath, or ling, in patches, with bra-
kens (fern), and a tough mofly herbage intermixed,

Clafs 3.—One hundred and forty-five acres of a black
moory foil, covered with an uniform coat of heath, with a

few brakens, and here and there a few tufts of bent grafe
intermixed. C

It is fuggefted, however, that although the upper foil of
this laft clafs was nearly alike, confiiting of half putrified
heath, intermixed, like all the upper foil of the dry part
of the moors, with black and grey gritty (chiefly filiceous)
fand, and had occafionally, while common, been pared for
turf for fuel, yet the fub-foil, in different parts, varied ma-
terially ; and on that difference of fub-foil he founded his
hopes of improvement, and he was not deceived in the event.
About roo acres of this laft clafs, although the upper
foil was uniformly black, and in fome places two, in others,
from that to fix inches thick, yet the foil beneath had eve
appearance of what, had it been on the furface, he fhould
have called a light fandy loam intermixed with a freeftone-
gravel, and had, undoubtedly, once formed the upper foil,
before the ling or heath had encroached upon and deftroyed
the other graffes, which, in all probability, exifted there :
this is a procefs which is going on every day, and has un-
doubtedly taken place on moft of the borders of the moors
to a confiderable breadth; for ling will thrive on almoft
any foil, and remarkably well on a light fandy loam; and
being a perennial, and he may add, a permanent plant, re-
taining its {tem and branches all winter, and its {tems ge-
nerally rifing above the furface of fnows, its feeds are car-
ried thereon by the winds to confiderable diftances, where
being lodged, on the melting of the fnows, and vegetating,
the ling produced gradually deftroys the more tender
graffes growing in its fhade: add to this, the foil pro-
duced by the gradual decay of the ling becomee continu-
ally more fit for its propagation, and more unfit for the
produce of almoft every other fpecies of vegetables.

And ‘the remaining forty-five or fifty acres had an
upper foil, fimilar to the laft defcribed, and a fub-foil of
a hard-eemented grey fand, of a moft unpromifing appear-
ance, as impenetrable to water as the clofeft grained ftone,
and almoft as hard ; and, what was worfe, this ftratum was
too thick for the plough to penetrate through it. This is
the worft {pecies of land he has feen upon any part of the
moors ; for the produce of any kind of corn, even rye (ex-
cept in patches), going off before it fhoots into ear, al-
though remarkably healthy and vigorous until the period
immediately preceding its fhooting, which he fuppofes muft
be owing to its then fending forth roots to derive nutri-
ment from a greater depth, and meeting with this fub-
foil totally unfit to afford that nutriment, it withers and
dies. This happens alike ina wet or dry feafon; and yet
even this land, where lime may be had at a moderate rate,
may be appropriated to fome purpofes with benefit to the
proprietor ; for, when pared and burnt, and well limed,
ae white clover and rye-grafs thrive on it remarkably
well.

It is remarked that he has been thus particular, be-
caufe being well convinced that there are fome thoufands of
acres on the borders of Black moor, and in patches adjoin-
ing feveral of the {mall cultivated vallies that run through
it, of ‘a foil and fub-foil fimilar to the hundred acres of the
third clafs above defcribed ; and as this land, where lime can
be had at any reafonable price (as from 3d. to 6d. per bufhel)
will pay very well for cultivation, being moft of it fit for
the produce of either rye, turnips, or oats, at the firft, and
what is not fo, being fown with rye, and laid down two or
three years with grais feeds, will then produce turnips and
oats ; and on all of it, white clover and rye-grafs will fuc-
ceed remarkably well, particularly the former : if the own-
ers of fuch lands could be induced, by a more minute exa-

N 2 mination

MOORY LAND.

mination of the foil, and more particularly ef the fub-foil,
to bring them into a ftate of cultivation, it would not only
be a benefit to themfelves, but of public utility ; for in their
prefent ftate, they are worth a mere nothing, not 6d. an
acre.

It is added, that on entering on the above farm in the year
1787, it was evident, that the nature of the mofly herbage,
intermixed with patches of ling, on even the beft of the
limeftone and fandy foils, indicated paring thin, and burn-
ing, as the beft hufbandry ; fo indeed he thought, and fo
in general aéted ; but being a young farmer, and having
frequently heard it afferted, «¢ that to burn foil was to de-
ftroy it,’’ he ploughed out ten acres of the beft herbage,
and the moft free from ling, on the limeftone foil, without
paring ; he may add, that he had fufficient caufe to repent
it, for he has not even had one middling crop from it fince ;
and although laid down with feeds, they have by no means
fo good an appearance as thofe fown the fame year on fimi-
lar foils, although he has expended as much lime and manure
on this as on any part of the farm.

And it happened to him likewife, that paring and burn-
ing the black moory foil on a good fub-foil, would anfwera
doubly good purpofe; for by paring tolerably thick and
burning, he not only changed the worft and leaft putri-
fied part of the foil into good afhes, rich in alkaline falts,
but, by fo doing, he brought the fub-foil within the reach
of the plough, and could, at pleafure, mix it with the re-
maining black foil, and expofe it to the influence of the air
and other caufes.

It is further ftated that he kept, likewife, another obje&
in view, and that was, to begin with a larger proportion of
the beft and moft produé@tive land, and a fmaller of the
worlt, that, by fo doing, it might not only pay for its own
cultivation and improvement as he proczeded, but that he
might get into a better ftock of manure. The firft year he
pared and burnt 120 acres, viz. eighty of the claffes one and
two, and forty of clafs three. On molt of this, three chal-
drons (of thirty-two bufhels each) of lime were laid on each
acre, but on part of it only two: he was induced to do
this, becaufe although our prefent chemical knowledge of
the properties and component principles of lime is very con-
fined, and we are utterly ignorant of its mode of aéting as
a manure, yet it is known that lime and aikaline afhes mutu-
ally affift each other’s aétion, as manures, in a very eminent
degree, and that if lime is intended to be ufed at all in a
fucceffion of crops, it is always beft to lay it on with the
afhes. On fuch parts of thefe eighty acres as were got
burnt, &c. previous to the beginning of May (about four-
teen acres), he fowed oats, with once ploughing, and had a
tolerable crop, viz. near feven quarters per acre. THe fowed
forty acres with rape, with once ploughing,—produce, in
1788, 160 quarters, four quarters per acre: the remaining

twenty-fix acres he fowed with turnips, ploughing once,
and had a very good crop, which was eaten on the land

with fheep,’ and was {ucceeded with oats, above feven quar-
ters per acre.

And the ten acres he had this year ploughed out without
paring and burning, were a fimilar foil to the above eighty
acres, moft of it clafsone. He fowed this with grey peas ;
produce not a quarter per acre.

But the forty acres of clafs three he pared thick, burnt,
and laid on about three chaldrons of lime per acre. Such
part of it as had the beft fub-foil he ares in May, and
harrowed and crofs-ploughed the latter end of June, and
fowed with turnips, which bring a tolerable good half crop,

were eaten upon the land with fheep, and fucceeded, 4788.
by a crop of oats of from five to fix quarters per acre.
Being in want of herbage for fheep, he fowed down this
field, about fourteen acres, with feeds, along with the oats,
viz. white clover, about five pounds ger acre, and the com-
mon hay-feeds of the country, about five bufhels per acre :
they came remarkably well: and the year following, this
field was almoit an entire fheet of white clover. One thing
in this field deferves remark : about an acre of it, of as good
a foil as any of the refl, was not limed; the confequence of
which was, that although not perceptible in the turnip crop,
it was very much fo in the oats, and {till more in the grafs-
feeds ; very little white clover was to be feen: and now, al-
though the other parts of the field have a tolerably good
herbage, with a few thinly-fcattered {mall branches of ling
coming amongft it, (owing, he fuppofes, to its not having
been long enough in tillage to deftroy all the roots of this
hardy plant), yet that part of the field unlimed, is nearly de/-
titute of herbage, and covered with heath.

However, about fixteen acres, the other part of this forty,
being of a fomewhat inferior fub-foil, and the black moory
foil of a greater depth, he fowed with turnips, with once
ploughing. Thefe were a very poor crop, the bottoms in
general not larger than the common hedge crab: they were
eat with fheep in the autumn, and the land fown with rye,
which produced about two quarters ger acre. Grafs-feeds
were fown amongft the rye, in the {pring of 1788, in the
proportion laft mentioned: they came remarkably well ;
and the herbage the two following years was almoft entirely
compofed of white clover. The remaining ten acres were
of the cemented fandy fub-foil above defcribed. A little
turnip feed was likewife thrown upon it, after once plough-
ing, which produced a few dwarf tops, but no roots that
were eatable. Thefe tops, or leaves, were eat with fheep
in the autumn, and the land then fown with rye, and with
grafs-feeds in the {pring following, in the fame quantities
as the laft mentioned. Produce of rye, fix to eight bufhels
per acre, and thefe of inferior quality. The grafs-feed came
remarkably well; and even on this foil the white clover, for
the firft two years, was in far greater quantity than all the
other graffes put together. The herbage of thefe forty
acres, being adjacent to the farm-ftead, is yet of tolerable
quality : but here and there a fprig of young heath, He
intends, therefore, to plough it out the next {pring, and
relay it with grafs-feeds, after another fucceffion Bette

The writer proceeded in this manner in 1788, 1789,
1790, and 1791, in which year he had gone over all his farm,
except afew acres fituated on hill fides, the declivities of
which were too fteep for ploughing. He conftantly pared,
burnt, and limed, as above, but varied occafionally the
crops. What, after the experience he has had, he would
recommend as the beft courfe for a black moory foil, is to
pare, burn, and lime, plough twice, and fow rye in the au-
tumn of the firft year: to fallow for turnips for the next
crop. If alittle manure can be had for the fallow, there is a
greater probability of the turnips fucceeding ; and if :.anure
is not to be had, the lime and afhes, with the melioration of
the air the foil has already received, will, he fays, render it
much fitter for a crop of turnips than it was when newly
opened. On thefe dry light moory foils, the turnips fhould
be conftantly eaten upon the land with fheep, and may be
fucceeded with oats or rye, according to the better or worle
quality of the fub-foil, With this firft crop, after turnips,
the land ought to be fown with feeds, in which white clover
and rye-grafs ought to be in the greater proportion: ia
grafs, it fhould lie three, four, or five years, as pafture-

ground;

MOORY LAND.

ground ; when on being ploughed out again for another fuc-
ceffion of crops, as in the manner below, fi

Oats,

Turnips,

Oats, with grafs-feeds ; or

Oats,

Turnips,
: Rye, with grafs-feeds ;
and on the worft fub-foil, grey peas or rye, then turnips, to
be followed with rye with grafs feeds; it will generally be
found, that the foil will be in a much fitter {tate for the pro-
duction of thefe crops, than in the firft fucceffion, always
remembering to lime for the turnip crop, and, if to be had,
to lay ona little manure likewife. And as no more than two
crops ought to be taken for one fallow on any light upland-
foil, perhaps the beft mode of opening out-lands of the de-
feription of clafs one and two, isto pare, burn, and lay on
three or four chaldrons of lime per acre with the afhes, to
plough twice for turnips, to eat them on the land with fheep,
and to fallow with oats, &c.; and after one or two fucceffions
of crops, the land ought to be laid down with grafs-feeds,
always remembering, whatever the fucceffion, to lay down
the firit year after a fallow, when, after a few years reft, it
may be ploughed out again with advantage.

It is concluded that as the lands of clafs one and two, and
the better forts of clafs threc, are brought to an immediate
ftate of improvement, and the profits arifing therefrom are
evident from the bare infpeGtion of the crops, it will be
only neceffary to compare the expence and improvement on
the wortt {pecies of land in clafsthree. This he ftates to be
as below.

Expences, Sc.

i
=

£
Paring and burning one acre, and pa 4

the afhes - = = - - ?
Three chaldrons of lime, at 7s. a5 iis Let RO
Leading and {preading ditto - - - )..6i.O
Six ploughings for a fucceflion ef crops, i athe
rye, turnips, rye - - -
Six harrowings for ditto - - - 012 0
Rye-feed, and turnip-feed - - - © 16 0
. White clover and grafs-feeds_ - - - 0) 10,50
Harvefting two cropsof rye - - - 010 0
pot iO
Firlt crop of rye, eight bufhels, fecond ed
crop, 12 bufhels, at 3s. gd. per bufhel Hae ¥ Shy
Eatage of theturnip crop, about - Oy 5
A: Ou

So that there will be a lofs of 2/. 3s. per acre; but then it
isto be confidered, that the herbage of the firft three years
is worth more than 10s. per annum, and that the foil, by the
operation of the lime, is in a continual ftate of improvement ;
and has every appearance of being worth 5s. per acre to
farm. He owns he fhould not have attempted to cultivate
Jand of the laft defcription, had it not unavoidably fallen
within the ring-fence of the farm ; and being already in-
clofed, there was a greater probability of its paying for the
improvement.

He ftates that the great error into which many, in his recol-
leGtion, have fallen, in opening out-land for the firft time, is,
the ploughing out the tough moffy fward without paring and

éurning ; the confequence is, that for the firft four or five
years there is an almoft total failure of crop, and, of courfe,
a want of manure for the next fucceffion. This is done un-
der the miftaken idea that by burning, fo much of the foil
is almoft totally diffipated and loft Now, although we are
in want of experiments to mak: it evident, what greater pre-
portion of vegetable matter is diffipated in fuffering combuf-
tion with a flow fire, and in contaét with earthy matter,
than would be diffipated in the fame undergoing putrefaction ;
yet we know, that as all vegetable foils contain more or lefs
of calcareous earth in its mild ftate, the fubjecting this to
the aétion of fire, mutt increafe its a€tivity as a manure, by
bringing it nearer to the ftate of quick-lime, and that the
filiceous and argillaceous parts of the foil are not diffipated in
burning. Modern chemiftry will throw much light on this
fubje&t. It has been obferved, however, by others, that
paring and burning have very different effe€ts, according to
furface and foil: it is an expenfive operation, and can only
be repaid by one or two fucceeding good crops. In good
foils, no doubt of the propriety ; but where ling abounds on
athin foil, with gritty pebbles, they are confident as much
may be done by burning the ling, ploughing, and letting it
lie fix or twelve months, then harrowing, liming, and taking
two or three turnip-crops, grafs-feeds, and no corn: this
fhould be done by the land-owner ; no tenant will be at the
expence. When land falls into their hands, it is exhaufted
by crops of grain, and then the land is condemned, as havin
been good for nothing ; whereas, thefe lands are gratefi
when properly laid to grafs, and will, by fheep-grazing, ar-
rive, at a future time, to afford profit, and fome improve-
ment, under the plough. ‘The firft of thefe writers is ‘ far
from afferting, that a foil will not become thinner by re-
peated burnings; but he is of opinion, that it will not be-
come fo in the degree generally imagined ; and he is an advo-
cate for only the firft paring and burning of very old {ward,
or heath.’’ By others, however, it is faid, that “ much de-
pends on the fituation of the improver of this land: it muft
be fuppofed he has a farm of old land, and this new falls
by a divifion of common. In this cafe, the rent of the new
is of no confideration: he can, in September or Otober,
eafily {pare his ploughs, when he feels little expence in
ploughing fifty acres; if it lies even twelve months, where
is his lofs? It is gaining from the feafons. Crofs-plough
and harrow well ; the fpring following, plough, lime at the
rate of two or three chaldrons per acre, not more ; turnip,
eat with fheep, then break the tough fod ; turnip again,
without lime: your fod is now ating in part as manure. In
the fpring, ufe the fame quantity of lime, and fow grafs-
feeds, Here is no advantage in having oats; the land is
hurt by it. If paring fuch land was abolifhed, it would pre-
vent fuch crops. Ploughing up is flow; but the land is me-
liorating, and the fod adds to the foil ; and it will be found,
in future, grafs. He has a proof of this management on a
turfy thin foil, within a few inches of fand fub-ftrata: had
this been followed up with oats, he fhould have got into
the fand.’’ On this it is remarked, that the above writer
«* feems to conclude, that if land be pared and burnt, corn
muft be grown thereon. This is not a neceflary confequence.
If he is going to improve any of thefe moor lands, the firft
confiderations are, what does he want to obtain ?>—Improve-
ment of the land.—By what means can he beft obtain that ?
—By producing the largeft quantity of food for fheep.—
How is this to be obtained ?—By paring and burning, and
the ufe of lime ; and by thofe means, a larger crop of either
turnips or rape may be obtained, than by lime without paring
and burning ; and the better the crop of turnips that is ob-
tained

MOORY LAND.

tained the firft year, the better the fecond year ; and the bet-
ter the crops of turnips are, the better will the grafs be in
the future years.

Various other improvements have been made in this part
of the kingdom, on lands of the moory kinds.

It has been fuggefted by Mr. Marthall, that in the deep
kinds of moory lands, or thofe of a morafly vature, after
freeing them from fuperabundant moifture by proper drain-
ing, the proper means of bringing them into a ftate of cultiva-
tion, fo asto be let, at their full value, to ordinary tenants,
are the following :

“ The firft work, in a large undertaking, is to divide the
{cite of improvement into fields, fuitable to the farm or farms
to. which they are intended to be laid, with ditches running
in fuch direGtions as will lead off furface-waters, without the
expence and incumbrance of deep open drains within their
areas ; then to adjuft the furface of each field in fuch a manner
as will fhoot off rain-water into the interfecting ditches : in or-
der that, fhould a fall of rain happen during any ttage of the
procefs of culture, the work may not, for any length of time,
beimpeded.”” And that « asthe furfaces of lands of this na-
ture are moltly rugged, uneven, and of a loofe {pongy
texture ; this generally renders them unfit for the operations
of tillage without fome previous affiftance of manual labour.
And when the moory earth, or vegetable mould is deep, and
rifes to the furface without any covering of foffil fubftancesy
it requires fome length of time to bring it to a texture fuffi-
ciently firm for the ordinary purpofes of aration. Hence
the general principle of improving deep moory lands, which
have not been fupplied by nature or art with foffil coverings,
evidently appears to be that of converting them to the ftate of
profitable herbage, before the production of corn-crops be
attempted.” In effecting which, “‘ the procefs will ever be
the belt direGed, by the exifting ftate of the fcite to be im-
proved. If the inequalities of its furface are large and
abrupt, the firft bufinefs is to adjult it, fo far as to admit of
the operations of tillage, whenever they may be required,
and can be properly performed ; as well as to convey off
f{urface-waters in the way already fuggelted. And this done,
to pare off the minor protuberances (the tufts and haffocks
formed by particular plants in its watery ftate), and more or
lefs of its furface in general, fo as to cut off the plants and
flale mould which occupy it; and thus to give a degree of
frefhnefs to the whole.” But if, in a dry feafon, the fur-

face is found to be firm enough to bear the tread of cattle or’

horfes, the latter operation may be done with a paring-
plough ; if not, with a paring-{pade, or breaft-plough.”
‘And when, ‘after the furface has been thus cut over, and the
ftate of drynefs of the foil can be afcertained by its colour,
any particular parts appear to be infufficiently freed from
moifture, covered drains may generally be made, at a {mall
expence, with the fibrous tufts which grow on the furface,

as with hard materials), and which will lie a length of time
in tbe land, before they decay.’’ And “the remainder of
the roots and mould, pared off, require to be burnt, their
afhes to be fpread evenly over the furface, and to be imme-
diately harrowed, or raked into the frefh mould; to prevent
their being difplaced by the wind.’? When, ‘in this ftage
of the procefs, a foffil fubftance of almoft any kind can be
fpread over the afhes, ata moderate expence, grafs-feeds may
be immediately harrowed, or raked into this covering, and
the furface be left to acquire a {ward, without further trot-
bie; continuing to keep the young herbage clofely paftured
when the feafon will permit, firft with fheep, and afterwards
with heavier ftock ; until the furface be rendered firm, and
the foil be fufficiently bound together, with the fibrous roots

of herbage, to bear a fucceffion of corn-crops ; if fuch
fhould become advifable.”’ It is added, that « ar eens
this fummary way of bringing the ground into the ftate of
herbage, lies in there being no immediate grofs return for the
money expended in draining and cultivation. But to at-
tempt to raife corn on a raw morafs, or a black peat-mofs,
namely, on fpongy vegetable mould, would only be increafing
the expenditure, without any certainty of return. Let us,
therefore, look for a productive and marketable crop, that
may be raifed with more certainty.””? It is noticed, that *¢ in
the fouth-weit quarter of Scotland, potatoes have lately
been raifed, even in deep {pongy peat-mofles, with good ef-
fe&t. The practice is to plant them in beds, divided by deep
trenches ; more or lefs dung being ufed in their cultivation.
Without this it is confidered to be in Vain to expeét a crop.”
But, “to acertain extent, in a populous country, where
dung and labour are plentiful (the whole being done by
manual labour), this pra¢tice is very eligible, and does great
credit to any perfon who {truck it out. For after one or per-
haps two crops of potatoes have been taken, a crop of oats is
obtained. Butevery thing is itill effefied by manual labour.
And, even with this, a very wet fpring, or a cold moift
fummer, fucceeded by early frofts, may fruftrate the planter’s
hopes.”? Confequently, ‘ what is moft defirable, in this
cafe, is a crop which is fown and reaped in the femmer
months ; and which requires neither labour nor attendance
during the moift feafons of autumn, winter and fpring.
And fortunately, fuch a crop is, he obferves, natural, or
has been long inured to the climature of this ifland ; and is,
moreover, one of the moft profitable crops in Englifh agri-
culture. This crop is rape-feed; which is not only fown,
but reaped in the very height of fummer. And a foil, in
which it is known to delight, is that of reclaimed water
lands, in a ftate of herbage.” It is added that he ‘had
not, however, known it to be raifed on crude moory ground,
as a firft crop after draining, until he tried it a few years
ago, in the fouth of Scotland; where a confiderable extent
of ground of this nature had been drained, levelled, pared
and burnt, and the afhes ploughed under by a young im.
prover, without a proper plan for carrying on the improve-
ment. He direéted part of it to be fown with rape-feed ;
though the feafon of fowing was then getting too late :
namely, the latter end of July, or the beginning of Au-
guilt.” And that « the refult, notwithftanding this and an-
other unfavourable circumftance which it was too late to avoid
(the land having been laid much too flat for a wister crop),
was fuch as to prove, fufficiently, that rape-feed may be
raifed with profit, as a firft crop, on drained moory foil.
And it is highly probable, that many extenfive traéts of
lands, which now lie entirely wafte, and as nuifances in their
neighbourhoods, may through its means be improved, with
immenfe profit to their proprietors. The experiment may
be tried ata fmall expence. The colt of the labour and
feed required, for a fufficient trial-ground, is inconfiderable,
The proof is not whether rape will thrive as herbage, but
whether it will mature its feed, on the given fail, in
the given fituation. Having received a recompence for
the previous expences, in one or more rape-crops (for
there is no danger, in this cafe, of exhaufting the foil, of
impoverifhing ten feet deep, perhaps, of vegetable mould),
it remains to lay the foundation of more permanent pro-
fits.’ And, “ this may be done, in his opinion, by
fowing grafs-feeds, either with, or over, the rape-crop,
or after the ftalks have been drawn, as feafons and cir-
cumftances may require ; continuing to ftock the ground,
in the manner already recommended, until the furtace be fuf-
ficiently

; MOORY

ficiently firm, and the foil has acquired a proper texture for
mixed cultivation : a period which may be fhortened by foffil
fubftances, efpecially fuch as are calcareous, {pread over the
furface during any ftage of the improvement of this fort of
land.”

And it is concluded, ‘ that there are fituations in which
low-lying flat lands, fuch as are now under confideration,
ought not, when they are brought to a productive ftate of
herbaze,—to meadow or rich paiture ground,—to be hattily
changed from fo profitable a condition ; whether they be
viewed in a private or public light.”’

‘There are other purpofes to which moor lands may be
applied with profit. Betides the advantages of fhelter,
great improvement and benefit may be derived from plant-
ing moit of the more mountainous and poorer kinds with
trees of the timber and other kinds. ‘This is the cafe with
large ranges of moory ground, in Yorkfhire, Lancafhire,
and many other counties in the kingdom. And it is tated
in the Perththire Report, that ‘there is a great traét of moor
or waite land, unfit for any ufeful purpofe, except planting,
betwixt Auchterarder and Tullybardin, (in Scotland,) and
weftward to the military road or farther. A few half-
ftarved fheep may be feen in foaie places on its fkirts, but
the great body of the moor in its prefent ftate is_ufeful
neither to man nor bealt. A {mall plantation of Scotch
firs has grown feveral years in one place of this moor to a
confiderable fize ; and many other {pots are planted by dif-
ferent proprietors, which are generally ina thriving condi-
tion, and fhew that it is a proper foil for firs. As the
moor is already divided, if the co-terminous heritors would
put in permanent landmarks on their refpective limits, and
be at the joint expence of a bounding fence round the whole,
each paying in proportion to the number of acres of his
property inclofed, this great plantation would raife fuch a
foreft, as would fhelter the bleak country round it, and be
produétive of a vait return. And although pine woods
are not efteemed beautiful obje&ts, yet they certainly are as
pleafant to the eye, as gloomy heath.’’ It is added, that
“at prefent every acre of heath is at an average f{carcely
worth a fixpence of rent; but let it be called one fhilling,
which is more than the value. If it were planted, we may
reafonably fuppofe, every tree grown to timber would in
8o years be at leaft worth 5s. There are firs in this part of
the country, planted between 65 and 70 years ago, which
are felling at prefent from ros. to 15s.; and fome of them
bring 20s: but allow 80 years for any difference which may
be in foil or climate, and take only one-half of the lowelt
price. Suppofe what might be planted of the moor in
queftion to be feven miles long and three miles broad, at
an average. If the inclofure were aregular figure, having
feven miles on two fides, and three on the other two, the
bounding fence would be 20 miles long; but on the fup-
pofition that the figure be fomewhat irregular, having ex-
terior and interior angles, let the fence be called 30 miles
in length, which is a large allowance. The area of this
moor, feven miles by three, is 21 fquare miles, which are
nearly equal to 10,700 acres. Every acre will plant 3422
trees, allowing fixteen fquare feet to each. At an early
period, which depends on the ftrength of the foil, and
the progrefs of the young trees, one-third fhould be taken
out when they begin to interfere; and each of the remain-
ing trees will occupy 24 fquare feet. At a fecond weed-
ing, when it appears neceflary, another third of the original
number may be cut down ; and thofe that remain being 1140,
which are left to grow to timber, willeach of them occupy
a {pace of 48 fquare feet; which ‘is fufficient for any ordi-
nary fir. Many large firs grow vigoroufly in lefs room.”

LAND.

It is called the moor of Orchill, and the following is a
calculation of the expence and profit of covering it with
trees:
ELxpences and Profit.
Plantation, Dr.

To rent of 10,000 acres, at 1s. for 80 £ so od.
years, at five per cent. compound
intereft - - 519,607 13 10%

An earthen fence of 30 miles, fix feet
high, at 4d. per yard, with com-
pound intereft for 8o years, at 5 per
cent, - - -

36,615,400 fir plants, at 1s. 6d. the
1000 of three years old, with com-
pound intereft at 5 per cent. -

Planting ditto, done by fix men to an
acre, at 1s. 3d. each per day, with
compound intereft, at 5 per cent.
for 80 years - - -

Two forefters, at 20/. each of yearl
wages, for keeping the fence in re- ‘
pair, weeding, &c. with ditto in-
terelt, at 5 per cent. for 8o years -

43,614 1 6

136,103 8 o

198,865 6 8

38;849' 3 38

9372939 13 48

Plantation, Contra Cr.

By 12,205,133 trees, So years old,
_ being one-third of the number
planted, and valued at 5s. each -
Ditto number of weedings, taken out
before 20 years, and valued at one
halfpenny each, with compound in-
terelt fer 60 years, amounting to -
Ditto number of weedings, taken
out before 30 years, valued at one
penny each, for 50 years, at 5 per
cent. compound interelt a -

32951283 5 ©

474955 12 ©

5835163 +5 4%
39175343, 9 0

And it is further ftated, that “ after allowing the value of
the weedings to go for back-gone trees, and other contin-
gent expences, not adverted to, which is furely enough, the
profit is beyond conception. And were this plan to be
adopted by the proprietors of this or other large moors,
larches might be planted in fome places, efpecially along
the boundaries of different properties; and wherever the
foil or the bleaknefs of the expofure is thought unfriendly,
larches might thrive better than common firs, being the
hardieft and the moft valuable plants of the two. If there
happens to be rivulets, afh would thrive on their banks, and
elms, oaks, or beeches on any dry {pots of green ground.
This variety would remove the dull famenefs of the plan-
tation and enliven the profpeét. Eight or ten rows of
{pruces, as having of all trees the beit thelter, by continu-
ing to any age, feathered to the ground, might be planted
next the fence, to defend the whole plantation from fudden
gutts or {treams of wind. The expence on the plants might
be, in a great meafure, faved, and the trees rendered more
congenial to the climate, by having the feed {owed in the
country.

It is added, that “the prime coft of the fir-plants would
be 2746/. 3s. which might in a great meafure be faved ;
and of planting 4o12/. 10s. of which one-fourth may be
faved.

Balance in favour of planting

MOORY LAND.

faved. After the firft 15 or 20 years, the forefters will
pay themfelves out of the fale of weedings; and their
wages may be faved entirely after the laft weeding at 30
years.” And it is fuggefted, that “ whoever has beheld
the aftonifhing plantations at Cullen-houfe in the county of
Bamff, and at Monymufk in Aberdeenhhire, by the late pro-
prietors of thefe places, and alfo by heritors in different
parts of the kingdom, who had a tafte for improvement and
underftood their intereft, will fee the propriety of turning
fuch moors as this to account. It is not a mere experiment,
it is not without precedent, itis no chimera. They have
many patterns before their eyes.’

And with the view of fhewing the expence of this fy{tem
of improvement on a {mall fcale, it is ftated, that ‘* one acre
of land at one fhilling of yearly rent, by compound intereft
at five per cent. for the fpace of 80 years, is worth
48/. 10s. 113d. The fame acre planted with common firs,
and weeded down by various thinnings to 1140, and fold at
the end of §o0 years for five fhillings each, would amount to
285/. And if more valuable timber were planted, it would
fetch more. Whenever the land will not let at more than
one fhilling, or one fhilling and fixpence the acre, and is ur-
friendly to cultivation by the plough, itis by far the beft me-
thod of turning it to account, to plant it full of trees fuited
to its nature. Even common firs, in this way, will bring a
fum equal to fix fhillings an acre of yearly rent; and
moreover, it is of no {mall confideration, that the moft
barren and bleak moor, by this management, will be
rendered perfeftly green; and if depaftured by fheep,
when the trees are cut down, it will remain green, and con-
tinue to let at a decent rent.’’ It is farther noticed, that
“‘ were gentlemen of fortune to allot a fmall fum annually,
perhaps from 1o/. to 5o/., according to their income, for
raifing plantations on different parts of their eftates, the ad-
vantage to their heirs and to the public would be incal-
eulable in every point of view. Nor does the writer fee
any folid objection againft it. It is in vain to reafon with
thofe who will do nothing for polterity, becaufe pofterity
has done nothing for them ; as Swift expreffes the argument
of the flothfully felfith. The moft plaufible objeétion to
this reafoning is, “ that if all the-low moors and other
places not of the value of one fhilling an acre yearly, and
unfavourable to tillage, were planted, the country would
be fo much overftocked with timber, that it would give no
price.” This objeétion might be got rid of by anfwering,
that fo long as the value of an acre in planting was fuperior
to one fhilling of yearly rent, even the defire of proft ought
to recommend planting ; nor ought a generous man to re-
gc that the public were ferved in timber at a more mo-

erate price.—But this fubjeét claims attention ; and the
following confiderations are fubmitted to the reader :—if
the premifes in the objection do not exift, the conclufion,
being only hypothetical, muft fall to the ground. There
is little hope, that all proprietors will plant their moors in
one generation, and, therefore, little danger that the coun-
try will be overftocked with timber. Their views, their
tafte, their mode of expenditure, and many of their other
habits are fo extremely various, that there is no period, in
which all or even aconfiderable number of them will adopt
this mode of improvement. And it is added, that ‘ the
fir-woods on the fhores of the Baltic are decreafing fo fait,
by the continual and growing demand upon them, that they
have retired far to the valand parts of thefe countries ; and
the neceflary land carriage, together with the freight, in-
furance, and duty, has raifed the price 50 per cent. within
thefe few years; and if this goes on, it is difficult to fay
to what amount the expence of foreign timber may arife.

If the price become exceffive, and that there be no fupply
of native fir, the improvement of the country, in the ar-
ticle of building, which is fo ornamental to it, will become
ftationary ; none being able to afford the expence of lodg-
ing themfelves comfortably, except the affluent and great.”
And, “ in countries at a diftance from water carriage,
where there is no pit-coal, and where the moffes are alto-
gether or nearly exhaufted, the inhabitants muft feel the
inconvenience of being in want of an article, which is fo
very neceffary to their comfort, unlefs they have wood to
burn. Some counties in England, and many parts of the
continent, are in a deplorable condition in this refpe@. A.
fupply of wood for fuel can never, in thefe circumftances,
be plentiful, without extenfive plantations on land, which is
unfit for grafs or corn.” It is alfo fuppofed, that it is
a prefumptive proof that this country was warmer, and
the temperature of the air more mild, than at prefent, _
when our very mountains produced grain. This mildnefs of
the climate was, it is conceived, occafioned by nothing elfe
than the woodinefs of the country at thatera. Reftore,
fays he, the caufe, and the effe& will follow. The more
wood there is in a country, in northern latitudes, the more.
temperate the climate, and the more genial the influence of
the air. Add to this, that in point of beauty, there is no
comparifon between a bleak moor covered with ftunted
heath, and a waving foreft clad with the livery of nature.”
It is alfo ftated, that ‘“‘ on the fkirts of the moor of
Orchill, there is a belt of fand, on which broom and furze
are growing, particularly on the eaft, towards Auch-
terarder. The foil, in which furze is found, invites the in-
duftry of the hufbandman, with an aflured profpe& of an
immediate and abundant return, Where broom grows, the
foil is lighter, and has for the moft part a gravelly or fandy
bottom. The former is a good mould, and fitted for moft
crops. The latter is well adapted for turnips and red
clover; and after refting a few years, will bear plentiful
crops of grain; but having a weaker body than the former,
it requires to be tenderly dealt with in cropping. Let not
the hufbandman be furprifed to fee thefe plants rife, even
at the interval of 50 years or more, after they feemed to
have been extirpated; the feeds of fome plants remain long
in the ground, without being deprived of the germ, or
vegetative principle. Marle abounds in the country round
this moor, and is well calculated to ftimulate fuch foils.
Nature has indeed provided, in moft fituations, fome ma-
nure that will increafe the fertility of the earth. Lime is
now carried to that part of the country; and the number-
lefs little rills, which defcend from the moor in all dire@ions
after rain, would enrich the grafs in many places, as ma
be feen in every little hollow between the hills. All thefe
ac indeed asa ftimulus alone, which is moftly the cafe with
every {pecies of calcareous earth, of which they are en-
tirely compofed: but when argillaceous earth can be had
at hand, it adds to the quantity of foil, ftrengthens the
ftamina, binding together the loofe particles of fuch land
as this, and thereby enables it to ftard more frequent til-
lage.’ It is further flated by the fame writer, that
“« from behind Culrofs, all the way to Blairingone, there are
feveral tracts of wafte and barren moor. The earl of Dun-
donald has planted much in this diftri& ; but more ought to
be planted. In the moor between Gafk and Maderty, and
all the way from Dollary on the weft to the vicinity of
Perth on the eaft, there are large tra&s of ftunted heath,
that might be planted; and the {tately plantations growing
on fome parts of this moor, ought to induce the proprietors
of other parts to follow the example. There is ground fit
only for being planted, between Invermay and wae |
2 an

MOO

and on the verge of the bank eaft from Aberdalgie to the
great road. In the two places lait mentioned, trees of
hard wood, which are more valuable than firs, would thrive
and come to perfection.” ; :
And it is properly remarked, that, ‘in plantations of fir,
where the foil is tolerably good, young trees of hard wood,
efpecially oaks and elms, may be put in among the firs,
which protect them, and do not much retard their growth by
exhautting the foil: but care muft be taken to cut down oc-
cafionally fuch of the fir trees as interfere with their tops,
by firft lopping off their branches, and then laying down the
trunk; which pra¢tice may be continued until all the firs,
thought neceflary to be taken away, are felled. In this
manner one may have the benefit of almoit two plantations
on the fame ground at once; the young trees being well ad-
vanced before the older ones are taken out of their way.
This practice is becoming more general every day. In other
cafes a belt of firs is planted round, to proteét other trees
in the middle of a plantation, without which precaution the
interior trees, in certain fituations, would be too much ex-
pofed: but this management is lefs to be depended on,
unlefs the ground be level and the firs fomewhat tall before
the other trees are planted.”’
The writer allo itates, that, ‘on the higher parts of the
Sherif moor, near Dumblane, there are near feven thoufand
acres, calculated only for being planted. The lower parts
of this moor are, in fome places, cultivated; and the foil
being deep, if it were drained, pared, and burnt, might be
. improved ftill farther up, on the weft fide of the moor. The

higher parts being planted with trees, and the fkirts being
. reclaimed by tillage and grafs, would be an ornament to a
country which is naturally cold and bare.” And it is here
remarked, that “ the valt fir woods already mentioned, which
are growing naturally in Rannoch, befides others in Strath-
fpey and elfewhere in the north of Scotland, are raifed
much farther above the level of the fea, than any of thofe
places here recommended for plantations of fir. The plan-
tations of lord Dundonald behind Culrofs, and thofe on the
Kuock of Crieff, are thriving on a foil as poor. Thefe in-
ftances, and the fine plantation lately cut down at Turleum,
behind Drummond cattle, a higher fpot than any of them,
may open the eyes of men to fee what might be done on the
Sherif moor, on that of Orchill, and in fimilar places, which
at prefent are of very little value.’’-

The writer concludes by fuggefting, that, ‘‘befides the
moors that have been mentioned, there are fome other /oqw-
lying waltes, covered with a thin itratum of mofs, on a bed
of gravel, which produce nothing but heath; one at Comrie,
one at Dunira, one at Doune, wne near Callander, and in
other places. Mr. Drummond of Comrie, who lately pur-
chafed Dalganrofs, has boldly lined off {treets and a market-
place through the very heart of the moor, feued out part of
the ground, and the new fettlers are going on with fpirit, to
lay on new foil, and otherways to improve one of the mott
barren {pots in the country ; and men will be enabled to live
where, a few years ago, {carcely a fparrow could find fub-
fittence. Such are the effects of induftry under the direc-
tion of good fenfe !”’

Further, ‘ the moor in the vicinity of the houfe of Dunira
has been reclaimed fome years ago, Mr. Dundas has planted
the molt barren {pots, with a variety of trees fuited to the
foil; and, wherever there was any depth of earth, the ex-

ence of cultivation bas been rewarded by extenfive and rich
fields of grafs. The plantations on the flat below will foon
vie with the waving oak woods on the declivity of the wind-
ing hills and in the face of rocks, with which this fingular
place is furrounded.’? And alfo, “in the vallies of the

Vou. XXIV.

MOO

Seedlaw hills there are feveral {pots of fhort heath, whick
are planted; but there are others of a better quality, which
ought to be top-dreffed with lime or marle, to raife a {ward
of grafs. This climate in general is too unfavourable for
raifing much grain; but potatoes and turnips, fucceeded by
a crop of barley and grafs feeds, might grow in many places,
which, at prefent, are totally neglected.’’

The different facts of this kind which have been ftated,
are fufficient to fhew the vaft advantage that may be derived
from this fort of improvement in many forts of moory lands ;
and others may be feen in the excellent report from which
thefe have been taken, as well as that of Invernefshhire.
Great improvements of this nature are likewife about to be
undertaken by different fpirited individuals in Lancahhire.
See Waste Lands.

Moony Soil, fuch a foil as is chiefly conftituted of earthy
matters of the moory kind. This fort of foil occupies large
tracts in fome diltricts, as has been fufficiently feen in the
preceding article; which fee, as alfo Soir.

MOORZAN, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Bambarra; 75 miles N.E. of Sego.

MOORZEELE, a town of France, in the department
of the Lys, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri€ of
Courtray. The place contains 3650, and the canton 13,114
inhabitants, on a territory of kiliometres, in 5 com-
munes. ;

MOOSE-De:rr, in Zoology, the Cervus Alces, which
fee. The firft mention we find of this remarkable animal,
is in a tract of Mr. Joffelyn’s, entitled «* New England Rari-
ties.'’ That author fays, it is a very fine creature, growing
to twelve feet high; the horns are extremely beautiful, with
broad palms, fome of thofe full grown being two fathom
from the tip of one horn to the tip of the other. The fame
author, in another work, ‘entitled “Two Voyages to New
England,” calls this creature a monfter of fuperfluity ; and
fays, that when full grown, it is many times larger than an
ox. What Neal fays of this animal feems copied from
Joffelyn. But the beft account we have of it, is from Mr.
Paul Dudley. This gentleman fays, that they are of two
kinds: the common light-grey moofe-deer, called by the
Indians wampoo/e, and the larger black moofe. The grey
moofe is the fame animal which Mr. Clayton, in his account
of the Virginian quadrupeds, publifhed in the Philofophical
Tranfa@tions, calls the e:k; and this is the creature de-
fcribed in the Anatomical Difcoveries of the Paris Aca-
demy, under the name of the flag of Canada. Horns of
this creature have been fent from Virginia, and called elks?
horns: they are wholly the fame with thofe of our red deer,
except in fize ; weighing about twelve pounds, and meafur-
ing from the burr to the tip about fix feet long. Phil.
Tranf. N° 444. p. 386. Abr. vol. vii. p. 447.

, Mr. Dudley fays, that the grey moole is hke the Englith
deer ; aud that thefe creatures herd together thirty or more
in a company. The black or large moofe has been taken,
he fays, meafuring fourteen {pans in height from the withers,
ae allowing nine inckes to the fpan, is ten feet and a

alf.

The ftag or male of this kind has a palmed horn, not
like that of our common or fallow deer, but the palm is
much longer and more like to that of the German elk; but
it differs from that in having a branched brow-antler between
the burr and the palm, which the German elk hath not.

The large horns found foffile in Ireland, have, from their
valt dimenfions, been fuppofed to have originally belonged
to the black moofe-deer ; but they, as likewife moft other
of the large horns found in this part of the world, muft be
referred to the elk kind, but of a {pecies different from the

O European,

mgt

(2

MOO

European, being provided with brow antlers, which that
wants. Some of thefe horns are near twelve feet between
tip and tip, and fix ‘feet four inches long ; and may probably
be ranked among thofe remains which foffilifts diftinguifh by
the title of diluvian. The largeft horns of the American
moofe ever brought over are only-thirty two inches long, and
thirty-four between tip and tip.

Mr. Ray mentions, in his Synopfis of Animals, a pair of
extremely large foffile horns, which he faw in a mufeum in
Suffex; but he mentions no brow-antlers in thefe, and there-
fore probably they, as well as fome others preferved in mu-
feums, were the horns of the German elk. See Cervus
Alces.

Moose Hillock, in Geography, the higheft of the chain of
mountains in New Hampfhire, the White mountains ex-
cepted. It takes its name from its having formerly been a
remarkable range for moofe, and lies 70 miles W. of the
White mountains

Moose Jfland, a {mall ifland on the coaft of Maine in
America, at the mouth of Schoodick river, containing about
30 families. At the S. end of this ifland is an excellent
harbour, fit for the conftruction of dry docks.

Moose, or Meofthead, Lake, an irregularly-fhaped pond
of water in Lincoln county and ftate of Maine, that gives
rife to the eaftern branch of the Kennebeck river, which
unites with the other, above Norridgewock, about 20 miles
S. of the lake. It is {aid to be three times as large as lake
George: on the N. and W. of the lake are very high
mountains. ;

Moose River, a river of America that rifes in Miflinabe
lake, and after purfuing a north-eaftern courfe, and receiving,
abeut 12 miles from its mouth, a fouthern branch, dif-
charges itfelf into the fouthern part of James’s bay, North
America, by the fame mouth with Abbitibee river. Moofe
fort and faétory are fituated at the mouth of this river, N.
Jat. 51° 16’. W. long. 81° 51’; and Brunfwick houfe is on
its W. bank, about lat. 50° 30'.. Beyond Brunfwick houfe
is a fall of 50 feet, above which the river is deep and navi-

able to a confiderable diftance; the foil and the climate
above the fall being very good.—Alfo, a fhort ftream in
Grafton county, New Hampfhire, running north-eafterly
from the White mountains into Amarifcoggin river:

MOOSERAI, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 5 miles
N.W. of Bahar.

MOOSHEDA, a {mall circar of Bengal, bounded on
the N. by Dinagepour, on the E. by Janguirpour, on the
S. by Bettooria, and on the W. by Pooteate

MOOSSEE, or Moossgrpoo, a town of Africa, and
capital of Gotto; 110 miles S.W. of Tombuétoo. N. lat.
15° 8. E. long. 0° 16’.

MOOT, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Gohud ;
18 miles S.W. of Kooch.

Moor, £/, a town of Nubia; 35 miles S. of Chiggaé.

Moor-ffills, in Britifh Antiquities, denote hills of meeting,
on which our Britifh anceftors held their great courts.
Many of thefe ftill exift not only in the Britifh dominions,
but alfo in the Netherlands. ‘They commonly confift of a
central eminence, on which fat the judge and his affitants ;
beneath was, an elevated platform for the parties, their
friends, and ‘* compurgators,’’ who fometimes amounted to
100 er more, and this platform was furrounded with a trench
to fecure it from the accefs of the mere {pectators.

Moor, formed cither from the Saxon metam, gemetan,
meeting 3 or from the French mot, word, in Law, a difficult
cafe or queltion, argued by the ftudents of inay of court,
by way of exercile

MOQ

MOOTACHILLY, in Geography, a town of Hin.
dooftan, in the Carnatic; 28 miles W. of Terriore.

MOOTAGARA, a town of Hindooftan, in Golconda 5
45 miles S.E. of Hydrabad.

MOOTAGOOD, a town of Hindooftan, in Golconda ;
5 miles W.N.W. of Combamet. * *

MOOTA-GONGA, a river of Hindooftan, which runs
into the Gonga, or Bain Gonga; 40 miles S. of Bundow-
rah, in Berar. : ;

MOOTAL, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Cuddapa; 34 miles N. of Gandicotta. ‘

MOOTAN, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Hindia ; 10 miles S.W. of Huflinganbad.

MOOTAPADDY, a town of Hindooftan, in Madura;
Io miles E. of Nattam. ;

MOOTAPILLY, or Meniritzu1, a town of Hin-
dooftan, in the circar of Guntoor, on the coaft of Coro-
mandel, at the mouth of a river, which runs into the bay of
Bengal; 75 miles S.W. of Mafulipatam. N. lat. 15° 35’.
E. long. So° rol.

MOOTER, inthe Dock-Yards, the perfon who forms
and {mooths the tree-nails for ufe:

MOOTING, in Law, the chief exercife formerly per-
formed by itudents in the inns of court; being the arguing
of cafes, which young utter barrilters praétifed at appointed
times, the better to enable them to undertake the defence of
their clients’ caufes.

Such as, from their learning and ftanding, were called by
the benchers to argue moot-ca/es, were fometimes called
utter barrifiers ; the reft who, for want of experience, &c.
were not admitted, were by fome called inner barriffers. The
place where the moot-cafes were argued, was anciently called
a moot-hall.

In the inns of court there was a bailiff or furveyor of the
moots, yearly chofen by the bench to appoint the moot-men
for the inns of chancery, and to keep account of perform-
ance of exercifes, both there and in the houfe. j

Moorrne, the making a tree-nail exaétly cylindrical to a

iven fize, called the moor. P

MOOTINGY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Gumtoor ; 18 miles E. of Guntoor.

MOOT-MEN, in Law, were thofe who argued moot-
Capes.

fe ut of thefe moot-men were chofen readers for the inns
of chancery: where, in term-time, and in vacations, they
argued cafes in the prefence of attornies and clerks. 4

MOP, in fome counties in England, is the term for
what is called the ftatute in other places; being the time
that young perfons who intend themfelves for fervants,
meet at fome certain place, in order to be hired into fer-
vices.

MOPAR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, inthe
Carnatic ; 40 miles S.S.W. of Ongole.

MOPEHA, a low uninhabited ifland in the Pacific
ocean, near Otaheite, and W. of Mourooa. See Howe’s
Jfland.

MOPENDA, a province of the kingdom of Anziko.

MOQUEGNA, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of Are-
quipa; 70 miles S. of Arequipa. N. lat. 17° 20! W.
long. 70° 56.

MOQUILEA, in Botany, apparently a barbarous name,
of which no explanation is given. Aubl. Guian. v. 1. 52r.
Juff. 341. Lamarck Iluftr. t. 427.—Clafs and order, Jco-

er Meanogynia. Nat. Ord. Pomacee, Linn, Rofacea,
Jul. j

Gen. Ch. Gal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, turbinate,
internally villous, with five roundifh, acute, marginal feg.

ments.

MOR

ments. Cor. Petals five, roundifh, inferted between the
fegments of the calyx. Stam. Filaments numerous (about
40), inferted into the calyx, capillary, longer than the co-
rolla; anthers roundith, incumbent. Pi/?. Germen roundifh,
hairy, in the bottom of the calyx; ftyle lateral, from the bafe
of the germen, alcending, as long as the ftamens, hairy
in its lower half; ftigma obtufe. Peric. and Sceds un-
known.

Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft, inferior. Petals five. Style
from the bafe of the germen. Drupa? .

1. M. guianenfis. Aubl. t. 208.—A tree, found by Au-
blet in the foreits of Guiana, flowering in May. The érunk
rifes to the height of 30 feet, with a thick reddifh bark.
The wood is white, not compact. Leaves alternate, four
to feven inches long, and two or three broad, elliptical,
pointed, entire, f{mooth, and fhining, with one rib and‘{e-
veral tran{verfe veins. ovt/lalks fhort and thick. Flowers
white, in axillary and terminal clufters, whofe ftalks are
triangular. A.ublet faw nothing of the fruit, nor of the ad-
vanced germen, but analogy leads us to prefume it a fingle-
feeded drupa. No mention is made of any particular ufes
or qualities of this tree, which the above author ‘calls in
French Moquilier ; perhaps a tranflation of the generic
name.

MOQUIS, or Moqutnos, in Geography, a favage tribe,
who inhabit the centre of the Mother chain of moun-
tains, in the part of America bordering on New Mex-
ico. They were formerly converted by the Francifcans :
but they have fince killed all the miffionaries and abjured the
Chriltian faith.

MOR, a town of Arabia, in. Yemen; 11 miles E. of Lo-
heia. —Alfo, a town of Arabia, in Hedsjas ; 32 miles N.W.
of Hagiaz.—Alfo, an ifland of Denmark, in the gulf of
Lymfiord, fixteen miles long and fix wide; containing a
town and feveral villages. ;

MORA, a town of Portugal, in the province of Alen-

. tejo ; 22 miles N.W. of Evora.— Alfo, a town of Spain,
in New Caftile ; 16 miles S.E. of Toledo.—Alfo, a town
of Spain, in the province of Catalonia, on the Ebro; 18
miles N. of Tortofa.—Alfo, a town of Sweden, in the pro-
vince of Dalecarlia; 55 miles N.W. of Falan. :

MORABAD, atown of Hindooftan, in Agimere; 10
miles S. of Roopnagur.

MORABEL, a town of the ifland of Ceylon; 28
miles N. of ‘Princomaly.

MORABIN, James, in Biography, a man of letters, and
fecretary tothe lieutenant-general of the police in Paris,
was a native of La Fléche, and diedin 1762. He publifhed
« A Tranflation of Cicero’s Treatife on Laws,”’ and of the
dialogue on orators generally attributed to Tacitus: ‘ Hif-
toire de Exil de Ciceron,”? which has been tranflated into
Englifh : «« Hiftoire de Ciceron,” 2 vols: 4to. 1745. This
work appeared nearly at the fame time with that of our own
countryman Dr. Middleton on the fame fubjeé, and fhared
with it in reputation: “* Nomenclator Ciceronianus,’’ and
«© A Tranflation of Boetius de Confolatione.”’

MORACA, in Geography, a river of Albania, which runs
into the lake of Scutar1; 10 miles N. of Antivari.

MORAD Dacui, a mountain of Afiatic Turkey, in
the province of Natolia; 30 miles S.W. of Kiutaja.

Morap Siai, one of the branches of the Euphrates, that
rifes 20 miles E. of Diadin, and joins the other branch 45
miles S. of Arzingan. |

MORADGUNGE, atown of Hindooftan, in Oude ;
13 miles S.of Azimgur.—Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in
Allahabad ; 30 miles N.N.W of Allahabad.

MOREA, in Botany, a name given by Miller, from

MOR

whofe Diéionary, ed.8, Linneus adopted it in the fixth
edition of his Genera Plantarum, in honour of Robert More,
efq..of Shrewfbury, faid, by the author firft mentioned, to
have been ‘well {killed in the fcience of botany, and
alfo in other parts of natural hiftory.”” This is all we
ever heard of Is claims to the above diftin@ion. Thun.
berg prefumed Morea was defigned to commemorate Dr.
Moreus, the father-in-law of Linneus, who wrote on the
Aconitum Napellus, for whofe fake perhaps Linneus the mare
readily admitted this name. For the fame reafon we may
willingly retain it, in cafe the pretenfions of Miller’s friend
fhould be deemed equivocal.—Linn. Gen. 27. Schreb. 36.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 240. Mart. Mill. Di@. v. 3. Ker
HAE la in Sims and Kon. Ann. of Bot. v. 1. 238. Ait.

ort. Kew. ed. 2. v. r. 110. Juff. 58. Lamarck Illuitr. t. 31.
Gertn. t. 13. Thunb. Diff. 6. (Vieuffeuxia ; De la Roche
Diff. 14. Redout. Lil. v. 1. 42.)—Clafs and order, Triandria
Monogynia, or rather Monadelphia Triandria. Nat. Ord.
Enfata, Linn. Trides, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Spatha of two valves, involute, perma-
nent. Cor. regular, of fix petals, {preading, the three al-
ternate ones confiderably {maller, fometimes afcending. Staza.
Filaments three, awl-fhaped, more or lefs united, above the
bafe of the petals into a tube, ere¢t ; anthers vertical, ereét,
oblong, cloven at the bafe. Pi/t. Germen inferior, oblong,
more or lefs cylindrical; ftyle cylindrical, fhort ; ftigmas
three, {preading each with a_ petal-like, oblong, fomewhat
dilated, cloven appendage, prefled againft each ftamen.
Peric. Capfule oblong, angular, of three cells and three
valves. Seeds numerous, orbicular, depreffed.

Eff. Ch. Corella regular, of fix petals, fuperior; the
three alternate ones much fmaller, Stigmas ereét, with a
petal-lke appendage. Stamens united. Capfule with many
feeds. d

We have already, under the article Ir1s, adverted to the
difficulty, of diftinguifhing that genus from Aforea. They
agree in their petal-like ftigmas, except that in Morea
thefe, as well as the ftamens, are more ereG&t. Morea ap-
pears to us diftinét in having fix feparate petals, without a
tube, and the ftamens united above the bafe of thofe petals,
into more or lefs of a tube. The Vieuffeuxta of fome au-
thors is feparated by them from Morea, becaufe the ftamens
are united more completely ; but there are fo many grada-
tions in the degree of union, thaf we cannot think the dif-
tinction juft. Several plants have been referred to Morea
by Mr. Ker, and by the late Mr. Dryander in Hort. Kew.
which, though we diffent unwillingly from fuch authorities,
we cannot but remove to Sz/yrinchium, becaufe of their
nearly equal, and all alike fpreading, petals, and narrow
{tigmas ; their ftamens alfo being perfectly monadelphous.
Thefe are Morea virgata; Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 228. MM. ele-
gans ; Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr..v. 1. t. 12. M. flexuo/a ;
Curt. Mag. t. 695. M. collina; Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 226.

Willdenow has feventeen fpecies of Morea ; Thunberg,
in his Diflertation on the genus, publifhed in 1787, has
twenty-one ; but feveral of each do not correfpond with the
above characters. Mr. Ker enumerates twenty-fix in the
Annals of Botany, and there are eighteen in the new edition
of Hort. Kew. Linneus mentions but two in his Sp. Pl.
but there are twelve inthe r4th editionof Sy/. Veg. chiefly
derived from the Supplementum, being moftly borrowed from
Thunberg.

Examples of Morza are

M. iridioides. Sword-leaved Morea. Linn. Mant. 28.
Ait.n. 18. Curt. Mag. t. 693. Redout. Liliac. t. 45.—
Leaves equitant, {word-fhaped, perennial. All the petals
{preading, nearly of equal length; the alternate ones much

2 narrower.

MOR

narrower. Native of the Cape of Good Hope. Miller
cultivated it in 1758, and figured it in his Tcones, i os oMfatte
This is the Jris compreffa of ‘Thunberg, Linn. Suppl. and
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. r-230, as Mr. Ker juftly obferves, and
as we find by a fpecimen from Thunberg. The habit is
more like an Jris than molt of the prefent genus. Root
fibrous, perennial, tufted. Stem twelve or eighteen inches
high, afcending, comprefied, {mooth, often bent, but flightly
leafy. Leaves numerous, chiefly radical, as tall as the
term, {fword-fhaped, dark green. Flower-ftalks clothed
with feveral clofe cylindrical theaths. Corolla white, two
inches broad, the three larger petals marked at the bate
with a yellow oblong fpot. Filaments generally quite dif-

inc.
0 NL pavonia. Peacock Morza. Ait. n. 3. Curt. Mag.
t. 1247. (Iris pavenia; Linn. Suppl. 98. Willd. Sp. Pl.
y. 1. 238. Jacq. Hort. Schoerbr. t. 10. Andr. Repof,
t. 364.)—Smaller petals with an awl-fhaped incurved
point ; larger nearly orbicular; all dotted at the bafe. Stem
moftly fimple, hairy as well as the Jeaves.—Native of the
Cape. Introduced by Grimwood and Co. into England
about the year 1790. it.—The leaves are long, very nar-
row, ftriated and hairy, as indeed is the whol of the herb-
age. Flower of a deep rich orange, the petals all dotted
towards the bafe ; the larger ones marked with a green and
purple eye-like fpot, of great beauty. The filaments are
united almoit all the way up, fo that this fpecies is by De-
lle referred to Vieu/feuxia. \
Sa. tripetala. ‘Three-petal-lhke Morea. Ait.n. 4. Curt.
Mag. t. 702. (Iris tripetala; Lim. Suppl. 97. Jacq. Ic.
Rar. t, 221.)—Three alternate petals minute, linear, fome-
times wanting. Procured from the Cape in 1802, by E.
Woodford, efq.—A_ delicate, flender, {mooth fpecies,
much refembling an /ris of the bulbous tribe, in the pofition
of its figmas, and long linear claws of the larger petals, but
diftinguithed from that genus by monadelphous /famens, and
the entire want of a tube tothe corolla. From the relt of
its own genus it differs in having very (mall, linear, flightly
recurved inner, or alternate, petals, which are often altoge-
ther wanting. The colour is pale blue, purplifh, or pink,
with a yellowifh dark-edged eye on the three large petals.
M. edulis. Efculent-rooted Morea. Ait. n.8. Curt.
Mag. 613, 1233. (M. vegeta; Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 224, but
not of Linneus. M. fugax ; Jacq. Hort. Vind. v, 3.t. 20.
Iris edulis; Linn. Suppl. 98. _ I. longifolia; Schneev. Ic.
t. 20. Andr. Repof. t. 45.)—Lower leaf extremely long.
Petals all widely fpreading ; the alternate ones oblong,
about half the fize of the others. Filaments diftina.—
Very common and abundant in various places at the Cape
of Good Hope. Thunb. Diff. 31. The du/bs are eaten,
chiefly by the Hottentots. The one or two radical leaves
are twice or thrice the height of the fem, which bears two
or three very pretty flowers, ufually purphih, with a yel-
low eye on each larger petal, but fometimes the whole flower
is pale yellow, with a few darker fpecks.
Some {pecies, with a long tube to the corolla, appear to us
improperly referred to this genus, as belonging, on that ac-
count, to ris. Suchare M. /ongifora, Ker. in Curt. Mag.
t. 712. Ait.n. 9, a dwarf [pecies with golden flowers ; and
M. Sifyrinchium, Ker in Ann. of Bot. v. t. 241. Alten. 15.
(Iris Sifyrinchium; Lino, Sp- Pl. 59. Sm. Fl. Gree, Sibth.
v. 1. 30. t. 42. Redout. Liliac. t. 29. Sifyrinchium majus
et minus; Ger. em. 103.)—This lait is a native of various
parts of the fouth of Europe. [ts bulbs are faid to be eat-
able. The flamens feem united to the Style, rather than to
the corolla, in Mr. Bauer’s drawing in Fl. Gree ; but Ven-
tenat defcribes them as conneéted with the corolla, and fepa-

MOR
rate from cach other, which is as they ought to be in an Jris,
We have never feen a frefh {pecimen.

Mora, in Gardening, affords plants of, the bulbous-tu-
berous-rooted herbaceous flowering perennial kinds, of which
the f{pecies cultivated are the iris-petalled morza (M. irio-
petala) ; and the iris-liked fword-fhaped morwa (M. iri-
dioides. )

Method of Culture. —Thefe plants are all capable of being
increafed either by feeds, offsets, or parting the roots,
which fhould be performed in Augutt, in all the methods ;
the feeds being fown in {mall pots, and plunged into a bed of
old tanners’ bark under a common frame. It is chiefly fown
for the fake of railing new varieties.

It fhould be noticed likewife that the plants require the
fhelter of a frame in winter, being apt to draw up weak
when placed in the dry ftove. Where they can enjoy the
free air in winter, when the weather is mild, and be fecured
from froft and hard rain, they flower and ripen their feeds
better than with more tender management. In fummer they
fhould be fully expofed to the open air till the approach
of autumn, when they fhould be removed into the fhelter of
the frame.

All of thefe afford variety among other potted plants in the
greenhoufe, and other colleétions. :

MORAGATCHA, in Geography, a town of Bengal ;
18 miles S. of Calcutta. N. lat. 22727’. E.long. 88 18’.

MORAL is the name given at Otaheite, in the South.
Sea, to their burying grounds, which are alfo places of wor-
fhip and facrifice. This is a pile of ftone raifed pyramidi-
cally upon an oblong bafe or {quare, two hundred and fixty-
feven feet long, and eighty-feven wide. On each fide is a
flight of tteps; thofe at the fides being broader than thofe
at the ends; fo that it terminated not in a fquare of the
fame figure with the bafe, but in a ridge, hke the roof of
ahoufe. There were eleven of thefe fteps to one of thefe
morais, each of which was four feet high, fo that the height
of the pile was forty-four feet ; each ftep was formed of one
courfe of white coral ftone, which was neatly fquared and
polifhed; the reft of the mafs, for there was no hollow
within, confifted of round pebbles, which, from the re-

ularity of their figure, feemed to have been wrovght. The
Foacdieen was of rock-{tones, which were alfo fquared. In
the middle of the top ftood an image of a bird, carved in
wood, and near it lay the broken one of a fifh, carved in
{tone. ‘The whole of this pyramid made part of one fide
of afpacious area or fquare, 360 feet by 354, which was
walled in with ftone, and paved with flat itones in its whole
extent. About a hundred yards to the welt of this build-
ing was another paved area or court, in which were feveral
{mall ftages raifed on wooden pillars, about feven feet high,
which are called by the Indians eqwattas, or whattas, and
feem to be a kind of altars, as upon thefe are placed provi-
fions of all kinds, as offerings to their gods. On fome of
them were feen whole hogs, and on others the fkulls of
above fifty, befides the fkulls of many dogs, and of human
facrifices, which are taken up after they have been feveral
montks under ground. The principal object of ambition
among the natives is to have a magnificent morai, “The
male deities, for they have them of both fexes, are wor-
fhipped by the men; and the female by the women; and
each have morais to which the other fex is not admitted,
though they have alfo morais common to both. Hawkef-
worth’s Voyages, vol. ii. p. 166—239. Cook’s Third Voy-
age, vol. il. p. 40, &c.

MO-RAISAH, in Geography, a fea-port of Africa, in
the kingdom of Tunis, with a fmall harbour, in the bay

+5 of

MOR

of Tunis, anciently called ** Maxula;’? 24 miles E.S.E. of
Tunis. '

MORALS, any thing relating to the manners or conduct
of life.

Belides the theological virtues, as faith, hope, charity, &c.
there are alfo moral virtues ; as juffice, temperance, &c.

Morat Ations, or Ads, are fuch as render the agent good,
or evil ; and, confequently, rewardable, or puniihable, be-
caufe he doesthem. See Acrion.

Morat Caufe. See Cause. :

Morar Certainty, or Affurance, is ufed to fignify a very
trong probability ; in contradiltin@ion to a mathematical
demonttration. See Cerrirunpe.

Morat Education 1s that branch of education which
re{pects the moral or active principles of the mind, con-
fidered in diftinétion from the intelle€tual powers. By
moral education we under{tand that feries of means by which
the affeétions and difpofitions are cultivated, regulated, or
reftrained ; and by which the moral fenfe or confcience is di-
rected, enlightened, and invigorated.

Intellectual and moral education in various ways coincide
with each other. There is, indeed, no doubt, that a very
high degree of intelleGtual, is confiltent with a low degree of
moral culture; and, on the other hand, great excellence of
character is often found, where there has been no opportu-
nity for the higher exercifes of the underftanding. Never-
thelefs, the noblelt heights of moral excellence can only be
attained, where the intelleGual principles receive a fuitable
cultivation. The memory is requilite, not merely to trea-
fure up the ftores of literature and fcience, but to preferve,
for future ufe, and to recal, the di€tates of moral wifdom,
and the refults of moral experience. The habit of obferva-
tion is effentially neceflary to trace out the effets of our
condué& on the happinefs of others. Without the habit of
attention, the leffons of the moralift, in whatever form deli-
vered, will have only a momentary influence on the heart.
Without the power of calling off the mind from the external
impreffions, the higher and more refined motives would have
little effect in regulating the conduét. If the imagination
be negleé&ted, fo as to become incapable of carrying the mind
out of the range of the objects of memory or aétual fenfa-
tion, benevolence will Jofe fome of its moft powerful ftimuli,
and the efficacy of religious fanétions will be materially im-
peded. Without a proper cultivation of the judgment and
the reafoning powers, the decifions of moral fenfe will often
fail in correétnefs ; the confequences of actions will be incor-
rectly appreciated; the reafonings of the moral inftruétor
will not be underftood ; and the mode of carrying into ef-
fe& the purpofes of wifdom and benevolence, will be fre-
quently miftaken. To negleét the cultivation of the intellec-
tual powers, from the idea that they are unneceflary to worth
of character, would then be acting upon very erroneous
principles. If the moral fenfe is fairly analyfed, it will ap-
pear that it is in part rounded upon the exercife of thofe
powers ; and that, in a great variety of inftances, it implies
their operation. As long as we give the judgment the fu-
premacy among them, and cultivate the reit with a view to
it, we need not fear left we fhould injure the moral culture of
the mind.

We are fully aware, (and it is a confideration which mutt
delight every heart in which there is a {park of philanthropy, )
that by the wife conftitution of our nature, happinefs is
made to depend much more on a proper regulation of the
affections and difpofitions, than upon the cultivation and re-
finement of the intelle&tual powers; and that the former
may attain a high ftate of purity and worth, without emi-
nence in the latter: but we conceive alfo, that it cannot be

MOR

denied, that to make right affeCtions extenfively efficacious in
promoting the good of mankind, confiderable cultivation of
the underilanding is abfolutely neceffary ; and with the fame
retitude of heart, he will be the happier man, as well as the
more ufeful member of fociety, whofe mind has acquired
the higheft degree of correétnefs and comprehenfion. A
well regulated underftanding is a moft important aid in
tracing out the principles cf morality, their mutual con-
ne¢tions and dependencies, their extent and their confequences.
He whole mind has been well trained and difciplined, will be
belt able to underitand the evidence of important truths
which do not lie within the reach of fenfe ; he will belt per-
ceive their application, and how they are to be employed for
the improvement of himfelf and others.— The pleafurcs
of imagination,’’ fays the great Hartley, “ are the next re-
move above the fenfible ones, and have, in their proper place
and degree, a great efficacy in improving and perfecting our
natures. ‘They are to men, in the early part of their adult
age, what playthings are to children; they teach thema
love for regularity, exaétnefs, truth, fimplicity ; they lead
them to the knowledge of many important truths relating to
themfelves, the external world, and its author ; they habi-
tuate to invent, and reafon by analogy and indu@tion ; and
when the focial, moral, and religious affeGtions begin to be
generated in us, we may make a much greater progrefs to-
wards the perfection of our natures, by having a due ftock,
and no more thuna due ftock, of knowledge, in natural and
artificial things, of a relifh for natural and artificial beauty.”
—Befides, the ftores of fcience and literature in yarious
ways contribute to promote the ends of benevolence, and
they are often eminently fubfervient, even to the interefts of
religion. Among the objects of philofophical refearch, this
is peculiarly the cafe with the various branches of natural
hittory and philofophy, and all that refpeéts the praétical
laws of the human mind; and we fhould be induced to fol-
low up this idea a little at large, if we had not already {aid
as much perhaps as is requifite for aur prefent object, near
the clofe of the article InrettectruaL Education.

The moral culture of the mind is, in like mapner, of
great importance, even with a view to its intelle@ual cul-
ture; and this in feveral ways. It is almoft impoffible for a
perfon to be at all couverfant in education, without perceiy-
ing how much the progrefs of the mind in the acquilition of
knowledge, and ftill more in the developement and improve-
ment of its various faculties, depends upon the difpofitions.
The affections, when wifely direéted and regulated, affurd
powerful motives to the due employment of thofe meaus by
which the culture of the underitanding is to be effected ; and
the ill-diretion of the affections not only operates to the lofs
of thofe valuable excitements, but throws politive impedi-
ments in the way of improvement. Pride, perverfenefs, and
obitinacy, the eager or indolent defire of felf gratification,
all directly tend to impede the mental progrefs. Vanity, in
youth, we are not difpofed to regard with too fufpicious an
eye; for itis then only the excefs of qualities which are of
eminent value; but pride commonly prefents an effectual bar
to improvement, fo far as depends upon individual efforts.
Perverfenefs and obftinacy, as long as they continue to have
power, materially interfere with the cultivation of the judg-
ment, and thwart the endeavours of thefe who would guide
the mind in the paths of knowledge. And that defire ot felf-
gratification, which, even at an early period, makes the dif-
ficulties of intellectual acquirements burdenfome and difguit-
ing, has often dettroyed the vigour 6f body and mind, and
blafted the faireft hopes of eminence. (See alfo Inrex-
LecTuAL Education, columns 7, 13,15, &c.) Again, truth
is moft eafily difcerned, efpecially in the extenfive and

mofk

MORAL EDUCATION.

moft important departments of moral fcience, where the un-
derftanding is not clouded with thofe prejudices which habi-
tual candour would difpel ; where a rational, not deprefling,
humility enables it to perceive its own deficiencies, and lead
it to feek for farther light; where the love of truth is a
ruling feature, and will not allow it to liften to the fuggeftions
of indolence, but urges it to prefs forward whenever import-
ant truth is to be obtained, and keeps it from thofe departures
from the ftraight forward road, which an unrefirained at-
tachment to its own theories is conftantly producing.—Thus,
again, the means employed for the moral culture of the
mind, will neceffarily bring into exercife the intellectual
powers. Among a large proportion of the community,
thefe arethe chief fources of intelle@tual culture; and, in-
deed, with the exception of thofe derived from the ufual
employments of life, we may juitly fay they are their only
fources ; and wherever they are judicioufly employed, they
cultivate the judgment and thereafoning powers ; they increafe
the comprehenfion of the mind, exercife its attention and ab-
ftraGtion, and certainly go hand in hand with the beft objects
of literary and {cientific purfuit, in their effets upon the un-
derftanding in general. We fhall never be found among thofe
who depreciate the importance of literature, or of phyfical
{cience ; but we haveno doubt that the effeéts upon the intel-
le&, of the well-dire&ted purfuit of religious knowledge,
(to leave out of view the higher departments of mental and
moral fcience,) are not inferior to thofe of literary and {cien-
tific purfuits, in cultivating thofe mental habits and powers,
which are of the greateft importance in the condué of life,
in promoting the happinefs of the individual, and: his benefit
to others. The laborious claffes of the Scotch afford a
ftriking illuftration of this truth. During a large portion of
the time in which they have manifefted the acutenefs and pe-
netration of thought, the folidity of judgment, and the
habits of refleétion for which they have been juftly fo much
noted, thefe qualities have been chiefly brought into exercife
by their religious culture. And we have no hefitation in fay-
ing, more generally, that the purfuit of religious and moral
{cience, has been an eminent means of promoting the intel-
leGtual improvement of our fpecies. The powers of the
mind have had a moft important exercife while engaged
in it; and the a@tivity, depth, and, frequently, accuracy of
refearch which it has produced, have often, either direétly or
indire&tly, been efficacious in extending the limits of human
knowledge on other fubjects. And we believe it to be a
faét, which is abundantly well authorized by experience, that
the well-direéted purfuit of moral and religious truth, has
the moft happy effect in increafing the vigour and compre-
henfion of the mind; and that numerous inftances have oc-
curred, in which fuch purfuits, under the guidance of good
fenfe, and ftimulated by ie difpofitions, have molt mate-
rially cultivated accuracy of judgment and extenfion of views,
and have produced a degree of fublimity of foul, which is
altogether out of the reach of thofe who reft with fecondary
objects merely, however important thefe may be in them-
felyes and in their conneétions. Once more, the moral cul-
ture of the mind aids the intelleétual, by leading the mind, in
its choice of objects of purfuit, to thofe which, while they
are molt beneficial to mankind, have, at the fame time, the
direét tendency to bring into exercife the powers moft import-
ant to the right eonduét of life. Some of the foregoing re-
marks more immediately relate to that ftage of the mental
progrefs, in which the work of {elf-education begins ; but
we believe they may lead the parental inftructor to fome ufe-
ful conclufions ; and we with to add, that thofe whofe names
rank the very higheft in the departments of phyfical and
mental fcience, Bacon, Boyle, Newton, Locke, and Hart-

ley, were men whofe minds were under ftri&t moral regula-
tion; and thofe who trace out its effeéts on their labours and
purfuits, will probably agree with us in opinion, that they
owed much of their comprehenfion of mind, difcernment, and
penetration, to their moral culture. ‘ Some people have a
notion,”’ fays Mifs Edgeworth, « that the underitanding and
the heart are not to be educated at the fame time ; but the
very reverfe of this is perhaps true : neither can be brought
to any perfeétion, unlefs both are cultivated together.’”
Pra&t. Ed. ch. x.

Our readers will have perceived, that in moral, we include re-
ligious education. We are not aware how either thofe who ac-
knowledge the divine authority of the gofpel, and their confe-
quent obligation to make its principles and precepts their rule
of life, or thofe who have ftudied in the {chools of religious
philofophy, and difcovered that religious principle and religious
affe€tions conftitute an effential part of moral excellence, can
hefitate in confidering the cultivation of them asa part of
their duty. We feel ourfzlves fully borne out by the Basie
views of mental philofophy, as well as by the laws of Chrif-
tianity, when we affert, that thofe principles of a€tion which
re{pect the Supreme Being, are, in themfelves confidered, of
the highelt obligation,—that they afford the moft beneficial
regulation to all the inferior principles of our nature,—that
they give ftability and refinement to thofe affeGtions and dif-
pofitions which are themfelves component parts of human
duty,—and that, in proportion as they acquire their due ex-
tent and influence as primary motives, the moral character is
improved and exalted. Regarding the cultivation, therefore,
of the religious principle, as a moft important branch of
education, we fhould feel it a dereliction of duty, if, on this
occafion, we did not lay before our readers our views as to
the mode by which it is to be effeGted. In doing this, we
are aware of the delicacy of our ground; and while we en-
deavour to bring forward thofe general principles of religion,
in which we fhould fuppofe all agree who acknowledge with
us the divine origin of Chriftianity, we fhall fcrupuloufly aim
to fteer clear of all thofe controverted points of doGrine
which at prefent fo much agitate the public mind. We foli-
cit from thofe of our readers who may have been too much
accultomed to feparate religion from morality, to give our
remarks a candid perufal ; and perhaps for the cultivation of
thofe difpofitions which refpe& the focial and private duties,
we may be able to afford them fome hints: but as our fyftem
of morality is Chriftian morality, we apprehend that they will
perceive indications of our radical principle in almoft every
part. of what we have to offer. We earneftly wifh to lead
parents, and others who are concerned in the early ftages of
education, to take as much pains to give the mind right
biaffes, and to cultivate the rudiments of right affection, re-
{pecting religious duty, as to give habits favourable to the
purfuit of literature and {cience, and to the exercife of the
focial and private virtues. :

We fhall be led to enter more at large into the juitification
of our views as we proceed; but we may take this oppor-
tunity of reverting a little to fome remarks which we made
in the 9th and roth columns of InvELLECTUAL £ducation.
Tn reference to the incomparable elementary works of Mifs
Edgeworth, we {poke of « their {triking and much-to-be-
lamented deficiency in every thing like eat principle ;”
and, with the fame general view, we exprefled our opinion,
that her work on education is “ effentially deficient."" With
refpect to the latter, we do not mean to fay that the authors
of Praétical Education had not a full right to choofe for
themfelves what objeéts of education they would attend to 5
and, as we have already intimated, we are fully aware of
the extreme difficulty of writing on the fubject of religious

education,

MORAL EDUCATION.

education, fo as to be fatisfaGtory to all parties; but when
they declined it altogether, it would furely have been de-
firable to ftate, that it was from no want of conviction of the
fupreme importance of religion, and the neceflity and duty
of early religious culture, but from the apparent impoflibi-
lity of adapting their obfervations to the generality of thofe
who might advantageoufly employ their remarks on moral
culture. Prefixed to the fecond edition of Praétical Edu-
cation, we do indeed find fome remarks in reference to
M. Piétet’s ftriQures on their filence refpeCting religion.
« Children ufually learn the religion of their parents; they
attend public worfhip, and both at home and at {chool they
vead the bible and various religious books, which are of
courfe put into their hands. Can any thing material be
added to what has already been publifhed on this fubjeé ?
Could any particular fyitem meet with general approbation ???
But furely this refers folely to religious in/ruction. Refpe&-
ing the beft means and degrees of communicating religious
knowledge, it is perhaps impoflible to lay down any plan that
will be generally acceptable or pra¢ticable : but the com-
munication of religious knowledge is not the moff effential
part of religious education. The authors of Practical Educa-
tion fhew too intimate an acquaintance with the nature of the
. affe&tions in general, to authorize the fuppofition that they
can imagine religious affeGtions can {pring up in the mind
without cultivation; or that religious principles can be
formed, without the ufe of means analogous to thofe by
which the difpofition to obedience, the love of truth, and the
focial affeGions, are produced and cultivated in the heart.
Where found views of the nature of the mind prevail, the
only point is, whether religious affeétions and principles con-
ftitute a part of our duty ; if they do, there can be no quef-
tion but that, to give them their due influence and ftability
among our principles of action, the cultivation of them mult
be begunearly, before the mind is pre-occupied, before it is
rivetted on the objets of fenfation, or the fubordinate pur-
fuits of the imagination and {felf-intereft. And we fhould
have rejoiced 1f a work which difplays fo much foundnefs
and ftrength of moral principle, and which affords fuch ex-
cellent initructions refpecting the regulation of the temper,
the formation of the habits of obedience and veracity, and
the cultivation of the focial affections, had alfo contained fome
Airections that might have aflifted parents, anxious to difcharge
their duty to their chiidren to their full extent, in afcertain-
ing how they were to produce, exercife, and regulate thofe
other affections, which, when become habitual, and made the
actuating motive of the conduct, contribute in fo eminent a
degree to the prefent and future happinefs of the individual,
and to his progrefs in every department of moral excellence.
Tt would have been well if the authors had, for the benefit
of others, regiftered the refults of their own experience, re-
‘lative to the manner of cultivating thole religious principles,
which, under all the varieties of Chriftian faith, cannot be
regarded as otherwife than-effential to the difcharge of
Chriftian duty. It might have difgulted fome, who rate
low the importance, or rather the neceflity, of religious
principle ; and it might have furnifhed the bigot with the
opportunity of finding out deficiencies in the authors’ creed,
becanfe they had not taught the peculiarities of his own ; but
no judicious perfon of the firft clafs would have been pre-
vented from deriving from their more general obfervations,
that information on education which their work is fo emi-
nently calculated to communicate ; and as to the latter clafs,
we believe they mult be allowed to go on in their own way,
for it is feldom praéticable to enlighten cig ance see where
religious bigotry gains pr abfolute fway. In thefe remarks
iI

we are not without a view to our own jullification, and that.
of other writers, who at prefent or in future may purfue the
fame track, if indeed juftification is required for contributing
a little towards the furtherance of the moft important objects
of education.

But it would be injuftice to the authors of Pra¢tical Edu-
cation, not to add, that at the clofe of the advertifement to
their fecond edition, they ftate that they “continue to pre-
ferve the filence upon this fubje& which they before thought
prudent ; but they difavow, in explicit terms, the defign of
laying down a fyftem of education, founded upon morality,
exclufive of religion." And to the fame purpofe is a letter
which we have recently received from Mr. Edgeworth, in
which he entets fomewhat more explicitly into the fubje@.
After exprefling himfelf in very favourable terms refpeéting
our preceding article on education, and the manner in which
Praétical Education has been difcuffed init, he adds, «I mutt,
however, regret that an error pervades the whole, which has
been adopted by moft of our critics, and which we moft
earneftly deprecate,—the imputation of difregarding. religion
in education. In the French tranflation of Pra@ical Edu-
cation, this fubjeét is difcufled in the preface, and I beg
from your juftice, that fome occafion may be taken of enter-
ing our proteft again{t this charge. Ina book written by
Mifs Edgeworth and me, called Profeffional Education, we
hope that under the chapter ‘ clerical education,’ we have
evinced a proper fenfe of the clerical charafter, and an en-
larged view of religious fan&tion. We wrote this chapter
for the clergy of the eftablifhment, to which we belong ; but
our views in Praétical Education were not confined to any
fect or nation. Our private tenets are of little confequence
to the public ; but we are convinced that religious obligation
is indifpenfably neceffary in the education of all defcriptions
of people, in every part of the world.?’—** We dread fa-
naticifm and intolerance ; while we with to hold religion ina
higher point of view than as a fubjeé of exclufive poffeffion,
or of outward exhibition. To introduce the awful ideas of
God’s fuperintendance, upon puerile occafions, we decline.
At the fame time we have not prefumed to blame others for
acting upon a different perfuafion —I have the honour to be
a member of the board of education in Ireland. My opi-
nions on the fubjeé& of national education appear in our re-
ports. By thefe 1 hope I fhall obtain the juftice due to me
on this fubjeét ; and that it will appear that I confider re-
ligion, in the large fenfe of that word, to be the only certain
bond of fociety.”” Mr. E. does not give us exprefs permif-
fion to ufe his letter in the manner we have done ; but it ap-
pears the fureft way to avoid further error; and we confi-
dently hope for his excufe, if we have gone beyond his in-
tentions. Refpeéting the part of profeflional education to
which Mr. Edgeworth refers, if our plan was lefs limited,
we fhould offer fome remarks ; and we fhall only add here,
that the plans which the author would adopt, to infufe a de-
votional tafte and religious principle into the mind of a boy
defigned for the clerical profeflion, mutt, fo far as they are
judicious and effe€tual, be alike important for children in ge-
neral, whatever be their deftinations in life. If there be any
purfuits which are inconfiitent with religion, children cannot,
of courfe, be religioufly educated for them; but in fo far
they muit be inconfiftent with duty. And if the oppor-
tunities for the cultivation of religious principle are greater
in the clerical profeffion than in any other, and its moral
dangers fewer, then there is the greater neceflity that thofe
who are defigned for the more aétive purfuits and employ-
ments of life, fhould be early imbued with thofe principles
which may be their fafeguard, and which will never be fo

well

MORAL EDUCATION.

well cultivated by the individual himfelf, as when thete has
been a judicious foundation laid for them in early culture.
AVe mutt not omit alfo to mention, that we have been ho-
noured with a letter equally flattering to ue, from Mifs Edge-
worth, one leading objet of which is to rectify an error
into which. we appear to have fallen, in {peaking of her in
conneétion with Pra@tical Education, ‘as if it were entirely
her work.’’ We had not forgotten what is ftated in the pre-
face, that the chapters which more immediately refer to lite-
rary and {cientific inftru€tion were written by Mr. E. ; that
the {ketch of the introduGtion to chemiitry was written by
Mr. Lovell E.; and that the chapter on obedience was
written from the late Mrs. E’s notes; butin [INrELLECTUAL
Education our coucern was merely with the geheral principles
of intelle@tual culture, and not with the application of them to
the manner of teaching any particular obje&t of intellectual
purfuit. Now thofe parts of PraGtical Education to which we
had occafion to refer, were written by her ; and without de-

preciating the value of the other parts of the work, we have.

been fo much accultomed to confider thefe as the fubordinate
departments, and the leading: features of the work as her’s,
that we have perhaps exprefled ourfelves on this point with
fome degree of inaccuracy, which, however, we hope we
have now fufficiently re@tified. With that modetty and love
of truth which her writings imply, Mifs E. is ftill more
anxious to reduce our appreciation of her own merit in the
departments which Mr. E., in his preface, {peaks of “as
written by her.’”? ‘ This,’ fhe fays, ‘is literally true ;
but he fhould have added, that the materials were received
from what I faw and heard in the daily education of his
family. The children mentioned in ¢ PraGtical Education,’
my half brothers and filters, were educated by my father,
and by their own excellent mother, who devoted her whole
time and thoughts to the fubjeé. 1 was grown up at the
time they were infants, and thus I had, during the whole
courfe of their education, daily opportuiities and leifure to
obferve its progrefs ; and from feeing and hearing fo much
on education, I was better enabled, perhaps, to write upon
this fubjeét than upon any other.” We can only fay that
if her advantages have been great, fhe has made an excellent
improvement of them. In common with her writings in ge-
neral, thofe on education clearly thew, that fhe pofleffes, in
an eminent degree, the talent of bringing: forwards the
ample {tores of accurate knowledge with which enlightened
aud comprehenfive obfervation and experience have fupplied
her, in that time and manner which will give them their
reateft practical utility.

There are feveral works on education, which, to parents
who are anxious to fulfil their duties to their children, may
fupply, in a great meafure, the deficiencies to which we have
referred in Praétical Education. Mrs. H. More's works,
direétly bearing on education, furnith fome exceedingly im-
portant obfervations ; mixed indeed with much which we
cannot adopt or approve, but in thenfelves of terling value.
Mifs Hamilton’s firit volume we have formerly (poken of as
of eminent fervice in the cultivation of the afleétions. Her
remarks are often deficient in clofenefs and precifion ; and in
various parts they want that minutenefs which is neceflary to
give them full force in their application ; but we regard her
work as the belt calculated we know, to affitt the reliious
mother in training up her children in the ways of wildom,
We fhould -be uvpardonable if we did not alfo refer our
readers to Dr. Priettley's Obfervations on Religious Educa-
tion, contained iu his Mifcellaneous Obfervations relating to
Education, and alfo publifhed feparately. H ywever Vil-
rioufly that eminent chara€ter may be eltimated by different

parties in religion and philofophy, they who have ftudied
thofe parts of his works which dire€tly bear upon religious
philofophy, and the application of it to the conduét of life,
cannot fail to affign him a high rank in the feale of utility;
and in the work to which we have referred, he has fhewn,
with a ftrength and perfpicuity of reafoning, which one
would conceive no well regulated mind could refilt, that
early attention to the religious education of their children, is
incumbent on all who wifh that they fhould, in the progrefs of
life, fulfil the duties of Chriftian morality. We may have
farther occalion to refer to, or fele&t from, that work. The
following obfervations from the fecond feétion, tending to
fhew that religion is the firft rational object of education, fo
completely and well exprefs our own opinions of that point,
that we make no apology for here introducing them to the
notice of our readers.

«The general objeét of education is evidently to qualify
men to appear to advantage in future life, which can only be
done by communicatirig to them fuch knoew/ledge, and leading
them, to form fuch Aadits, as will be moft ufeful to them here-
after: and inthis the «whole of their future being, to which
their education can be fuppofed to bear any relation, is to be
contidered.

« If L knew that my child would die when he had at-
tained to the age of five or fix years, and that his exiftence
would then terminate, I fhould certainly make no provifion
refpecting him for any thing beyond that term, but endea-
vour tomake him as happy as I could during the fhort pe-
riod in which he could enjoy any thing. I would, for the
fame reafon, provide for him only fuch gratifications as his
infant nature was capable of.

“* Again, if I knew that he would attain to the age of
manhood, but that then his exiftence would not be prolonged
any farther, I fhould endeavour, as well as I could, to qua-
lify him for a@ting fuch a part as would be ufeful to himfelf
and others in that period, but fhould never think of extend-
ing my plan fo far as to enable him to pafs a comfortable old
age, a term of life to which I knew he never would arrive.

«« For the fame plain reafon, a man who believes that the
whole period of his own exiftence, and that of his offspring,
is confined to the prefent life, would act very abfurdly if he
fhould train up his children with a view to a future lite, ex-
cept fo far as he fhould think that fuch a farther, though a
chimerical object, might be fubfervient to his proper conduét
in the prefent life.

«“ Thefe are obvious confiderations, which ought to have
their weight with all rational beings ; and according to them,
the mere man of the world mutt allow, that a Chri/tian, who,
as fuch, believes that himfelf and his offspring are deftined to
exilt in a future life, and that the principles and habits that
we form here have a decifive influence on our happinefs here-
after, would,a@ irrationally, if he did not ufe his utmoft
endeavours to give his children fuch principles and habits, as
would fecure to them an intere{t in a future world.

‘* Moreover, fince a Chriltian regards this life, principally,
as it is fubfervient to another, which is of infinitely more
value, he mult confider the duties of religion as the fir/ thin
to be attended to by him, and muft be taught to pea
all authority that would enjoin upon him a conduct which
would be detrimental to his greatett and ultimate interett ;
becaufe he will gain more by lis iteadinefs in his regard to a
higher authority, than he can lofe by oppofing an inferior
power.

“ The firft thing, therefore, that a Chriftian will naturally
inculeate upon his child, as foon as he is capable of receiving
fuch impreflions, is the knowledge of his Maker, and a fteady

principle

MORAL EDUCATION.

principle of obedience to him ; the idea of his living under
the conftant infpeétion and government of an invifible being,
who will raife him from the dead to an immortal life, and who
will reward and punifh him hereafter according to his cha-
raéter and aétions here.

*¢ On thefe plain principles I hefitate not to affert, as a
Chriftian, that religion is the firft rational object of education.
Whatever be the fate of my children in this tranfitory world,
about which I hope I am as folicitous as I ought to be, I
would, if poffible, fecure a happy meeting with them ina
future and everla(ting life. I can well enough bear their
reproaches for not enabling them to attain to worldly honours
and diftinGtions ; but to have been in any meature acceflary,
by my neglect, to their final perdition, would be the occafion
of fuch reproach and blame, as would be abfolutely infup-
portable.’””

In the remainder of this article, we fhall purfue the fol-
lowing plan. We fhall fr/ enter pretty much at large into
the fources and culture of the filial affedions : _fecondly, we fhall
ftate fome important principles re/pecting the affections in general,
introducing, by way of inference and illuitration, fome of
thofe obfervations which, agreeably to a more extenfive plan
than we find our limits will permit, we had propofed to make
the fubjeé of feparate divilions: thirdly, we fhall make fome
remarks refpecting the {pecific culture of the moral principle,
or confcience: and fourthly, we fhall conclude with fome ob-
fervations more dire€tly refpecting religious education, in the
earlier periods of it.

I. Filial Affecions.—Thefe may, in various ways, be con-
fidered as forming the general bafis of the whole moral ftruc-
ture ; and we have no doubt that upon the manner in which
they are formed and cultivated, the happinefs of the indi-
vidual, and the excellence of his chara¢ter, very greatly de-
pend. We of courfe include, under the term filial affec-
tions, thofe which refpect not merely the a€tual parent, but
perfons who may, from the lofs of that relation, or other

caufes, ftand, more or lefs, in the place of the parent du-.

ring the early periods of education. Correé views, as to
the origin of thefe and other affe€tions, will be found of in-
calculable importance in the cultivation of them; and we
fhall here give a brief analytis of the filial affeGtions, with a
view both to affilt in the proper cultivation of them, and
to throw fome light on the means of cultivating other clafles
of affections.

A child receives almoft all his earlieft pleafures from his
parents, or in conne¢tion with them. ‘Thefe all leave be-
hind them feelings which the ever ative principle of affocia-
tion unites and blends together, and conneéts with the ap-
pearance, and idea, and name of the parents; and thus
renders it pleafant to a child to fee them, and to hear and
think of them. By degrees he learns to diitinguifh them,
as the caufe of many things which give him pleafure: he
perceives them endeavouring to do what will make him feel
happy: he is the objeét of a thoufand tender endearments
and kind offices; and every thing of this defcription, which
at all affeéts his mind, leaves fome impreffion behind it,
which unites and blends with the feelings before produced,
by other fimilar circumftances. Thus gradually rifes up in
the mind, that part of the filial affeCtion which we term /ove.
If children have little intercourfe with their parents, or that
be little produétive of pleafing feelings, their love will be
weak; in other cafes it often early proves very powerful.
It cannot advance far, without exciting in the mind of a
child the difpofition to do what he finds will pleafe his
parents. He is early incited to this by the promife of
fome gratification, by the expectation of fome endearment,
* &c.; and fuch is the wife flructure of our mental frame,
Vou. XXIV.

that what is often done with a view to fome good, gradually
becomes itfelf pleafant, and is done without any dire& view
to that good. Thus a child forms a defire to pleafe his
parents, which conftitutes another part of filial affetion.
Again, in a wife education it will often be found neceflary
to check the gratifications of a child, to ufe the language
and tone of difpleafure, and fometimes even to infli& pain.
Every circumftance of this kind leaves behind it an im-
preffion, which uniting and blending with others of the fame
kind, produces the feeling of fear. If this, owing to any
caufe, is exceflive, it gives to the filial affeGion a charaéter
which makes it rather the fource of pain than of pleafure,
and fometimes even overcomes the love. On the other hand,
where it is moderate, (arifing only from that degree ef pri-
vation or pain which is Soccer for the future welfare of the
child, ) fo far from leffening the happinefs of the filial affec-
tion, it increafes it, blending with the love fo as to lofe its
own painful influence, and, at the fame time, giving firmnefs
and even vigour to filial love, by heightening the difpofi-
tion to obedience, and thereby increafing the pleafing confe-
quences of obedience, by heightening the fear to offend, and
confequently preventing the ill confequences of difobedience.
Thus by pleafures derived from the care and tendernefs of
parents, and by the privations and pains which their care
and tendernefs may alike caufe, a vaft number and variety of
impreffions are produced, which, all uniting and blending to-
gether, conftitute the filial affeGtion, confifting principally
of fear and love, the defire to pleafe, and the fear to offend.
As the child advances in knowledge, and as the confcience ac-
quires its power, the fenfe of obligation, the perception of the
virtues of his parents, the feelings which he is led (o enter-
tain towards God, and a great variety of other fources, con-
tribute impreffions of duty, of gratitude, of refped, &c. to-
wards the general affection, uniting and blending with it,
and increafing its ftrength and vigour; fo that it often be-
comes a leading affeétion through the whole of life.

We have taken only one cafe, but the reader may eafily
purfue the fame plan in other cafes. Perhaps it may be
truly faid, that in no two inftances is the filial affe@tion in
every refpeé&t the fame: it is formed from impreffions fo
numerous, fo various, and often fo peculiar; and depends
fo much upon peculiarities in the difpofitions and condué of
the parent, and in the difpofitions of the child.

What may with propriety be termed the natural affeGtion
of children towards their parents, (arifing without the exer-
cife of refleétion at all, merely by the operation of the affo-
ciative principle,) is, we apprehend, almoft always the
ftrongeft towards the mother; at leaft if fhe has alfo been
the nurfe: and as the pleafurable feelings of infancy do
greatly contribute their fhare towards the formation of more
complex pleafures, and as they cannot be replaced but by a
long feries of exertions, a mother who wifhes to poffefs the
higheft degree of her children’s affeGtien, and the greateft
influence in the regulation of their condué and difpofitions,
mutt alfo be their nurfe. We have often heard of what are
called the inflindive feelings of filial affe@tion. The term
inftin&, when applied to the human mind, we regard as a
mere appeal to ignorance; but we have no doubt that the
early aflociated feelings towards a parent, particularly to-
wards a mother, may exift long after the direét recolleGtion
of her has altogether ceafed, and that the fight of her, after
long abfence, may produce {trong emotions in the mental
frame, though the memory furnifhes no diftin& traces of her
vifible appearance, her tones, &c.; and though no commu-
nication is made refpeéting her relationfhip to the individual.
We are not difpofed to treat all ftories of parental or filial
fympathies as fabulous; the nature of the human mind is

re indifputably

MORAL EDUCATION.

indifputably fuch, that the trains of affociation may be fet
in motion, without the direét exercife of the underitanding,
and often without the individual perceiving why the object bo
aifeGs him.”

But to return: parents will naturally feel defirous that
their children fhould poflefs towards them a lively and
durable affection; and that their own moral influence on
their minds may be fuch as to enable them to be of the
greateft affiftance to them in the jeurney of life. Thefe
two things the wife parent will never feparate; we fhould
perhaps fay, that fo far from being in any way incompatible
they neceflarily-accompany each other. ‘The true point to
be aimed at is, fo to temper the condu@ towards the child,
that while he poffeffes all thoie enjoyments which are con-
fiftent with his prefent health and comfort, it fha'l not be at
the expence of the future. Whenever the gratification of
a child’s wifhes will neceffarily lead on to cravings of greater
indulgences, clearly inconfiftent with health or comfort, it
is eafieft and beft to ftop at the firft point. Indulgence is
the moft eafy for the prefent, but its effets are permanently
injurious. It is not too much to fay that the over indulgent
parent will have lefs of the aféGion of his children, than he
who fteadily purfues the plan which he deems moit for their
happinefs. We have already remarked, that difpleafing af-
fociations, (where not accompanied with a fenfe of injultice,
as they never will be, if a child is properly educated, and a
parent has attained a tolerable degree of felf-goverument, )
fo far from weakening love, do in reality ftrengthen and in-
vigorate it. Conftant indulgence may give a greater degree
of foftnefs to affeftion; but it will never produce what is
fteady and pere. Affection fo produced will neceffarily be
felfih, till the fenfe of duty, derived from other fources,
comes in to lend its aid: and the flrong fenfe of duty is too
feldom to be produced, where the fyflem of habitual in-
dulgence is carried to a great extent. And befides, let in-
dulgence be carried to the greatelt poffible extent, it cannot
always give way to thofe wifhes and defires which it fofters :
and the pain arifing from refufal is by far the greateft and
moft likely to weaken affetion, where it neceflarily has the
appearance of caprice, by its occurring in cafes where in-
dulgence has often been experienced. It is a difficult
medium to obferve between unneceffary approaches towards
aulterity on the one hand, and weak indulgence on the
other ; and it requires no {mall degree of mental regulation,
on the part of the parent, to preferve it; but whcre the aim
of the judicious parent is fteadily direéted to the future.
while at the fame time he endeavours to make the period of
childhood the period of natural, fimple pleafure, there is
no great danger of his going far wrong. He will often be
called upon to give up his own gratification (for to an affec-
tionate parent, it mult ever be gratifying to promote even
the prefent pleafures of his chtibeen} ; but if his affeétion
deferve the name, if in fad it be not a mere fondnefs more
childifh than perhaps he would like to own, though they
cannot look beyond the prefent moment he will; and when-
ever he perceives that the gratification of their wifhes,
whether in the way of obtaining dire& pleafure, or avoid-
ing fomething which is painful, would be attended with in-
jurious confequences wpon their health or comfort, upon
their temper or habit of obedience, there he ought to be
firm but mild in his requifitions. Indeed, if there be one
thing more than another which conftitutes the fecret of
education, in all periods of it, but moft particularly in the
earlielt period, it is mild conliftent fireimnefs on the part of
the parent; and where tis quality is poflefled habitually,
or is at leaft employed in intercourfe with our children, and
guided in its operations by found views as to the moral ftruc-

7

ture of the mind, the beft effets may be expeéted on their
temper, happinefs, and worth of character. ,

But it may be faid all this is only general argument ; and
while the truth of it is allowed, its application is not eafily
to be feen. We admit it; but we cannot go much farther
than general principles; and we aré)moft defirous to lay
down fuch, if praéticable, as may aid the confcientious and
judicious parent in the moft important part of his work.
We fhould term it falfe indulgence wherever a parent, from
fondnefs or weaknefs of mind, either permitted or gave 2
gratification, or gave up a privation or punifliment, where
the former had been exprefsly refufed or forbidden, and the
other exprefsly determined ; where, at the folicitation of his
child, he gave him gratification of the palate, &c. which he
thought likely to be injurious to him, either by their im-
mediate effets, or by dire&tly leading on to other things
which would certainly be injurious; where, in order to avoid
the pain of difappointing his child, he allowed him depar-
tures from thofe regulations which he believed to be import-
ant to his mental or moral progrefs; where, in fhort, the
gratification is to his own fondnefs, rather than arifing from
an enlightened affection for his offspring. Exceffive in-
dulgence is often viewed in a very venial light, in the earlieft
periods of education, in the education of infancy; but thofe
who carefully watch the progrefs of the mind, will agree
with us in opinion, that indulgence then either prepares the
way for habitual continued indulgence in childhood, to the
weakening and prevention of the moft valuable moral quali-
ties; or treafures up for it, pains and privations and difap-
pointments, which, unlefs very judicioufly managed, mult
break the aGtivity of the mind, or four the temper: and
that it even leffens the comforts of infancy ; for its gratifi-
cations cannot always be acceded to, and the more its injuri-
ous defires are gratified, the more numerous they neceflarily
become, fo as to be continually adding to its painful difap-
pointments. And this is particularly the cafe during thofe
difeafes which affe& infancy, (the final caufe of which it is
perhaps difficult fully to perceive, but which certainly tend
to heighten the affe€tion and tendernefs and care of parents,
and to increafe filial affection in older children, by fhewing

ow much their parents endured for them.) The child whote
defires while in healch have been made the conitant objeét,
will neceffarily have tenfold calls for gratification, when,
even in the beft regulated temper, fretfulnefs is to be ex-

ected ; and then the parent exseriences the punifhment of
falfe tendernefs. Every privation, every little painful feel-
ing, is heightened in its effects, becaufe the gratification of
the defires does not prevent or remove them; while children
whofe real wants have been made the guide of gratification,
will have fewer wants and defires, and have the beft chance
of having thofe anfwered, and their minds diverted from the
prefent feelings. .

The true rule we are perfuaded is, to encourage and pro-
mote the fimple natural pleafures of childhood; ro prevent
or {upply as far as poflible its fimple natural wants; but not
to fofter its caprices, to gratify its inclinations, where this
mult be done at the expence of important habits of obedi-
ence, of order, &c., or to give way to its cries, or perverfe-
nefs, or intreaties, whefe a different courfe of condué& would
otherwife have been thought moft expedient. If the plan
of fteady confiftent firmnefs be begun fufficiently early,
there is no fear of its effects; where it proceeds from an
enlightened affection, it will be united with all that will be
neceffary to produce a‘lively filial affection in return, and
what is even more important, this will have nothing mixed
with it that is calculated to check its influence, and to
make it unfleady,

We

MORAL EDUCATION.

We are fully aware of the great difficulty which in many
cafes exiits on the part of the parent to maintain that per-
fevering mild firmrefs, which we hold to be the moft eflen-
tial quality for fuécefs in moral education; but where the
endeavours to obtain it, or to preferve it, are prompted by
warm affeCtionate enlightened tendernefs, they will feldom
fail to operate fufliciently to produce the moft important ef-
fe&s, And parents who are under the influence of en-
lightened avd vigorous affection to their children, never need
be afraid of their want of affection to themfelves. Where
they take a fhare, or at leaft manifeft an intereft, in their
children’s f{ports, where they obvioufly contribute, as a
parent can, in a thoufand little but interefting ways, to the
pleafures and comfor's of their children, while tendernetfs is
allowed to exprefs itfelf on all fuitable occafions, but does
not degenerate into capricious unlteady fondnefs, there is no
reafon for apprehenfion left they fhould not be loved by
their children. The education which parents muit give
themfelves in order to educate their children properly, is
not the leaft among the moral benefits of domettic life.

Though parents will be often led to exprefs the tendernefs
which they feel for their children, they muft be careful not
to expe& too much of the appearance, ox even reality of it,
from them in return. Some children are conftitutionally
mere fufceptible than others, and have more the habit of
exprefling their feelings; and it is certainly very pleafing to
the parent, to perceive their little fenfibilities manifetting
themfelves in the direction of filial regard, by thofe artleis
expreffions which are affeéting in proportion to\their fim-
plicity and reality : but we are not to imagine, that becaufe
others do not ufe thofe expreflions, that therefore their af-
fe&tion is weak ; nor fhotld we draw this inference, even if
we have reafon to believe, that not only the expreffion,
but the reality, of lively feeling is wanting. The livelinefs
of feeling is one thing, and the fteadinefs of affeGtion an-
other ; and we ought to rell fatisfied, if we perceive genuine
indications of affeGtion, op¢rating in thofe ways which bett
accord with the age and mental progrefs of the child. We
have known a little girl, about two years and a half old,
fit for hours in the room with her mother when ill, carefully
avoiding all noife in her little amufements: we are certain
that the affe€tion of this child (now about three years older)
is equally tender as it was, and much more a durable, {tea-
dy principle ; but we much doubt if it cculd reafonably be
expected from her, now her imagination is more lively, and
fhe has been more accuftomed to ative play with other
children, to remain thus quiet while fhe knows that they are
playing in other parts cf the houfe. Nor fhould we expeét,
even at the fame period of maturity, the fame indications
of affeGtion in all circumftances, The tired child at night
may be unable to thew, or even to feel, that love which was
obvious when fhe arofe brifk as the lark ; or the little mind
may be occupied with whar, for the time, may engrofs the
whole attention, and the whole intereits of the mind.

The little attentions of affection fhould never be made
burdenfome to children ; they ceafe to have their influence
in invigorating it, when this is the cafe. The ingenuous
expreflion, “« Mamma, I will ftay with you, if you wifh it;
but, if you pleafe, T would rather go and play with filter,”
fhould never meet with the flighteft indication of difapproba-
tion, or of difappointment. Children are not to be expeét-
ed to calculate as we can do; or aé& from the diCtates of ha-
bitual principle. The prefent pleafure is the moft impref-
fiveone. If the parent’s convenience of comfort require
the felf-denial, let it be exercifed ; and let it, if poflible,
be made pleafant, though without dire reward. But if
not, it is better that the felf-denial fhould ufually be on the

part of the parent, and nothing will eventually be lott

_ by it.

Expreffions of affection fhould not be the fubje& of praife,
any more than the want of them fhould of cenfure or pu-
nifhment. If commonly bought, or extorted, they will
too often, as far as affection is concerned, be mere expref-
fions. We however with to except the earlieft marks of
love, where perhaps the love is rather the refulf of the ex-
preffion, and its reward, than the expreffion the natural dic-
tates of the affeétion, We do not like to fee them, even
then, however, made fo much as is commonly the cafe the
obje&t of bribery or reproach. Nor will a wife parent ex-
pect or encourage from a boy, the fame degree of affection.
ate expreflion, (either in manner or words, ) as is not unufual
among girls. The phytical fenfibility of a boy is, or ought to
be, lefs lively. If conttirutionally itis not fo, the objeét fhouid
rather be to leffen it than to cultivate it. he comparative
expreflions of affection fhould never be made the fubjeét of
praife or cenlure : the indications of obedience may. A
child can underftand whether he is more or lefs obedient
than another, but it is not eafy for him to comprehend, that
he loves his parents lefs, becaufe he fhews fewer outward
marks of affection, except, indeed, fo far as they are at the
fame time proofs of obedience.

Marks of parental tendernefs fhould be fo regulated, as
to leave no impreflion of caprice or partiality on the minds
of children. If the little efforts of achild to pleafe, or his
fimple expreflions of love, are fometimes received with
warmth of fatisfa€tion, and at another time, in the fame
circumitances, as far as the child is concerned, with cold-
nefs or difpleafure, it will produce conftraint, and operate
much againit the progrefs of filial love and parental influence.
If, without any oltenfible difference in the condu& of dif-
ferent children, one is treated with kindnefs and attention,
and another with at leaft apparent coldnefs or diflike, the
moft injurious effects muft be expected, both on the filial
and fraternal affeGtion: and the rudiments of envy and jea-
loufy will be certainly and effeGually fown. The wife pa-
rent will fometimes be obliged to make a difference in the
treatment of his children, founded upon the difference of
condu€t, and perhaps it 1s often difficult for him to avoid
feeling more affeétion for one than for another, founded upon
fome accidental or correét aflociation: but the children of
one family fhould perceive no difference in their parents’ treat-
ment of them, except when that difference arifes from
greater or lefs degrees of obedience or general propriety of
conduct. ,

But after all, the grand point is lefs to fecure aftéion,
than to fecure influence; and as to the former, the parent
acting with a view to the future, rather than to the prefent
gratification, and at the fame time nor facrificing the enjoy-
ment of the prefent, from unfounded fuppolitions as, to the
power and purity of motives, but aiming to make the period
of infancy and childhood as pleafant as it can be, contiitently
with the benefit of the future, (by furnifhing ufeful and iv.
terefting occupation, guiding and aiding the little {ports of
childhood, &c.) will be every day increafing the number or
the firength of thofe fibres, which will itnike a deep root
into the heart, and make the plant of filial affeGtion luxuri-
ant, yet hardy and produétive. With re/pect to the latter,
we are of opinion, that it cannot be fecured too early; and
that the more it exilts as a habit, the greater probabilit
there is, that filial affeétion, while it acquires vigour, will
at the fame time receive feweft of thofe interruptions, which
may be neceflary to make the felfifh affection of induleence
healthy and trong, but which are not requilite where aflee-
tion is not produced by capricious fondnefs, or even by ex~

2 ceflive

MORAL EDUCATION.

ceffive but fteady tendernefs, but by enlightened attention
to the prefent pleafure and lafting welfare of a child. We
do not mean to difcourage parents who have negle¢ted the
cultivation of the habit of fubmiffion in infancy; if from
circumftances which are often unavoidable, felf-willednefs
has then been allowed to gain too much power, ftill if the
proceffes of moral culture are not too long negleéted, and
are fteadily’ purfued, though they will be more difficult, they
will feldom fail to be fuccefsful. Bodily or mental pain
will often be found neceffary in fuch cafes; but if judicioufly
adminiftered, and fubmiffion mildly, but fteadily exacted,
the little wayward mind will be brought into habits ot obe-
dience, which will only require to be perfevered in.

How much this is for the enjoyment of childhood, and
how much too for the comfort of parents, thofe only who
have had experience in education can fully appreciate. We
have before our eyes an inftance in point. An infant about
a year old, during the long continued illnefs of her mother,
had been exceflively indulged by her nurfe ; her cries had
been encouraged, by making them, rather than her real
wants or comforts, the guide ot gratification ; fhe had been
allowed to exercife her little tyranny and caprice over her
elder fifter, to the great diminution of her comfort ; and,
altogether, had been brought too much into that ftate, in
which fhe bid fair to be a fpoiled child. The generally en-
gaging manners of the child prevented her faulis from being
much obferved by others; but thofe who felt moft interefted
in her happinefs, faw with pain the “rudiments of extreme
felfifhnefs and imperious wilfulnefs. Their efforts of courfe
were direéted to the correGtion of them; and two or three
years care have brought her little mi d under much greater
controul, without lofing any thing of her livelinefs or at-
traGive intereft; and we can fay from minute obfervation,
that in no inftance has the punifhmentor reftraint, which has
been pretty fteadily, but mildly and fparingly employed,
been produétive of any effect which did not add fomething
to her affe@tion for her parents. Heer felfifhnefs is moit
ftrikingly diminifhed, and her obedience (as far as intention
is concerned) is certainly decided. The older child of
whom we {poke had the advantage of greater early reftraint ;
which, in addition to greater accuracy of obfervation and
judgment, without having any effet upon her kappinefs,
except that of making it more fteady, has given her at the
age of five or fix years, a degree of mental and moral regu-
lation, which we have feldom witnefled in fo young a child,
united to great {weetnefs of difpofition and activity of mind,
and altogether rendering her as happy, we conceive, as a
child can be; in various ways increafing her pleafures, and
freeing her from the molt bitter feelings of difappoint-
ment.

We trutt we fhall meet with our readers’ excufe in thefe
details. We are not defirous of inventing theories; we do
not expe& to communicate much information on the fubject,
to thofe enlightened and judicious parents who have already
given it their full attention; but we may corroborate their
experience ; and our with is to enable ourfelves to indulge the
hope, that our labours will be found of praétical value to
thofe who have yet to learn fomething on the fubject. To
them we alfo recommend the ftudy of Mifs Edgeworth’s
chapter on obedience. Mr. E’s. preface informs us, that
it was written from the notes of the late Mrs. Edgeworth,
and it fhews a judicious acquaintance with fome of the moft
important practical laws of the mind, and muft furnifh to
every parent valuable hints in different periods of education.
As Practical Education is probably acceffible to all our
readers, we {hall here fatisfy ourfelves with recommending
the whole chapter to their careful perufal, and merely

making a few remarks on a pofition which we think erro-
neous.

«< When children begin to reafon,” fays the author of this
chapter, “they do not aé& merely from habit ; they will not be
obedient at this age, unlefs their underftanding 1s convinced
that it is for their advantage to be fo.’’ From this pofition
we altogether diffent. We admit that they fhoula not then
a& merely from habit ; that it is wife in parents to make
the reafons of obedience obvious, to gain their underftand-
ings on their fide ; but we feel authorifed to fay from ex-
perience, that affection and habit united, will, long after a
child begins te reafon, continue to be the molt powerful
motives to obedience. Affeétionate and well-trained chil-
dren learn confidence in their parents, more we venture to
fay from the want of any thing to deftroy confidence, than
from the aétual perception of the beneficial ends of parental
injunGtions. Not that this fhould be neglected, not that the
reafons of our injunétions fhould never be pointed out, where
they can be made intelligible to the minds of our children,
and the advantage of attending to them made obvious ; but:
they fhould be accuftomed to aét upon that confidence ; it
fhould be founded on the habitual truth and kindnefs of
their parents, and upon a perception, early acquired, that
they fubmit to much that is painful, and to many privations
to do their children good, upon a conviétion which will do
much more than reafoning, that their parents know beft
what is advantageous for them, and are very defirous to
make them happy. Let the underftandings of children be
enlightened on thefe points, as they can bear it; but if fub-
miffivenefs have been fteadily and early enforced, and the
parents’ conduét be free from whim and caprice; if affec-
tion have been cultivated by fteady, watchful kindnefs, and
tendernefs, prompting to refrain from every inftance of falfe
indulgence, and of weak fubmiffion, where the fubmiffion
fhould have been entirely on the other fide, there will be
obedience without any calculations of advantage; and we
do not hefitate to fay, that fuch an obedience of confidence
and affeGtion is, at prefent, worth much more as a moral
quality, and will have greater influence through life, in the
regulation of the heart.

Perhaps we differ from Mrs. Edgeworth, more in appear-
ance than in reality ; but we are inclined to confider this as
one part of a fyitem in which prudential confiderations feem
to us to have too much {way, and regard to duty as fuch,
too little. We fpeak from experience when we fay, that
when the underftanding is fufficiently ripe to reafon, it alfo
is to feel the motives arifing from a fenfe of duty; and we
place our chief dependence upon our continuing to fupply
the principle of obedience, with all the ftrength which ha-
bitual fubmiffion, affe€tionate confidence, and a fenfe of
duty would contribute to it. At the fame time we are
fully aware, that with a view to that confidence, the reafons
of our injunctions fhould very often, indeed generally, be
unfolded as much as is practicable. But where the difpofi-
tion to fubmit has been habitually and thoroughly produced,
where there is affection and moral principle to work upon,
we have a much ftronger hold upon the mind, than by
making the why, and why not, the fource of obedience to
our injunctions or prohibitions. It is often difficult to cal-
culate what exaétly is underftood of our reafonings; and
frequently where the underftanding is fufficiently advanced
to under{tand them, the feelings, in fome way or other, often
either prevent the inferences from being feen, or at leaft
weaken their efficacy on the conduét. Where the habitual
difpofition to obedience has been long and early cultivated,
there the reafons of a parent’s conduct, it within the reach
of the child’s underftanding, will be moft eafily perceived, and

every

MORAL EDUCATION.

every inftance in which they are unfolded will then contri-
bute to increafe the habit, as much, perhaps, as the habitual
impreflion of parental wifdom and kindnefs, but not more
than this.

We fhall now proceed to ftate the principles which appear
to us to be the moit important in procuring obedience. We
fhould begin early, indeed it can fcarcely be too early, to
accuflom our children to habitual attention to thofe regula-
tions refpecting diet, relt, &c. which we deem beft adapted
to promote their health and comfort. The cries which indi-
cate real want fhould always be attended to, or, if poffible,
anticipated ; but the cry of humour, or the little tones of
impatience, fhould never gain theirend. In fuch cafes, the
proper way appears to be, to change the current of thought
by diverting the attention from the obje& of painful feeling.
Obedience fhould as much as poffible be affociated with
plealing feelings. Thefe may fometimes be left to be fup-
plied by the natural confequences of obedience ; but often,
in the early flages of the habit, they may be fatitious; and
in all flages, parental approbation, and its effects, fhould be
affociated with obedience, and the contrary with difobe-
dience. Where the objeé&t of parental directions is not left
toa child’s choice, the expreffion of them fhould not be fuch
as to excite the feeling of defire to choofe; injunétions
fhould always be decifive though mild. We have no wifh
that children fhould be mere machines, to move only as they
are moved ; they fhould often be left to the promptings of
their own inclinations, where thefe donot interfere with the

lans of the parent for their improvement and happinefs ;
and it is only thus that their underftandings can acquire
ftrength, or tie minds, in general, obtain activity or life.
But whenever there is fuch interference, then prompt obe-
dience fhould be fecured; it fhould never be imagined that
difobedience will be permitted or connived at. The direc-
tions of the parent fhould be explicit, decifive, and unalter-
able; if obedience is to be conditional, and made dependent
upon circumftances, thofe circumitances fhould be clearly
underftood. It appears belt, however, to exa@ obedience
but little; if the habit be early begun, it will not often be
requifite to do fo ; it will be enough to let the fimple zwi/h
of a parent be known; but where it is come to the point of
dire&t obedience or difobedience, it muft be carried through.
it muft never be within the child’s experience, that he has
gained a victory over his parents. The parent fhould, how-
ever, be cautious of bringing matters too often to this crifis.
And it fhould always be in things which are pra€ticable, and
where obedience can be compelled if neceflary. This point
is well illuftrated by Mrs. Edgeworth. Neither will the
judicious parent exercife the habit of obedience beyond its
probable itrength, in oppofition to violent motives to the
contrary ; in fuch cafes, if obedience from any caufe is re-
quifite, opportunity fhould be given to leffen the power of
thofe motives. An inftance has juft occurred to our notice.
A. (row four years old, the child of whom we before fpoke,)
was fitting on the arm of her little chair. Her father
thought it dangerous, and defired her to leave it, which fhe
immediately did. ‘To make her under{tand the danger, he
told her to fit upon it again, and he would fhew her how
eafily fhe might have fallen. The child had had a fall a
fhort time before, which he did not know; and the appre-
henfion of falling again, though he told her fhe fhould not
be hurt, overcame confidence and obedience, and fhe refufed,
but without any ill humour. Her father defired her elder
fifter (five years and a half old), on whofe confidence and obe-
dience he could depend, to mount; and the experiment was
tried without hurt or danger. The younger child at once
followed her filter’s example. Where the prefent tempta-

tions to difobedience are great, and the habit of obedience
weak, there it is wifeft to remove or prevent the temptation ;
and certainly the habit fhould not be too much expofed to
trials; but if they are proportioned to its ftrength, and
agreeable confequences in parental approbation and its
effeéts be affociated with the exercife of it, they tend much
to give it life and energy. We think we have feen confider-
able advantage arifing from fome very early fattitious trials
of obédience, re{peGting abftinence for a fhort time from
little gratifications of the palate. Where thefe do not pro-
duce an ill effect they certainly produce a good one.

Notwithftanding what we have already faid, we cannot
forbear quoting, from Praétical Education, a very import-
ant principle, to which we perceive we have in no way re-
ferred. ‘*Praife, and looks of affe€&tion, which naturally
exprefs our feeling when children do right, encourage the
flighteft efforts to obey ; but we mutt carefully avoid fhew-
ing any triumph over yielding ftubbornnefs. When children
are made afhamed of fubmiffion, they will become intrepid,
probably unconquerable rebels.’’

One other circumftance of great confequence we muft
not omit to mention,—that parents fhould not interfere with
each other’s injunétions ; the authority and influence of each
fhould be fteadily employed to fupport the authority and
influence of the other. Whatever difcuffions and difagree-
ments as to plans and principles take place, it fhould not be
in the hearing, at leaft in the underftanding, of children.
They fhould fee both their parents as much as poffible
actuated by one mind. Where both go hand in hand in
the work of early education, great hopes may be enter-
tained, that their future influence will be what is fo earneftly
to be defired, for promoting the happinefs and moral worth
of their children; where there is a want of unanimity in
views and feelings, confiderable difficulties will exift, and
great prudence muft be employed. For fuch cafes we find
it difficult to offer any fpecific directions. If one of the
parties poffefles judgment and good temper, (efpecially if
that one be the mother,) the unhappy effe&ts of difference
may ina great meafure be avoided; but of courfe the be-
nefits of unanimity cannot be expected.

We have not faid any thing in relation to the external ap-
pearances of refpeét which children fhould preferve towards
their parents. Though we value (filial, not flavifh) obe-
dience above every thing in the conduét of the child to-
wards his parent, yet we are decidedly of opinion, that
thofe modes of expreffion fhould be taught and required,
which are confiftent with the leading charafieriftics of the
filial relation. Affection fhould never degenerate into that
rude familiarity, which by degrees wiil deftroy the internal
feeling of refpe&t. Habits of civility fhould early be re-
quired, not only on their own account, but alfo from their
intimate connection with the exercife of fome of the moft
valuable qualities of childhood and youth. We do net mean
that filial refpeét is to be fecured by enforcing the external
indications of it; but it is agreeable to the laws of the mind
and to common experience, that thofe external indications
will affift in generating or ftrengtheni>g the feeling, when
its foundation is laid on the parent’s pofleffing the qualities
requifite for its permanency.—To what extent this principle
fhould be carried, we do not feel able to decide; it muft
effentially differ in different cafes. Our forefathers probably
carried it far beyond the limits of reafon; we appear to have
gone to the oppofite extreme ; but as the feelings of refpe&
are affuredly neceffary, in order to give confiftency and dura-
bility to the higher ingredients of the filial affection, we
fhould be careful left, through the wifh to fecure the love
of our children, we lofe the advantage of their refpec.

They

MORAL EDUCATION.

They fhould be taught to honour their parents, as well as
obey them. We have no with to curb the playful {allies of
childhood ; we have no with to fee parents exclude them-
felves from fharing in and heightening their enjoyments ;
from occafionally being their playfellows as well as their in-
ttruétors; but in the midft of all, they fhould remember
their relation ; they fhould check the marks’of difrefpeAful
rudenefs ; and aim themfelves to keep the adjultment of the
balance between affeGion and refpe&t, which cannot other-
wife be expected from their children. We are, perhaps, in
the prefent day, rather too much afraid of forms. They
often, indeed, ferve inftead of the fubftance; but in many
cafes, they tvad to give fupport to the fubftance, and even,
by the re-a&tion of affociation, to produce it. We conceive
that it is very defirable to begin, in children, thofe little at-
tentions to their parents’ comforts and conveniences, which,
as they advance towards youth and manhood, contribute fo
much to ftrengthen the affections. Thefe fhould, however,
be encouraged, rather than exacted; and the parent fhould
carefully avoid expecting them too much, and making them
the criterion of affeGtion, &c. efpecially, as we have al-
ready ftated, with refpe& to boys. But if they are begun
fufficiently early, they will not be burdenfome ; and while
they cherifh grateful feelings towards the parent, they will
alfo affit in cultivating that habitual attention to the little
wants and conveniences of others, which forms the molt
valuable ingredient in politenefs, and which contributes fo
much to the pleafures of domeflic life.

Gratitude is a more delicate plant than ciyility and refpect ;
and mutt be left very much to itfelf. By occatfianally lead-
ing the minds of childrea to obferve, for themfelves, the
degree of exertion and felf-denial which their parents
undergo, in order to promote their happinefs and improve-
ment,—by fhewing them how many advantages they poflefs,
owing to the kindnefs of their parents, which other children
do not or cannot have,—by our own fimple expreflions of
gratitude for favours fhewn ourfelves, and by bringing them
to the employment of fimilar expreflions for the kindneffes
of their friends towards themfelves ;—-in fhort, by indiveé&
rather than dire&t culture, that moft valuable quality, a
grateful difpofition, may be produced. If, by experience
and obfervation, children are led to perceive their depend-
ence, they will foon learn to be thankful for the benefits they
receive; but we expect little from thofe expreflions of thank-
fulnefs, which, frem being regularly exaéted, without re-
gard to the ftate of the feelings, muit become a mere form.
Where the foil is properly prepared by the culture of obe-
dience and filial regard, gratitude will grow without much
trouble ; it more requires the aid of the underftanding, than
thefe do ; and it requires, too, a higher ftate of excitement
of feeling. The little mind mutt be alive and engaged on
tue fubjeé, in order to feel gratitude; and the direct ex-
preflions of this, or any other feeling, fhould not be en-
couraged where the feeling itfelf does not at the time exilt.

In the periods of infancy, habitual, but not painful,
fubmiflivenefs, is what we are to aim at. In childhood
obedience mult continue to be habitual, but its foundation
fhould be enlarged by confidence, love, and fear; and as
the underltanding expands, to thefe fhould be added,
the influence arifing from the aétual perception of the
beneficial effeéts of obedience, which it is well for chil-
dren to be led to trace out for themfelves, rather than
to have them brought too forcibly and diltinétly into view.
In the more advanced period of childhood, implicit fubmif-
fion fhould be lefs and lefs expeéted: We do hot mean that
obedience fhould not be required, wherever obedience 1s en-
joined; but thatthe conduct of the child fhould be more

left to be guided by his own choice. Where the habit of
obedience has been early begun, and long continued,—where
it has been cultivated as a quality of the utmoft importance
inthe moral ftro€ture, and not from the parents’ love of
power, —and where it has been exercifed with mild firmnefs,
the expreffion of parental wifh will {ually be found fufficient
to lead the child to that plan of a@ting which the parent
judges beft : but as our obje@ in education fhould be to fit
our children to a& well their par'ts in life, we muit gradually
loofen their dependence upon our guidance, without weak-
ening their difpofition to follow it, whenever we think expe-
dient to give it,
our friends; and the tone and manner of authority fhould give
way to the mild influence of filial affeQionand duty. They
fhould be led to perceive how much our happinets depends
upon their right condaét ; bow much it is their duty, from
every motive, to endeavcur to promote our happinefs; but
we fhould take care to avoid communica‘ing to them the im-
prefion, that we think more of our own than af their’s.
We are not aware of any way in which this can be effectually
avoided, but by really ftudying their welfare as the firit ob-
je, and regulating our plans by an enlightened view to it.
Where they can be led to perceive tne end cf our folicitude,
and how much it does contribute to their happinefs, our in-
fluence mult neceffarily be increafed : andthongh we fhould
never loofen the feelings of obedience, though til the under-
ftanding has acquired full vigour, and fome experience has
been made of the firmaefs of principle and the loundnefs of
judgment, we fhould in reality exercife the habit, and not by
any means throw off its rettraints, yet it fhould be our fleady
aim to keep them from being telt, ard to fecure obedience
lefs through the medium of parental authority than of parental
influence.

We are not without a deep fenfe of the difficulty of all
this. Weare aware that it requires great felf-ccntroul on
the part of the parent, and in many inftances a new kind of
education ; and the difficulties «f executing thefe defirable ob-
jes are increafed almaft indefinitely, by not beginning early
enough. ven if we have been happy or wife enough to do
this, yet unlefs parental authority has been fteadily guided by
an enlightened view to the benefit of the objects of it, it will
be a difficult taflc to flide imperceptibly from the dire&t exer-
cife of it into the milder but not lefs efficacious form of pa-
rental influence. And for that influence we mult look mott
to the maternal parent. If her endeavours have been fuc-
cefsfully directed, in the earlie‘t periods of education, to ob-
tain a confiltent, {teady authority over the minds of her
children, —if, as they advance in life, it has been fupported by
the more obvious and direct authority of the father, by
refpect for her underflanding, by grateful affection for that
winning tendernefs which feldem appears much in a father,
even where it is powerfully felt, —1f it have not been weakened
by falfe indulgence on the one hand, or on the other by the
difpofition to rebel, not unfrequently produced by its excef-
five exercife,—a mother’s influence will be felt through life,
and wall prove a molt powerful aid in promoting the moral
culture and happinefs of the child. Direét parental authori-
ty 1s, we think, more likely, from various caufes, to be pro-
perly modlied in the female fex ; but we are alfo fatistied
that where a father, by jult regulation of his own viewsand
feelings, leads his children to love as well as re{peét him,
and as they advance towards riper years to regard him as their
friend and wile advifer,—where he leaves them to themfeives
as much as is requilite to give them experience in life, and
introduces the direct authority of the paternal relation, onl
where it is really neceflary for their welfare,—he, too, will
have a moral influence on their minds, which will make his ins

itructions

Our children fhould more and more become __

MORAL EDUCATION.

firnGtions of powerful efficacy through life, and probably
prevent his children from taking any important ftep without,
at leaft, honeitly receiving the advantage of his advice. Still,
from the neceflary avocations of the male fex, and the ufual
engroffment of their time and thoughts in employments
which, at lealt, are not domettic, the education of infancy
and childhood, and much of the moft important moral cul-
ture of the more advanced periods, will be derived, if ob-
tained at all, from the femalé fex : and on this account, as
well as with a view to their own happinefs, we earneftly with
to fee the cultivation of their judgment made much more
an object than at prefent it appears to be, and to perceive
that their education has in view to qualify them for the molt
important and interetting domettic relations, rather than to
fhine in the {phere of fafhion and accompiifhments.

. Our obfervations direétly-refpeCting the filial affections,
have extended beyond what we at firft contemplated ; and we
fhall {till have occafion to revert to them. But they lie at
the foundation of moral education ; and the analyfis and
means of cultivating one clafs of the affeGtions, throw great
light on the origin and culture of others. We fhall now pro-
ceed to fome more general confiderations refpefting the

Il. Pra@ical Laws of the Affedions in general, fo far as
they particularly refpe&t the proceffes of education. All the
affections are formed in the fame way as our other compound
ideas, (to ufe this term inits molt extenfive fenfe,) wz. by
the agency of the affociative power, in combining together, in
various ways, the relics of f{enfations, or the previoufly formed
combinations of them. (See IntettecruaL Education,
col 2,3.) Itis thus that the whole fyftem of mental plea-
fures and pains iscon‘tru&ted ; even of thofe which ultimately
become the meft refined, and the moft remote from every
appearance of mere fenfation. The fenfible pleafures and
pains leave feelings behind them, correfponding to the ideas
of fight or found, derived from their refpeétive fenfations.
Thefe feelings become affociated with other feelings derived
from the fame or fimilar extertial objeéts ; and when the union
has been exercifed {ufficiently long, they become blended to-
gether, fo as to form a complex though apparently {imple feel-
ing, which itfelf may become united with other complex feel-
ings, and fo on. The greater the number and diverfity of the
component feelings, the more remote will the complex feel-
ing be, from refemblance to the original fenfible pleafure or
pain. Thefe complex feelings are continually receiving frefh
materials, from the union and combination of the fimple
feelings derived immediately from fenfation, of the various
complex feelings affociated with thofe fenfations, and of
thofe which in different ways are called up by the links of
affociation more immediately connected with the powers of
memory, imagination, and reflection. Altogether, in many
inftances, the vividnefs of the mental pleafures and pains may
be as great as thofe of fenfation ; and indeed we know, asa
matter of fa, that the influence of the former on the mind,
is often much greater than that of very vivid pleafures and
pains of the latter clafs. ;

As much as this, one would conceive, muft be admitted by
all who have attentively confidered the laws of affociation, and
the actual proceffes of their own minds in the formation, or
variation, of the feelings affociated with any objeé&t, and the
gradual formatior and refinement of the feelinzs of children.
Whatever may be thought refpeGting the refolution of all
the mental powers into fenfation, retention, and affsciation,
(fee INrELLEcTUAL Education, col. 2.), there feems to be
fcarcely room to doubr, that all the internal obje&s of thofe
powers, all the notions and feelings of the mind, do arife
from the relics of fenfation, varionfly combined and
modified by the agency of the affociative power.. The

fenfible pleafures and pains of childhood, therefore; though
in their immediate effets evanefcent, are of great confe=
quence as the rudiments of mental feelings; and with
a view even to the moral culture of the mind, it is of
great importance, during the early part of life, to keep the
inlets of {enfation in a fit ftate for receiving its pleafures and
pains, and not to check the one, or impofe the other,
except where an enlightened regard to the future we'fare res
quires it. The health of the body fhould be attended to,
not merely asa means of prefent and future fenfible enjoy-
ment, but as increafing the fund of materials for the pureft
mental pleafures, Childhood fhould be regarded as the time
for the acquifition of materials, not only for the intelle@s
but for the affections. Its pleafures fhould be reftrained only
by thofe limits which the laws of fenfation and affociation
impofe ; which require that they fhould be moderate, and
connected only with fuch objeéts as will not lead to future
pains. Its unavoidable pains fhould, as far as poffible, be
removed ; and no avoidable ones fhould be impofed, except
what the laws of affociation require ; that is, thofe which
are neceflary for removing or preventing of greater evil,
either by remedying bodily diforders, and deftroying falfe
affociations, or by conneéting fenfible pains with fuch objeés
as would lead to future pains, more important either a3 to
vividnefs or duration.

Confidering the natural, fimple pleafures of childhood,
therefore, as the rudiments of thofe which are to accompany
the individual through the whole of his exiltence, as what
will forma part of the moft refined and important feelings,.
we ought not to view them with indifference or difdain..
Our obje& fhould be to promote them ; and as lonf; as they
remain within the limits of nature, we need not be afraid:
left they fhould produce any injurious effe@s on the mind.
It fhould be our aim, as the mind becomes capable of re-
lifhing more refined pleafures, to call it off gradually from
making the pleafures of mere fenfation a primary confider-
ation ; but we need not be too fufpicious of thefe, efpecially
during the earlieft periods of education. The pleafures of
talte, for inftance, contribute an effential fhare towards thé
formation of fome of the moft valuable and refined feelings 5.
and while we take care to prevent their being made the food
of felf-indulgence, and to keep the mind from refting upoft
them as of themfelves effential to the happinefs of life, we
may make them of great fervice in the cultivation of the
belt affections. ‘The filial affe€tions certainly have their
origin in thefe pleafures ; and they furnith fome of the moft
powerful ingredients in the early formation of the other
focial affetions. Hartley is of opinion, that a great part of
what he terms the intellectual pleafures, (or, as we fhould
prefer calling them, mental pleafures,) «are ultimately dedu—
cible from thofe of talte; and that one principal final caufe
of the greatnefs and conitant recurrency of thefe pleafures,
from our infancy to the extremity of old’age, is to introduce
and keep up pleafurable ftates,” of feeling, “and to con-
ne& them with foreign objets. The focial pleafures,’’ he
continues, ‘* feem ina particular manner to be derived from
this fource ; lince it has been cuftomary in all ages and na-
tions, and is in a manner neceflary, that we fhould enjoy
the pleafures of tafte in conjunétion. with our relatives,
friends, and neighbours. In like manner,” he adds, *nau-
feous taftes, and painful impreffions upon the alimentary
dué, give rife and {trength to mental pains.. The moft com-
mon of thefe painful impreflions is that from excefs, and
confequent indigettion.. This excites and fupports thofe
uneafy ftates, which attend upon melancholy, fear, and for-
rew.”” Hence, while we keep our children carefully aloof
from the habit of gluttony, both on account of the future

tendency

MORAL EDUCATION.

tendency to it, and the prefent pains and injurious effets of
it, itappears abundantly clear, that we ought not, froma
réfinement unfounded in the laws of the human mind, to
refufe to make the pleafures of tafte, during the early flages
of the moral progrefs, fubfervient to the culture of valuable
affeGtions. There is no reafon why, in thofe ftages, its fim-
ple enjoyments fhould not be affociated, (in the way of confe-
quences or rewards,) with right conduét. They will con-
tribute fomething towards the general ftock of pleafure re-
fulting from the difcharge of duty, long after the mind would
feel uneafy at receiving them as the effeés of it, and abfo-
lutely fpurn them if confidered as rewards for it. It is by
no means neceflary, even in thofe early ftages, that thefe
pleafures fhould be made of themfelves important, or be re-
garded in that light by the child : they may be made merely
the fymbols of parental approbation or parental affeCtion ;
and deriving intereft (we may fay their chief intereft) from
that circumitance, they alfo contribute to make fuch appro-
bation and affe€tion more pleafurable, and therefore more
the obje&t of defire.

We have before our eyes, inftances in which this procefs
frequently goes forward, without prefenting the flighteft rea-
fon to apprehend, that the pleafures of tafte will acquire a
faGtitious importance, or that the habit will be formed of
undue relifh for them. They evidently contribute a large
fhare towards the promotion of filial and fraternal affe€tion ;
and thefe, in their turn, in various ways reftrain the excite-
ment of thefe pleafures beyond their due limit, and make
them interefting, rather by the aflociated circumftances, than
by the fenfations themfelves. The effet of that reftraint,
without making any direct object of it, we have had a fatis-
faGtory opportunity of witneffing. The child of whom
we have already fpoken as unhappily managed by her nurfe,
now a little more than four years of age, a year or two ago
was accuftomed eagerly to devour little niceties which were
given her, avowedly to have the part which fhe knew her
elder fifter would give her from her own fhare. At prefent, fhe
has not only ceafed to expe& this unreafonable attention to
her venial, but undefirable gluttony, but is almoft always
ready and willing to give up part of her own fhare to her
fifters or parents ; and feems to take little pleafure in eating,
unlefs one or other of thofe around her is fharing with
her.

Children are much more likely to acqujre habits of glut-
tony, or exceffive but faftidious indulgence of the pleafures
of the palate, from what they fee around them among grown-
up perfons, than they are from the fimple gratifications of it
which fuit their age, and unfophifticated taftes. And we are
not afraid of employing them among the incentives to the com-
mencement of habits, and among the rudiments of affections,
which are of the highelt importance to the moral worth and
happinefs of the individual, It may to fome appear a para-
dox, but we have no doubt, that even the affeétions which
refpe&t the Supreme Being, derive fome of their ingredients
from this fource, through the medium of the filial affections :
and we are perfeétly fatisfied, that if this and other fources
of fenfible pleafures and pains could be dried up in infancy,
without deltroying the fenfations which merely contribute to
form perceptions, the man might, to a certain extent, be
an intellectual being, but would be without internal feelings
or affections of any kind: he might be fupported in life by
the care of others; but he would be without any motive to
action, except what operates through pure intelleét: he would
be without defires or averfions, hopes or fears.

Though for our purpofe very great precifion of nomen-
clature does not feem neceflary, and we have gone ona good
way without explaining our terms, yet it may not be uiclefs

to employ a paragraph in endeavouring to give fome idea of
the claffification of our mental feelings to that refpected
clafs of our female readers, (for fuch we hope to have,)
who have not yet entered much into the ftudy of mental phi-
lofophy. We have no wifh to fee the female fex {pend their
time on metaphyfical {peculations ; but the aid which an ac-
quaintance with the praétical laws of our frame, (with the
grand principles of affociation,) affords in the work of edu-
cation, particularly of early education, is almoft incalculable.
Suppofing that by affociation a very complex pleafurable
feeling, formed alfo by affociation, has been fo connected
with any objeét, as to be excited by the fenfation or idea of
that object, by degrees the object is confidered as the fource
of that feeling; and the pleafurable feeling, blended with
the idea of the objeé&’s being the indirect or immediate
fource of it, is called love: the oppofite feeling, produced
by correfponding but oppofite affociations, is called hatred.
We do not here {peak of the particular modifications or
reftriGtions of. thefe feelings, which are endlefs, but of the
general feelings excited in our minds by objects caufing, or
being fuppofed to caufe, pleafurable or painful feelings.
When either of them (the love, for inftance) is habitually
conne&ted with any obje€, it is called an affedion for that
obje&; and all its various modifications, however and in
whatever degree produced, (if they are more than the ebul-
litions of the moment, being permanent feelings, ready to be
excited by the appropriate object in appropriate circum-
ftances,) are alfo termed affedtons. If from any ftrength in
the exciting caufe, or peculiar fenfibility of the frame, or pe-
culiarly aétive affociations conneéted with objets of a {pecific
caft, that caufe produces a vivid excitement of feeling, which
(though it may laft, perhaps, for fome time, if not exceffive
in degree) gradually lofes its vividnefs, and altogether
ceafes, or fettles down into a more permanent, but lefs
lively feeling,—that vivid, vigorous feeling is denominated a
paffion. "The mind may have fuch a predifpofition to a cer-
tain fet of paffions, that thefe may be ealily excited, and by
every fuch excitement increafe the difpofition to future ex—
citement, and at the fame time add to the itrength and vivid-
nefs of the more permanent correfponding affeCtions; but
the paffion cannot, from the nature of the mind, lait very
long in a ftate of great excitement, unlefs there be a con-
tinued repetition of the exciting caufe; and if fuch is fre-
quently the cafe, the mind muft by degrees become difeafed,
and be conftantly on the verge of infanity, in fome or other
of its forms. From this account it appears, that the paf-
fions and affeCtions principally differ from each other in their
degree and duration. ‘here is a third clafs of feelings,
which may more properly be called emotions, than either paf-
fions or affeGtions. ‘Thefe are ftates of pleafure or of pain,
following the excitement of fome affection, and generally
accompanied or blended with trains of conceptions and
thoughts, but which have not that vividnefs and ftrength
which is effential to a paffion, and are lefs generally than
either paffions or affections explicitly referred to their ex-
citing caufe. Love and hatred (which terms we here em-
ploy in their moft extenfive fenfes, as not neceffarily includ-
ing either good-will or ill-will, in any of its different degrees)
may exift in the ftate of paffions, as well as of affections ;
and their milder ftates of excitement are properly termed
émotions, In certain circumftances, they excite to obtain
the object of love, or to avoid the objeé& of hatred, and
they are then called defire and averfion ; with which qualifi-
cations, alfo, they may exiit in the ftate of affections, emo-
tions, or paffions: but, in general, the two laft terms are
moft appropriate. Hope and fear arife from the proba-
bility or uncertainty of obtaining the good defired, or

avoiding

: MORAL EDUCATION.

avoiding the evil fhunned. Thefe can fcarcely ever be
termed affections ; they are rather the paflions or emotions
fpringing from the affeétions of love and hatred. In like
manner, joy and grief (which are ftrongly excited {tates
of feeling, arifing from the poffeffion or lofs of fome good,
or the avoidance or endurance of fome evil) are feldom fuf-
ficiently fteady and permanent to receive the appellation of
affections, but are properly termed paffions, and their milder
itates of excitement may be well denominated emotions. A
tendency to the exercife of ‘a clafs of affections, or to the
excitement of a clafs of emotions and paflions, is called a
di/pofition. The temper {eems to comprehend the difpofitions
in general, whether they relate to focial or perfonal affec-
tions, provided they are habitual, and affect the external
conduct, (words and aétions,) in our intercourfe with thofe
around us. All the affe€tions, emotions, and paffions, in
every {tate of excitement, and under every modification, are
comprehended under the general term feelings; but. fince
the affections (whether exilting in the tranquil ftate of
fimple complacency or difplacency, or operating to produce
defire or averfion, &c.) are the fources from which all the
emotions and paffions fpring, we {peak of the culture of the
affetions as in reality comprehending the regulation of the
whole fyftem of feeling.

We will now ftate, in a conneéted form, the leading prin-
ciples refpecting the affeGions, &c. which appear to be of
the chief importance in regulating the plans of moral edu-
cation ; and then proceed to offer fome remarks and illuftra-
tions founded upon them, which may aflit the judicious
parent in employing them.

1. The affections, according to the ftatements we have
already made, are derived immediately from fenfible plea-
{ures or pains received in connection with any objedt, or
from compound feelings already formed by aflociation, or
from both together. They depend, therefore, for their
formation, upon the general activity cf the aflociative
power, upon the proper fupply of materials from fenfible
or mental pleafures and pains in connetion with the object,
upon the phyfical fenfibility of the frame, and upon the fa-
eility and vividnefs of the powers of recolle@ion and concep-
tion, The fame feries of external impreffions, (if fuch a
cafe were poflible,) continued through the whole procefles
of education, would not, in individuals of diferent phyfical
temperaments, or different degrees of vigour in the mental
powers, produce the fame fyftem of afleGions: neverthelefs,
in their leading features, the fame external impreffions will
commonly generate fimilar affeCtions.

2. The affections which have been formed towards any
obje& are capable, in favourable circumftances, of being
transferred to another poflefling (or fuppofed to poflefs) the
charatteriftic qualities, owing to which they were originally
formed : and in proportion to the degree in which thefe are
(fuppofed to be) poffeffed, and to the variations which exift
in their combmations and conneéted qualities and relations,
will be the modifications which this transference will produce
on the original affections. And it is an extremely important
circumftance refpeciing the transference of affeGions, (by
which, here and elfewhere, we wih to be under{tood to
mean, not the removal of them from the original object, but
the affociation of them with one which did not before poflefs
them,) that it may take place through the medium of the
intellect alone, as well as by external impreflions ; by the
exercife of the memory, the underftanding, or the imagina-
tion, as well as by actual fenfation. If correfpondence or
fimilarity of relation or qualities is perceived in two objects
of the mind, the feelings affociated with the one will, in pro-

Vor. XXIV.

portion to the degree of that correfpondence or fimilarity,
become affociated with the other.

3- The vigour pioelusing vividnefs and fteadinefs united)
of any affeGtion will depend upon the vividnefs and number
of the component parts, upon the fufceptibility or fixity of
the phyfical and mental conftitution, upon the aid it receives
from the influence of fympathy and intentional culture, upon
its fimilarity to the prevailing difpofitions of the mind, and
upon the frequency and continuance of its exercife, as a
whole, in fome or other of its component affe&tions. But,

4. Though the vigour of an affeétion depends, in a great
meafure, on the frequency of the excitement of the feelings
compofing it, yet mere feelings, unaccompanied with the
active employment of them as motives, rapidly lofe their
vividnefs and ftrength, unlefs fupplied with repeated accef-
fions of the conrponent fenfations and fimpler feelings. The
beft way to cultivate any worthy affeGion is to bring it ito
exercife as a motive to action, while, at the fame time, we
{upply it with frefh materials derived from fenfation, fym-
pathy, foreign excitement (if neceflary), and, above all, its
own appropriate pleafures, arifing directly from its exercife,
and from the perception of its influence on perfonal or focial
happinefs,

5. Affe&tions (whether of love or hatred, of defire or
averfion) may be eradicated, if they have not been too long
exercifed, and too much affociated with the general difpofi-
tions of the mind. They may indeed acquire fuch power,
that they can be rooted out by no human difcipline or efforts ;
but fuch can feldom be the cafe, during the ufual perigds of
education, and efpecially the early periods. To deftroy any
wrong difpofition will be difficult, in proportion to the de-
gree in which it has gained habitual power, and in which it
is fupported and cherifhed by other related difpofitions :
but it may commonly be effected by perfeverance in the
judicious and fteady culture of oppofing difpofitions, in the
careful avoidance of the caufes of its excitement, and in the
regular reitraint of its exercife by negative difeouragements,
or by pofitive inconvenience and mental or bodily pain, ac-
cording to the nature of the difpofitien, and to the general
qualities of the temper. 2 ‘

The refinement of mental pleafures or pains confilts in their
remotenefs from fenfation ; the difintere/fedne/s of affeCtions,
in their having no farther end than their own immediate ob-
je.

6. The refinement of our feelings is a yery gradual pro-
cefs. It depends upon the variety of the fources of fenfa-
tion, upon the ftrength of the retentive power, upon the
activity of the affociative power, and upon the fupply of
{uitable materials for the formation and growth of the dif-
ferent claffes of mental pleafures and pains. When complex
feelings of different clafles are formed, they contribute, in a
variety of ways, through the operation of the affociative
power, to modify ene another, and to produce {till more
complex feelings; and the greater the variety in the fources
and charagier of the component parts, the greater will be
the remotenefs of the compound from all refemblance to
fenfation. Even fenfible pleafures and pains, derived
through different inlets of fenfation from the fame or fimilar
objects, will, by the operation of affociation on the fimple
feelings which they leave behind them, form complex feel-
ings fearcely indicating fenfation as their immediate fource :
and the fame might be obferved refpecting thofe complex
notions, which, under the name of abftraét or general ideas,
fo much puzzle philofophers, who have not been accuftomed
to the Hartleian proceffes of inveftigation. ‘* Some degree
of {pirituality,”’ fays Hartley, (meaning that flate of mind

O d

in

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MORAL EDUCATION.

in which its pleafures and pains are not fenfible,) is the ne-
ceffary confequence of paffing through life. ‘The fenfible
pleafures and pains mult be transferred more and more every
day, upon things that afford neither fenfible pleafure nor
fenfible pain in themfelves, and fo beget the intelleétual
pleafures and pains.” Neverthelefs it cannot be doubted,
that thofe means of intelleStual and moral culture, which are
fupplied by the purfuits of literary, fcientific, and religious
knowledge, do greatly accelerate the progrefs of the mind
towards fpirituality: and this is fill more effeQed, by the
gradual cultivation of the motives of benevolence and piety,
and a fenfe of duty. Whatever purfuit or pleafure calls off
the attention of the mind from mere fenfation, or the plea-
fures moft nearly allied to it, contributes to its progreflive
refinement. Still that refinement mult be gradual. If we
attempt too foon to lead the mind away from fenfation, we
fhall only impede the progrefs: we fhall ftep the fources of
mental pleafures and pains, and thereby weaken them and
their influence as actuating motives; and thus we fhall either
leffen the vigour of the intelleétual ftru€ture, fo far as to
prevent all energy of charaGter, or, what is perhaps more
probable, and more to be dreaded, we fhall make the
mind the flave of fenfible pleafures and pains, when it ought
to be advanced beyond their primary influence. Childhood
is the period for fenfation; we do not mean exclufively, bet
principally : and he who, during it, attempts to check its
pleafures, farther than is neceffary to prevent prefent or fu-
ture pains, will, as far as his culture is effeual, either turn
youth and manhood into childhood, or altogether nip the
bloffom of vigorous, fleady affection. If, however, this
perverfion of nature is accompanied by the cultivation of a
itrong and a€tuating fenfe of duty, ill effects may be greatly
reftrained: but we doubt not, they muft always be felt,
either in the diminution of moral vigour altogether, or in
the want of a proper balance and due proportion ameng the
affeGions.

7. The laft of the general principles which we propofed
to ftate, re{pects the difinterettednefs of the affeGions : and
here we mutt enlarge at fome length. Two oppolite opinions
have long been entertained, and are {till often. advanced on
this fubje&. Some have maintained, that the human mind,
in all its feelings and promptings to ation, is influenced by
felfifh motives; that, in fact, there is no action or feeling
which can be called difinterefted. Others have, with more
fuccefs, maintained, that the mind can be, and often is, dif-
interefted; that a perfon frequently performs an action,
tending to the good of others in a greater or lefs degree,
without the remotefl reference to himfelf, with no other
motive than a defire to produce the benevolent effe& pro-
pofed. ‘The degrading fyitem of the former is feldom
adopted except by fpeculative men, who have been led by
circumttances, happily not univerfal, to fee merely the dark
fide of human nature, and to form a more gloomy picture
of its felfifhnefs than truth would allow: or by others, who
have expected too much, owing to the beautiful fpeculations
of theory; and having been difappointed, by comparing
them with their own feelings in many inftances, or with the
too general condu& of mankind, have thence gone into the
unfounded opinion, that all the a¢tions of all men are felfith.
But many of thofe, who are undoubtedly right in the pleaf-
ing beliet that the affections and motives of men are often
charaCterized by difintereitednefs, have greatly erred re-
{fpe€ting the nature of it. From attending to its fate in
their own minds, or the minds of others, where it is babitual
andextenfive, and forgetting the {tages which have led them
to this noble eminenee, they have confidered difintereltednefs

as an innate principle of the mind, and reprefented® it as the
firft ftep towards worth of character, whereas it is in reality
the laft. ‘They have, therefore, decked the commencement
of virtue in colours which belong only to its completion ;
and hence two practical ill confequences have followed’:
fome perfons have neglected the culture of difintereftednefs,
both in their own minds and in thofe of others, from fup-
pofing it to be a’neceflary quality of all virtuous affeGtions +
and others have been driven to defpair, on comparing the
reprefentations of theory with the faulty ftate of their cwn
minds, fuppofing that they could never attain to what they
fee fpoken of as alone deferving the appellation of real worth
of character. The more corre&t views undoubtedly are,
that difintereftednefs is the laft ftage of an affeGtion ; that it
may be haftened or retarded by attention or negleét, as to
the culture of that affeCtion ; and that difintereltednefs, as
the general chara¢ter of the mind, is the higheft point of
excellence, and what fhould be our objeét; but it can only
be acquired by a long courfe of moral (including religious)
culture.

Of the progrefs of an affeGtion, from the ftate in which
the obje& of it is defired as a means to fome fuppofed good,
to that in which it becomes the fole end, the molt fimple
inftance, and what is frequently adduced for the purpofe, is
the love of money ; and this ferves exceedingly well in con-
neétion with the general principles of mental philofophy, and
might not be ufelefs in reference to our immediate object :
but this will probably be better anfwered, by taking, for

the purpofe of illuftration, an outline view of the formation

of difintereited benevolence.

Every human being receives his firft pleafurable impref-
fions in fociety. His appetites are gratified by the ailiflance
of thofe around him ; and probably there is no agreeable feel-
ing which is not in fome way or other aflociated with thole
who attend him in the period of infancy and early child.
hood. Hence arifes,fociality, or the pleafure cerived from

the mere company of others; and as the child increafes in”

years, the aflociated pleafure increafes almoit ccntinually.
In the innocent and generally happy period of childhood,
he receives all his enjoyments in the company of others ;
moft of his {ports and amufements require a playfellow ; and
if, by any untoward circumitances, he is prevented from join-
ing his companions, he feels an uneafinefs which it is fearcely
in his own powerto remove, but which vanifhesas foonas hecan
rejointhem., But his happinefs derived from others greatly
depends upon their happinefs. He is happie when thofe
arcund him are happy ; partly from the contagion of feel-
ing, and partly becaufe his means of happinefs confiderably
depend upon the convenience of others. If his companions
are ill, his fources of pleafure are dimimifhed ; if his parents
are unable to take their cuftomary care of him, he miffes
it in various ways; he lofes the carefs cf aifetion, or the
little kindnefles of parental tendernefs. Hence the comfort
and happinets of cthers neceflarily become the obje& of
defire ; and even in young children it not unfrequently hap-
pens, that this defire becomes fufficiently difinterefted to
lead them to forego {mall pleafures, or undergo little inconve-
niences and privations, with no other view than to inereafe
the comfort of their parents, or to prevent what would di-
minifh it. Benevolence is that affection which leads us to
promote the welfare of others to the belt cf our power;
and general benevolence is founded on particular benevelence,
for initance, upon benevolence towards parents or other con-
nexions, We have feen its rudiments, and it may be well
to purfue it a little farther. ‘he endeavour to promote the
comfort or welfare of others is, in the early part of life,

almott

MORAL EDUCATION.

almott invariably followed by an increafe of pleafurable feel-
ings. Parents approve thefe endeavours, and they tell their
children that their heavenly Father approves of thofe who
try to do others good. Children and young perfons are

continually feeling and obferving the good effeéts of bene-_

volence, as manifefted in their own ‘conduét, or in that of
thofe around them; and hence, in well-difpofed children,
the pleafurable feelings affociated with benevolent ations
are very ftrong; they are very glad to fee others made
happy, and very glad to be able to make others happy ;
and the pleafure derivéd from the approbation of others,
and the apprcbation of their own minds, the increafe of
good-will in the perfon benefited, and the expreffions of it,
the accordance with all the religious feelings which are pof-
feffed, and various other circumftances lefs general, add,
together, fuch a ftock of pleafurable feelings to the doing
of good to others, that, by degrees, in fome or other of
its branches, it becomes an objeét of defire altogether inde-
pendently of any confideration beyond itfelf. A perfon
who has completely gone through this procefs, defires to
benefit others without any reference to his own perfonal
benefit in this world, or even in the next: he employs the
different opportunitics which prefent themfelves to him of
doing good to others, without thinking of any thing more
than the immediate object. If it call for sreat exertion on
his part, great efforts of felf-denial, he brings to his aid the
defire of following the di€tates of duty, of obeying the com-
mands of God ; and where his benevolence, his love of duty,
and his love cf God, are in a great degree purified from
felf (and in proportion to fuch purification), he will forego
great pleafures, and endure great pains, without a thought
beyond the produétion of the good which he has in view,
and the obedience to the claims of God and duty. Such
heights of excellence are feldom attained without a large
portion “of the difcipline of trial and affi@ion; and imply
the fuitable improvement of it ; but.a lefs and not defpi-
cable height is often obferved.. Benevolence may, with
propriety, be termed difinterelted, when, in a confiderable
number of its promptings, it has no end befides the good
which it propofes; and in this degree it exilts (we doubt
not) in great numbers; and by thofe who have advanced
thus far, that improvement may without much difficulty be
mage, by cultivating a general love of duty, and a regard
to the will of God, which would refute, beyond the pofli-
bility of all rational controverfy, the opinion that the human
mind is radical'y and univerfally felfith.

There are few points in moral inveftigations more inte-
refling, or of greater practical value, than the tendency to
love-and to defire to promote objects which have no imme-
diate connection with our own good, without any reference
toourown good. ‘hat the human mind is capable of grofs
feififhnefs, which defies ali prefent difcipline to corre@, is
a fatt which cannot be denied, and which fhould excite our
vigilance and concern in the work of felf-culture as well as
in the bufinefs of education. But it is no lefs a fa@, that
it is alfo capable of difintereftednefs which fhall run through
the whole of the conduct, and prompt uniformly and ftea-
dily to the promotion of others’ welfare. The earlieft plea-
fures are perfonal ; we wifh not to call them felfith, becaufe
that term feems to be generally appropriated to thofe feel-
ings which not only have a direét explicit reference to our
own real or imaginary good, but alfo prompt to the purfuit
of this, to the neglect or injury of others. In this fenfe
the mind cannot, with any propriety, be {aid to be originally
felfith ; but its earlieft pleafures are perfonal; and its earlieit
defires are confequently perfonal. Its intereft in the plea-
fure of others, arifes originally from their conne¢tion with

the perfonal pleafures ; and, confequently, the love of others,
and the defire of benefiting them, are originally interefted ;
that is, they arife from the dependence of its own perfonal
pleafures on their pleafures. There is nothing criminal in
this ; it is according to the laws-of our mental frame : the
mind is criminal only where it refts here, for it cannot with-
out being wrongfully impeded. If the progrefs goes on as
it ought, the defire will be gradually transferred completely
from the original end, perfonal pleafures, to the good of
others, the original means ; and then this becomes the end,
and the defire is difinterefted. We may, therefore, with
the confiftency of truth, indulge a delightful view of the
tendencies and capacity of our nature ; and hold up as the
object of our fteady exertions after moral improvement,
and as the point for which we fhould prepare others, and
towards which we fhould dire& them, that {tate of mind, in
which to perceive a praéticable meane of promoting the
good of others, and to employ it, will be invariably con-
nected, without any intervening bond of union, without
any other motive co-operating but what is as pure as its own
benevolence.- And the fame remarks might be made re-
fpecting the love of duty in general.

We may now prcceed, as we propofed, to offer fome
remarks and illuftrations fyunded upon the foregoing prin-
ciples, which may aflift inthe practical employment of them
in the work of education.

1. We are not to expe¢t that any affections will rife up
in the mind, unlefs thofe external impreffions are made, from
which the component feelings are formed. A child cannot
form an affeQion for a parent with whom he has no inter-
courfe of any kind, unlefs the idea of the abfent parent be
aflociated with interefting feelings through the dire@ efforts
of thofe around him, reprefenting to him the excellencies of
his parent, his.terdecnefs towards himfelf, his defire of pro-
moting his prefent pleafures and future welfare, his efforts,
though at a diltance, todo him gocd, &c. ; orthrough thofe
accidental, but of'en powerful impreffions, in conneétion
with the parental relaticn, which converfation or books fup-
ply, or through the influence of fympathy with the feelings
of thefe about him, who refpe& ard love his parent; or,
perhaps, more than all, (if the filial affections have been
fuitably produced towards the parent with whom he has
the intercourfe from which they naturally fpring,) by the
eafy transference of them to the abfent parent, through the
fimilarity cf the circumftances of each. In like manner, it
could not reafonably be expected that achild early feparated
from his family would acquire the fraternal affections, ex-
cept. by fimilar proceffes. If, befides having no dire& in-
tercourfe with his brothers and fifters, he feldom hears them
fpoken of, has no knowledge of their interefting qualities,
&c. thofe affe&tions will not {pring up in his mind. If he
poflefles fome degree of imagination, and has a generally
affe€tionate dif{polition, a fhort intercourfe with them, aided
by the ideas gradually formed refpetting his relation to them,
may doa great deal te fupply the place of habitual inter-
courfe, but without fuch means he cannot have any habitual
fraternal feelings. The fame may be faid of the affeétions
connected with other relations towards our fellow-creatures,
and towards the Supreme Being. At the fame time it
fhould be obferved, that where the natural temperament is pe-
culiarly fuited to the produétion of lively affeétions (and we
do not hefitate in exprefiing our conviction that there are very
great original diverlities in this refpect arifing from phyfical
conftitution), and where the affociative power is ative, and
the perceptions accurate, the affections formed from any one
fource will be eafily transferred to new objects by the in-
fluence of fimilarity in the circumitances and impreffions,

O 2 of

MORAL EDUCATION.

of words, of fympathy, &c. And this procefs takes place
more readily in childhood and youth, becaufe the perception
of differences is by no means fo early acquired, at leaft fo
generally exercifed, as the perception of fimilarity ; and
becaufe, farther, while the imagination is not fufficiently
limited by experience, and by the general culture of the
judgement, the impreffions exciting pleafurable affociations,
are readily confidered as an index of an extenfive combina-
tion of good qualities, and the affections are at once com-
shnieatee when after impreffions will tend to check, to
limit, and perhaps altogether to remove them.

2. Clofely conne&ted with the foregoing remarks, we may
obferve, that the general affeGtion of love to any object, and
the confequent tendencies of the mind, will not be produced
in oppofition to an exceflive degree of painful feelings,
through whatever medium derived, if from any links of
connection they become affociated with the obje4, efpecially
if it is regarded as the fource of them. We have already
had occafion to ftate, that where painful impreffions do not
exceed a due limit, and do not, from connected ideas, ex-
cite thofe feelings which are allied to hatred (refentment,
ill-will, a fenfe of injultice, &c.), fo far from leffening love
they tend to give it greater vigour and purity; but where
their effets are of that defcription, or they are in themfelves
too frequent, or too powerful, in proportion to the plea-
furable affociations, they muft in that proportion check,
and. perhaps eventually deflroy, the affection. If a parent
finds privation or punifhment neceffary for the grand ends
of education, and takes care, as far as poffible, to let it be
perceived that they are employed for thofe ends only, the
difpofitions of children muit have been ill regulated from the
earlier periods, if the employment of them in any degree
leffens love. We have feen feveral inftances where affeCtion
has affumed its moft tender and engaging forms, after the
parental infliction of punifhment ; and what is, perhaps,
ftid more deferving notice, even after the punifhment in-
fliGed by a tutor, who, we have obferved, has, at the hour
of reft, received the moft cordial fhake of the hand from
the boy who, during the day, had been the fubjet of cor-
poral punifhment. Of the modes and regulation of punifh-
ments we fhall foon have occafion to offer a few remarks ;
the fa&t is fufficient to illuftrate our prefent obje&t. But

fuppofe that from any caufe the parental relation not only

is not aflociated with pleafurable feelings (in which cafe,
agreeably to the obfervations in the laft paragraph, it will
be an obje& of poe get but is even affociated with
the painful ones, arifing, juftly or otherwife, from an excefs
(in degree or frequency) of painful impreffions, from a
fenfe of injuftice, from frequent galling reftraints upon the
will, &c. it is clear that a parent may become the object
of ill-will, and even of hatred. It is a dreadful {tate when
things have proceeded fo far; but they do fometimes go on
from one ftage to another, far beyond the firft idea; and
feldom then meet with any limit, excepting thofe derived
from a fenfe of duty. ‘This is fometimes found to excite
in the child (efpecialiy where aided by the affeétion of the
other parent) a difpolition to patient fubmiffion, and per-
haps to compaffion and forrow, rather than to irritation and
difpleafure. But when a parent forgets his own duties, or
from unhappinefs in difpofition has not the power to perform
them, he ought not to. wonder if the tendencies to filial
duty (efpecially thofe founded on the bafis of refpeét and
affection) are not formed in the mind of his child. From
various aflociations a parent will, almoft neceflarily, feel
fome love for his offspring, without any intercourfe with
them; and even in oppofition to many painful impreffions
in connection with them: but in the child there are no fuch

predifpofing affociations ; and whatever affeCtion is formed
in early life, is to be formed by aétual impreffions in
connection with the parent, by the mears we have already
fated.

Thefe views, while they fhould lead the parent who is juftl
folicitous to obtain a high degree of the affe@ions of his
children, and at any rate to prevent their indifference or ill-will,
to avoid all caprice, undue authority, and exceffive rigour
and feverity in his treatment of them,—while they fhould lead
him to regulate privations and the infliGion of pain, by the
ends for which alone they ought to be employed, and to
make himfelf the companion and friend of his children, the
afociate of their little pleafures, and of felt importance to
their comforts and enjoyments,—fhould alfo induce him ftea-
dily to avoid indulging that exceffive fondnefs for felf-gra-
tificaticn and felf-willednefs, which, if allowed to become
habitual to any confiderable degree, will afluredly injure the
chara@ter for life; which muft be reftrained, if reflrained at
all, by fubfequent pains’ and privations far exceeding what
would in the firft inftance have kept wilfulnefs and felf-love
within their proper limits ; and which will, therefore, in all
‘probability, lead to impreffions of the moft painful nature
In connection with the parent, if he endeavour to retrieve
the confequences of paft indulgence by the only means which
will be left him’ (the pain of which will be heightened by
comparifon with the pa{t) ; and which will often produce 2
fimilar effe€t, even if he do not make the ‘attempt, becaufe
the more the will is indulged without reftraint, the more
indulgence it requires, and it is impoffible for the parent
(however willing he may be to give up every thing for the
comfort of a darling child, whom, perhaps, exceflive fond-
nefs alone has injured) to carry indulgence to the degree
which will be requifite for the gratification of ill-regulated
defires,

Thefe views alfo furnifh fome obvious hints refpe€ting the
culture of the fraternal affections. Children neceffarily have
many pleafures in common, which can be enjoyed without
any mutual interference ; and thefe dire€tly tend to make the
companions of childhood the objeé&ts of complacency and
love. But where feveral children are together, efpecially
where their ages are nearly the fame, there are numerous
occafions in which they muft give up little gratifications in
compliance with each other's wifhes, numerous cafes in
which their little pleafures mult interfere with each other.
If thefe occurred without a repetition of the affociated plea-
fures, efpecially when countenanced by a general felfifhnefs
of character, they muft foon deftroy fraternal affe@tion.
When they are not too impreffive, or too frequent, they
contribute to the formation of the habits of felf-denial, in a
degree which is fearcely effeGtible in folitary education, be-
caufe there are, in fuch cafes, comparatively few occafions
in which thefe habits can be brought naturally into exercife ;
but beyond the limits to which no lafting injury is done to
mutual affection, it fhould be the care of parents on no ac-~
connt to permit fuch trials to extend. ‘Chey fhould avoid
ail unneceffary caufes of contention ; they fhould employ the
nicelt equity in fettling the little contending claims; and
they fhould occafionally conne&t, with abfolute quarrelling,
the painful feelings arifing from feparation, and the fufpenfion
of their mutual pleafures. In fuch cafes, however, the fe-
paration mult be made at lealt irkfome and difgraceful ; fo
that the unpleafant feelings attending it may be greater, or
at leait more impreffive, than thofe which caufed their fepa-
ration. We need fearcely revert to the principle already
referred to under the culture of the flat affections, that
parents flould moft carefully avoid exciting envy and jea-
lonfy among their children by. their own expreffions of par-

uality,

————————o

— a

Ll

———————— ———

MORAL EDUCATION.

tiality. Nothing more decidedly tends to check the growth
of mutual affection among children than this; and till
affeGtion has acquired habitual vigour, and is fupported by
good fenfe, and a fenfe of duty, it can feldom ftand againit
fuch impreffions.

3- Inorder to cultivate any affection, while itfelf is in its
early ftages, and in the early ftages of the moral progrefs
in general, we fhall often find it advantageous to affociate
with the exercife of it, fupplies of fuch pleafurable feelings
from foreign fources of fenfation and imagination, as will
blend themfelves with the appropriate pleafures of the affec-
tion, and by increafing them affilt to increafe its vigour, and
the tendency to exercife it. In the is periods of the
moral progrefs, if there is a tolerable degree of fenfibility,
and a healthy ftate of the fyftem generally, the mental feel-
ings will ufually be found fufficiently vigorous to fupply the
place of dire& fenfation ; though, even then, where fen-
fations (as is commonly the cafe if the mind has gone through
its ufual culture) are conneCted with mental feelings, fo as to
become the index of them, they are powerful means of tranf-
ferring thofe feelings to obje&s not immediately belonging to
them. But in the earlieft periods, the eye, the ear,and the tafte,
may be made to-contribute materials for the molt valuable and
mott highly refined affeétions ; and may be employed in con-
neétion with a greater or lefs degree of the pleafures of imagi-
nation, as circumftances permit or direct. Agreeably to thefe
ideas, the parent who is defirous of cultivating the affeCtions
which refpeét the Supreme Being, will a& wilely and benefi-
cially in, occafionally at leaft, affociating with the ideas of
him, the pleafures derived by the young mind from the beau-
ties of nature, the mufic of the birds, and any other innocent
fource of fenfible gratification; and this will of courfe be
doubly eifeGtual, if the affociation can be accompanied with
a direét reference to him as the caufe of thele pleafures,
provided the mind is capable of perceiving the conne¢tion,
both by its progrefs in cultivation, and by attention at
. the time.. We are, for fimilar reafons, among thofe who
are defirous that the pleafurable feelings derived from fimple
folemn harmony (whether vocal or inftrumental), fhould be
affociated with the thoughts and emotions excited by the
hymn of gratitude, love, and confidence. Among the young
and uncultivated, the effect is clearly and decidedly bene-
ficial; and to thofe of more refined affections, it will ferve
to introduce and keep up pleafurable ftates of the mind, avd
_ often, by the influence of our aflociated nature, to excite
thofe devotional feelings with which they have been long
conneéted. Care mutt of courfe be taken, that the mulic
employed with devotional expreffions, be not of fuch a
nature as to call off the attentton of the mind from the
import of the words employed ; ‘and ftill more that the ufe
of it do not degenerate into the mere gratifications of mu-
fical tafte: but we doubt not, that, under fuitable regu-
Jations, the direét and natural effect of mufic, in cafes to
which we refer, is to affilt in generating or cultivating the
devotional affeGtions, and to aid their exercife. “Though
affeGtions will feldom be vigorous which have had no painful
impreffions mixed with them, and never unlefs they are
made actuating motives of conduét, yet it mult be our aim
to fupply them with a fufficient ftock of pleafurable im-
preffions in order to keep up their life and power. The
exercife of ufeful habits fhould commonly be affociated with
pleafure: they fhould be called into exercife when the mind
Is alive to enjoyment: and it is a fimple, but moft im-
portant principle, that whatever difpofition or habitual ten-
dency is fuitably exercifed when a child is cheerful and
ative, and receiving pleafurable impreffions from external
objects, it will receive fome addition to its pleafures and

ftrength, from the foreign affociations corimunicated by the
feelings and impreffions of the time. Whenever, therefore,
a habit, which we think important, is at its commencement
irkfome, if not painful, foreign pleafures (fometimes even
thofe of mere fenfation) may be advantageoufly made ufe
of to haften the tendency of the mind to exercife it, or at
leaft {ubmit to it with comfort. If it be thought neceflary,
for inftance, to fufpend, in a great meafure, the amufing
employments and fports of children, on the Lord’s day,
with a view to the future rather than the prefent, in addition
to rational fourees of moral and religious intereft of various
kinds, which may be referved for that day, we fee no ob-
jection to employ little extraordinary indulgences of fenfa-
tion and fociality to aflift im rendering it pleafant. Pleafant, if
poffible, it fhould always be made ; for religion and religious
duties fhould never be viewed with gloom ; and the little
fimple gratifications of the tafte, &c. which we would re-
commend to be given on that day, however little direé
alliance they may have with its employments, will contribute
to make them pleafant by affociation, and will do no harm
among the-young, when habit, and the perception of their
importance, and their accordance with the increafing biafles
of the mind, require no fuch aid to make them interefting.
That which is pleafant as a means of pleafure, will gradually
become pleafant of itfelf.

4. Though in the earlieft ftages of an affeétion, it fhould
not be too much or too frequently called into exercife, in op-
pofition to the feelings of privation, or others more direétly
painful, yet to give it vigour as an actuating motive, it
mult be exercifed in proportion to its ftrength and purity,
in ways which call for felf-denial and aétive exertion. A
few obfervations refpeGting the cultivation of charity to-
wards the poor may afford fome illuitrations of this remark
among others. If the firit ats of charity be made painful,
by requiring privations beyond the power of the habit of
felf-rettraint to render them pleafant, it is not to be expected,
that, while the impreffion of that circumitance continues,
the defire of doing gocd will be lively or even pleafurable.
Suppofing that the parent ebvioufly fympathifes with the
diftreffes of the poor, and in various ways is endeavouring
to relieve or prevent them, by exertions and benevolent
plans, as well as, if the opportunity and means allow, by
pecuniary aid, it is probable that from mere fympathy, the
tendency to a¢tive compaffion will be produced in the miad.
We have known a child before fhe could fpeak, take an
obvious pleafure in dropping the little gift of charity into
the poor old man’shat. ‘The early exertions of it fhould
be cherifhed, by exciting pity and a defire to relieve the
want which is experienced, through the means of the ob-
fervation and imagination, and by fhewing what effe& our
efforts will have to relieve it, and by affociating pleafant
feelings (either dire@tly, or, which is much better, indi-
rectly) with the endeavour to do good, making it accom-
panied with, if not adtually produtive of, a pleafurable
ttate of mind. Carrying the gift of charity to the poor
applicant fhould be made a gratification, and only allowed
where there is a claim upon fuch gratification from right
condu4t, or, at leaft, fhould be refufed, where, from any
caufe, parental difapprobation has been excited. Children
who have habitually been taught to confider the comforts
of others as a fource of gratification to themfelves, will
early take pleafure in making little facrifices to relieve the
diftrefles of the poor. We have known a child, three
years and a half old, prefer a baby-houfe of cut paper to a
rocking-horfe, which had been the object of her wifhes,
“<becaufe it coft nothing, and mamma would have the more
money to-give to the poor.” By degrees, when the via

ure

MORAL EDUCATION.

fure of charity is become pretty lively, and the habit of
a@ing upon it is tolerably confirmed, it will be defirable to
lead to more decided endeavours to relieve the poor, e. g-
the little fempftrefs may be allowed a {mall gratuity for her
work, when done properly, and fhe may be led, without any
thing like conftraint, to give her earnings to the poor;
the pleafure of doing which we have feen very ftrongly indi-
cated ina child of between five and fix years old. Chil-
dren whofe wants have been limited and properly fupplied,
and whofe defires have been tolerably well regulated, will
feldom feel the value of money to themfelves, and to give
away a mere gift, will little call for the exercife of felf-
denial; but at any rate it will be found advantageous to
allow them to make neceffary articles of drefs, and to give
nae produce of their induftry tothe poor. We believe that

e thanks of the poor never gave any one more unaffected
delight, than they have done to the child before referred to,
when, without the excitement of praife, or even the reward
of fympathy, (expreffed in words at leaft,) from thofe
whom fhe beit loves, fhe has given away the produce of
her labours. This pleafure alfo fhould be affociated with
good condué, and permitted only where the behaviour has
not been unfatisfactory ; and after a benevolent action, the
pleafurable {tate of the mind fhould be encouraged both
by the confequences naturally following right condué, and,
in extraordinary cafes, by. communicating little fimple gra-
tifications, which, even without an explicit connection, will
ferve to affociate pleafure with this branch of duty. With
refpest to boys, it will be Jefs eafy to call their charitable
feelings into exercife in this manner; but the parent who
is defirons to cultivate them in the only effeCtual way, by
aftive pleafurable exertion, and by little privations propor-
tioned to the degree of their rigour, and fuch as can be
ealily overbalanced, if neceffary, by pleafurable feelings
drawn from diflerent fources, will feldom be unable to find
fuitable means and opportunities of doing fo. When they
are arrived at the age at which allowances of pocket-money
are given them, if their minds have been rightly direéted by
example, by occafional exercife, by inftruCtions, &c. they
will often be eafily led to employ fome of their little fuper-
fluities in aéts of benevolence ; and if thefe are judicioufly
brought about, and direéted to obje&s, the importance of
which is obvious, and if they be aflociated with pleafurable
feelings (in fuitable proportions to the moral progrefs of the
individual, and to the power of felf-denial), derived from
little rational gratifications from the fatisfaction of parents,
and (if in a cafe fomewhat peculiar, and requiring con-
fiderable ftimulus.) from the approbation of confcience, and
the more direét religious confiderations, all will contribute
permanently to the livelinefs and vigour of the principle of
benevolence. To fhew what we mean by pleafurable affo-
ciations from external circumitances, we may take the cafe
where a parent, or tutor, after his boys have been contri-
buting pretty largely from their /imited allowances, to pro-
mote the interelts of an important in{titution for the benefit
of the poor, affociates with the act of benevolence the
pleafure they derive from a long wifhed-for walk on a fine
bracing morning, by faying to them, ** I hope, my boys,
you will enjoy your walk; you have been doing a will
be beneficial to others; and the pleafure of doing good,
and the pleafure of your excurfions, will increafe each
other.’

The education of the poor prefents the young with a
noble field for the culture of benevolence ; and the preva-
lence of charity-{chools in general, and efpecially of Sunday-
£chools in particular, affords to moft young perfons an op-

f
1

t

portunity of engaging init. If they are fteacily employed
8

in the communication of ufeful knowledge, and particularly
of religious knowledge, under the guidance and with the
afliitance of the greater experience of their friends, it will
render their own knowledge more corre€t and pra€tical, it will
lead them to think more themfelves on fubjeéts of religious
duty, and will make the welfare of others an objeét of folici-
tude andexertion. The young fhould be early accuftomed to
confider the education of the poor as an object of delight, of
wifdom, and of duty; and fhould be encouraged to con-
tribute their efforts towards it, with a view to their own mo-
ral inprovement, as well as to the benelit of their fervices in
the caufe of benevolence.

5. We muft endeavour to adapt our means of moral cul-
ture to the general chara¢ter of the mind, whether ar fing
from phyfical temperament, or from the aétual progrefs
made in the acquifition and cultivation of the different moral
difpofitions and habits. In doing this, though we fhall
often find it advantageous to avail ourfelves of the power over
the mind which thofe difpofitions and habits prefent, even when
in their prefent ftate they ought not to be permanent, yet
(efpecially in the more advanced perieds of education) we
ought peculiarly to endeavour to fupply their defe&s, to
curb their excrefcences, and to ftrengthen their right ten-
dencies. And when we think it expedient to employ, in the
way of motive, thofe difpofitions and habits which eventually
mult be modified or greatly reftrained, we mutt be careful
that we do not give them too much power in the mind, to
the permanent injury of the moral character, and of the in-
dividual’s happinefs. We are itrongly impreffed with the
importance of this laft remark, in connection with the fenfe
of ridicule, which fo often furnifhes to the thoughtlefs and
diffipated, the means of confounding moral ditlinétions, of
weakening the influence of parental authority, of rendering
the peculiarities of religious profeflion irkfome, if not abfo-
lutely painful, and by degrees deftroying the impreffion and
perhaps the belief of the grand principles of religion, which
had been early inftilled, and long cultivated (and even judi-
cioufly cultivated), and employed as the motives: of aétion.
That the mind will be expofed to fuch influence in inter-
courfe with the world, fhould induce us to avoid, in the
early periods of education, communicating principles of
morals and religion, the grounds of which do not appear to
ourfelves fully fatisfactory, and forming unneceflary con-
neétions of thofe we do communicate, with peculiarities in
manners, drefs, &c. : it fhould induce us, as the progrefs of
the mind will permit, to fhew the reafonablenefs and found-
ation of thofe principles, and while we point out their im-
portance and mutual relations, to confine the fundamental
principles of belief and praétice, within as narrow limits as
poffible, and to make our’ conclufions from them appear as
inferences, the incorreAnefs of which will not affe@ the
truth of thofe fundamental principles ; in fhort, to cultivate
the underltanding while we are cultivating the affeGtions,
to habituate to diferimination and to found reafoning, and
to give habitual influence to higher motives of aGtion; but
at the fame time it powerfully urges us to avoid giving un-
due ftrength to the fenfe of ridicule, by employing it too
frequently and unneceflarily as a motive ; by making it too
much felt, and confequently too much feared; by conne&-
ing it with ferious expreflions of difpleafure, &¢. ;—to cul-
tivate that firmnefs of mind, which, if it do not dire@ly
leffen the dread of it, will do fo, indire&ly, by leflening: its
influence as a motive ;—to accuftom the mind to appreciate
the juftnefs of expreffions of ridicule ;—and to make an
inftance of firmnefs in oppofition to them, for the fake
of adherence to any principle of filial obedience, truth, up-
rightnefs, &c. a ground of peculiar approbation, and, on

*

MORAL EDUCATION.

the contrary, any inftance of fubmiffion to it, in oppofition
to fuch principles, the fubjeét of pity, of difapprobation,
and, if the cafe requires it, even of contempt. ‘The in-
fluence of ridicule operates throuzh the fenfe of honour and
fhame, and it may fometimes therefore be expedient, though
the lefs the better, to curb it threugh the fame channel.

We are fully aware, that there are cafes, (particularly
where ferious difpleafure or a¢tual punifhment is out of
the queftion,) in which the inflvence of ridicule may be be-
neficially employed ; that fometimes, where the education
of the affections has not been properly or fuccefsfully con-
ducted, it mult be employed, becaufe no other motives
will anfwer the purpofe fo effeftually and beneticially ;
and that there are individuals in whom it is even defirable to
awaken a feeling of ridicule. And it may fometimes hap-
pen, that to prevent expofure-to ill-natured ridicule, where
its influence would be exceflive and injurious, it fhould be
employed with a {paring hand and aclear feparation from
all malevolent motives; ¢. g. in conneétion with little awk-
wardnefles of geflure aud modes of expreflion. But where
the fufceptibility of its influence is the moft lively, where
the general fufceptibility of the mind is great, and the fenfe
of honour and fhame at leatt very powerful, if not exceffive,
there it fhould be our endeavour to leffen its influence, and
to turn the current of thofe feelings into a beneficial chan-
nel, by direGing them as much as poflible from thofe little
qualities which are not effential to true worth, intellectual
or moral, towards the higher excellencics, and by refinirg
thofe motives themfelves through the purifying influence of
religious principles,

The power of ridicule obvioufly depends very greatly

upon the degree in which the feelings of honour and fhame
exift in the mind. . If our limits would permit, we should
be defirous of entering pretty fully into the confideration of
the formation of thefe feelings, and the proper regulation
of them in education: but we mu{t content ourfelves with
recommending a few gencral obfervations; and to thofe
who wih to enter furcher into the fubje&, we ftrongly re-
commend the perufal of the g5th propofition in the firit
volume of Hartley’s Obfervations on Man, and propofitions
62, 63, 64, in his Rule of Life, which will probably lead
them to molt of the conclufions upon which we fhould
wifh to enlarge. In Mifs Edgeworth’s chapter on Vanity,
Pride, and Ambition, they will alfo find many important re-
marks, whic:., in various periods of education, and in va-
rious circum{tances, cannot fail to be highly ferviceable in
moral and even inteilefiual culture. And we may take
this opportunity alfo of recommending to our readers, the
truly exellent obfervations which they will find in Praétical
Education, in the chapters on Temper, Truth, Recvards
and Puni/bments, Sympathy and Senfibility, Female Accomplifp-
ments, Prudence and Economy. ‘Vhefe chapters contain a
fund of the mott valuable inftruGtion and aid, in giving that
regulation of the conduct and difpofitions, to which we are
direéted by enlightened prudence, and a fenfe of duty
founded upon it. If the moral fyftem which is difplayed in
her portion of Pratical Education, and in her other wntings,
had decidedly prefented, with its prefent excellencies, thofe
higher and more ennobling principles of action, to which
the foundeft views of human nature, as well as the morality
of the gofpel dire&t, our wants would then have been com-
pletely fupplied. Wedonot wifh that fhe fhould clafs her-
felf among the “ Se¢tary-metaphyficians,”’ (See Pract. Ed.
ch. xxv.) ; her own independence of mind, and accurate
judgment, muft have kept her in the eclectic fect of phi-
lofophers ; but we do moft earnellly with, that while fhe
made the principle of affociation in ‘one of its leading

operations the bafis of her fyftem of education, the had’
alfo followed out another of its rand laws, in its con-
nections and confequences. Hartley has unhappily encum-
bered his dottrine of affociation with the theory of vibra-
tions ; and he treads upon, difficult grounds, with refpect
to the generalization of the intelleCtual powers of the mind ;
but in all that refpeéts the affections, and the mental plea-
{ures and pains in general, their growth and culture, their
regulation and refinement, we do not hefitate to exprefs
our opinion that his obfervations are to be regarded as the
Principia of moral philofonohy.—If the principles of his
Rule of Life, (divefted, we would amit, of whatever is
not clearly {upported by his philofophical princpiles,) had
furnifhed the foundation of that morality which is fo ad-
mirably taught in the Parent’s Affitant, Moral and Popular
Tales, &¢c. without introducing thefe views fo as to difgnit
thofe who cannet feel their Fe they might have been
made powerfully to contribute (almof without being per-
ceived by any but fuch as had alfo imbibed them) to
the culrivation of them in better foil, and to prepare for
fuch cultivation beyond prefent calculation.

But to proceed. By pride we underftand, ar unjuft
feeling of fuperiority over others, or of elevation in the feale
by which the individual eftimates honour ; by vanity, an ex-
ceffive defire of the praife or good opinion of others.
The former indicates an unfounded opinion as to the title
to honour; the latter is generally accompanied with fome
opinion of that kind, but does not neceffarily imply more
than an eager defire of honour.

It is difficult to form a comparative eftimate of the in-
jurious effets of pride and vanity. When the foil is good,
both may produce good fruit; perhaps, however, pride
prefents the moft effectual obftacles to improvement, and
vanity tends moft to render that improvement ineffe@tual.
In the early periods of life, the good opinion of others is,
in moft cafes, the higheft ftimulus which the mind can re-
ceive ; and well directed, it has its full efe@ in prompting
to the attainment of moral and mental excellence. The
circle at firit is narrow : the few friends on whom we depend

or the various comforts and enjoyments of life, are thofe
whofe good opinion forms our firft obje&. If thefe are
correé in their appreciaticn of worth, their good opinion ia
the fource of future excellence ; it prompts to the formation
of the moft valuable habits; and lays the foundation for
that defire of honour, which afterwards raifes the mind to
him whofe approbation is happinefs If they make theix
approbation depend. upon right conduét, and do not lavifh
their praife or their cenfure, but give it only where, jufily
eftimated, praife or cenfure is due, the refult is valuable -
if they teach to value the praife of the wife and good only,
vanity will, in time, be brought within proper limits: but
they do not do all, if they do net teach, that the pleafuré
which they at prefent receive from the approbation of their
friends, is afterwards to be chiefly fonght for, in that of
their beft friend; that his approbation is to be made the
criterion of excellence ; and that by this they muft appre-
ciate the worth of all other fources cf honour. If indif-
criminate vanity be not thus checked, the mind which feeks
the good opinion of others, will fall into. the Opinions and
praGtices of others; and unfteadinefs of principle and of
conduét muft be expeted, for that on which they are
founded is as variable as the mind. The ftimulus of praile
becomes necefflary to happinefs: and the mind is incapable
of exertion where that praile is not to be obtained; is in-
capable of acting in.eppofition to the opinion of thofe whofe
cenfures it deems among the worlt of evils, whofe praife
it regards as an important good. .The exceflive defire of

the

MORAL EDUCATION.

the good opinion even of the wife and good, is injurious to
the mind. It enervates its powers of aétion, it renders it
fickle and inconftant: it prevents from efforts leading to
high utility, where thofe efforts may be muifinterpreted 5
it checks the attention which fhould be paid to fuperior
honour ; and it prevents that ardent defire for the highett
approbation, which fhould be made, as far as poflible, the
primary objeét of purfuit.

The workings of vanity ought not, however, to be
viewed with too fufpicious an eye in the early ftages of
iatelletual and moral culture. Self-diffidence is almoft
neceflary for that culture ; and vanity is frequently the off-
{pring of felf-diffidence. But great care fhould be taken
to prevent the love of praife from becoming a neceflary
ftimulus to exertion. The ftimulus fhould be leffened by
degrees ; and, if done gradually, the habit which it was
intended to generate will be formed, and the exercife of it
continued, without this ftimulus. Praife is probably em-
ployed in education more than is defirable, becaufe more
than is neceflary: perhaps the fimple expreffions of fym-
pathy, in fuceefsful exertions, would commonly an{wer
every purpofe. The employment of thefe means mutt, how-
ever, be varied by circumftances ; but it fhould always be
kept in view, that praife fhould be little employed in the cul-
tivation of moral worth; to that, approbation fhould be
given indire@tly ; and when beftowed upon intelle&tual ac-
quirements, it fhould be diltin@ly feen that thefe are no=
held in the fame rank with the performance of duty. The
young fhould frequently be led, if felf-diffidence do not
make this a bar to exertion, to contemplate thofe- who have
made greater attainments than themfelves, and feldom refer
to thofe who are below them. In this, however, fuch cafes
fhould be adduced as will prevent, or rather avoid, the ex-
citement of envy ; and where emulation gives birth to envy,
this fhould be carefully avoided. But, above all, they fhould
be taught tobe difcriminate in their defire of approbation, and
be led by degrees to feek for that approbation which alone
is certain, and which alone is independently valuable. The
eager defire of the praife ef men debafes the motives,
weakens the mental powers, and produces corroding in-
‘quietude : the ardent purfuit of the divine approbation will
fupply motives to aétion continually increafing in purity,
will ftrengthen the mind for valuable exertion, and prepare
it for permanent happinefs. '

G. In order to prevent the rife, or check the growth
ef any difpofition, which we conceive to be injurious to the
jndividual, we muft avoid the original expreffions tending to
give birth to it, and to lead to the recurrence of its excite-
ment ; and we mult aim to produce fuitable aTociations of
a painful nature with its exercife. The more our plans are
direéted for the prevention of wrong difpofitions and habits
the better; and the fame mult be faid where they can be
properly reltrained, by fimply avoiding their excitement.
Still, however, cafes mutt occur, in which the correétion of
them muft be brought about through the medium of bodily
and mental pain ; and the great point is, fo to proportion
the degree of punifhment, and to regulate the manner of it,
that it fhall not exceed the neceflity of the circumftances,
and that it bring into exercife no ether wrong feelings.

Difgrace, privation, reftraints upon liberty, and corporal

ain, all of which probably may, in different circumftances,
te employed with advantage, have all their peculiar incon-
veniences and ill confequences. The fear of fhame is a molt
powerful motive to aétion, and indeed not uncommonly
more powerful than the defire of praife; and it is of great
confequence that this feeling fhould exift in the mind with a
tolerable degree of vigour; fince it is a very important

be

auxiliary of the moral principle, and will fometimes ferve to
fupply its deficiencies: but if it be too much employed, it
lofes its fenfibility, or becomes perverted, or elfe it acquires
an exceflive degree of power, and makes the conduét and
happinefs of life fo much dependent upon the opinion of
others, as to render thefe exceedingly unfteady. The fear
of fhame conftitutes an effential ingredient, in what is com-
monly termed a regard to character; and emong the lower
clafles of fociety it fhould be encouraged, we had almott
faid, without limit, becaufe there are fo many caufes conti-
nually operating among them, particularly in the prefent
periods of difficulty and diftrefs, to reduce it within narrow
limits, or to deftroy it altogether ; and the want of it is, in
all cafes, greatly to be regretted. Like moft other valuable
principles, however, it is liable to great abufe, and to an in-
jurious direGtion ; and it is greatly to be feared, that in the
ufual fy{tems of public education it 1s thus abufed ; fince,
from the prevalent modes of punifhment, it is lefs excited by
what ought certainly to be the chief fource of it, the having
merited punifhment, and being in confequence expofed to ir,
than by the want of fortitude in bearing 1t. When dif-
grace is employed, it fhould be affociated only with condué&
which is really difgraceful ; and it fhould be proportioned
to the degree of impropriety or bafenefs odferved : and we
fhould be peculiarly careful that we do not deaden the fear
of it, by exciting it tco frequently, or on occafions in which
it is merely faGtitious. If a parent is continually making
trifles the fubjeét of difgrace, the fenfe of fhame muft either
become exceffively inerdinate in its influence, or children
will lofe it altogether ; both which effects are earneftly to
be deprecated.

Refpe&ting little privations of perfonal gratification,
there is always fome danger, left thofe gratifications fhould
acquire an undue degree of importance, by being made the
means of punifhment; and we conceive they fhould not be
employed for this purpofe in cafes decidedly immoral.
But in conneCtion with a want of induftry, we fee no ade-
quate objeGtion to the occafional diminution of the pleafures
cf the taite. The health, of courfe, mult be taken care of ;
but it is a clear maxim of retributive juftice, “ if any one
will not work, neither let him eat.’’ "Lhis is often a¢tually
carried into effeét, by a natural conneGtion in real life; and
we are fatisfied that it may be advantageoufly employed, by
an artificial conne@tion, in education. When, from any
caufe, a confiderable degree of parental difpleafure is mant-
fe(ted, it will fometimes be found defirable, if the painful
feclings dire@ly arifing from it do not feem fufliciently
lively to fufpend thofe little fimple pleafures of the palate
which extend beyond the abfolute wants of nature: indeed,
as long as a child is under a parent’s difpleafure, there
fhould be as few gratifications as poflible to look to for
relief ; and if the uneafinefs which it prod:ces is not itfelf
fufficient to make the ufual pleafures of childhood infipid,
it is defirable to increafe that uncafinefs by faétitious affo-
ciations. A parent’s difpleafure fhould always be felt to be
a ferious evil.

Solitude, confinement, and other kinds of reftraint, may
ail, in appropriate circumftances, be employed with effeé ;
but there are fome difpofitions upon which they operate
very injurioufly. Some children, when under fuch punith-
ments, not having the ufual external impreffions to change
the current of thought, feem to employ their leifure in tie
exercife of bad difpofitions. Where this is the cafe, no
benefit can accrue from them, and much injury muft. Then,
again, in fome inftances, they afford too much oppor-
tunity for the play of the imagination. _ But the expeétation
of the lofs of play, as a recompence for the want of dili-

gence

=e ee ee

MORAL EDUCATION.

gence at bufinefs, is often a pretty powerful, and it is a
natural ftimulus ; and not unfrequently there are iaftances
in which it is beneficial to employ folitude (provided it be
not too long continued), as a means of leading to reflection
on improprieties of conduét.

Refpeéting corporal pain, we have no hefitation in faying
that experience has compelled us to give up our theories
againft it. We are now fatisfied that there are difpofitions
which are much lefs injured by this kind~ of punifhment,
than by any other which would be effeGtual. And we are
further convinced, that in the earlieft periods of childhood,
before the time when the mind can be properly influenced
by moral motives, corporal pain, fparingly but firmly ad-
miniftered, will often be of much more fervice, and do much
lefs harm, than any other fpecies of punifhment. If this be
employed at that early period, to overcome the rudiments
of obitinate difobedience (which is the only cafe in which
we have occafion to perceive its expediency), it will fave
a great deal of punifhment of a different de{cription in the
later periods of education, Perhaps, if parents were able
to undertake the fole mafiagement of the education of in-
fancy, it might jultly be attributed to themfelves, if fuch
punifhment were ever neceflary; but, as circumftances
ufually are, a great part of the work of education confitts
in endeavouring to deftroy difpofitions and affociations
which the ignorance or carelefsnefs of others have produced.
We are not difpofed to think that falfhood, feltifh injuftice,
&c. fhould in childhood be made the ground of corporal
punifhment ; thefe will, in general, be better punifhed by
their natural confequences, which may even then be brought
into view. But where habits of this decidedly immoral
nature have been fuffered to gain great itrength, and have
been carried. on to the period of early youth; where the
fenfe of fhame has fearcely any power, and the natural in-
conveniences of thofe habits may be comparatively eafily
avoided ; there (and alfo in cafes of carelefs perverfe dif-
obedience) the rudiments of moral difcipline and feeling
may, we think, be advantageoufly begun by fevere corporal
funifhment. We have known fuch cafes; and experience
has led to our conclufion. When fuch means are reforted
to, it would be cruelty to employ them ‘lightly. They
fhould be regulated in fuch a way as to afford the individual
no fupport from fympathy, and yet be impreffive to others.
And their whole accompaniments fhould give them a real
importance in the eftimation of all concerned.

But whatever be the punifhments employed, it will be
of great advantage that the following principles be diftin@ly
kept in view. 1. Punifhment fhould, as much as poffible,
be appropriate to the offence, in kind and ftill more in
degree. If it can be made to refemble the natural confe-
quences of ill conduét, it will have double influence in real
life. If it have its due proportion, it will be lefs likely to
excite the fenfe of injuftice, and will contribute to the cor-
veGinefs of the confcience. 2. Punifhment fhould be cer-
tain when appointed. There may be circumttances in which
it would be injuftice to punifh; and if thefe clearly authorife
the remiffion of the punifhment, it may be attended with
more benefit to remit than to infli¢t. But fuch cafes can
be but rare, where the declaration of confequences does
not arife from the hafty ebullitions of paffion. 3. The dif-
pofition fhould be carefully ftudied, and thofe means em-
ployed which beft fuit it; which are moft likely to check
wrong habits and difpofitions, without implanting others
in their ftead. 4. Punifhment fhould always be guided by
the only juttifiable ground of it, the moral benefit of the
individual, and of thofe within the influence of his example
and of his punifhment; and, as much as pofhible (efpecially

Vor. XXIV.

in the moft painful exercifes of punifhment), it fhould be
obvious that it {prings from the defire to do good. It may
formietimes lofe a little of its immediate efficacy ; it may ex-
cite lefs terror than if the refult of paffion ; but while the
inflition of pain (we particularly refer to corporal punifh-
ment) is accompanied with earnettnefs, it fhould clearly ap-
pear that it is the refult of the fame benevolent determination
with which the feeling furgeon amputates a limb to fave the
life of his patient.

Punifhment, if it operate beneficially, does fo in two
ways; by producing a¢tual painful affociations in connec-
tion with the difpotitions or habits, thus diminifhing the
tendency to exert them; and by exciting the fears with
re{pect to the future. The former is the beft poffible
effect ; and the latter, to a certain extent, cannot but be
beneficial. The principle of fear, where not exceflive, and
where properly regulated, is of the utmoft confequence,
in connection both with the general conduét of life and
with perfonal fafety. But where it is exceffive, it dege-
nerates into cowardice on the one hand, and fuperttition ia
its various forms on the other. From the former {prings
a hoft of moral evils: where fortitude does not conftitute,
in fome tolerable degree, a part of the character, enabling
the mind to fupport not merely bodily but mental pain, and
to remain firm in the courfe of duty, without being too
powerfully affeted by the apprehenfions of imagination, or
by adtual fuffering, there can be no {ftability of charaéer ;
it mult be weak and wavering, the {port of fools, and, what
is worfe, the {port of the wicked and defigning. From the
latter originate all the degrading views of the Supreme
Being, and of religion in general, which contribute to fill the
mind with a thoufand imaginary terrors which often deitroy
the influence of real religions principle in the individual
himfelf, and render religion difreputable in the eyes of
others. In childhood, exceflive timidity of charaéter (whether
arifing from conftitutional tendencies or early affociations),
fhould be carefully guarded againit; it is the parent of
meannefs and falfhood ; and in every period of education
we ought to be extremely cautious, left our punifhments
fhould operate to the weakening of the mind, inftead of the
fupplying it with.vigorous motives to avoid what is wrong.
Fear fhould be affociated with the idea of doing wrong,
rather than with the confequences of it, and ftill
more rather than with painful feelings not {pringing
from ill conduét. The fortitude arifing from conttitution
and the early care of parents is valuable, that of principle is
invaluable. On the regulation of the principle of fear, we
refer our readers, with ‘great fatisfaction, to the third letter
in Mifs Hamilton’s firit volume. The whole work does
credit to the author’s under{tanding and to her heart.

7. Since the affeGtions and defires may indifputably be
excited, not only by impreffions of aétual fenfation, but
through the operation of the memory and the imagination,
it is of the utmoft confequence to the purity of the mind,
and to the due reftraints upon the fenfual defires, that care
be taken, from early years, to preferve the mind from allim-
preffions calculated to give a premature rife, and exceffive
itrength to thofe defires. In conneétion with this point,
we beg leave, for the prefent, to refer our readers to fome
extremely important confiderations (the matter of which
will, to the judicious mind, compenfate for fome little pecu-
liarities in the manner), contained at the clofe of prop. 53,
in Hartley's Rule of Life.

8. As the progrefs to difintereftednefs muft always be
gradual, and in many cafes mutt be flow, we are not to ex-
peét too much, in this ref{peét, from our children, nor too
much difapprove the indications of attention to perfonal

R pleafures,

MORAL EDUCATION.

pleafures, provided it appear to be only in the natural pro-
grefs of the mind, We may make our children hypocrites ;
but we cannot all at once make them difinterelted. We may
lead them to conceal their motives, or even to profefs what do

not aétuate them; but we cannot thus communicate that -

purity and refinement which, by the fully eftablifhed laws
of the mind, are the refult only of long continued procefies,
often advancing without our aid, but not unfrequently to
be greatly affifted, partly by foftering and exerciling right
difpofitions, and not lefs by checking counteraéting affo-
ciations. It fhould never be forgotten that fteady habitual
difintereftednels is the lait ftage of an affe@tion.

Some may, however, fuppofe that children are ufually
more difintereited than perfons who have had expérience in
life ; and it may contribute materially to our leading obje&,
if we add a few remarks on that point,

Children often appear difinterefted when they really are
not fo, becaufe we do not fufficiently take into account the
quick changes of their feelings ; fometimes fetting a light
value upon what a few hours or even minutes before they
were extremely pleafed with; and at other times the reverfe.
Hence they are teadily induced to give away what they
have before been delighted with; and to make what we
erroneoufly think facrifices, without an effort. But again,
we are apt to think them dilinterefted, when they give up
what they really like, only, or principally, becaufe they
thus have a greater fhare of the pleafure refulting from their
obedience to their-friends,—praife or other rewards. Now,
the approbation of their friends is, to well-difpofed-children,
of fuch great value, that praife affords them fome of their
higheft gratifications. And, therefore, when, for the fake
of that approbation, they give up play-things, or any other
objects of pleafure, &c. fo far from being difinteretted, they
are eminently felf-interefted : but their felfintereftednefs is
of a much more refined and fuperior defcriptien than that
which would prevent the little facrifice; one which, with
due care, will prove a moft powerful engine in the moral
and religious culture of the mind, by increafing the influence
of the parent and inftruétor. Again, children are ufually
influenced more by prefent than by future objects, however
far fuperior thefe may be in their value and durability.
Few children early attain fuch command over themfelves,
as voluntarily to give up a prefent fource of pleafure for a
future one : and where it is done, it is rather in compliance
with the wifhes and injunctions of their friends, than from
any comprehenfive conception of the future good. It is
an excellent thing to obtain the facrifice by means of any
worthy feeling : all we wifh to obferve is, that children do
not feel the real value of future pleafures, and therefore
eafily yield to that which is moft powerful at the time.
Hence, therefore, they appear difinterefled, becaufe they
cannot properly calculate the value of the good which they
relinquith, and do in reality prefer the greate(t prefent plea-
fure ; or rather they are aétuated by the greateft prefent

pleafure.

We do, howéver, cheerfuily admit, that fome children
very often are, in fome fenfe, difinterefled; for inftance,
will obey their parents, will tell the truth, will endeavour
to increafe the comforts of others, without any reference,
direét or indireét, to any perfonal gratification; and we
alfo admit that thefe fame children too frequently, as they
grow up, become more felfifh; and that fometimes the

conftitutional fenfibility, through which (among other
caufes) they have in fome inftances become dilinterefted,
proves the caufe, under improper regulation, of their
becoming felfifh, and that to a degree which thofe of lefs
promife never manifelt, But thofe marks of difintereflednefs

s

are by no means difficult to be accounted for. The habit
of obedience, for inftance, is the conftant object of a
parent’s care and exertions; and in a well educated child
there are no ftrongly oppofing difpofitions to be checked
before obedience can be fecured. Lie pains are quickly
forgotten, though their effe&ts remain; future pleafures are
thoughe of but little, and the value of their facrifice not
falfely eltimated ; the conftant connedtion is formed between
pleafurable feelings and obedience, and unpleafant feelings
and difobedience ; above all, obedience, prompt and cheer-
ful obedience, is early and fteadily cultivated, fo as to pro-
cuce a regular habitual tendency to it: and as foon as a
child aéts folely from the impulfe of an habitual difpofirior,
he is fo far difinterefted. But this difintereftednefs is not
to be relied on as a fettled principle ; fteady habitual difin-
tereftednefs of any worthy affection can fcarcely be pro-
duced till the affection has been expofed to the influence of
oppoling impreflions, and till the mind has gone through
much moral difcipline.

g. In order to produce difintereftednefs as an habitual
prevailing quality of the mind, while we make the exercife
of the difpofition fufficiently pleafant, by various means, we
muft carefully avoid leading the mind to reft upcn the plea-
{ures themfelves. In the later periods of education, we mutt
affociate pleafure with aCtions, lefs as pofitive rewards, than
as the refults of valuable qualities. We muft frequently.
excite to the exercife of them, without hope of immediate
fatisfa€tion, and even in oppofition to expected inconve-
niences, and at the expence of prefent privations. And we
muit gradually raife the mind to the higher motives: fubfti-
tuting by degrees for thofe which are perfonal, fuch which
are refined and difintere(ted, and which carry the mind out
of itfelf. The cultivation of the religious affeGions, and of
an habitual fenfe of religious duty, has a mott beneficial ef-
feét in elevating the mind towards the heights of difintereft-
ednefs. The hopes and fears of religion have themfelves a pu-
rifying influence ; and there is no motive which can have a
more direct and powerful tendency, (in proportion to its
own ftrength and confiftency, ) in giving firmnefs and purity
to the moral principle, than the habitual regard to the will
of an omniprefent being, and an habitual defire of his appro-
bation. ;

10. Much may be done by the proper regulation and
communication of external impreffions, (operating bile 4
by fenfation, and {till more through the medium of the af-
fociated feelings,) towards the formation, growth, ftrength,
and purity of fome difpofitions, and towards the prevention,
reltraint, or eradication of others; yet, throughout, we
muft be extremely careful fo to dire& and moderate our ef-
forts, that we do not proceed beyond the natural progrefs of
the mind, that we do not, through fear of their exceffes,
lay too violent a reftraint upon principles of real, though
fubordinate and temporary value ; and that we do not, from
a fenfe of their great importarce, too rapidly halten the
growth of others. In fhort, having from philofophy and
experience obtained juft views of the nature of the moral
principles of the mind, their origm, progrefs, and termina-
tion, we mult carefully follow nature. The confctentious
parent is fometimes as much in danger of attempting too
much, as others are of doing too little. We recollect fee.
ing, fome years back, (in one of our mott popular periodi-
cal publications,) an animated paper, defigned to reftrain the
exceffive anxiety of parents, which was attributed by fome
to the pen of a writer eminently qualified to aid the reli-
gious parent in the works of education, and refpecting whom
our only fubjeét of regret iv, that fhe has not done more,
—the author of Hymns in Profe. Parental folicitude fhould

always

MORAL EDUCATION.

always be put under the guidance of patience, good fenfe,
cand experience, and, if poflible, of mental philofophy.
Ill. The Moral Senfe, or Confeience.—The confcience is
that internal principle, which, without reafoning, without
dire&t refletion on the con/iquences of aétions, or even on

their obligation, at once approves certain difpofitions or ac- |

tions, or courfe of ations, as right, and as what we ought
to cultivate ard prattife, and at once difapproves of certain
difpofitions and aétions, or courfe of a€tions, as wrong, and
as what we ovght to check and avoid. The human mind is
fo formed, that fuch a principle will fpring up in it, if the
individual is placed in circum{tances common to almoft every
human being. This, univerfal experience proves; and it
isa queftion of no great importance, though by no means
difficult to be decided, whether, if a human being could
grow up to maturity, without having from infarcy any in-
tercourfe with his fellow men, and without any fupernatural
impreffions, he would manifeft any fuch principle. What is
of the greateft importance, is, that its dictates ave not uni-
verfally the fame, and that it is an improvable principle ;
that to give it early correéinefs and vigour, requires great
¢are on the part of thefe who are concerned in the early pe-
riods of education ; and that to give it its due fenfibility,
accuracy, and influence, requires the ufe of fuitable means
in every period of life.

Tf the diftates of the confcience were at all times the fame,
or it were not an improvable principle, the rules of revela-
tion and all moral culture would be ufelefs. We cannot
doubt that the contrary is the cafe. In the heathen mora-
lity, as Hartley cbferves, taken generally, fome of the
higher virtues which Chriitianity points out to our attention
and obfervarce, were omitted, and fome were even the obje&
of contempt : many enormous vices were permitted ; fome
were even recommended : ambition, of the moft felfifh kind,
was efteemed virtuous; and many kinds and degrees of hu-
mility were treated with reproach and contempt. And, as
to the devout affeGtions, they were deftitute of love, and
their fear was fuperftition. “ The heathen philofophers,”’
fays Paley, “‘ though they have advanced ‘fine fayings and
fublime precepts in fome points of morality, -have grofsly
failed in others;’? and he brings forward a feries of in-
ilances, in juftification of his remarks, from, among the moft
eminent and excellent of the ancient philofophers, which are
fufficient to fhew the inellimable value of the morality of the

ofpel, as well as to prove the point in queftion. (See
Merle? interefting and valuable Life of Paley, p. 340.)
‘“< There is fearcely a vice,’’ he elfewhere obferves, ‘* which
in fome age or country of the world has not been coun-
tenanced by public opinion.”” And what-diverfity do we
perceive at prefent ? Even among thofe whofe minds are
cultivated, but not brought under the reftraininf guidance
of religion, we hear murder, under the name of duelling,
vindicated, and even applauded 3 and we find the Chriltian’s
forbearance and forgivenefs reprobated as meannefs and
cowardice. How common is it, even where perfons are
really on the whole influenced by religious principle, to de-
part, without hefitation, from the ftri¢t dictates of Chrif-
tian integrity or truth, where the end, as they think, is a
good one, and fuch as to juttify the means; and in fome
inftances even to approve of direct falfehood and prevarica-
tion, where their feelings of benevolence prompt them to
endeavour to prevent fome fuppofed inconvenience on the
part of others, or to obtain fome fuppofed good for them.
Thofe who have had much experience, and have paid much
attention to what paffes within them, though they may feel
the decifions of their confciences to be generally correé,
can fearcely fail to call to mind inftances, in which they have

acted under the conviétion Paes be condu&t was rights
when further reflection and @kamination have led them
to believe the contrary ; and thofe who are not able to re-
trace inflances in which their con{fciences aGtually approved
of what they afterwards thought wrong, will be able to per-
ceive a progrefs in the correétnefs and extent, the readinefs
and vigour, of the decifion of their confcience.

Thofe who have had much concern in the early education
of children, can feel no difficulty in tracing (generally at
leaft) the progrefs of the moral principle : and correé views
as to the laws and operations of the human mind, leave us
little room to doubt, that its pleafures and pains are formed,
like all other mental pleafures and pains, by the ever aGtive
principle of affociation, conneéting, combining, and blend-
ing together a vaft variety of feelings, more or lefs com-
plex, fo as to form from them a fet of feelings, moft power-
fully influencing the conduct, and contributing mott effen-
tially to the happinefs or wretchednefs of the individual.
Thefe feelings are derived from, and confift of, all the other
pleafures and pains of our nature, fo far as they are confift-
ent with ene another, with the frame of our nature, and
with the courfe of the world. (See Hartley, vol. i. prop.
99-) They are continually prefenting themfelves, urging
to fhun fome branches of condu@, and to purfue others, re-
warding us for our obedience with fome of our pureft and
belt fatisfa€tions, and punifhing us for our neglect and dif-
obedience, with emotions always painful, and fometimes fo
agonizing, that life lofes all its relifh, and all the pleafures
which have been purchafed by flighting its warnings, lofe
their power to give more than temporary relief. As foon as
the moral principle begins to appear, a great variety of impref-
fions, fome defignedly communicated, and others produced
as it were accidentally, begin to conneét with the terms
good and right (aud others fimilar to them) pleafing feelings,
derived directly from fenfaticn, or from the approbation of
friends, &c.; and with the words wicked, wrong, &c. pain-
ful feelings, ia like manner derived dire@tly from fenfation,
or from the feelings of fhame. If children have the hap-
pinefs to have parents, whofe ideas refpeCting duty are gene-
rally correct, thefe feelings will be properly dire@ed; and
they will then be increafed, ftrengthened, and rendered
more and more lively, by the continual addition of many
others, derived from various fources. If not, there will be
a proportionable deficiency, or erroneoufnefs, in the dictates
of the confcience, which will be to be correGted, if correéted
at all, by experience, or by increafed knowledge, afforded
by the Scriptures, or fome other rule of life, refpeGting
duty, andthe confequences of performing or negleéting it.

But fuppofing the generally favourable, and not uncom-
mon cafe, (where an individual has had the advantage of an
early correct direction of his moral feelings,)—here all the
pleafures arifing- from the exercife of the filial affections, all
the pains arifing, as natural ‘confequences, or as direé pu-
nifhment, from difobedience, or neglect of parental injunc-
tions, contribute their fhare to ftrengthen and enliven thefe
feelings. As foon as fome knowledge of God and of a
future life has been obtained, the affections which are form-
ed towards God, the hope of future happinefs, and the
dread of future mifery, begin to add to the vigour and ex-
tent of the feelings of confcience ; and they continually, and
through life, contribute thofe impreffions, which powerfully
tend to give life, activity, and energy, to its pleafures and
pains, while at the fame time they correét and confirm its
dictates. Separate from this fource, though not independent
of it, the beneficial tendency of right conduét and difpofi-
tion, and the injurious tendency of the contrary, with re-
fpe& to the happinefs both of the individval and of others,

2 iw

MORAL EDUCATION.

in the way of intere(t, gr reputation, or focial comfort,
whether the refult of srtikcsice, or obfervation, or pointed
out in a lefs impreffive, yet often effe€tual way, by the in-
ftru@tions of parents, &c. add to the ftrength and livelinefs
of the emotions of approbation and difapprobation.
Though the feelings of the moral fenfe have a general
agreement in their force and dire@tion in different individuals
who have enjoyed the ufual advantages for the cultivation of
the confcience, yet even in them the component parts mutt
be very confiderable, both in kind and degree ; and without
attempting, therefore, to enter into-a minute account of the
formation of thofe very complicated feelings, compofed, as
they are, of a vaft variety of other feelings, themfelves
greatly complicated, it may be fufficient to obferve, that
every pleafing or painful impreffion, received in conne¢tion
with right or wrong condu&, contributes towards the for-
mation or growth of the pleafures and pains of confcience-;
every infance in which approbatton, reward, or any other
good confequences, are aétually experienced, or are obferved
to be experienced by others, in confequence of right con-
dué ; every inftance in which the mind is led to perceive the
beneficial tendency of right condu&, its fuitablenefs to the
courfe of providence, and to the frame of man; every in-
{tance in which our own right condu& does good, or gives
plealing fatisfsGtion to others, efpecially to thofe whom we
love ; every inftance in which the heart is impreffed with the
conviGtion, that he who is greater than the heart, knows and
approves of fincere and dutiful obedience to his commands ;
every thoughtful reflection on the infinitely blifsful confe-
quences of a courfe of fteady obedience to duty ;" and every
inftance in which the prefent fupports of obedience are ex-
perienced, or perceived in others, — contributes its fhare to-
wards the formation and ftrength of thofe feelings of love and
approbation of what is confidered as our duty, which make
the contemplation of right actions and difpofitions a fource
of delightful emotion, and which feward the performance
of the one and the exercife and culture of the other, by that
approving teftimory which has often been an abundant re-
campence forthe greateft pains and privations to which duty
may dire. And, on the other hand, every inftance in
which difpleafure, fhame, punifhment, or any other ill con-
fequences, are a€tually experienced, or are obferved to be
experienced by others, in confequence of wrong condud,
or in which the mind is led to perceive its injurious tenden-
cy, its unfuitablenefs to the courfe of providence, and to the
frame of man; every inftance in which our own wrong con-
du& does injury, or gives painful regret to others, efpe-
cially to thofe whom we love ; every inftance in which the
thoughtful convistion is excited, that he who knoweth
every fecret of the heart, 18 difpleafed with difobedience, and
that the confequence of every aét of difobedience, of every
indulgence of wrong difpofition, of every negleé of duty,
and the affections enjoined by it, will, in his all righteous ordi-
nations, be followed by its proportionate diminution of hap-
pinefa, or increafe of mifery, probably in this life, but cer-
ry inftance in which the prefent pains
of confcienct experienced, or obferved in others, in
confequence of negleét of its di€tates, or difobedience to
t! —con‘ributes its fhare towards the formation and
ttrength of thofe lively feelings of difapprobation or even
bhorrence, with which we c mntemplate what, in others, i9

tainly in anoth

idered asinconliltent with, or contrary to, duty, and of
remor{s, in confequence of wrong actions and difpofitions
in ourfelves, which punifh the performance of the one, and
the ind nk f the other, with pains which often exceed

in vivida thers to which the human being is expofed

in this world, which, though fometimes overcome by the

buftle and pleafures of the world, feldom fail to revive in the
period of worldly diitrefs, or in the time of ficknefs and
the apprehenfion of death, and which will in all probability
conflitute a great part of the punifhment of futurity.

The account which we have given of the nature cf the
moral principle, affords to thofe who are concerned in early
education, a {trong motive to do what they can to give ac-
curacy and extent to their views of duty; to heighten the
pleafures and pains of the confcience, fo as to beara due
proportion to the degree in which wrong actions are injurious
or right ones important ; and to lead them, by all the means
in their power, by inftruétion, by praife and cenfure, by re-
ward, by difcipline, and by example, to a conftant fubmif-
fion to its decifions. It fhews the great importance of be-
ginning early, while the heart is not occupied by the plea-
fures and cares of the world; while it is free fromall preju-
dice againft duty ; while its fenfibilities are terder; and
while impreffions in favour of duty may be permanent.
Where the moral principle is cultivated early in life, there
is fomething to be effeGted by the exertions and inftru@tions
of others; by the warnings afforded by the courfe of provi-
dence ; and by the views of duty and its confequences, af-
forded by the gofpei. Where it has been negleéted, no ef-
forts can completely fupply the deficiency. The judgment
may be enlightened, but the confcience will never then ac-
quire its full ftrength, its vividnefs, and its power.

Thefe views, refpeGting the origin and growth of the
feelings of the moral fenfe, appear fufficient to lead the re-
flecting parent to all the principles of fundamental import-
ance in the culture of it; and we fhall only fubjoin a few
inferences and additional hints, which may aid a little in the
application of them.

1. We mutt, throughout, proportion our inftrnétions, as
well as our intentional impreflions, whether pleafurable or
painful, to the itrength and retinement of the confcience.
The principles we communicate, and the pleafures and
pains which we employ, thould be fuited to the general
progrefs of the mind in intellectual culture and refinement
of feeling, and to the ftate of the moral principle in par-
ticular. Motives, which at fome periods of the moral pro-
grefs would be moit advantageoufly employed, would be
prepofterous in others, either abfolutely ineffectual, or abfo-
lutely injurious.

2. The feelings of honour and fhame muft be employed
with great care, and conneéted principally, and in due pro-
portion, with right and wrong condué¢t and difpofitions. In
employing the former, however, efpecially in the later periods
of education, it fhould feldom be by the direct expreffion of
praife in conneétion with particular actions, but by appro-
bation given to fimilar ations in others, and the like indire&
means. Nearly allied to this obfervation we may remark,

3. That care fhould be taken fo to regulate our modes
of expreffion in converfation, that feelings of approbation
er difapprobation fhould be affociated in the minds of our
children, in fomething like a fuitable proportion to the
value of different qualities or a¢tions.—If children hear
us exprefs as much approbation, and in the fame terms, of
the {kill of a gentleman coach-driver, of the abilities of a
philofophical leGturer, and of an individual who has ju{t per-
formed an elevated a&tof difinterefted virtue, is it poflible
that they fhould not feel great confufion of ideas? if each
is termed a noble fellow, and with the fame emphafis and ani-
mation, how can the youthful underftanding calculate with
fufficient accuracy, to appreciate the import of the ex-
preffion, in the fame way that we fhould do? We have
taken a fomewhat peculiar cafe, but it may ferve a little to
fhew the neceflity of attention to the power of words. If

the

a?

Sli

at Oe

“98g

MORAL EDUCATION.

the influence of affociation were left out of view, that
power muft be deemed magical. It is one grand means,
(indeed the grand means,) not only in the communication
of knowledge, but in the regulation of the defires and af-
fe€tions, and the transfer of them to appropriate objects.
4. We cannot, however, prevent the formation of incor-
reét aflociations ; and it is of fingular importance, that we
accuftom our children to the utmoit opennefs of difpofition,
fo that we may employ fuitable means of corre&tion. The
parent, who has acquired the frank confidence of his chil-
dren, has a means, of incalculable importance, of knowing
the erroneous judgments and feelings which they form re-
f{peéting moral principles, and of gradually correéting them.
If fufficient care 1s.taken in the early formation of the
moral principles, and, as the mental progrefs permits, in
fhewing their foundation, erroneous ones will feldom gain
much hold on the mind, unlefs f{upported by the affections;
and we may fometimes be fatisfied to leave them to be cor-
reGted by the gradual illumination of the mind and aétual
experience: but, in general, as error leads on to error,
efpecially if it accord with wrong moral biaffes, it is better
to avoid the caufes of error, and as much as we can, (with-
out attempting too much, and thereby eventually defeating
our objeé,) we fhould deftroy the falfe affociations, which
may lead to baneful confequences.—If an example be re-
quired, of the way in which we would endeavour to effe&
fuch feparation, we may give one, which may be ferviceable
in the later periods of education. Suppofe the ideas of
metit have been attached to that {purious kind of courage,
which leads a man to engage in a conteft, in which the life
of one individual at leaft, and perhaps the happinefs of
feveral, may be facrificed at the fhrine of offended honour ;
—our aim mutt be to affociate the dreadful confequences of
his conduét with the conduG itfelf; to bring into view the
injury to fociety from the violation of its laws, and the
lofs of a perhaps ufeful member; the injury to the connec-
tions of the individual, from the cruel breach made in their
peace and means of shappinefs ; and the injury to the in-
dividual himfelf, by haftening his period of probation with
this additional guilt upon his head: even the injury done to
the avenger of wounded honour, by cultivating the feelings

of refentment, by loofening the reftraints of paffion, may °

be added to the mafs of evils refulting from the exercife of
private revenge. Thefe things frequently brought into
view in fufficient detail, as opportunities direct, and events
furnifh impreffive illuftration, mutt gradually weaken, and
eventually deftroy, the affociation already formed; mutt af-
fociate demerit, inftead of merit, with the condu@ of the
duellift, and attach the idea of merit ftrongly to him, who
nobly refifts the opinion of the world with refpe& to honour,
and declines obedience to the laws, which it impofes, when
in oppofition to thofe of confcience and of God.

5. We may here hint at the great importance of care in
the feleGion and employment of books; and in the proper
regulation of foreign interference in education, during efpe-
cially its early periods. We do not object to the occafional
employment of works of fi€tion, calculated to bring into
view the application of moral principles; but thofe prin-
ciples fhould be correét. When this is the cafe, fuch works
often do much to fupply the want of experience, and to
imprefs ftrongly on the mind the effets of right and wrong
conduct. Not that the moral fhould be formally brought
into view; children will, in fuch cafes, ufually pafs over
it, to go on with the itory; but, if worth any thing, the
narrative will of itfelf communicate the moral. The great
point is, that the effeéts difplayed fhould be natural ; fo
that the expectations, as to the prefent confequences| of

right conduct, may not be raifed to a rofnantic height, or.
the influence of the narrative deftroyed by its obvious im-
probability. The idea fhould be forcibly impreffed, that
the direGtions of duty muft be the primary confideration ;
its prefent confequences fhould be only fecondary motives.
—Children fhould have as little to urlearn refpe:ig moral
as phyfical truth ; and parents fhould therefo e read, with a
parent’s eyes, the books which they put into their ch’l-
dren’s hands. We do not wifh, that every thing fhou ¢ be
omitted which is not corre&t and found in principle; but
opportunities fhou!d be fought and employed, to lead to
difcrimination and correCtion.

6. it is of great importance for the confirmation and cor-
reCtion of moral principles, that the young fhould be early
led to exercife their underftandings on them, and to give
their opinion, and the grounds of it, on queilions of moral
conduct, fuited to their progrefs and circumitences. If a
proper degree of mental humility have been preferved, fo
as to leave the heart open to conviétion. fuch an employ-
ment cannot fail to be eminently ufeful, in the corroboration,
extenfion, and correGtion of the dictates of the confcience.
—They fhould alfo be led to compare thofe diétates with
fixed rules of duty of general application, and to determine
their correétnefs, on the contrary, by the comparifon. The
moral fenfe is greatly benefited by early habits of felf-
infpe¢tion.

7. The paffing occurrences of life will often afford us a
valuable aid in the impreffion of moral principles on the
mind. In fome inftances, the effects of right or wrong
conduct can be clearly fhewn to the young, by aétual ob-
fervation; in others, without naming the individual, the
nature and confequences of his departure from duty, may
be forcibly brought into view.—Thefe (and fimilar means)
mutt, however, be employed, only when the underftanding
is alive to perceive the conneGtion, and when the feelings are
not pre-occupied or languid. —Next to them in their effects,
and in fome inftances far beyond them, is the animated de-
tail of the biographer. The clafs of praétical biography
(in which of courfe we include the biographical fa¢ts con-
tained in the fcriptures) is of eminent value in moral (as
well as often in intelle€tual) education ; and the earlier the
mind receives a bias to fuch reading the better. It is one
ill effe@ of the prefent profufion of « little novels,” that
they, (like the novels of more advanced periods,) where
too freely perufed, deftroy the zeit for fober realities, how-
ever well told. We do-not clafs a// tales under the head
jult mentioned. Some we have already referred to with
general decided approbation (though in fome inftances not
quite fatisfaGtory refpeCting the confequences of right con-
duct) ; and we will mention another of great intereft and
value, Saltzman’s “* Elements of Morality ;’’ a work which
admirably fulfils the promife of its title. The plates fhould
never have been omitted; though their effe&t would not
be leffened, if they were reduced a little nearer to modern
coftume.

8. Biography, when moft minute, and therefore moit
valuable, brings into view the caufes and effects of aGtions
in their connections; and this is one great advantage of it.
It has another, where it is alfo faithful, that it prepares
the mind to expeét, (what not even the cultivation of habi-
tual candour fhould prevent being brought into view, in
real life, on impreflive opportunities,) that, in the good,
mixed with excellencies, will be found qualities which
ought not to be approved and imitated; and among the
bad, qualities which tend to render their condu& attrac-
tive. The mind, we are again led to obferve, fhould be
habituated to diftinguifh the caufes of its approbation and

4 difap-

MORAL EDUCATION.

difapprobation. A found difcriminating judgment is of the
utmolt fervice as the bafis of moral culture.

g. The habit fhould be very early begun, of attending
to the.di€tates of the confcience. Children may be early
led to think of them, and be guided by them. We have
noticed decided indications of great correétnefs and ftrength
of moral principle in a child of five years old. It was an
important dire€tion, which, we are told, a dying mother

ave her fon, early to learn to fay ¢¢> no.—Our rule
through life fhould be to enlighten and obey the confcience ;
and the rule cannot be a€ted upen too foon.

10. Though the moral fenfibility of the mind fhould not
be allowed to degenerate into frivolous f{crupulofity, it
fhould be kept lively, and made extenfive in its application.
In conne&tion with this principle, we may farther obferve,
that the mind fhould not be too much accrftomed to
aGtual or fiGtitious fcenes of criminality. Buchanan relates,
that the fcenes of brutal fenfuality and barbarous cruelty,
with which the worfhip of Juggernaut is attended, feem
to produce little painful feeling inthe minds of the Englifh
officers, who refide near the temple of the Eaft Indian
Moloch. « They faid, they were fo accuftomed to them,
that they thought little of them: they had almoft forgotten
their firft imprefiions.”” . The vivid feelings of the conicience
will, in all probability, be leffened by intercourfe with the
world ; but they fhould not be worn ovt before the moral
principle, from habitual exercife, has gained power enorgh
to do without them.

11. The faét referred to in the laft paragraph is only one
inftance of the operation of a moft important priiiciple, a
principle of the moft extenfive application; that feelings
become lefs vivid by repetition, while habitual motives be-
come more powerful by exercife. Be the habit what it
may, the effeét of cuftom is to increafe its power. We find
it to be the cafe in thofe little peculiarities of gefture, of
tone, of look, which give the external charaCteriftics to the
individual; and {lil more fo, in our mental and moral pro-
ceffes of every kind. Its influence extends to our trains of
thought refpecting the palt and prefent, to the operations
of imagination ref{peCting the future, and to our internal mo-
tives and habitual tendencies. “Appetite, thought, emotion,
paffion, defire, affeGtion, and ation, are all fubje@ to the
fame law. With refpe& to feclings, repetition gradually
leflens their vividnefs. This is the cafe with the feelings of
compaffion, for inftance, excited by the frequent contem-
plation of fictitious, or even of real diftrefs. ‘The fenfi-
bilities which are defigned to excite to benevolent exertion,
and which, if thus employed, while they become lefs ardent,
will produce more and more confirmed habits of aétive bene-
volence, if they are allowed to fpend themfelves in mere
feeling, lofe not only their vividnefs, but their vigour.
They may continue to delude their poffeffors with the idea
that they have really the feelings of compaffion, becaufe,
from long habit, the tear ftarts at the tale of woe; but if
compared with their former ftate, they would appear life-
lefs; and they muft be pronounced worthlefs, becaufe they
are unproductive of any efforts or privations for the gocd of
others. It is true, there are, in many inftances, means of
increafing the caufes of feeling, where the fame caufes would
lofe their efficacy, at lealt their impreflivenefs. The plea-
fures derived from the difcharge of duty, for inftance, are
all felf-confiftent, and they {pring from fuch numerous and
copious fources, that they increafe by employment in {ta-
bility and vigour, as well as purity ; but we think it cannot
be denied, that even thefe leffen in vividnefs, in the middle
and later periods of ife. Such indifputably is the general
Jaw of our frame. Familiarity with any feeling or impref-

fion renders it lefs vivid; and the principle leads to an im-
portant rule in education, that where it refpeéts important
moral views and motives, (which ought to have influence in
the mind, but which will be oppofed by various external
circumftances and internal difpofitions,) the one fiould not
be excited, nor the other produced, except when the un-
derftanding and affe€tions can be made to receive them, fo
that they may contribute fomething towards the formation
of the charafter. Conne¢ted with thefe remarks we muft
add, as what may be of ufe, efpecially in the later periods
of education,

12. That the feelings fhould never be exceffively excited.
[ We are aware that fuch ftatements are indefinite; but our
objet is to lead judicious parents to think on what we re-
gard important principles of the human mind, and to attempt
the application of them.] Repeated and ftrong excitement
of feeling is ufually followed by inability to derive pleafure
even from thofe external objeéts, which, if the mind were in
its natural ftate, would readily yield to it; by imability to
relifh the common comforts of life, or to engage with fatis-
fa&ion in its common duties; and, indeed, for a time at
leatt, by inability to enjoy again thofe emotions, which,
while they lafted, feemed to raife the mind to the higheit
pitch of delight. Exceffive excitement of feeling, be the
obje& what it may, is always attended with fimilar effects ;
and thofe ought to be moft carefully guarded againit it, who
are moft prone to it, whofe feelings are lively and imagina-
tion ftrong. It is very apt to make the thoughts and defires
centre in perfonal happinefs. ‘here is a virtuous, a reli-
gious fenfibility ; and where this 1s properly regulated, it
conduéts to high excellence of charaéter; but there is alfo
a felfith fenfibilicy, acutely alive to every feeling and want
which refpeéts itfelf: there is a morbid, a fickly fenfibility,
which fpends itfelf in feeling, which feldom produces any
valuable exertions, which fhrinks from felf-denial and priva-
tions, which makes even benevolence itfelf a burden; and
this is often originally produced or greatly cultivated by ex-
ceflive excitement of feeling. Where the fenfibiliry is di-
re€ted in a religious channel, there is often great necefliy
for caution. Where the feelings are not employed as the
aStuating motives to that regulation of the difpofitions and
the conduét, in which religion really confifts, however much
they may be made to light up the flames of enthufiattic
emotions, of imaginary piety, they will by degrees lofe all
their real worth, acquire a merely felfifh charaéter, and at
Jatt fink into a ftate in which the whole power of religion
will be loft. Wherever the parent perceives fuch tendencies
of the mind, as may condu& to thefe deplorable effe&s,
they fhould be peculiarly careful to lead their children from
the indulgence of feelings which have no dire&t reference to
duty and the welfare of others, and from the exceflive in-
dulgence of any; to lead them, as much as pof_ible, to
employ thefe feelings in fome ufeful channel, and to attend
to the common concerns and duties of life; and to cenfine
them, (not of courfe by compulfion,) ina great meafure,
to thofe purfuits, whofe direct tendency it is to ftrengthen
and cultivate the powers of the under{tanding, to the partial
or entire exclufion of thofe which enliven and excite the
fenfibility and the imagination. And the fame means may
be of fervice, where the period of parental education is at
an end.

13. Though we cannot enlarge upon the obfervation, yet
we mu(t add, that the cultivation of genuine opennefs and
{trict veracity is of the utmoft confequence, for their own
fake, and in connetion with the moral progrefs.in general,
and efpecially with the habit of integrity in all its branches.
‘The habit of truth fhould be the object of affiduous se

§ bot

MORAL EDUCATION.

both becaufe it deferves it, and becaufe it requires it. Under
the head of Memory, in INTELLECTUAL Education, we have
already made fome remarks on the grand mental caufe of
falfehood. Fear, in all its directions, (whether of fenfible
pains or privations, of parental difpleafure, of difgrace,
&e.) is the moft powerful moral caufe: and firmnefs of
mind, and habitual confidence, mutt be cultivated with a
view to prevent it. If no deception (we go beyond the di-
re& employment of aétual falfehood) be ever employed in
our intercourfe with our children; if truth, in all its
branches, be con{tantly the fubjeét of our approbation, and
departures from it, (however marked with ingenuity, wit,
or even good intentions,) of our difapprobation ; if our, re-
proofs and punifhments be not too fevere; if the confe-
quences of ill conduét be as far as poffible alleviated, where
followed by a frank avowal of it; if confidence be given
with caution that it be not mifplaced, (and thus falfehood
encouraged by fuccefs,) yet that caution do not degenerate
into fufpicion ; if wilful departures from truth be uniformly
affociated, in a reafonable degree, with their natural effects
in a want of confidence ; if more direé&t and powerfui punifh-
ment be employed where this means is inadequate, (as it
fometimes will be, fince, without deception, we cannot give
the idea that we difbelieve the lying child as much or as
long as the lying man ;) if moral and religious principle be
employed, as occafion mzy require and dire, to aid the
reprefentations of prudence; the effect of all will be de-
cidedly and permanently beneficial ; the love of truth, and
the habit of veracity, will grow and flourifh; falfehood will
become the obje& of fhame and abhorrence and will be
habitually and carefully fhunned, as an evil of incalculable
magnitude. Mifs Edgeworth’s Chapter on Truth, we
have already referred to. Thofe who follow us with fatis-
faction in our next divifion will, in fome inftances, go far-
ther than fhe does: but it is an excellent chapter; and fome
of her tales in ‘ The Parent’s Affiftant” will afford a real
afliftance to parents, in the cultivation of this ineftimable
quality, and of integrity in general.

14- Some other hints, refpeting the means and manner
of cultivating the moral fenfe, may be derived from the re-
marks in the next general divifion: and we fhall only add
here, preparatory to it, that the cultivation of the religious
principle is of the utmoft confequence, to give vigour, fta-
bility, purity, and correétnefs to the confcience.

IV. Larly religious Education.— Religious truths are thofe
which immediately refpect the character of God, and his
dealings with mankind. Religious affedions are thofe which
gradually rife up in the mind from impreffions, or reflections,
refpeéting the charaéter and dealings of God; for inftance,
gratitude for his goodnefs, awe of his power, reverence for
his greatnefs and knowledge, fear of his difpleafure, defire
of his anprobation, obedience to his will, confidence in his
wifdom and mercy. When religious truths are accompanied
with the correfponding religious affections, and thereby in-
fluence the conduét, they are called religious principles ; and
the affections themfelves, when they influence the conduét,
are alfo called religious principles. A man cannot be {aid
to have religious principles, merely becaufe he believes there
is a God, and has right ideas as to his chara¢ter and dealings.
Religious truth may be poffeffed, without its influencing
the heart and life; and when that is the cafe, a man cannot
truly be faid to be a religions man, nor his principles re-
ligious. Whatever thofe opinions and defires are, which in-
fluence the difpofitions and the conduét, thofe are our prin-
eiples; and if they are inconfitent with religion, or at leaft
have nothing to do with religion, we are not religious, and

cannot be faid to live religioufly. It appears defirable to
mention thefe things, plain as they certainly are, becaufe
many, it is to be feared, imagine that they are giving their
children religious principles, when they are only teaching them
religious truths. If thefe influence the condué, it mutt be
by their exciting hopes and fears, defire and love: if awe
and reverence, love and gratitude, the defire to pleafe, and
fear to offend, be not produced in the ycuthful heart, it is
of comparatively little confequence that we teach them to
repeat, or even to underftand the moft important truths
refpeting God. Religious knowledge may exift without
religious affeétions ; and it is perhaps becaufe this diftinétion
is not fufficiently obferved, that fo many unhappily fuppofe
that religious principle is ea/ily acquired, and even that it
will come of itfelf. Where the underftanding is tolerably
well cultivated, a confiderable degree of religious knowledge
may be gained by any one without much trouble. We have
only to read our bibles, and we mufl learn from them the
mot important truths. We have only to frequent the
houfe of religious worfhip and inftru€tion, or read fuch
books as are acceffible to almoft every one, and we fhall be
able to gain pretty clear and accurate views as to the import,
and extent, and connetion of thofe truths. All this is very
ufeful, and it is an excellent foundation for right affections ;
and it ferves to ftrengthen and enliven them, where they have
been formed: but all will not do without the affections
themfelves. Perhaps it may be truly faid, that a young
perfon, of a good underltanding, and a ready retentive me-
mory, may gain, by a day’s in{truction, an acquaintance
with all the grand leading truths of religion. But can any
one truly affirm, that thus the love and fear of God may be
acquired, as habitual affections of the mind; that thus they
may be made a¢tuating principles of the condu&? Daily
experience mult convince us, that it is only by careful and
long continued cultivation of thofe affections, that we can
give them fufficient power to enable them to regulate our
condu& and difpofition ; and this even where they have hap-
pily been early and fuccefsfully implanted by wife and re-
hgious parents and friends: and experience muft convince
us how difficult this cultivation becomes, where it has been
early and long negle€ted ; and this in proportion to the de-
gree in which it has been negleéted, in proportion to the
degree in which our prevailing habits and difpofitions are con-
fiftent or inconfittent with religious principle.

With refpeé& to the communication of religious know-
ledge, the bulinefs of parents is, in the early ftages of edu-
cation, comparatively plain and eafy: indeed the chief
danger is attempting to do too much. The progrefs of the
underftanding is neceffarily flow; and as much injury may
be done by endeavouring to haften it too much, as by fuf-
fering it to go on without dire& cultivation. We mutt,
therefore, aim to proportion the communication of truth to.
the faculties of thofe who are to receive it. The moft im-
portant truths ref{pecting the attributes and dealings of God
are the moft fimple; and though even thefe cannot be fully
comprehended by achild, yet they can be fo far underftood,
as to lay the foundation of religious affeétions and of reli-
gious condué&. It may not be defirable, in the earlieft
periods of inftru€tion, to communicate all thofe truths to-
gether, or to dwell long at a time upon them: oppor-
tunities too fhould be chofen, when the little mind is alive
and aétive, but at the fame time difpofed for thovght; but
they fhould be frequently chofen. When once fome notions
refpe€ting God have been introduced into the mind, they
fhould not be allowed to efcape, nor to lie unemployed, but

fhould often be repeated, and connected with various other
thoughts

MORAL EDUCATION.

thoughts which naturally lead to them, and particularly
with thofe which are pleafing, and likely of themfelves to be
repeated. For inflance, children fhould be taught, when
any obfervation of their own leads them to it, that it is God
who keeps us alive, that it is God who takes care of us,
that he made the different objets which attraét their atten-
tion, that it is he who makes the leaves and the grafs grow,
and the fields look beautiful, &c. Need we apologize for
this minutenefs? If it fhould prove ufeful to any of thofe
refpectable mothers who are endeavouring to give their chil-
dren early religious knowledge, or to any of thofe who
may hereafter fill that important relation, we are fatisfied.
Perhaps before any ideas refpe€ting the Supreme Being
are introduced into the mind of a child, circumftances may
have led the parent to {peak to him of the good Jefus.
Moft perfons who have accefs to books, have epportunities
of fhewing their children pittures of the gofpel hiftory ; and
though thefe may not {uit the taite or underftanding of thofe
whofe minds are cultivated, yet if they are tolerably correét,
they have a very important effect in giving diftin&t and vivid
conceptions refpeGting our Saviour, and thereby produce an
interelt in feveral circumftances related in the gofpels, which
may be made intelligible to a mind fcarcely capable of re-
ceiving the idea of God. But when a child has been taught
the leading truths refpeting God, then’ the chief truths
refpeGting Jefus fhould be conneéted with them: for in-
ftance, that he was fent by God to tell us that we fhall live
again, and to teach us what God would have us do, how we
may pleafe God, and what will difpleafe him. If we do not
think it neceflary to go beyond the plain declarations of our
Saviour himfelf, in relation to his nature, little or no diffi-
culty can attend our inftru€tions refpecting him: they may
be made intelligible and interefting to thofe who are too
young to form any very diftin& idea refpecting the Supreme
Being, and at the fame time will tend to aid the recurrrence
of the thoughts of God, when they have been formed.
Children at firit, probably always, conceive of God as
having a human form; but though this can {carcely be pre-
vented, and may not be injurious in the earlielt periods of
their religious culture, yet we ought to avoid fixing the idea
in their minds, by any vifible reprefentations of the Supreme
Being. We have feen fuch reprefentations; and however
unexceptionable in themfelves, (which all are not, for fome
are calculated to deftroy devotion,) we are fatisfied that they
ought to be left in the way of children. The ufe of them
may aid the conceptions in the firft inftance, but they will
afterwards have a direétly contrary effect, and they muft im-
pede the refinement of our ideas. Our aim fhould be, to
proportion our inftru€tions refpeéting God to the under-
itandings of our children; and we fhould therefore at firft
confine ourfelves to the moft fimple and impreffive truths;
but it fhould always be our endeavour, though we cannot
communicate the whole truth, to give them nothing but the
truth. Children will form imperfeét and incorreét ideas,
which will be to be gradually fupplied and correéted after-
wards; but, if poffible, an exprefs declaration on the part
of the parent fhould never be fuch as muft be, or ought to
be, rejeied, as the underftanding becomes more matured.
When and how fhall we begin to teach our children re-
{peéting God? has, we doubt not, been the folicitous en-
quiry of many religious parents. “To feel the full force
of the idea of God,”’ fays Mrs. Barbauld, in the preface of
her admirable, aiid indeed invaluable, hymns, ‘a child fhould
never remember the time when he had no fuch idea ;” and
in this fentiment we cordially agree. As foon as the under-
flanding ofa child appears fufficiently unfolded to form fome

notion of the infpeétion and agency of an unfeen being, the
firft opportunity which prefents itfelf fhould be chofen, and
a few impreffive thoughts introduced, which afterwards, in
all probability, will often excite the enquiries ef the child,
and lead on to the gradual communication of all that 1s ne-
ceflary. At what period the underftanding may be expeéted
to be thus unfolded, cannot, we imagine, be exactly fpe-
cified ; but it will probably be found to be before the age of
three or four years. Nor can any definite advice be given
re{peCting the mode of firft introducing thefe thoughts; but
if a parent be fufficiently defirous of finding opportunities,
they will not be long wanting, particularly in reference to
the younger children.

There can be little doubt that the belt mode of early re-
ligious inftruétion, is by converfation; and that in almoit
every period of it, this fhould, as much as poffible, be en-
couraged, provided that care be conitantly taken, to make
it confiftent with the reverence with which we fhould always
think and fpeak of God. But it will feldom be long after
a child has learned fomething of God before he is able to
read refpeGting him. His attention fhould then be led to
fome of the moft impreflive and interefting paflages of the
bible, with which parents fhould alfo make themfelves fa-
miliar ; and perhaps not long after it may he defirable to
lead him to learn {ome of the moft ‘{triking expreflions re-
fpeting the attributes of God; fuch for inftance as are con-
tained in the 103d, 139th, and 145th pfalms. In this ftate
of religious initruGtion, fome of Mrs. Barbauld’s hymns
may be advantageoufly read, and perhaps committed to me-
mory; as alfo fome of Dr. Watts’s, either in the ftate in
which they were left by the author, or as altered by later
editors (according to the views of the parent) ; and for the
fame purpofes, we cannot but mention a very fuperior little
publication, entitled Hymns for Infant Minds. Many of
thefe hymns are in every refpeét unexceptionable, contaming
fimple, affeGting, and often elegant itatemenis, of the fun-
damental principles of piety, and of Chriitian truth and duty
in general; and the reft may, in private ufe, be either al-
tered, or omitted, at the difcretion of the parent. They
proceed, we believe, from the fame fource as ‘ My mother,’
the delight of affectionate children, and (except the laft
verfe) truly excellent in itfelf, and in its effecis on their
minds. About the fame period, (which will probably be
about four or five years of age,) the plan of catechizing may
be advantageowly begun. - A-firft catechifm fhould be very
fhort, and as fimple as poflible. The grand advantage of
this mode of religious in{truction is, to lead to converfation,
and to the gradual explanation of the more ufual terms
refpeGing religious truth and duty, which will effentially
contribute to prepare the way for farther information, ‘It
is objected to catechizing, (fays Dr. Priettley, in the pre-
face of his catechifm for children,) that, in this method of
inftru€&tion, we teach children the ufe of words, before we
can poflibly give them adequate ideas of their meaning ; and
therefore, that we only lead them to entertain a confufed and
wrong notion of thiigs, But this is, in faét, the cafe with
almoit every word a child learns ; and there is no remedy for
it. Children learn all words mechanically, by imitation ; and
from the fame principle, willeven repeat them in connection
with other words, long before they have any tolerable idea of
their meaning, as may be found by quettioning them about
the words they ufe. But by ufing them themfelves, and
hearing other perfons ufe them, ina great variety of con-
netions, they learn their true fenfe by ma This, how-
ever, is always work of time. Befides, an imperfect know-
ledge of things is often better than no knowledge at all. In

this

ee

MORAL EDUCATION.

this cafe, if a child do but entertain a very imperfect idea
of God, of his duty, and of a future flate, he will get fach
ideas as will be of fome ufe to him at prefent, but of much
more ufe as he grows up; and they will be of much more
ufe then, for having been imprefled early.”

We are decided advocates for the early employment of the
memory in the acquifition of religious knowledge ; and in
laying up a {tore of devotional compofitions and expreffions.
The full force of what is thus acquired cannot be underftood
at the time ; but fuch expreffions ferve as a bond of affocia-
tion for the ideas derived from future impreffions, and make
thefe more praétical ; and at the fame time prepare a fund of
the mott valuable and interefling occupation for-the mind,
when, from weaknefs or depreffion, the higher intellectual
faculties cannot be exerted. On this point, however, we
have already offered fome remarks in the fe€tion on Memory
in INTELLECTUAL Education ; and we fhall only obferve, that
from our own experience we feel confident that fuch occu-
pations need not, in any way, impede the pleafures of child-
hood. ‘Children who are properly trained,”’ fays Mr.
Edgeworth, (Prof. Ed. p. gt.) ‘*employ their thoughts
on ferious fubjeéts, without being urged to it.” We have
known the voluntary (and indeed unfuggefted) repetition of
Dr. Watts’s little hymn, beginning * Great God to thee my
voice I raife,’ (in a tone of ferious fweetnefs, fimplicity, and
quiet enjoyment, which we fhall never forget,) cheer a wake-
ful hour of the night, when the little creature (then between
five or fix years old) could not have any impreffion to deftroy
the feeling of folitude, and foothe to a tranquil compofure,
which made her fay, when fpoken to by her parents from an
adjoining room, that fhe was very happy. Such circum-
ftances fhould never be made the fubjeét of commendation to
a child; but we need not fay, that they reward the parents’
efforts and folicitude, as the early promife of moral worth.

Children cannot be too familiar with the hiftorical parts of
the bible ; and with thofe other parts which will affilt in cul-
tivating their ideas with refpe& to Godand duty. To give
them a few general notions of the {cripture hiftory, they may
learn fome fhort hiftorical catechifm (e. g. Dr. Watts’s, ei-
ther in its original or altered ftate) ; and when they are old
enough to underftand a regular abridgment of the bible, a
fimple and correé&t one, (fuch a one, we fhould fay, as Mr.
Turner’s,) will be found of great fervice in connecting to-
gether the feparate narratives which they read or hear.

It will alfo be of great importance, that parents fhould do
what they can to enable children to underftand what they
read; and here they will find the knowledge which they have
themfelves acquired, from various fources, in the earlier part
of their lives, of fingular advantage to them. If unhappily
they have too much negleéted the acquifition of fuch know-
ledge, {till if they are in earneft in the work, they will avail
themfelves of any opportunities which they may have of
gaining the requilite information; and perhaps it 1s not one
of the leaft advantages attendant upon this branch of reli-
gious education, that it makes a parent’s own knowledge
more complete and praétical.

In the early periods of religious inftru€tion, the object
muft be to communicate knowledge gradually ; in: the later
periods, to cultivate fuch a tafte as will lead young perfons
to feek for themfelves the fources of knowledge. If the cul-
tivation of the religious affections go hand in hand with the
communication of religious knowledge, fome intereft will be
felt in all religious knowledge which is intelligible ; and the
field is fo wide and interefting, and valuable and inftructive
books are now fo much in the power of every one, that if a
young perfon have acquired that tafte, and it is fufficiently
countenanced on the part of the patents, particularly by

VoL. XXIV.

early habit, the leifure of the Lord's day at leaft will feldom
fail to be given to the purfuit of religious knowledge.

It is of great importance in early ean inftruction, that
we fhould not attempt to explain to children what is beyond
the aGual ftate of their underftandings ; but accuftom them
to wait patiently until their minds are more adyanced. If
parents fufficiently poffefs the confidence of their children,
they wiil be readily fatisfied when they are told, with refpeét
to any difficulty, that they cannot underftand that now, but
that thofe who are older, and know more, do underltand it,
and that they willtoo. Where we can make them fully un-
derftand the reafons of our own conduét, or the reafons of
what they know of the dealings of God, this fhould be done ;
and their inquiries fhould be encouraged; but even with
re{fpeét to our own p'ans and injun¢tions, they muft often
exercife confidence and {vbmiffion ; and it is wife early to
produce the fame with refpe@ to the dealings and commands
of God. They can, in fome cafes, be made to perceive that
they now under{tand what they did not at fome palt period ;
and {till more eafily, that they can themfelves underitand
what their younger brothers and fifters cannot. As they
advance in obfervation and underftanding, and make in-
quiries with refpeét to the providence of Gad, it will fome-
times be neceflary to go further, and imprefs upon their
minds the idea that there are fome things which we ourfelves,
and even the wifett of mankind, cannot fully underftand, but
that in heaven we fhall know more, and fhall underftand
what we now cannot. To keep up a difpofition to refearch
and inquiry, is highly important; but it is alfo important
fo to regulate the underftanding and imagination of the young,
that they may be prepared for difficulties; prepared to ex-
pect that in the works and ways of God they fhall meet with
what they cannot underitand ; to feel confidence in the grand.
truths of religion, though accompanied with difficulties ; and
to obey even where they do not fee the reafons of the com-
mands of God.

Though religious belief muft, in the early periods of life,
be chiefly founded upon authority, yet we ought, as circum-
ftances permit, to render it rational, by fhewing the grounds
of it. The convictions arifing from early education, founded
folely on parental influence, are, indeed, often as effeCtual in
regulating the conduét, and fo far as valuable as thofe which
are the refult of individual examination ; but it will too often
happen, in this age of inquiry, that where this is the only
foundation, thofe convictions will eafily be fhaken, efpecially
where they oppofe wrong difpofitions. Important truths,
of the juft foundation of which we are ourfelves firmly con-
vinced, on patient examination of their evidence, fheuld be
early inftilled into the mind, even when the grounds of them
cannot be fhewn ; they will indeed to a certain extent be pre-

judices, but fo are all the convictions of children, excepting

thofe which they derive from the evidence of their fenfes.
It isa part of the wife ordinations of providence, that before
the under{tanding can properly exert itfelf, a lively belief may
be formed in truths #3 importance for the condu& ef life ;
and by producing that belief, we not only do what is.necef-
fary for the right direétion of childhood and youth, but we in
reality give the beft preparation for what is emphatically called
a rational faith. And this will be eafily formed, if we have
been careful to communicate truth only. The proofs of the
being and attributes of God may be made intelligible even
to children. They may early be taught fome of the grounds
of our belief in the divine authority of Jefus Chrift; and at
a fubfequent period, of our belief in the genuinenefs of the
Scripture. As they advance in life, books may be put into
their hands, which will moft materially affift in forming a ra-
tional conviction; and in this conneétion: we. cannot but

flrongly

MORAL EDUCATION.

ftrongly recémmend (as univerfally unexceptionable) Paley’s
Evidences‘of Natural Theology and of Chriftianity. And
if parents, with a view not only to their own improvement,
but to the improvement of their children, would make thefe
books familiar to themfelves, they would thus obtain the
power of communicating to them, at comparatively an early
age, the grounds of their belief, and give to their conviction
of the moft important truths, a firmnefs which nothing could
afterwards fhake. Ry
We cannot flatter parents by faying, that the religious
inftru€tion of the young can be conduéted without fteady
efforts on their parts; but their duty is plain, and their
reward will be great. Notwithftanding the circumftances
and the fafhions of the times, one day does in a great mea-
fure remain our own; and we earneitly wifh that parents
would have the firmnefs to make its employments and pur-

fuits fuch, that that day, at leait, may bring with it the ex--

pe€tation and defire of religious inftru¢tion. This is taking
the moft unfavourable cafe; but a mother, and it is from
maternal influence and exertion that we muft expe&t moft in
the early periods of education; a mother, if not immerfed in
the occupations and pleafures of life, will often find oppor-
tunities of giving religious inftruction, and of ftrengthen-
ing the defire to attain it. ;
In a former part of our article, we {poke of the filial
affeétions as the beft foundation for the religious affetions.
Where love and gratitude, and fubmiffivenefs, have been
formed towards the earthly parent, they will eafily be tranf-
ferred to our heavenly Father. Where thefe, from any
caufe, are wanting, they can enly be gradually fupplied, as
the underftanding and confcience open, by the fame impref-
fions with refpeét to God, by which they are produced with
vefpe& to the parent. The religious affections will often
be found to bear a great refemblance, in their peculiarities,
to thofe of the filial affeGtions ; and this is particularly the
cafe with refpeét to the difpofition to obedience. We have
no hefitation in pronouncing fubmiffivenefs to parents to be,
very generally, almoft an indifpenfable requifite to the early
formation of that difpofition to obey God, which is the ob-
ject of all religious culture, and without which the moft
ively affections are worthlefs. If a child love his parents,
if he even fear them, it does not neceflarily follow, and the
contrary too often happens, that he has the habitual difpofi-
tion to obey them; and if love and fear exilt towards his
parents, without that difpofition, they wi'l not in all proba-
bility early produce it towards God; and if they do not
early do it, they too feldom will at any future period. —
Where filial love has been produced in the mind of a child,
love towards God will go hand in hand with an acquaint-
ance with his goodnefs in its various forms. Before the
underftanding of a child is fufficiently unfolded, to form
fome notion of the infpeétion and agency of an unfeen being,
(which appears to be the proper period for the commence-
ment of religious inftruétion,) there will be feelings in his
mind, conneéted with the expreflions good, kind, doing good,
taking care of, &c. Suppefe a mother, when firft commu-
nicating fome knowledge of God, {peaks to her child of the
good God who is very kind and good to us, is always doing us
good, and taking care of us, &c., it is obvious, that the feel-
ings alread conneéted with thofe words, wall become con-
nected with the word God, and with whatever notion the
child may form of God; and thus the beinning is made of
love to God. We tell our children that God loves us, and
in our heavenly Father; and the love which they have
towards us, begins to unite itfelf with the idea of God.
Where we have ourfelves right feelings towards God, they
will often influence our tones and manner of {peaking ; and

thefe, by the influence of our affociated nature, call up and
exercife fimilar feelings in their minds, and thus unite them
more firmly with the idea of God. :

If we are fafficiently in earneft in cultivating the religious
affections of our children, we fhall find various opportunities
of giving them proofs of the goodnefs of God, fuited to
the ftate of their underftandings, in the works of nature
around us, in the formation of our frame, in the events of life,
&c., and while feeking for thefe proofs, for the cultivation
of their affections, we fhall cultivate our own. We hall
lead them to think of God as the giver of every good thing.
And we fhall often {peak of him as having fent our Lord
Jefus Chrift to teach us how to be good and happy. We
fhall cell them that he loves thofe who try to pleafe him, by
being and doing good. We fhall fhew how much good it
does to us, to do what God has commanded us; and we
fhall often fpeak to them of that world, where God will
for ever make the good happy, happy beyond any thing we
can now think of. As opportunity offers, and the under-
ftanding will bear it, we fhould explain, as far as we are
able, thofe things which at firft fight appear inconfiftent
with the goodnefs of God; and efpecially, we fhould lead
them to feel complete confidencé in the divirfe. goodnefs,
though they cannot perceive that all things are ia good.
Filial confidence fhould be early and carefully cultivated
towards the parent, and then it will be eafily transferred
towards God. :

Though we fhould frequently introduce thoughts of the di-
vine goodnefs, we muit be careful to take opportunities for
this purpofe, when the minds of our children are favourably
difpofed to the reception of them, when the attention will be
excited by them, and thus fome impreffion produced. And,
confidering how fhort the time muft be, during which the at-
tention of a child can be given to thoughts of an unfeen being,
we fhould rather aim at freguency of impreffions, than at the
long continuance of any one. J

We have only fpoken of the cultivation of the religious
affeGtions, by converfation refpecting the divine goodnefs;
but it is obvious that this is only one means. The delight-
ful reprefentations of God, which are given in the Scriptures,
and all that children read in other books refpeéting his good-
nefs and mercy and paternal care, and all that they hear to
the fame purpofe in the public fervices of religion, will, if
fufficiently attended to, contribute their fhare towards the
love of God, by calling into exercife the afleGion which is
already formed, and by leaving new impreflions which will-
contribute to its livelinefs and vigour. And there are two
other moft important means, the one is leading them to ex-
prefs their feelings in prayer to God; and the other, fo
guiding their conduct and difpofitions by precept, difcipline,
and example, that they may think of God with pleafure, be-
caufe their own hearts tell them that he views. them with
approbation.

It will not be neceflary for us to be equally minute in
fhewing the formation of the fear of God. Nearly the fame
means of culture mut be adopted ; but our fuccefs will be
more fure. Pain affeéts the mind more powerfully than
pleafure ; and fear, which {prings from pain, is, therefore,
more active and eafily formed than love, which fprings from
pleafure. It is, perhaps, impoffible, that the fear of God
fhould net {pring up in the mind, where tolerably corre&
ideas refpecting him have been communicated. Every thing
which is attentively heard or read, ref{petting the greatnefs,
majelty, power, and jullice of God, tends to produce the
awe and fear of him ; and this is heightened by the declara-
tions of the Scriptures refpecting the dreadful confequences
of difobedience to the will of God, While we endeavour

early

MORAL EDUCATION.

early to cultivate reverence and awe of the Supreme Being
in the minds of our children, we mult, however, be careful
not to heighten it into terror. A due proportion of the
fear of God, is, in general, neceflary, to render the love of
God a fteady actuating principle of the condu&t ; and when
properly blended with it, and moderated by frequent re-
currence, (as all feelings are, unlefs otherwife enlivened, ) it
in reality increafes it ; but often has the exclufive cultivation
of fear been the fertile fource of fuperftition, and of de-
grading ideas refpecting the God of love; and {till more
frequently has it contributed to deftroy the influence of reli-
gion, by making the thoughts of God painful to the minds
of the young, and thereby deftroying all difpofition to
cherifh them. We remember hearing a perfon of great
piety, benevolence, and amiablenefs of difpofition, exprefs
the idea, that in all her endeavours to cultivate the love of
God, fhe continually felt the ill effeéis of the terrific views
of the Supreme Being, which had been early impreffed upon

her mind, almoft to the exclufion of thofe reprefentations .

which would have excited love. She was fully convinced
of the goodnefs of God; but fear feemed to overpower her
convictions, at leaft to prevent their exciting their due pro-
portion of love; and the lovely and paternal attributes of
the Supreme Being were feldom a fource of delight and
confolation to her mind. On a heart lefs pure, and a judg-
ment lefs enlightened, either fuperflition or practical atheifm
would probably have ‘exercifed abfolute fway.

We have more than once ftated, that the religious affec-
tions may exift, even with a confiderable degree of vividnefs,
without having much power in regulating the heart and
life, without becoming religious principles, i. e. habitually
a@uating motives. Our object throughout, in our endeavours
to bring up our children religioufly, mult be to give the
affections which we cultivate in their minds towards God,
as much power as poflible as a€tuating motives; to give
them as nruch influence as poffible over the other difpofitions
and the conduét. We are not to leave this till the affec-
tions, by frequent impreffions, acquire great firmnefs and
vividnefs ; but to aim to give them their proportional in-
fluence in every ftage of their progrefs. A child who is
capable of underfanding fomething of the infpe€tion and
agency of the unfeen God, who has at all learnt to defire
his love, and to fear his difpleafure, is capable of being in-
fluenced by religious motives. This we know from experience.
That the religious affections may fubfitt, without properly in-
fluencing the conduét, may be underftood from what happens
in the cafe where fubmiflion has not been cultivated in a
child through the falfe indulgence of a parent. Such a
child is frequently found to be very affetionate, and often
manifefts a warmth and ftrength of love which juftly delight
the parent’s heart, and yet excite regard to a parent’s feel-
ings and difpofitions, only where its own little felfifh gratifi-
cation prompts to fuch regard. In like manner, lively com-
paffion to the diftreffed may exift, and often does exift, even
in young perfons, without exciting one aétive endeavour to
relieve. And their religious affe€tions may exift, and even
with confiderable livelinefs, (efpecially the feelings of love
and gratitude,) without acquiring any influence over the
heart and life.

Our aim then muft be to give them this influence; and in
proportion as they acquire it, will the affeétions themfelves
acquire adtivity and vigour. It cannot be doubted that
religious obedience is the beft means of cultivating, fupport-
ing, and confirming the religious gfédions: that habitual
regard to the will of God, where ideas refpeéting him are
tolerably correct, will always cherifh the love of God
where it exifts, and will gradually produce it where before it

did not exift. He who is brought up in the fear of God
(we do not mean flavifh terror but reverential awe), and
under its influence has acquired an habitual regard to his
will, will not be long deftitute of thofe feelings with refpe&
to him, which the thoughtful contemplation of the Scripture
declarations is fo well calculated to excite.

The foundation of fuch regard to the will of God, is to
be laid in the mind of a child by forming the habit of
filial fubmiffion to his parents: and where this, to any
great degree, is wanting, the difficulties of obedience to the
will of God will too generally prevent the formation of that
actuating regard to it which is the fum and fubftance of re-
ligious principle. Parents fhould, therefore, as much as
poffible, acquire M#fluence over the minds of their children,
if from no other motive, with a view to make them religious.
We cannot too ftrongly imprefs it upon our minds, that
habitual filial fubmiffion to earthly parents is the beft found-
ation for habitual filial fubmiffion to our heavenly parent.

Another point is, that we early accuftom our children to
confider it as an object of the firft importance, that they
fhould do what God commands, and avoid what he forbids ;
unfolding to them, as circumftances enable us, the confe-
quences of obedience and difobedience in this life; but
particularly impreffing upon their minds the more certain
and obvious confequences in another life. Whether we
fhould moit excite their hopes or their fears, muft perhaps be
left to be determined by their peculiar difpofitions and
habits; but, without a doubt, both fhould be employed as
occafion direéts : and they fhould, from a very early period,
be led to confider it as certain that we fhall all live again,
and be happy or miferable according to our conduét and
difpofition in this life. I do not mean that thefe motives
fhould be brought forwards too often, for thus they may
lofe their force; but on all occafions where the mind feems
capable of feeling their force, and of being influenced by
them, then fhould they be employed.

Where thefe hopes and fears exift with tolerable ftrength
(or even where children have learnt the rudiments of reli-
gious knowledge, and have been accuftomed to defire the
love, and to fear the difpleafure of their parents), the idea of
God, as the conftant witnefs of all their words and ations,
will often produce the defire of his love and_approbation,
and the fear of his difpleafure. This powerfully aids the
influence of the religious affe€tions ; and the impreffion that
God loves the good, and is difpleafed with the wicked,
fhould be early produced and frequently exercifed. When
in{tances of truth, obedience, kindnefs, difintereftednefs, and
the like, in our children, have obtained our own approba-
tion, with our tender endearments fhould often be connected
the idea, that the great and good God, our heavenly Father,
who always fees us, is alfo pleafed with them and loves them.
When the contrary faults have excited our difpleafure, with
our reproof or correction, we fhould occeafionally introduce
the impreffion of the divine difpleafure ; carefully, however,.
connecting with it the idea, that as they may regain our ap-
probation, fo they may alfo regain the approbation of Ged.

Further, we fhotld early accuftom our children to con-
fider what our duty is. For this purpofe, we mult make
them early and well acquainted with the practical patts of
the New Teltament ; often bring them to their recolleétion
in conneétion with what is right or wrong in their conduét,
and teach them to confider the precepts of Jefus and his
apoftles as our rule of life, which we mult obey if we would
pleafe God, and avoid the punifhment of difobedience. We
fhould certainly endeavour, where we can, to fhew them the
reafons of the divine commands; and this more and more as
their underftanding gains ftrength ; but let it be obvious te

S 2 them

\ .

MORAL EDUCATION.

them, that we do ourfelves confider it as quite fufficient, if
God has commanded us to do, or to avoid any thing. Let
us, by every means in our power, inculcate the neceffity of
obedience to the will of Ged, and form and ftrengthen the
difpofition to fubmiffion ; and let us habitually cultivate the
impreffion in their minds, that the example of Jefus, and
the precepts of the gofpel, give us certain information as to
the will of God, and that itis our duty fteadily to guide
our difpofition and conduét by them.

It will aid the influence of the example of Jefus, if we
cultivate as much as poffible that love to him, and gratitude
for his exertions and fufferings to do us good, which will
readily {pring up in the young mind from the thoughtful
perufal of the gofpel hiftory ; and it wl greatly aid the
power of religious principle, if we often lead them to con-
fider what he did, or what he would have done in like cir-
cumitances with uss. For a fimilar reafon, we fhall do well
to make the: acquainted with other illultriots examples of
Chriftian worth, particularly among the young ; and all have
one book at their command in which they will find a ftore of
{uch examples as have, in innumerable inftances, been highly
beneficial.

Another point of great importance is, that we early ac-
euitom chi'dren to refle& on their actions and difpofitions,
and compare them with the Scripture rules of duty. A
want of this tendency to refle& on the palt, is one caufe of
that deficiency which we often obferve in the power of the
confcience, even where its di€tates are correct. It fhould
be exercifed as foon as our children are capable of recollec-
tion and refleétion ; and it will lay the foundation of a moft
important habit, if we accuftom them, as foon as their minds
have made fufficient progrefs, every evening to think over
the conduét of the day. Such an employment, early pur-
fued under the obfervation of the parent, encouraged, and
indeed at firft exercifed, by parental aid and influence, will
have the moft valuable effeét. It will produce an habitual
difpofition to felf-infpection; it will make duty more thought
of, and obedience to duty more an objet; and it will, if
fleadily cultivated, become itfelf a habit which will retain
its influence through life, and effeétually prevent that
thoughtleffnefs as to our conduét and the effects of it, which
is among the foremoft ranks of the caufes of difobedience
and neglect of Chrifhan duty.

Once more, as foon as our children are capable of it, we
fhould teach them to pray to God. By praying, we mean
exprefling to God as ever prefent with us, the fentiments
we have of his being and perfeétions, the feelings which
thofe fentiments excite, (whether of gratitude, reverence,
love, fear, or penitence,) and our fupplications for future
good. At firlt it may be neceffary to fupply our children
with words; if fo, they fhould be fimple but expreffive, and
the whole fhould be very fhort. We may by degrees lead
them to exprefs their thoughts and feelings in their own
artlefy words, and the more this is done the better; but
whatever means we employ, they fhould be ufed regularly,
and at lealt daily; and by our own manner and expreflions,
we fhould always make this exercife of the devout affections
ferious, reverential, and impreflive. When right ideas and
feelings towards God have been duly impcefled, prayer early
made habitual, exercifed regularly, ferioufly, and thought-
fully, 1s perhaps of all the moft powerful means (and a moft
powerful affiltant of every other means) of cultivating the
devout affe&tions, of making them aétuating principles, of
producing a fteady, habitual, reverential regard to the will
of him who always fecs us, knows every purpofe of our
tarts, aad will finally be our judge. And (at the rifk of
Being thoughs to have altogether loit fight of the nature of

our work) we feel impelled to add that family worfliip fhould
go hand in hand with private prayer. Independently of its
great importance to ourfelves, there is no ceubt that it emi-
nently contributes to imprefs deeply a fenfe of religion on
the minds of children and domeltics, and to aid the influence
of its fanCtions.

The cultivation of religious affe€tions and principles, muft
be expected to be a work of time; and it fhould be our en-
deavour to proceed in it fteadily rather than quickly. The
growth of affe€tions and habits cannot be forced; and we
may, by too great hafte and too little attention to the natural
progrefs of the mind, prevent, rather than promote, the
influence of religion in the heart. It muft be our aim to.
choofe opportunities for this purpofe, when the mind is in a
fit flate for the reception of religious impreflions ; to feek
for them often, to make our inftructions interefling. The
point muft not be given up becaufe we do not fucceed all at
once; if fome means fail we mutt try others, employing the
influence of religious fear or love, as we find the difpofitions
of our children require it, but endeavouring, by every means
in our power, to give their young minds a permanent bias
in favour of religious principle. We muft make religion as
interefling as we can to them, but never leffen their reverence
for it, nor their ideas of the neceflity of obeying the divine
will.

We muft not confider religion as confined to the affec-
tions, difpofitions, and habits, which dire&tly refpe& God,
but bearing in mind that every right difpotition and habit
conttitutes a part of it, and contributes to increafe its influ-
ence, that every wrong difpofition and habit is forbidden by
it, and contributes to increafe its influence,—we mult de
every thing in our power to cultivate and cherifh the one,
and to check and reprefs the other. Nothing deftroys re-
ligious principies fooner, than the indulgence of finful dif-
pofitions and finful habits ; and he who would have his child
religious, muft carefully guard again{t whatever would lead
to them. In the words of the great Hartley, ‘ affe€tionate
parents’’ fhould « labour from the earlieft dawnings of un-
derftanding and defire, to check the growing obitinacy of
the will; curb all fallies of paffion; imprefs the deepeft,
moft amiable, reverential, and awful impreffions of God, a
future ftate, and all facred things; reftrain anger, jealoufy,
felfithnefs ; encourage love, compaffion, generolity, forgive.
nefs, gratitude; excite, and even compel to, fuch induft
as the tender age will properly admit cf.’’ hefe words.
may be faid to contain the fum and fubitance of religious
and moral education; and thofe who have leifure and ability
to ftudy the principles of that eminent philofopher, as con-
tained in his Cofervations on Man (and efpecially as refpeéts
our prefent obje&, in the Rule of Life, contained in the
fecond volume) will find them of ine‘timable ule in the re=
gulaticn of their own difpofitions, and the fulfilment of their
duties, particularly in that mo{t important duty, the religi-
ous education of the young.

«\s mothers have, in the early periods of education, pe
culiar influence, and opportunity of cultivating the religious:
affections and principles, we earneftly with to fee them
making this peculiarly an objet, cultivating their own af.
fections and knowledge with a view to it, bending their
plans of life and their focial intercourfe as much as poflible
to it, and regarding nothing fhort of abfolate neceflity a
fufficient excufe for partial attention to it. And, with the
fame view, it fhould be the fteady endeavour of all parents
to cultivate the underftandings and enlarge the minds of
their daughters; to teach them the wife employment of
their time; to teach them more noble accomplifhments
than thofe of {how and tafte 4, to implant in their minds,

and

MORAL EDUCATION.

ahd fteadily to cherifh religious affeCtions and principles.
While they pay due attention to other branches of know-
ledge, let them not neglect the knowledge of God and
duty: while they acquire thofe accomplifhments that will
grace the focial circle, and add attraCtions to goodnefs, let
them learn to fet a higher value on, and more feduloufly
cultivate, the inward adornings of the mind. They fhould
be educated as thofe who may be engaged in the moft im-
portant of all duties; they fhould be fo educated, that,
fhould they be called to fulfil thofe duties, they may train
up fouls for immortal happinefs.

We with to add, that early attention to the religious
education of our children, need not in any way leffen the
adtivity or enjoyments fuited to their age. We know this
from experience, and can fpeak with confidence. The little
girl, to whom we referred in a former part of this divifion,
is as playfully active, and as regularly happy with her dolls,
her bricks, her rude drawings, and her out of-door amufe-
ments, as any child we ever faw. If it were not fo, we
fhould fear, left the religious culture fhe has received fhould
have been premature and injurious: but we fee, in various
ways, that it dire@ly, and ttill more mdire&ly, promotes
her little enjoyments, as well as her megtal improvement.
We think it proper, however, to obferve, that from different
eircumftances in her fituation and early habits, and alfo,
perhaps, from her natural temperament, (which originally

‘manifefted too much of what may be termed phyfica! fen-

fibility, and which her parents endeavoured to leffen, or at
leaf to regulate,) this child has peculiar tendencies - and
Opportunities for the religious cultivation of her mind ; and
in a younger child, though by no means without religious
imprefiions and biaffes, we have perceived, at correfponding
ages, a very material difference in the capacity for receiving
ideas, and for forming the rudiments of the affeGions,
refpeGting the Supreme Being. ‘his we fay, left our re-
marks fhould excite any degree of defpondency in the mind
ef any mother, folicitous for the religious welfare of her
children; and, in this cafe, we indulge the expectation,
which fhe may alfo indulge in any fimilar cafe, that by a
fteady perfeverance in the ufe of fuitable means, the eud
will eventually be anfwered in the communication of cor-
rect ideas and right affections of a religious nature, though
the latter will of courfe be fubje@ to thofe modifications,
which arife from diverfities in the original tendencies and
acquired difpofitions and habits in general.

If our limits would permit, we fhould be happy to con-
elude this article by extracting from Dr. Priettley’s Obfer-
vations on Education, the whole of the rath feétion, in
Which ‘ the importance of early religious initru€tion”’ is ar-
gued, with the ftrength of demonttration, from a “ particular
confideration of the principles of human nature.’’ We
fruit few of our readers wiil omit to avail themfelves of
his Obfervations ; but we cannot forbear quoting one or two
paffages, and giving a brief ab{traét of the whole.

After obferving, generally, that the impreffion which ideas
make upon the mind, does rot depend upon the definitions
of them, but upon the fenfations and a great variety of ideas
which have been aflociated with them; dnd, in particular,
that in the mind of a perfon who has been accuttomed to
hear and think of God from his infancy, who has been much
converfant with the Scriptures, and has lived in a general
habit of devotion, the idea of God muft have acquired a
thoufand affociations, forming one complex feeling, which
cannot be fully explained to another, and {till lefs com-
municated to one who has had no fuch advantages for reli-
gious impreffions ; this religious philofopher illuftrates his
obfervation, by the diverfity of feelings, affuciated, in dif-

ferent cafes, with the term father, where, neverthelefs,
the general definition of it muft be invariable. He then
proceeds :

* In like manner, befides thofe ideas annexed to fuch
words as God, religion, future life, &c. which can be com-
municated to others by their definitions, there are what are
fometimes called fecondary ideas, or feelings, which are ag-
gregate fenfations, confifting of numberlefs other fenfations
and ideas, which have ‘been affociated with them, and which
it is abfolutely impoffible for one perfon to communicate
to another ; becaufe the fame education, the fame courle of
inftrution, the fame early difcipline, the fame or fimilar
circumftances in life, and the fame reflections upon thofe cir-
cumitances, muft have concurred in the formation of them.
They are, however, thefe infinitely complex and inde(crib-
able feelings that often give thofe ideas their greateft
force, and their influence upon the mind and conduét : be-
caufe difpofitions to love, fear, and obey God have a thou-
fand times followed thofe complex feelings, and pious and
worthy refolutions have been conneéted with them. On
this account, perfons whofe education has been much ne-
glected, but who begin to hear of religion, and apply them-
felves to it late in life, can never acquire the devotional
feelings of thofe who have hada religious education ; nor
can it be expeéted that they will be uniformly influenced by
them. They may ufe the fame language, but their feclings
will, notwithftanding, be very different.’

Dr. P. then fhews, that this is nothing more than what
takes place in other fimilar cafes; and next advances fome
impreffive ftatements, refpeGting the powerful influence of
general /lates of miud, turns of thought, and fixed habits, (in
conneétion with which, we feel impelled to refer our readers
to his difcourfes on habitual devotion, the duty of rot living
to ourfelves, and the danger of bad habits, in which, in a
moft fimple and ftriking manner, he has made fome of the
leading principles of mental philofophy eminently fubfer-
vient to the interefts of religion.) He urges the importance
of early religious education, from the means its influence
affords of reclaiming thofe who, on the entrance upon the
world, may have thrown off the reftraints of duty, and from
the great lofs of favourable opportunities for fuch pur-
pofes, caufed by the contrary deficiencies. He fhews that-
through unnatural affociations of ideas of honour, fpirit, &c.
with irreligious and pernicious habits and pratices, and of
the oppofite ideas with fome virtuous and religious duties,
every thing belonging to ftriét morals and religion is by
many regarded with averfion and contempt ; that, for want
of early religious impreffions, this turn of thinking: may be
fo confirmed, that nothing in the ufual courfe of humar
life fhall be able to change 1t ; and that the very things which
are the means and incitements to religion and devotion, in
previoufly well-difpofed minds, have the very oppotite effeét
on others. his he illuftrates and. confirms by additional
confiderations ; and concludes,

“The plain inference from all this is, that if we wifb
that religious impreffions fhould ever have a ferious hold upon
the mind, they muft be made in early life. Care, however,
muft te taken, leit, by making religious exercifes. too ri-
gorous, an early averfion be excited, and fo. the very end:
we have in view be defeated.’

This inference, we are fully convinced, is alike fan@ioned
by the foundelt views of human nature, and by extenfive and
enlightened experience ; and upon it, our preceding ftate-
ments reft for their juftification.

In our laft article on the fubje& (Puystcan Education),
we fhall have an opportunity of fuggettin: fome hints on a
point of great moral importance; and we fballalfo defer:

6 to.

MOR

to that article, a comparative view of the advantages and
difadvantages of public and private education, which {with
fome other general fubjeéts referred to in INTELLECTUAL
Education, will be beft brought forwards as the conclufion
of our feries.

Mowat Evidence, Evil, Fables, Good. See the feveral
fubftantives.

Morar Jmpoffbility, is what we otherwife call a very great,
and almott infuperable difficulty ; in oppofition to a phyfical,
or natural impoffibility. See ImpossiBLe.

_Morat Liberty, Neceffity, and Perfedlion. See the fubftan-
tives.

Morar Philofophy, a fcience whofe objec is to dire& and
form men’s manners; to explain the nature and reafon of
ations ; and to teach and inftruét us how to acquire that fe-
licity which is agreeable to human nature. See Moral
PHILOSOPHY.

Moral philofophy is the fame with what we otherwife
call ethics, fometimes morality. See alfo OpLiGATion and
VIRTUE. ; :

Morat Quantity. See QUANTITY.

Morat Senje, the faculty whereby we difcern or perceive
what is good, virtuous, beautiful, &c. in ations, manners,
charaéters, &c.

An ingenious author has endeavoured to prove, that it is
a peculiar fenfe whereby we get the ideas of thefe things ;
and denominates it a moral fenfe. See SENSE.

Morat Theology is that which treats of cafes of con-
{cience ; called alfo ca/uiffry, or cafuiftical divinity. -

Mora Univerfality. See UNIVERSALITY. :

Morat of a Fable is the inftruétion drawn from it.

Thus when Phadrus at the end of a fable adds, Hoc tllis
didlum qui, &c. this makes what we call the mora/: the
Greeks called it exsvSior, when at the end of the fable ; and
rxzouvsiov, When’at the beginning. Among the Latins it was
called affabulatio. See FaBLe. fof

MORALEDA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the
province of Granada; 10 miles E. of Loja. >

MORALEJA, a town of Spain, in the province of
Leon; 6 miles S.E. of Zamora. ;

MORALES, Cristorero, in Biography, an eminent
Spanifh compofer of mufic, in the fervice of the pontifical
chapel at Rome, and who flourifhed from the year 1540 to

1564. He preceded Paleftrina, who was not twelve years
old when Morales firlt appeared as a compofer. Several of
his produétions were publifhed at Venice among thofe of
Coftanzo Fefta, Adrian Willaert, and Archadelt, with
whom he was contemporary, befides the following works,
to which no other name was prefixed than his own.

Two books of maffes, the firft for five voices, the fecond
was dedicated to pope Paul III. for four, 1544, Venice.
Magnificat 8 tonorum, 4 voc. Ven. 1562. Lamentationes
Hieremiz, 4, 5, & 6 vocum, Ven. 1564. Adami (Offer-
vazioni, Pp. 165-) tells us that his famous motet, “ La-
mentabatur Jacob,” which was preferved in the archives of
the pontifical chapel, at the beginning of the prefent cen-
tury, and annually fung on the firft Sunday in Lent, is a
wonderful compofition. ‘Il quale in vero € una maraviglia
dell’ arte.’”’ Ib. i

Several of his motets were publifhed at Venice 1543,
among the * Motettx trium Vocum ab pluribus Authoribus
compofit ;”” and are preferved in the Britith mufeum ;
the Ityle of which, though learned for the time, is fome-
what dry, and the harmony, by his frequent ule of un-
accompanied 4ths and gths, uncouth and infipid; yet, till

3

MOR

fupplanted by the more pleafing works of Paleftrina, his
compofitions were in very high favour at Rome, in the
papal chapel, where he was a finger during the pontificate
of Paul III. fj

Moraes, Ambrosio pr, a Spanifh hiftorian and anti-
quarian, was born at Cordoba in the year 1513. His father,
Antonio, was a phyfician of fuch high reputation, that the
marquis de Pliego prefented him the houfe in which Seneca
was faid to have lived, faying, that the dwelling of the
wifeft Cordoban ought to be inhabited by none but by a
Cordoban, who was himfelf equally wife; and cardinal
Cifneros appointed him to the firft chair of philofophy at
Alcala. Fernan Perez de Oliva was his maternal grand-
father, and Ambrofio fays, that he availed himfelf of his
learned geographical work, ‘‘ Imacen del Mundo,”’ as of a
thing which was his own by inheritance. His youthful
ftudies were direéted by perfons of the higheft repute ; he
became a good Grecian at an early age, and while but a
mere child, he tranflated the fable of Cebes. Notwith-
{tanding his afpirations after literary fame, religious enthu-
fiafm mingled with, and at one time totally fupprefled them.
He wrote at the beginning and end of all his books the name _
of Jefus, with an alpha and omega, and compofed the fol.
lowing couplet in honour of the name ;

«€ Dulce mihi nihil effe precor, fi nomen Jefu
Dulce abfit cui fit hoc fine dulce nihil,”

which he tranfcribed into all his books, frequently ufing as
a motto * Tiempo fue, que tiempo no fue; Time was
when time was not. Sometimes he would ufe as an em-
blem, four ravens flying down with bread and meat in their
bills, in reference to Elijah, with the motto ‘ Adjicientur.’?
At the age of nineteen he renounced the world, and en-
tered into a convent under the name of ‘ Ambrofio de
Santa Paulo.”? The world he had already conquered, but
in the ardour of youth he had other paflions to contend
with, and which were not fo eafily fubdued. Determinin
to fecure himfelf from the fin to which he felt himfelf nat
prone, he followed the example of Origen, in the completeft
and moft dangerous way. He recovered from the effects
of the wound; his fanaticifm fobered down into a quiet
and fettled bigotry, but it ceafed to be a ruling paffion.
In confequence of this circumftance he was either expelled
the order, or quitted it of his own accord. He fet off for
Rome and narrowly efeaped drowning: the danger that he
thus incurred he confidered as a manifeft fign that he was
not to proceed on the voyage, and inftead of going to
Rome for a difpenfation to be permitted to remove, he
went to court, where his friends had intereft enough to pros
cure it for him, and ever afterwards he lived as a fecular .
prieft. Soon after this his father died, and he was appointed
to a profefforfhip at Alcala. The objeét of his moft ar-
dent wifhes was to excel as a Caitalian writer, to inveftigate
the antiquities and write the hiftory of Spain. He began
to colleét materials for this work in 1541, but it was not for
twenty years that he fet himfelf ferioufly to the fubje&t of
arrangement in order to publication, and even then he was
deterred from advancing under the notion that Florian
Ocampo, the famous ¢hronicler, who had publithed the fa-
bulous hiltory, had alfo proceeded down to the Gothic pe-
riod, and written the antiquities alfo, At length he was
undeceived, and found that Ocampo had made no progrefs
beyond what he had publifhed, and on the death of that
author he was made chronicler himfelf, His firlt appear-
ance as an author was as the defender of Zurita again{t his

enemies, After this he publifhed feyeral other pieces; and
having brought down his hiftory to the defruction of the
Gothie

MOR
Gothic kingdom, he was fent through Leon, Gallicia, and

Afturias, to examine the ftate of the reliques, archives,
royal fepulchres, and libraries, in thofe provinces. This
miffion employed him feveral months ; but his journal was
not publifhed from the original MS. in the Efcurial till the
year 1765; fince which it has been inferted in the complete
colleétion of Ambrofio's works, in 1791-2.

The firft volume of hiftory was publifhed at Alcala in
1574, andin 1577 he brought out the fecond, and with it
the book of the Antiquities of Spain, which had been
printed two years. The remaining volume was léng de-
layed, for in 1578 he was appointed to the office of vicar
and adminiltrator of the hofpital de la Puente del Arzo-
bifpo, which he held four years, and then refigned, becaufe
the duties enjoined by it were too weighty for a man of
his years and habits. His third volume, and with that his
labour, was finifhed in 1583, when he was in the feventieth
year of his age ; the hiitory was brought down to the year
1037. He died at the age of feventy-eight, and was buried
at Cordoba, in the church of the Martyrs, by a chapel, to
the building of which he had largely contributed. Cardinal
Sandoval, one of his pupils, ereéted a fine monument in
gratitude to his memory, which, however, was not com-
pleted till after his own death. The works of Morales are
faid to be of very great value. ‘* As an antiquarian he ma
be called the Cambden of Spain; and asan hiftorian,’? Mr.
Southey aflerts, ‘‘ we have none with whom he can be pa-
rallelled.”’ ‘

MORALEZ, in Geography, a town of South America,
in the province of St. Martha, on the Madalena; 32 miles
S. of Tamalameque.

MORAL ITIES, in Englifh Antiquity. See Mystery.

MORALITY denotes a conformity, in things and actions,
to thofe unalterable obligations which refult from the na-
ture of our exiftence, and the neceffary relations of life :
whether to God as our creator, or to mankind as our fellow-
creatures.

For other definitions of morality or virtue, given by fome
celebrated writers, as well as different hypothefes relating to
its foundation, fee Moral Virtue.

Moratiry is alfo ufed for the fcience or do&trine of mo-
rals, or the art of living well aud happily ; deduced from
reafon, and the nature, relation, and fitnefs of things. In
this fenfe it amounts to the fame with. what we otherwife
call ethics, moral philofophy, or the do&rine of offices. Not-
withitanding the great obfcurity and uncertainties in the
moral’ fcience, Mr. Locke is of opinion, that the dorinc
of manners is equally capable of being brought to demon-
ftration with the doétrine of quantity and number ; that is,
with the purett parts of mathematics. f

According to this author, the idea of a Supreme Being,
infinite in power, goodnefs, and wifdom, whofe workmanthip
we are, and on whom we depend; and the idea of ourfelves,
as underftanding, rational creatures; would, if duly confi-
dered, afford fuch foundations of our duty, and rules of
action, as might place morality among the {ciences capable
of demonttration ; in which we need not doubt but that,
from principles as incontettible as thofe of the mathematics,
by neceflary confequences, the meafure of right and
wrong might be made out to any one, who will apply him-
felf, with the fame indifference and attention, to the one, as
he doth to the other of thefe feiences: for the relations of
other modes may certainly be perceived, as well as thofe
of number and extenfion. £. gr. that ‘ where there is no
property, there can be no injultice,” is a propofition as
certain as any in Euclid: for the idea of property being a
right to any thing, and the idea of injuitice being the inya-

MOR

fion or violation of that right, it is evident, that thefe ideas
being thus eftablifhed, and thefe names annexed to them,
we can as certainly know this propofition to be true, as
that a triangle has three angles equal to two right ones.
Again, ‘no government allows abfolute liberty :"’ the idea
of government being the eltablifhment of fociety, upon
certain rules or laws, which require conformity to them;
and the idea of abfolute liberty being for any one to do
whatever he pleafes, 1 am as capable of being certain of the
truth of this propofition, as of any in mathematics.

What has given the advantage to the ideas of quantity,
and made them thought more capable of certainty and de-
monftration than the ideas of good and evil, right and wrong,
&e. is, ;

1. That the former can be reprefented by fenfible marks,
which have a nearer correfpondence with them than any words
or founds. Diagrams drawn on paper are copies of the ideas,
and are not liable to the uncertainty that words carry in their
fignification ; but we have no fenfible marks that refemble
our moral ideas, and nothing but words to exprefs them by;
which, though, when written, they remain the fame, yet the
ideas they ftand for may change in the fame man, and it is
very feldom that they are not different in different perfons.

2. Moral ideas are commonly more complex than figures ;
whence thefe two inconveniences follow : 1. That their names
are of more uncertain fignification ; the precife colleGion ot
fimple ideas they ftand for not being fo eafily agreed on; and
fo the fign that is ufed for them in communication always,
and in thinking often, does not readily carry with it the fame
idea.

3- The mind cannot eafily retain thofe precife combina-
tions fo exaétly and perfe@tly, as is neceflary in the exami-
nation of the habitudes and correfpondences, agreements or
difagreements, of feveral of them one with another, efpe-
cially where it is to be judged of by long dedu@ions, and the
intervention of feveral other complex ideas, to fhew the
agreement or difagreement of two remote ones.

One part of thefe difadvantages in moral ideas, which has
made them be thought not capable of demonttration, may in
agood meafure be remedied by definitions, fetting down that
colletion of fimple ideas which every term fhall ftand for, and
then ufing the term fteadily and conitantly for that precife
colleGtion.

The mathematician confiders the truth and properties be-
longing to a rectangle or circle, only as they have ideas in
his own mind, which poffibly he never found actually exifted
mathematically, that is, precifely, true ; yet his knowledge
is not only certain, but real; becaufe real things are no
farther, nor intended to be, meant by any fuch propofitions,
than as things really agree to thofe archetypes in the mind.
It is true of the idea of a triangle, that its three angles are
equal-to two right ones; it is true alfo of a triangle,
wherever it exifts: what is true of thofe figures that have
barely an ideal exiftence in the mind, will hold true of them
alfo, when they come to have a real exiftence in matter.
Hence it follows, that moral knowledge is as capable of
real certainty as mathematics: for certainty being nothing
but the perception of fuch agreement, by the intervention
of other ideas ; our moral ideas, as well as mathematical,
being archetypes themfelves, and fo adequate or complete
ideas, all the agreement or difagreement we fhall find in
them will produce real knowledge, as well as in mathe-
matical figures. That which is requifite to make our know-
ledge certain, is the clearnefs of our ideas ; and that which
is required to make it real, is that they anfwer their ar-
chetypes.

But it will here be faid, that if moral knowledge be placed

in

MOR

in the contemplation of our own moral ideas, and thofe are
of our own making, what ftrange notions will there be of
juftice and temperance! what confufion of virtues and vices,
if every man may make what ideas of them he pleafes? It
is anfwered, no confufion or diforder at all in the things
themfelves, nor the reafonings about them, no more than
there would be a change in the properties of figures, and
their relations one to another, if a man fhould make a
triangle with four corners, or a trapezium with four right
angles; that is, in plain Englifh, change the names of the
figures, and call that by one name which is called ordinarily
‘by another. The change of name will indeed at frit difturb
-bim who knows not what idea it ftands for; but 2s foon aa
the figure is drawn, the confequences and demonitration are
plain and clear.

Juft the fame is it in moral knowledge: let a man have
the idea of taking from others, without their confent, what
they are juftly poffeffed of, and call this ju/lice, if he pleafeth;
he that takes the name there, without the idea put to it,
will be miftaken, by joining another idea or his own to that
name; but ftrip the idea of that name, or take it, fuch as
it isin the fpeaker’s mind, and the fame things will agree to
it, as if you called it injufice. One thing we are to take
notice of, that where God, or any other law-maker, has
defined any moral names, there they have made the effence
of that {pecies to which that name belongs; and there it is
not fafe to apply or ufe them otherwife ; but in other cafes
it is bare impropriety of {peech to apply them contrary to
the common ufage of the country in which they are ufed.

MORAMBEO, in Geography, a river of Africa, which
runs into the Atlantic, S. lat. 11° 55'.

MORAND, Savuveur Frangots, in Biography, a Pari-
fian {urgeon of great eminence, was born in that metropolis
in 1697, where his father alfo practifed the profeffion, and
held the office of furgeon-major to the Invalids. Sauveur
received his literary education at the college Mazarin, and
was inftruéted in his prefeffion by his father at the hofpital
of the Invalids. He rofe to the mafterfhip of the company
of St. Come, (which was afterwards ereted into the Royal
Academy of Surgery,) and was appointed demonttrator of
furgical operations to that body in 1725. In 1728 he ap-
peared as an author on the fubjeét of lithotomy, and pub-
lithed his “ 'Traité de la Taille cu haut appareil, &c.;” the
high operation being then umtverfally practifed by the fur-
geons of Paris, Bur, in the foliowing year he was com-
miffioned by the Academy of Sciences to vit London, with
a view of witneffing the lateral operation, as performed by
Chefelden with fo much fuccefs ; and on his return to Paris,
ke introduced that mode of cutting for the ftone, at the
hofpital of La Charité, of which he was made furgeon. The
fuccefs and confequent reputation which attended his new
mode of praétice, brought a crowd of pupils to his he fpital,
and, multiplied his profeflional honours. He became di-
rector and fecretary of his company, and held the latter
office with greet diltinétion for many years after it was
made a Royal Academy. He was admitted a member of
many foreign focieties, efpecially the Royal Society of
London, and the academies of Stockholm, Peterfburgh,
Florence, Bologna, and Rouen; and was nominated pea-
fioner and profeffor of anatomy to the Royal Academy of
Sciences at home. He was hkewife appointed to feveral
profeflional polts connected with the army; and in 1751,
was honoured with knighthood, of the order of St. Michael.
He was every where refpeéted and admired as a gentleman,
and as a man of cultivated underitanding and talte. He
died in 1773, at the age of feventy-fix.

Befides the treatife on lithotomy above meationed,

MOR

M. Morand left the following works. ‘ Eloge Hittorique
de M. Marefchal, premier Chirurgien du Roi,’ 1737. Mo-
rand had married the daughter of this diflinguifhed furgeon.
« Refutation d’un Paffage du Traité des Operations de Chi-
rurgie en Anglois, publié par M. Sharp, Chirurgien de
Londres,’ 1739. his related to an affertion, that the
lateral operation had been profcribed in the French hofpitals
by royal edi&t. «* Difcours dans lequel ou prouve qu’1l eft
neceffaire au Chirurgien d’étre lettré,’’ delivered at the open-
ing of the fchools of furgery, in Ottober 1743. ** Me-
moire fur les Eaux Minerales de St. Amand."’ * Receuit
de Experiences et d’Obfervations fur la Pierre,” 1743.
«L'Art de faire des Rapports in Chirurgie,’ 1743. '¢ Cata-
logue des Pieces d?Anatomie, Inftrumens, &c. qui com-
pefent I’ Arfenal de Chirurgie formé a Paris, pour le Chan-
cellerie de Medecine de Peterfbourg, 1759.” “ Opulfcules
de Chirurgie,” 1ft partie, 1768, 4to. 2d partie 1772.—He
was anthor of feveral papers, publifhed i: the Memoirs of
the Academy cf Sciences, as well-as that of furgery ; and
wrote a hiftory of the latter academy, for the fecond and
third volumes of their memoirs. Eloy Didt. Hitt. de la
Med. Gen. Biog.

Morand, Jean-Francots-CLEMENT, a Parifian pby-
fician of diftinétion, was the fon of the eminent furgeon,
who is the fubje¢t of the preceding article. He was bora
at Paris in April 1726, and received the degree of doCtor in
medicine in 1750, and was foon afterwards appointed pro-
feffor of anztomy ia the fame fchools. He obtained 2 high
reputation in his profeflion, and received many honours,
having been elected into the Royal Academy of Sciences of
Paris, the Royal Society of London, and many other learned
bodies ; and he was likewife appointed phy fician in ordinary
to Staniflaus, king of Poland, and duke of Lorraine. He
died in 1784. The following is a catalogue of his writings.
« Hiltoire de la Maladie finguliere, et de examen d'une
femme devenue en peu de tems contrefaite par un ramollifle-
ment general des os,’? Paris 1752 ‘* Nouvelle defeription
des grottes d’Arcy,”? Lyons 1752. ‘Lettre a M. le Roi
au fujet de I’ Hiitoire de la femme Suppiot,” Par. 1753.
Suppiot was the woman affeéied with the foftening of the
bones, defcribed in the foregoing memsir. ‘“ Eclairciffement
abrégeé fur la Maladie-d’ une fille de St. Geofme,” and ‘ Re-
ceuil pour fervir d’eclairciflement, &c.’’ relating to the fame
fubject, Paris 1754. ‘ Lettre fur PIoitrument de Roon-
huyfen,” 1755. ** Lettre fur la qualité des Eaux de Lux-
euil en Franche Comté,’’ publifhed in the Journal de Verdun,
March 1756. ‘* Memoire fur les Eaux ‘I hermales de Bains
en Lorraine, &c.’’ in the Journal de Medecine, tom. vi.
1757+ ‘Du Charbon de terre et de fes Mines,” fol. 1769.
This forms the fortieth number of the arts defcribed by the
Academy of Sciences. Coal was then little known in
France, and Morand took a journey to Liege, for the pur-
pofe of examining the mises; and in 1770 publifhed his
« Memoire fur la nature, lesetlets, propniéiés, et avantages
du charbon de terre, apprété pour étre employé commodé-
ment, économiquement, et fans inconvénient au chauffage,
et a tous les ufages domettiques.” He alfo wrote an
« Eloge’”’ of his father, and a ‘* Memoire fur la qualité
dangereufe de Iemetique des Apothecaires de Lyons.’
Eloy Di&. Hitt. Gen. Biog.

Moranp, Prrer pr, a poet and dramatic writer, was
born at Arles in t7o1, and ata very early age he difplayed
talents for poetry, which gained him confiderable reputa-
tion. Being difappointed in his marriage he devoted him-
felf to a life of diffipation, and to the literary profedfion,
He wrote two tragedies, of which one was very fuccelsful,
but the other failed. One of his moft popular pieces was

a comedy,

MOR

a comedy, entitled « L’Efprit de Divorce.” In 1749, he
was nominated literary correfpondent of the king of Pruffia,
an office which he held only a few months. He was,”
fays his biographer, ‘* equally unlucky in marriage, love, on
the ttage, and in play, and to complete the lift of misfor-
tunes he died in the very year (1757,) at the clofe of which
all his debts would have been paid, and he would have been
in poffeffion of a decent income.” His works were pub-
lihed collectively in three vols. 12mo. Moreri.

MORANKER, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Aurungabad; 15 miles N. of Aurungabad.

MORANO, a town of Naples, in Calabria Citra; 10
miles W. of Caffano.

MORANT, Pui, in Biography, an ingenious anti-
quary and divine, was born in the ifland of Jerfey, and
educated at Pembroke college, Oxford. He became rector
of Aldham, in Effex, and was appointed by the houfe of
Peers, to prepare the votes of parliament for the prefs.
He was employed in this work at the time of his death,
which happened in 1770. He edited feveral works, and
wrote a hiltory of Colchelter; the hiftory of Effex ; and
thofe lives in the Biographia Britannica which are marked C.

Moranr Bay, in Geography, a bay of the ifland of Jamaica,
on the S. coaft. N. lat. 17° 54’. W. long. 76.‘

Morant Keys, a c'ufter ef {mall iflands, or rather rocks,
about 36 miles S.E. of Jamaica. N. lat. 17°35’. W. long.

“gol,

WaNioniirr Point, the moft eafterly promontory of the
ifland of Jamaica. On the N. fide is a harbour of the fame
name. From Point Morant, it is ufual for fhips to take
their departure, that are bound through the Windward
Paflage, or to any part of the W. end of the ifland of
St. Domingo. N. lat. 17° 58’. W. long. 76? 10’. Mo-
rant harbour is about four leagues W. of Point Morant,
at the 5. coalt of the ifland of Jamaica. Betore its mouth
is a {mail ifland, called ** Good ifland,’’ and a fort on each
point of the entrance.

Moranr River, is two leagues W. of the W. point of
Point Morant. The land here forms a bay, with anchorage
along the fhore. f

MORAPA, a town of South America, in the province
of Tucuman; 15 miles W. of St. Miguel de Tucuman.

MORARIA, Capr, a cape of Spain, on the coalt of
Valencia. N. lat. 38 40'. W. long. o° 1’.

MORAS, a town of France, in the department of the
Tfere; 16 miles N.W. of La Tour du Pin.—Alfo, a town
of France, in the department of the Dréme; 15 miles N.
of Romans.

MORASS, a marfh, fen, or low moift ground, which
receives the waters from above, without having any defcent
to carry them off again. The great modes of agricultural
improvement on thefe lands, are thofe of complete draining,
and the application of different kinds of confolidating fub-
ftances.

Somner derives the word from the Saxon mer/z, lake;
Salmafius from mare, a colledion of waters; others from
piarefe, of maricetum, a marifcis, i.€. rufoes. See Bo, Fen,
Marsu. Swamp, &c.

In Scotland, Ireland, and the north of England, they
have a peculiar kiud of moraffes, called moffes, or peat-moffes,
whence the country people dig their peat or turf for firing.

The earl of Cromartie gives a particular account of thefe
moffes in the Philofophical Tranfactions. They are covered
with a heathy fcurt, under which is a black, moift fpongy
earth, in fome places fhallower, in others deeper, ordinarily
from three or four, to feven or eight feet depth, though in
fome few places twice or thrice as much.

Vou. XXIV,

MOR

This black fpongy earth they cut into oblong fquares,
with iron fpades made for that purpofe, eight or nine inches
long, and four or five broad: as the men cut them up, they
are carried and fpread on a dry ground, to be dried in the
wind and fun. Some of thefe become harder, fome fofter,
according to the nature of the mould or earth: the more
black and folid they are, the better fire they make; and
thofe are the leaft efteemed which are greyett, lighteft, and
mott {pongy.

When they have cut off one furface of four or five inches
deep, they proceed downwards to another, and fo to a third
and a fourth, till they come to the hard ftrata; unlefs they
be ftopped with water, which they alfo ordinarily remove by
making a channel, if they can; but where they cannot,
there the water ttagnates. In fuch wafted pits, or peat-dikes,
as they call them, where water hinders the cutting the
{pongy earth to the bottom, the pits will be filled up again,
in fome years, with a new fpongy earth; which, in procefs
of time, comes to the confiltence of peat-mofs, as at firft, and
a feurfy heathy turf grows over the top of it. When the
dykes are dug down to the hard channel, the moffes do not
renew, as in the other cafe; though it has been obferved,
that if they be cut down to the channel, provided the heathy
turf cut off from the top be but laid on the channel, in
courfe of time the mofs grows again. Thefe moffes are
always level; though they are frequently found on hills,
and near the tops of them too; yet, as that curious noble-
man obferves, the moffes have always a defcent to them, and
generally from them; infomuch that he never knew any
where the water might ftagnate. It is the water draining
from above, that feems to be the parent of the peat. In
many of thefe moffes are found quantities of fir and o2k-~
wood, ufually in whole trees; but the fmaller branches are
feldom found unconfumed. 'The wood is as good for ufe as
any old wood is; only that, having imbibed a deal of moif-
ture, it takes fome time to dry, in order to fit it for burning.

There are many places where wood will not grow, where
yet the moffes are well ftocked with this under-ground tim-
ber ; but yet it appears there muft have been woods for-
merly there ; elfe how came they in the mofles? To prove
this, that noble lord gives us the hiftory and origin of a
mofs, in great meafure from his own experience. In the
parifh of Lochburn, in the year 1651, he faw near the top
of avery high hill, a plain about a mile over, then covered
with a firm {tanding wood, but which was fo very old, that
net only the trees had no leaves or bark on, but the outfide,
for the fpace of an inch inwards, was dead white timber,
though within they were firm. Coming by the place fifteen
years after, he could not difcover the leaft appearance of a
tree; but, inftead thereof, there was a plain green ground
covered with a mofs; the trees being all fallen, and having
lain fo thick over one another, that the green had over-run
the whole timber, by means of the moilture draining from
the hill above it, and ftagnating on the plain. He adds,
that none could pafs over it; the fcurf not being firm enough
to fupport them. In thirty years more he found this whole
piece of ground turned into a common peat-mofs, and the
country people digging turf and peat there. This accounts
for the generation of moffes, and whence it is that many of
them are furnifhed with timber.

It appears from the whole, that all the trees which we
find in this foffil ttate, originally grew in the very places
where we now find them, and have only been thrown down
and buried there, not brought from elfewhere. It may ap-
pear indeed an objection to this opinion, that moft of thefe
foffile trees are of the fir kind; and that Czfar fays, ex«
prefsly, that no firs grew in Britain in his time; but this is
eafily

’

MORASS.

eafily anfwered by obferving, that thefe trees, though of
the fir kind, yet are not the fpecies ufually called the fir,
but pitch-tree; and Czfar has no where faid that pitch-
‘trees did not grow in England. Norway and Sweden yet
abound with thefe trees, and there are at this time whole
forefts of them in many parts of Scotland, and a large num-
ber of them wild upon a hill at Wareton in Staffordfhire, to
this day.

In Hatfield-marfh, where fuch vaft numbers of the foffile
trees are now found, there has evidently once been a whole
foreft of them growing. ‘The laft of thefe was found alive,
and growing in that place within a hundred years laft palt,
and cut down for fome common ufe. See Bog-Woon.

The Roman hiftorians tell us, that when their armies pur-
fued the wild Britons, thefe people always fheltered them-
felves in the miry woods, and tow watery forefts. Czfar
exprefsly fays this, and obferves, that Caffibelan and his
Britens, after their defeat, pafled the Thames, and fled into
fuch low morafles and weods, that there was no. purfuing
them ; and we find that the Silures fecured themfelvyes in the
fame manner when attacked by Oftorius and Agricola. The
fame thing is recorded of Venutius, king of the Brigantines,
who fled to fecure himfelf in the boggy forefts in the midland
part of this kingdom; and Herodian exprefsly fays, that,
in the time of the Romans pufhing their conquefts in thefe
jflands, it was the cuftom of the Britons to fecure them-
felves in the thick forefts which grew in their boggy and wet
places, and when opportunity offered, to iffue out thence
and fall upon the Romans. The confequence of all this
was, the deftroying all thefe forefts, the Romans finding
themfelves fo plagued with parties of the natives iffuing out
upon them at times from thefe forefts, that they gave orders
for the cutting down and deftroying all the forefts in Britain
which grew on boggy and wet grounds. Thefe orders were
punciually executed ; and to this it is owing, that at this
day we can hardly be brought to believe that fuch forefts
éver grew with us as are now found buried.

The Roman hiftories all join in telling us, that when Sue-
tonius Paulinus conquered sAnglefea, he ordered all the
woods to be cut down there, in the manner of the Roman
generals in England ; and Galen tells us, that the Romans,
after their conqueft in Britain, kept their foldiers conftantly
employed in cutting down forefts, draining of marfhes, and
paving of bogs. Not only the Roman {foldiers were em-
ployed in this manner, but all the native Britons made cap-
tives in the wars, were obliged to affilt in its: and Dion
Caffius tells us, that the emperor Severus loft no lefs than
fifty thoufand men in a few years time, in cutting down the
woods and draining the bogs of this ifland. It is not to be
wondered at, that fuch numbers executed the immenfe de-
ftruction which we find in thefe buried forefts. One of the
greatelt fubterranean treafures of wood is that near Hat-
field; and it 1s eafy to prove that thefe people, to whom this
havock is thus attributed, were upon the {pot where thefe
trees now lie buried. ‘The common road of the Romans out
of the fouth into the north, was formerly from Lindum
(Lincoln) to Segelochum (Little-Burrow upon Trent),
and from thence to Danum (Doncatter), where they kept
a flanding garrifon of Crifpinian horfe. A little off on the
ealt, and north-eaft of their road, between the two la{t
named towns, lie the borders of the greateft foreft, which
fwarmed with wild Britons, who were continually making
their fallies out, and their retreats into it again, intercepting
their provifions, taking and deltroying their carriages, kill-
ing their allics and paflengers, and difturbing their garrifons.
This at length fo exafperated the Romans, that they were
determined to deflroy it; and to do this fafely and cf.

ty

fectually, they marched againft it with a great army, and
encamped on a great moor not far from Finningly ; this is
evident from their fortifications, yet remaining.

‘There is a {mall town in theneighbourhoed called Ofterfield,
and as the termination feld feems to have been given only in
remembrance of battles fought near the towns whofe names
ended with it, it is not improbable that a battle was fought
here, between all the Britons who inhabited this foreit, and
the Roman troops under Oltorius. The Romans flew many
of the Britons, and drove the re{t back into this foreft, which
at that time overfpread all this low country. On this the
conquerors, taking advantage of a {trong fouth-weit wind, fet
fire to the pitch-trees, of which this foreit was principally com-
pofed ; and when the greater part of the trees were thus de-
itroyed, the Roman foldiers and captive Britons cut dowa
the remainder, except a few large ones, which they left
{tanding, as remembrances of the deftruction of the relt.
Thefe fingle trees, however, could not itand long againit
the winds ; and thefe falling into the rivers which ran through
the country, interrupted their currents, and the water, then
over{preading. the level country, made one great lake, and
gave origin to the mofles, or meory bogs, which were after-
wards formed there, by the workings of the waters, the
precipitation of earthy matter from them, and the putrefac-
tion of rotten boughs and branches of trees, and the valt in-
creafe of water mofs, and other fuch plants which grow in
prodigious abundance in all thefe forts of places. Thus were
thefe burnt and felled trees buried under a new-formed fpongy
and watery earth; and afterwards found on the draining and
digging through this earth again.

Hence it is not ftrange, that Roman weapons and Roman
coins are found among thefe buried trees ; and hence it is that
among the buried trees fome are found burnt, fome chopped
and hewn; and hence it is that the bodies of the trees all lie
by their proper roots, and with their tops lying north-eaft,
that is, in the direction in which a fouth-weft wind would
have blown them down. Hence alfo it is, that fome of the
trees are found with their roots lying flat, thefe being not
cut or burned down, but blown up by the roots afterwards
when left fingle; and it is not wonderful that fuch trees as
thefe fhould have continued to grow even after their fall, and
fhoot up branches from their fides, which might eafily grow
into high trees. Phil. Tranf. N° 275.

By this fyftem it is alfo eafily explained why the moor-foil
in the country is in fome places two or three yards thicker
than in others, or higher than it was formerly, fince the
growing up of peat-earth or bog-ground is well known, and
the foil added by overflowing of waters is not a little.

As the Romans were the deftroyers of this great and noble
foreft, fo they probably were alfo of the feveral other ancient
forefts ; the ruins of which furnifh us with the bog-wood of
Staffordfhire, Lancathire, Yorkfhire, and other counties.
But as the Romans were not much in Wales, in the Ifle of
Man, or in Ireland, it is not to be fuppofed, that foreits
cut down by thefe people gave origin to the foflile wood
found there ; but though they did not cut down thefe forefts,
others did ; and the origin of the bog-wood is the fame with
them as with us.

Holingfhed informs us, that Edward I., not being able to
get at the Welfh, becaufe of their hiding themfelves in
boggy woods, gave orders at length that they fhould be de-
{lroyed by fire and by the axe; and doubtlefs the roots and
bodies of trees found in Pembrokeshire under ground, are the
remains of the execution of this order. ‘The foflile wood in
the bogs of the Ifles of Man and Anglefea, is doubtlefs of
the fame origin ; though we have not any accounts extant of
the time or pccafion of the forefts there being a ;

ut

a

Tn,

ee

MOR

but as to the foffile trees of the bogs of Ireland, we are ex-
prefely told, that Henry Ii., when he conquered that
country, ordered all the woods to be cut down that grew in
the low parts of it, to fecure his conquefts by cutting away
the’places of refort of rebels. ;

We have an account in the Philofophical Tranfa&tions of
a moving mofs, near Church-town, in Lancafhire, which
greatly alarmed the neighbourhood as miraculous. The mofs
was obferved to rife to a furprifing height, and foon after
funk as much below the level, and moved flowly towards the
fouth.

MORASTEEN, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in
the province of Upland; S miles S.E. of Upfal.

MORAT, or Murren, a bailliage of Switzerland, be-
longing to Bern and Friburgh ; into which the reformation
was introduced in 1530, by a majority of voices, in pre-
fence of deputies from Bern and Friburgh.—Alfo, the ca-
pital of this bailliage, which ftands pleafantly upon the edge
of a {mall lake, about fix miles long and two broad, in the
midft of a wellcultivated country. The lakes of Morat and
Neuchatel are parallel to each other, and feparated only by a
ridge of hills: the former is the moft elevated, for it dif-
charges itfelf by means of the river Broye, into the lake of
Neuchatel. According to M. de Luc, it is fifteen French
feet above the level of that of Neuchatel. Both thefe lakes,
as well as that of Bienne, formerly extended much farther
than their prefent limits; and, from the pofition of the
country, appear to have been once united. Morat is cele-
brated for the obftinate fiege fuftained againft Charles the
Bold, duke of Burgundy, which was followed by the battle
of Morat, fought on} the 22d of June, 1476. In this fa.
mous engagement the duke was routed, and his whole army
almott deftroyed by the confederate troops of Switzerland.
Not far from the town, ard adjoining to the high road, was
ere&ted a monument of this victory ; which was a fquare
building, filled with the bones of the Burgundian foldiers,
who were flain at the fiege andin the battle. In March 1798
the French troops demolifhed this offuary. Morat is 12
miles W. of Berne. Coxe’s Travels, vol. ii.

MORATA, Orympra Funvia, in Biography, an Ita-
lian lady, was born at Ferraraim 1526. Her father was a
learned profeffor, and gave her an excellent education. She
became tutorefs to’ the princefs of Ferrara, and declaimed
publicly in Latin and Greek. Olympia married Grunthler,
profeffor of medicine at Heidelberg, where fle died in

1555- Her works, confitting of orations, letters, dialogues,
and tranflations, were printed at Bafle in 1562, 8vo. ]

Morata, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the bay of Hondu-
ras, near the E. coaft of Ruatan. N. lat. 16° 25’. W. long.
86° 58’.

MORATALAZ, atown of Spain, in New Cattile; 22
miles E. of Civdad Real.

MORATALLA, a town of Spain, in Murcia; 34
miles S.S.W. of Chinchilla. -

MORATUR, or Demorarur, in Law, fignifies as much
as, he demurs ; that'is, the party here goes not forward, but
refts or abides by the judgment of the court, who take time
to deliberate, argue, and advife thereon.

When the counfellors of the party are of opinion that the
count or plea of the adverfe party is infufficient in law; then
he demurs, or abides in law; and refers the fame to the
judgment of the court. See Demurrer. | ae

MORAU, in Geography, a river of Aultria, whiclr gives
rame to Moravia, rifes in the Sudetic mountains; and
pafling by Olmutz, joins the Danube not far to the W. of

Prefburg. : ‘
MORAVA, a town of Servia, on a river of the fame

-alum, iron, fulphur, faltpetre, and vitriol ;

MOR

name, which was the ancient Margus, and runs about zoo
miles into the Danube. Morava is fix miles N.W. of Pa-
akin. ,

MORAVAHISAR, a tawn of European Turkey, in
Servia ; 40 miles N.N.W. of Nifla.

MORAVIA, Marquifate of, 4 country bounded on the
N. by Bohemia and Siletia, on the E. by Silefia and Hun-
gary, on the S. by Auftria, and on the W. by Bohemia ;
containing about 1400 iquare miles. On the fide of Hungary,
Bohemia, and Silefia, it is partly environed by mountains,
and partly by woods. One-half of it is mountainous and
woody; and in the more chamipaign circles- and tras are’
many morafles, bogs, and lakes. In the former part the
temperature is cold, and requiring even a ftove in fummer ;
and yet it is more falubrious than the other even level dif.
triéts. The country produces more corn than the ithabit-
ants confume, hemp and flax, and good faffron, and alfo
fruit-trees and vegetables, befides vines that yield white and
red wines. It has good pafturage for all forts of cattle, and
plenty of same. Here are alfo wolves, bears, and leopards ;
quarries of marble, and other minerals, fuch as thofe of
and iprings im-
pregnated with thofe minerals.) The number of market-
towns and villages in Moravia has been eftimated at 2550.
The language of the country is a dialect of the Sclavonic ;
but the German is verycommon. The fates of the country
confift of the clergy, lords, knights and burgefles. Chrif-
tianity was introduced here about the middle of the gtk
century: the prevalent profeflion is that of the! Romifk
church, fubjeét to the jurifdiGtion of the bifhop of Olmutz.
The articles of commerce confift of manufaGures of cloth.
iron, glafs, pepper, gunpowder, &c. Which, on the whole,
are confiderable. Till phe oth century, the kings of this
country, anciently inhabited by the Quadi, and afterwards by
the Sclavi, were powerful and independent ; but in the tine of
Charlemagne they became his vaflals. In 1086 Moravia wae
declared a marquifate, and united with Bohemia. The whole
marquifate is divided into fix circles, each of which has its
captain, whofe authority extends to the quartering, march-
ing, and maintenance of the foldiers. The capital is Oj.
mutz.

MORAVIAN, or Bonemran Brethren, in Ecclefiaftical
Hiflory, were Proteftants of Bohemia, who, in the 15th
century,-threw off the defpotic yoke of Rome, animated
by the zealous exhortations and heroic example of John
Hufs. Thefe Moravian brethren were diftinguifhed by fe-
veral religious inititutions of a fingular nature, and well
adapted to guard their community againft the reigning vices
and corruptions of the times. In 1552, they united them.
felves to the Lutheran churches in Saxony ; but after the
death of Luther, and their expulfion from their country in
1547, many of them, who retired into Poland, embraced the
religious fentiments and difcipline of the reformed; and by
degrees they all entered into the communion of the Swifs
church. This union was, at firft, formed on the exprefs
condition, that the two churches fhould continue to be go-
verned by their refpeétive laws and inftitutions, and fhould
have feparate places of public worfhip ; but, in the follow-
ing century, all remains of diflention were removed in the
fynods held at Aftrog in 1620 and 1627, and the two con-
gregations were formed into one, under the title of the
‘Church of the United Brethren.” From this honourable
origin the modern Moravians are ambitious to derive their
defcent. See Herrnuurersand Unsras Fratrum.

MORAWEN, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Chrudim; 6 miles N.E. of Chrudim,
AN MORA-

MOR

MGRAWICA, a town Of Poland, in Volhynia; 18
miles S.E. of Lucko.

MORAYA, a town of Pern, in the diocele of La
Plata; 70 miles E. of Lipes.

MORAYSHIRE, or the county of Elgin, one of the
northern counties of Scotland, is bounded on the N. by that
branch of the German ocean called the Moray-Frith ; on the
E. and S.E. by Banffshire; on the S.W. by Invernefs-
fhire ; and on the W. by that county, and by Nairn. he
figure of this fhire is extremely irregular, being in feveral
places interfected by diftriéts of the counties which form its
boundaries. It extends in length from N. to S. about 42
miles ; and in average breadth, from E. to W., about 20.
In ancient times the limits of this county were much more
ex?enfive than at prefent. comprehending ali that tra& of coun-
try which lies between the river Spey on the E. parts, the
Farar or Beaulie on the N. W., and the northern confines of
Argylefhire on the W. When this larger county was fub-
divided, and its name confined to the prefent extent, is
uncertain, but that event moft probably took place at a
period later than the tenth century, as the “ diftri&t’’ or
« province” of Morayfhire is frequently mentioned by wri-
ters in their reference to a fubfequent era.

This county is naturally divided into two portions ; the
one called the Lowlands, and the other Brae-Moray. The
former of chefe, lying along the fea-fhore, and comprehending
an extent of 200 fquare miles, is a fine champaign country,
though diverfified by many gently rifing grounds ; which
being either covered with trees, or in a ftate of high cul-
tivation, form a land{cape, in general much fuperior in beauty,
fertility, and riches to any northward of the Grampian hulls.
The latter, comprilfing about 600 {quare miles, and confti-
tuting the upper or fouthern divifion, is, on the contrary,
a mountainous country, interfeCted by feveral fertile vallies
along the banks of the different itreams, which take their
rife in, or flow through it. This diftri€t, particularly its
uppermoft portion, is chiefly occupied by extenfive forelts
of different kinds of trees, but the fir and the oak are molt
prevalent.

The foil and climate of Moraythire, as in moft counties
of fimilar extent, furface, and polition, are various. ‘The
Lowlands in general participate in the fair weather which
is found to prevail over the whole eaftern coa{t of Scotland.
Indeed in that refpeét this diftrit is peculiarly favoured by
its fituation, as lying between the mountains of Sutherland
on the one fide, and thofe of Banff and Aberdeen on the
other. For the clouds borne aloft on the winds pafs from
the one range to the other, with great rapidity over the fub-
jacent plain, which affords no objeé& fufficiently high to
attraét or impede their courfe. The proximity of the fea
prevents the fine from remaining on the ground for any
lengthened period of time; and is, likewile, the caufe of
its feldom falling in very confiderable quantity. Ia fhort,
thefe circumftances combine to render the climate here more
mild and favourable, than probably occurs in any diftrict of
Europe under the fame latitude. The hilly part of the
county has a climate of a much ruder defcription. Win-
ter commences here earlier than in the Lowlands, and lingers
a month or five weeks later.

In the maritime diftri&t the great proportion of the foil
is a rich deep clay, which, if under proper management,
would equal in fertility the fimilar foil of the Carfe-of-
Gowrie. The furface of the remainder of this level con-
fits principally of a deep black loam, or of a light and
fandy foil. That in the vallies of the hilly parts is formed
chiefly by the washings of the ftreams; and where culti-
vation has taken place, on the fides of the hills, the foil is

t5

MOR
of a moorifh quality, and more or lefs blended with mofs
The fandy foil is greatly intermixed with gravel and large
pebbles.

On the fubje& of agriculture, it may be obferved, that
its condition in this county varies with the changes of foil
and climate, which its different portions exhibit. Wheat
is raifed only in the lower diftri¢t ; but oats, barley, peas,
and beans, potatoes, turnips, and artificial grafles, are pre-
valent over the whole cultivated extent of the fhire. No
fixed rotation of crops feems to be adopted, though in all
the larger farms a certain portion of land is annually fal-
lowed; fome laid down with turnips, and fome with grafs.
In Strathfpey, one-half of the lands is ufually under oats,
and on the remaining half is grown a confiderable portion of
grafs, with fmall quantities of beans, peas, turnips, and
potatoes. Lime, either manufaétured in the county, or
imported from the Frith of Forth, er from England, is
much employed as a manure. The molt extenfive farms
here contain from a hundred to a hundred and fifty acres of
arable land; but farms in general have feldom more than
thirty or forty acres under tillage. In Strathfpey they are
of much greater extent for the moft part than in the low
country, owing to the circumftance of their having been
formerly wadfetted, or pledged for debts by the family of
Grant ; tor though the wad{ets are redeemed, yet the farms
moltly continue in the hands of the defcendants of their
ancient poffeffors. Farm-houfes, in the Lowlands, where
the farms are of tolerable extent, make, in general, a re-
fpectable appearance ; but the dwellings of the poorer te-
rants are extremely mean. The farm-tervants are ufually
maintained in the family ; ‘‘ the ordinary breakfatt being
porridze made of oatmeal, which 1s ate warm with milk or
{mall beer: for dinner a kind of flummery, called fowens,
is made from the bran of oatmeal, and ate chiefly with
milk ; and for fupper, greens or cabbage, either cut fmall,
or mafhed, and afterwards boiled with an addition of oatmeal
and falt; and at each meal there is an addition of bread
made from a mixture of oats, bean and peas-meal. On
Sundays and other holidays the’ dinner 1s broth, made of
pot-barley with greens, or roots and butchers’ meat.’’

The chief plantations in the lower portions of this county
are the property of the earl of Fife and the heirs of the
late earl of Finlater. Thefe confit of various forts of
forett'trees. In Stratlif{pey there are very, extenfive furefts
of Scottifh fir on the ettates of Grant of Rothiemurchus,
the duke of Gordon, and fir James Grant. The forelt of
Glenmore, which has been moltiy cut down within thele
lait twenty-fix years, afforded many trees fit to be ufed as
maits for veffels of a confiderable ize, and fome even fuit-
able for the royai navy.

The principal rivers of this county are the Findhorn, the
Spey, and the Loffie. The Findhorn rifes in Invernefs-
fire, and after a courfe of nearly fifty miles, in a north.
ealterly direction, falls into the Moray Frith at the harbour
of Findhorn ; the Spey likewife rifes in that county, and
flows into the ocean at Gairmouth, forming, for a confider-
able extent, the boundary between Moray{hire and Banff-
fhire. he Loffie takes its rife in the hills between Dollas
and Strathfpey, in the upper diftri&, and difcharges ite
waters into the Frith at Loffiemouth. Several rivers of
inferior fize unite with each of thele larger ones during their
current through this county. Of the lakes here, loch
Spynie is the only one deferving of notice. It is about three
miles long and one broad, and appears to have been an arm
or branch of the fea, though now fhut up by a confiderable
extent of valuable land. ‘This lake abounds with pike and
perch, and is much frequented by {wwans.

Moray

MOR

Moray fhire does not contain any metallic veins, at Jeaft none
have yet been difcovered. Fire-flone, grey-flate, and lime-
ftone, however, are found in great abundance. In the dif-
trict of Rothiemurchus isa valt mountain of the latter, which
is calcined with wood, and chiefly employed as a manure.
A rock of fine agate appears on the fide of a hill near the
church of Rothes. It is very hard, heavy, of a fmooth
uniform texture, and of confiderable brightnels, the red being
remarkably clear and finely fhaded through the ftone. Mr.
Williams, the mineralogi(t, fays, this is « the largeft and
mot beautiful agate rock he ever faw, and is fo fine and
hard as to becapable of the highest Iu{tre in polithing.”’

The only mineral [prings in the county are thofe in the
parifh of Duthil, which haye been long elteemed for their
medicinal properties in urinary complains, and are fuppofed
to refemble the Seltzer waters in containing fixed air.

Numerous interefting remains of antiquity are found in
different paris of Morayfhire. | Elgin is diitinguifhed by the
ruins of an ancient cathedral, originally built by bifhop
Murray, whofe_epifcopal feat was tranflated hither from
Spynie in the year 1224. Having been burnt to the
ground, however, in 1390, by Alexander Stewart of Bade-
noch, it was refounded by bifhop Barr. (See Exern.)
The remains of Plufcardine abbey itand on the north fide
of the river Loffie, fix miles to the fouth-welt of Elgin.
This monattery was founded, by king Alexander IT., in the
year 1230, and dedicated to St. Andrew. The religious
were monks of Valles Caulium, a reform of the Ciftertians
following the rule of St. Bennet, and were brought hither
by Wiliam Malvoifin, bifhop of St. Andrews, from the
diecefe of Langres, in France. From the appearance of the
ruins, this inftitution feems to have been one of contiderable
extent and riches. On the fouth bank of loch Spynie are

the ruins of the ancient palace of the bifhops of Moray, -

which is faid to have been one of the moft magnificent epif-
copal feats in Scotland. Lochin@arb caltle, in the parifh
of Edinkillie, has evidently been a place of great ttrenzth.
Catharine de Beaumont, widow of David de Halting:, earl
of Athol, was blockaded here during the captivity of king
David Bruce, by fir Andrew Moray the regent. Ed-
ward III., however, faved her from falling into his hands,
by compelling him to raife the fiege the year following, when
he marched his army fo far north as Invernefs, with the
view of enforcing the fubmiffion of the whole kingdom.
The prefent remains of this ca{tle cover afpace of ground not
lefs than roo yards {quare. Near this fortrefs are the vel-
tiges of another, called Doune-hill, which appears to be of
more ancient date chan the former; and was probably one
of the ftrong holds to which the inhabitants retired with
their cattle upon the invafions ef the Danes, Norwegians,
or Iflanders. It is fituated on a conical mount, defended on
the one fide by the deep rocky channel of the rapid river
of Dwie, and on the others by an immenfe foffe or ditch,
with a {trong rampart on the outfide, mottly compofed of
ftones, fome of which are apparently vitrifed. About a
mile higher up the river ftands the caftle of Dumphail, long
the property of the family of Dunbar; and in the parith of
Dyke is that of Darnaway, the venerable mantion of the
earls of Moray, of the Randolphs, the Dunbars, the Doug-
lafes, and the Stuarts, all names of much note in the page
of hiftory. he grand hall in this caftle, built by Thomas
Randolph, regent of Scotland during the minority of king
David Bruce, is by much the oldeft and moft remarkable
part of the buildings; and meafures 89 feet in length by
35 in breadth. In the parifh of Duffus may be difcovered
traces of fome ancient military works, which are attributed

to the Danes. The fpot on which they are fituated is called

MOR

the Burgh ; and is fuppofed to be the real {cite of the fors
trefs mentioned by Buchanan, as having been furrendered to
the Danes upon the defeat of Malcolm II. At the weftern
extremity of the parifh is an obelifl or ftone crofs, con-
jectured to be the fame which was ere€ted to commemorate
the rout and di/perfion of the forces of Camus by the fame
monarch in the purfuit of the Danes, after the viGtory of
Panbride, in Angus. The village of Duffus is further re-
markable for a {quare, in the centre of which ttands the
church, furrounded by four ttreets regularly paved, the
workmanthip of Oliver Cromwell’s foldiers. Many other
curious monumerits of antiquity are fill vifible in different
parts of this county, among which Swino’s ftone, or pillar,
on the road from Nairn to Forres, particularly demands
attention, This ftone is univerfally allowed to exceed in
ornamental workmanfhip all the other obelifs in Scotland ;
and is even generally fuppofed to be the fineft monument of
the kind now exiiting in Europe. [ts height above ground
is not lefs than 23 feet, and it is faid to fink twelve beneath
it. Its breadth is ebout four feet. The portion above the
furface of the ground is vilibly divided, on the E. fide, into
feven compartments, containing a variety of baffo-rel‘evos,
reprefenting military figures. On the other fide is difplayed
a fumpruous crofs, and under it appear two perfonages in
the attitudes of reconciliation, It is remarkable that no
ditin& tradition concerning this obelifk has reached the pre-
fent period ; hence its origin and intention are doubtful, but
it is ufually fuppofed to have been ereéted in memory of the
peace concluded between Malcolm and Canute, upon the
fina! retreat of the Danes from Scotland.

Moraythire, according to the parliamentary returns of

1801, contained 6126 houfes, and 26,705 inhabitants, viz.
11,763 males, and 14.942 females. Of this number, 8131
are employed in agriculture, and 4410 in the different de-
partments of trade and manufaéture. Pennant’s Tours in
Scotland. halmers’ Caledonia. Beauties of Scotland,
vol. iv. Antiquities and Scenery of the North of Scot-
land, by the Rev. Charles Cordiner, gto.
' MORBEGNO, a town of Switzerland, the handfomeft
in the Valteline, lies on the left fide of the Adda, at the
foot of the fouthernmott chain of movntains. It has more
fhops and carries on more trade than all the others united.
It 1s the refidence of a bailiff, who bears the title of Podetta ;
rr miles S.E. of Chiavenna. See WALTELINE.

MORBEN, a mountain of Scotland, in the county ef
Perth; 12 miles W.S.W. of Crieff.

MORBEYA, ariver of Morocco, which runs into the
Atlantic, near Azamor. }

MORBID, from Morbus, difzafe, is applied, in medical
language, to every thing connected with difeafe ; thus we
fay morbid fecretion, morbid poifon, morbid itru€ture, and
even morbid anatomy ; meaning by the laft the anatomical
inveltigation of thofe changes in the organs of the body,
which cifeafe has left behind it, when fatal.

Moruip Poifon. This term was firlt invented by Mr.
Hunter to make a neceffary diftinGion between thofe fecre-
tions by which animals in a ftate of health are able to injure
others ; and thofe which no animal poffeffes but in a morbid
or difeafed ttate. When the viper infli€ts his venom, how-
ever deleterious it may be, he is himfelf in health, and the
higher that health, the ftronger will his venom prove. But
the fmall-pox is always a difeafed aGtion in the perfon who
communicates, as well as in the perfon who is affected by
it. This diftinction, important as it muft appear, as foon
as propofed to the underitanding, was overleoked long after
Mr. Hunter had pointed it out, and is fearcely yet vernae
cularized even among medical men. ne

MORBID POISON.

The earlier writers on the fubje& of poifons, feemed to
have taken Celfus as ther model, who was acquainted with
no morbid poifon but the hydrophobia. It is not to be
wondered if that accurate writer fhould have placed in fuc-
ceflion morfus rabiofi canis, morfus ferpentum, tdus afpidum,
aranci, fcorpionis, &c. and afterwards venena vel in cibo vel in
potione afumpta. But it is lefs excufable that Mead,.in a
‘Treatife on Poifons, fhould have made no other diftinétion
between poifons, than from the kingdom of nature from
which they are derived, or from their property of injuring
by being applied to the ftomach, or externally by a wound.

Mr. Hunter's diftin@tion might have been of lefs im-
portance, had not the former incorrectnefs confiderably in-
fluenced the praétice of thofe who were mifled by their own
terms. Thus, when it was found that mercury was a re-
medy againit the venereal poifon, it was foon confidered as

“an antidote; and as the principal medical induftry of the
ancients had been direGted to the difcovery of antidotes, it
was prefently conceived that mercury might be applied in all
cafes of poifons.

But the great advantage which medicine has derived from
Mr. Hunter’s diftin@ions is, that it has led to an accurate
difcrimination between the laws of different animal poifons,
and to a more correét mode of afcertaining the charafters of
each of the various morbid poifons. In thefe views we fhall
now proceed with the article before us.

Mr. Hunter called thofe poifons which form a part of the
animal when in health * the zatura/ poifons.”” Dr. Adams
prefers the term “ original poifons,” inafmuch as both thefe
and the “ morbid’’ are procefles of nature, but the firlt only
are fecretions of the animal in his original or unaltered
condition. This then marks the firft diltin€tion. The fe-
cond, and not lefs important, is, that an animal affeted by
an original animal poifon has no power ‘of communicating
a fimiar difeafe to another ; whereas one affected by a
morbid poifon acquires all the properties of injuring in a
fimilar way, and communicates the fame property to {uch as
are poifoned by him. An animal bitten hy a ferpent has
no power of communicating a fimilar morbific influence by
his own bite; but many animals bitten by a rabid dog
have the power of communicating a fimilar effec to other
animals of their own, and even of different {pecies and
orders.

The original and morbid poifons affe& locally or confti-
tutionally, and fometimes in both ways. But there is one
important diflinétion, namely, that an animal may remain
fulceptible of the effect of the original poifons if he furvives
the difeafe excited by them; whereas, as far as morbid
poifons have been traced, no conftitutional effect can be a
fecond time excited by the fame poifon in the fame fubject.
If this provifion had not been made again{t thofe poifons
which affe&t by effluvia, fuch as the fmall-pox, the conftant
apprelienfion of difeafe from fources from which we could
never proteé ourfelves, would have rendered life fo preca-
rious a3 to be fcarcely worth acceptance.

Mr. Hunter divided the morbid poifons into the fimple
and compound. ‘The fimple are thofe which affect locally
or conttitutionally, but not both ways ; thofe which afleé&
locally and conftitutionally he called compound. There is
fome difficulty in marking this diftinétion, becaufe there are
few, if any, which may not be called compound, and there are
fome which are occafionally fimple and at other times com-
pound. ‘Thus, the venereal difeafe, which Mr. Hunter ufes
as an illuftration of a compound, is more commonly a fimple
poifon, affecting only the parts to which it is applied. ‘Lhe
cow-pox, in like manner, is generally only a fimple poifon,
but affects diltant parts of the body; and the

nat
fometimes

~

{mall-pox, which for the moft part affe€&is the whole, is
fometimes confined to the inoculated part. On this account
Dr. Adams has preferred: the divifion into fuch as produce
their effect by conta& or effuvia, or both. The venereal
poifon is never found to produce its effet but by applica-
tion in a fubftantial form. The cow-pox is of the fame
defcription. The meafles, on the contrary, are with diffi-
culty, if at all, communicated but by effluvia, and the
fmall-pox may be communicated by either one or the other.
We have thought it right to mention thefe diftin¢tions,
though to us neither of them appears of fuflicient import-
ance for any praétical purpofes. ;

Mr, Tiunter was of opinion that the morbid poifons are
for the moft part of recent date. It is certain, that ex-
cepting hydrophobia, they are not to be traced in the
writings of the ancient phyficians. He imputed them to fome
accidental intercourfe between animals of the fame or different
fpecies ; and conceived that when fuch a caufe has induced
only a local difeafe on a part not likely to be applied to
another animal, the effe& has probably ceafed with the ani-
mal which has been firft injured. But if the difeafe could -
be communicated by effluvia, it would {pread as long as that
effuvium was inhaled by animals fufceptible of its impref-
fion ; hence the almof& univerfality of {mall-pox. Or if
its local effe€ts were produced on parts of animals often
brought into contact and not expofed to fight, the com-
munication of fuch a difeafe would be as general as fuch
intercourfe was promifcuous. Hence the rapid fpread of
fyphilis among fuch as are unconftrained by the laws of
chattity.

The only work which Mr. Hunter has left us on morbid
poifons, is his celebrated Treatife on the Venereal Difeafe. In
this work, by his happy calent of difcrimination, by his un-
wearied induttry, which was only equalled by his accuracy,
he at length afcertained the true charaéter of a difeafe, till
his time fuppofed to be confined by no laws, and hence
termed a proteiform complaint. By the ufe of this conve-
nient term many other obitinate local difeafes were fo con-
founded by former writers, that at laft it was fufpeted an
individual or even a family lonce infe&ed could never with
any certainty be confidered as pure. All this erroneous mode
of reafoning, if it could be called reafoning, Mr. Hunter
effetually overturned, by afcertaining the true charater
of fyphilis, (fee Lurs Venerea,) the manner in which it is
cured, the chances of its occurrence afterwards in diftant
parts of the body, the means of curing it in each, and the
caufes which for a time might interfere with, or render
ineffectual the only certain remedy. Befides the ignorance
of his predeceffors on moft of thefe points, another fruitful
fource of error to themfelves, and of confequent mifery to,
their patients, was the miftaking other morbid poifons for
the venereal, merely becaufe they appeared in parts mott
liable to the latter. Of thefe he gave feveral inftances in.
the nipples from fuckling, the gums from the tranfplantation
of teeth, and in thofe organs which are the ufual feat of the
difeafe. Cafes of each he defcribes with great accuracy
under the term * difeafes refembling the lues venerca,”’ and
concludes this invaluable prefent to polterity with the fol-
lowing paragraph: ‘ I cannot conclude,”’ fays he, ‘ with-
out intimating that wmdefcribed difeafes refembling the ve-
nereal are very numerous; and that what I have faid is
rather to be confidered as hints for others to profecute the
inquiry further, than asa complete account of the fubject.””

Such is the laft paragraph of Mr. Hunter's fecond edi-
tion, publifhed in the year 1788, Though he lived till the
latter end of 1793, he never brought the fubje& again before
the public, nor even troubled himfelf with anfwering the nu-

merous

MORBID POISON,

merous objeGtions, which we may fuppofe, appeared to doc-
trines at that time fo new and fo contrary to generally re-
ceived opinions.

In the beginning of 1795, appeared the firft edition of
Dr. Adams’s Treatife on Morbid Poifons, the title of which
fhewed that it was principally directed to the inquiry which
Mr. Hunter had left for others to profecute. After vindicat-
ing his mafter from the attacks of every author who had op-
poled or mifreprefented him, Dr. Adams attempts a me-
thodical arrangement of all thofe appearances which had,
till Mr. Hunter’s time, been confounded with fyphilis. In
doing this, he very happily avai!s himfelf of an enumeration
of all the ulcers, defcribed by Celfus, on the parts ufually
expofed to the venereal poifon. He fhews that the above-
mentioned author, who is admitted to have flourifhed more
than a thoufand years before this formidable difeafe. was
known, defcribes, with much accuracy, in his chapter De
obfcenarum partium vitiis, nine forms of ulceration, all of which
differ from the proper chara¢ter of the venereal, as traced
by Mr. Hunter, and even by Aftruc, Boerhaave, and every
other refpeétable writer ; and that many of thefe ulcerations
are mentioned by modern authors as forms of the venereal
difeafe, which they found themfelves unable to cure, and
which they acknowledge were often exafperated by mer-
cury. A reference to thefe writers ferves him at once as
an illuftration of Celfus, and as a proof that difeafes, de-
feribed by that author, ought not to be confounded with one
which is admitted by almoft every writer to have arifen fo
long fince his days.

Having difpofed of this grand queftion, Dr. Adams makes
the firft attempt at fomething like a claflification of morbid
poifons from the local a¢tions excited by them. Thefe we
fhall offer in his own words.

« Tf this diftinGion,’’ fays he, “ of morbid poifons may
be admitted, it will refolve itfelf into the following di-
vifion :

« 1, Slough,. with confequent fungus and feab, as in

aws.
3 «© 2, With fuppuration and fcab, as in fmall-pox.

“3, Preceded by ulcers and followed by immediate
fkinning, as in feveral anomalous morbid poifons.

« 4, With ulceration, and each in fucceffion, as in the
floughing phagedzna.

«5. Ulceration kept up by the fecreting pus, as in fiv-
vens and fome anomalous phagedene.

« 6. Slough, with a thickened edge and bafe, as in the
venereal ulcer.””

Such was the ftate of our progrefs towards an accurate
difcrimination of difeafes fo important, not only to medicine,
but to the common intercourfe ef fociety, when Dr. Adams
publifhed his firft edition. In this alfo was contained the
firft printed account of cow-pox, which was introduced in
illuftration of Mr. Hunter’s fuggeftion, that the morbid poi-
fons might originate by the intercourfe of different {pecies
of animals. A few years afterwards, Dr. Jenner publifhed
his valuable difcovery, and from that time the term morbid
poifon has been more genera!ly adopted and underftood.

In the year 1804, Mr. Abernethy publifhed his « Claffi-
fication of Tumours,’ with a number of cafes, fuppofed to
be venereal, though evidently arifing from other caufes.
The hafty manner in which his work was compiled, pre-
vented (as the author acknowledges) his marking, with fuffi-
cient accuracy, thofe difcriminations by which the true might
be diftinguifhed from what he terms the p/eudo-/yphilis. His
fa&ts are, however, invaluable, and thefe he feems, by a
kind of courtefy, to confign to the arrangement of Dr,

Adams, or to any one who might find leifure and diligence
to purfue the fubje& methodically.

Three years afterwards appeared Dr. Adams’s fecond
edition of Morbid Poifons, improved by all that had been
offered by other writers fince his firlt, and moft of all by
the fa&ts he had colle&ted in the ifland of Madeira, in dif-
ferent parts of Great Britain, and even by experiments
made on his own perfon. He was now able to give a cli-
nical defcription of yaws and fivvens, to trace the progrefs of
the acarus /cabiei in himfelf, and to mark the diftinétion be-
tween the difeafe it induces and the true itch. Thus was fet-
tled the long difputed point concerning the fuppofed caufe
of the itch, which fome had imputed to an infeé&, the.ex-
iftence of which was denied by others. The confufed no-
tions alfo arifing from the term elephantiafis, and the various
difeafes confounded under that general name, were accurately
developed: (See the article Erepuantiasis.) But what
adds moit to the value of Dr. Adams’s refearches, is their
immediate application to practical ufes, for though our
knowledge may not yet be fufficiently mature to offer a
name. for every morbid poifon as it may occur in prattice,
yet by the arrangement he has made we fhall rarely be mif-
taken in the application of aremedy. To affift us in this
re{peG, he has drawn our attention to the natural and arti-
ficial modes of cure in thofe morbid poifons, whofe cha-
raGers are now well afcertained, and has thus taught us to
account for our occafional {uccefs, and too frequent failure
in attempting to cure them all by mercury, merely from its
eonftant efficacy in fyphilis. Some, he defcribes, whofe
progrefs is flow and like the yaws, may be at any time
fufpended by mercury, but the confequence of this fuf-
penfion is only the re-appearance of the difeafe in an aggra~
vated form; others. may, like fivvens, be more rapid, and
require to be initantly arrefted by mercury, and many others
may ceafe fpontaneoufly, or yield to cautlics, or other to-
pical applications. From thefe confiderations, more parti-
cularly the calamitous effeéts of giving mercury early in
yaws, and many other morbid poifons, he concludes with
advifing, that that mineral fhould never be exhibited in the
early itage of morbid poifons with which weare not well ac-
quainted, unlefs the ulcerative procefs fhouldbe fo rapid as
to render it abfolutely neceflary to make every attempt at
arrefting its ravages.

We fhall not offer any opinion on doétrines in many re-
fpeéts fo new, and which certainly mark profound appli-
cation, whether they may ftand the teft of future experience
or not. But it is equally our duty and gratification to ftate
one important refult which feems to have arifen from thefe
inquiries, and which we hope will be confirmed. None of
our readers need be reminded that the Europeans have been
accufed of carrying a difeafe to the South Sea fflands, which
is faid to have exterminated whole diftricis. It feems that
by perufing the accounts of different writers, Dr. Adams
had fome years paft not merely queftioned the ravages from
this difeafe in Otaheite, but even doubted whether it had
ever appeared there at all. (See Dr. Adams's Edition of
Mr. Hunter’s Treatife on the Venereal Difeafe.) About
ten years ago, Mr. Wilfen, furgeon of the Porpoife floop
of war, arrived at Otaheite, itrongly impreffed with an
apprehenfion of the prevalence of fyphilis, and of the con-
fequence to the health of his crew, who were dettined to
a much longer voyage. With this impreflion he examined
all his men daily, and was very diligent in learning which of
the natives were affe€ted. In his inquiries he was greatly
aflifted by the miflionaries, who fpoke with much diltre{s of
the prevalence of this dreadful malady in the ifland. Atrer
examining

MOR

examining every fubje&t, however, Mr. Wilfon became fatif-
fied that the difeafe which the Europeans were accufed of
importing did not then exilt, and probably never had been
known in Otaheite.

We have dwelt thus particularly on this lait topic,
firft to remove the reproach from the Englifh and French,
who have mutually accufed each other, and next to thew,
by this fingle inftance, how much the knowledge of difeate
has been improved by the accurate difcrimination of morbid
poifons.

Morstp, in Painting, is particularly applied to fat flefh
very ftrongly exprefled.

MORBIDERY, in Geography, a towa of Hindooftan,
in Canara; 13 miles N. ot Mangalore.

MORBIHAN, one of the nine departments of the N.W.
region of France, fo called from the river or canal, which
eommunicates with the fea from Vannes. This department
was formerly Lower Bretagne, a maritime territory between
Vilaine and Finifterre, in N. lat. 48°. It is bounded on the
N. by the department of the North Coatts, on the E. by the
department of the I'le and Vilaine, on the S.E. by the de-
partment of the Lower Loire, on the $.W. by the fea, and
on the W. by the department of Finifterre. It contains
7067% kiliometres, or 328 {quare leazues, and 425,485 in-
habitants. Itis divided into four circles or diflricts, 37
cantons, and 231 communes. Its four circles are Ponttivy,
including 91,788 inhabitants ; Ploermel, 88,504; L’Orient,
122,798; and Vannes, 122,395. According to Haflen-
fratz, it is divided into nine circles and 70 cantons, and con-
tains 281,565 inhabitants. Its capital is Vannes. Its con-
tributions in the year 11 of the French era, amounted to
2,327,248 fr., and its expences to 257,171 fr. 66cents. The
foil, though unequal, is fruitful, yielding yvrain, rye, flax,
fruits, and excellent paitures. It has mines of lead and coal.
Belle-ifle, belonging to this department, contains 5569 in-
habitants, andis abundantly fertile. Houac and Heedie are
iflets of little importance, inhabited by fifhermen.

MORBILLI, in Medicine, an appellation given to the
meafles by the Italian phyficians, fignifying, as it were, a
little plague ; for il merbo (the dileafe) was, in their laa-
guage, applied to the plague.

MORBUS, a term’ purely Latin, fignifying di/ea/e ;
which fee.

Morsus Arcuatus.

Mozwsus Cholera.

Moresus Comifialis. See Evitersy.

Morsus Coxarius. See Hie-soint, Difeafs of.

Morsus Gallicus. See Lues VENEREA.

Morsus Hungaricus. See Huncaricus morbus.

Morsus Prodromus. See Propromus:

Moresus Pedicularis. See Puvurriasis.

Morsus Regius. See JAuNpDICE.

Moreus Virgineus. See CuLorosis.

MORCHELLA, in Botany, a name of Perfoon's, of
whofe derivation we can determine nothing. It feems made
out of the Englifh Morel, which Dr. Johnfon by miltake
refers to Solanum, mifled, as it fhould feem, by the French
name of the Nightthade, More//e. Perf. Syn. Fung. 618.
Clafs and order, Cryptogamia Fungi. Nat. Ord. Fungi.

Eff. Ch. Cap elongated, round, cellular, not vifcid,
Volva none.

This genus is very properly feparated by Perfoon from
the Phallus of Linneus and other writers, from which it
differs no lefs in nature, than in the above eflential characiers.
Inftead of being of a fhort-lived watery texture, odioufly
fetid, and poifonows, itis of a leathery and permanent fub-

See JAUNDICE.
See CHOLERA,

MEO: R

ftance, eatable and of a delicious flavour; in every refpect
mvch nearer to He/vella than to any other genus.

Fight fpecies, are defined in the author above quoted. Of
thele the moft impor:ant is

M. ¢e/culenta.\ Eatable Morel. (Phallusefculentns; Linn,
Sp. Pl. 1648. Hudf. 629. Fi. Dan. t. 53. Helvella
efculenta ; Sowerb. t. 51.)—Cap contraéted at the bafe.
Stalk nearly folid—Fouad in dry woods, and hedge bot-
toms, efpecially in retired and rather mountainous fpots. It
is faid to {pring up abundantly where trees have been burnt
down, which was formerly practifed in Germany, by thofe
who collected this fungus for profit, till the method was for-
biddea by law. ‘The eatable Morel has a thick ffalk, of a
pale buff or dirty white, an inch or two high. The dead or
capis cellular, like a honey-comb, or like the fecond itomach
ot an ox turned infide out ; (fee MAMMALIA 3) its colour’an
uniform brown, mere or lefs pale, or greyifh, in different
individuals. ‘This fungus is readily dried, and may be pre- _
ferved for months, or even years. Its ufeis to give flavour
to fauces and foups, rather than as a difh by itfelf. ;

The central figures, in Sowerby’s plate, are confidered
by Perfoon as a diltin‘t ipecies, and called

M. potula. Oven Merel.—Cap open and foreading at the
bafe ; its cells rhomboid. Stalk hoilow. Found with the
former.

The late M. Ventenat has thrown much light on the dif-
ferent fpecies of Aorchella, under the name of Phallus, in
the firt volume of the Mémoires de l’Inititut.

MORCONE, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the.
county of Molife; 69 miles $.S.E. of Molife.

MORCZ<A€, a town of Auttrian Poland, in Galicia; 12
miles S. cf Halicz.

MORDANTS, in Dycing, are fub{tances employed to
increafe the permanence aud beauty of the various colouring
matter. In the more general fenfe,a mordant is confidered
as an intermediate fubitance to increafe the affinity of the co-
louring matter for the {ubftance to be dyed. Other fub-
{tances are alfo called mordants, which have merely the effet
of increafing the intenfity and brightnefs of the colour, or,
as the dyers term it, to bring it out. Of the firft kind we |
have decided examples in alum and oxyd of iron.. In order
to demonftrate the effect of affinity in the operations where
alum is ufed, we may give a fhort defcription of the procefs
of printing a piece of calico. Since the earth or bafe of the
alum is found to be the effential ingredient, it has been found
that when the acetat of alumiue is employed, the ftuff takes
the earth from that acid with greater facility than it does
from the fulphuric acid, when alum is ufed. For this pur-
pofe the alum is mixed in certain proportion with the ace-
tat of lead. By this means the acetat of alumine is obtained
in folution, while the fulphat of lead can be feparated on ac-
count of its infolubility. he acetat of alumine is then
made of fufficient confittence for printing, and is applied to
the tuff. After this, the whole of the piece is dipped intoa
madder bath. ‘Thofe parts where the alomine has been ap-
plied affume a deep and lively colour, while the ground is
very faint, and ot a dirty hue. If the ituff be now re.
peatedly boiled with bran, and expofed to the air and light,
the ground becomes white, while the printed parts remain
permsnent. In this procefs it is clearly fhewn that the ftuff
in itfelf has not a fufficient attraction of the colouring matter
to receive a permanent dye, without the prefence of the alu-
mine, which, by its common affinity to both, renders the
colour intenfe and permanent,

‘This theory is fupported by many collateral taés, If a
folution of alum, er of the acetat of alum, be added to almolt

any

MOR

any coloured infufion, a precipitate will be found confifting
of the earth combined with colouring matter. If the fepa-
ration of the earth be effeCted by the addition of an alkali,
the coloured precipitate is much more abundant. It is on
this principle that lakes ufed in painting are formed.

The attraGtion of the alumine is not lefs apparent for the
ftuff to be coloured. Berthollet found that by boiling wool
with alum, the earth combined with the animal matter which
was re-diffolved by fulphuric acid. Amd M. Curanda has
lately afcertained that when alum is boiled with cotton, fome
of the alum combines with it; fince the original quantity
could not be obtained by evaporating the water in which the
ftuff had been boiled.

The action of oxyd of iron as a mordant is not lefs con-
{picuous in printing calico, as in the ufe of alum the
acetat of iron is found more proper than the fulphat ; not
merely becaufe the oxyd is feparated with greater facility,
but on account of doing lefs injury to the texture of the ftuff.
Thofe parts printed with the acetat of iron, without any
other procefs, aflame a deep orange, which colour is in faét
the fame with the common iron mould. If, however, the
{tuff fo printed be dipped in a bath of madder, it will aflume
a darker or lighter fhade of purple, fometimes approaching
to black. This difference is modified by the ftrength of the
bath and the ftrength of the iron tint.

Tartar (fuper-tartrat of potafh) is much ufed in dyeing
as a mordant, although the nature of it is not well under-
ftood. Berthollet found that when wool was boiled with
alum alone it acquired a very harfh feel, while that boiled
in a mixed folution of alum and tartar was more foft to the
touch. The former did not take fo bright a colour from
the madder bath as the latter. This is a remarkable circum-
ftance, fince thefe two falts have no aGtion on each other,
The above chemift, however, is of opinion that the intermediate
affinity of the ftuff may caufe fome decompofition, He fur-
ther thinks, that the tartar has the effect of preventing the
too great aétion of the alum upon the wool, which is much
greater than its action upon cotton and filk, in the alluming
of which no tartar is ufed.

The muriat of tin is a mordant of confiderable importance
in dyeing fcarlet. The oxyd of tin has a {trong attration
for colouring matter, particularly that of cochineal. This
oxyd, like alumine, appears to combine in common with the
ftuff and the colouring matter, felecting only the pure part
of the latter. (See Tin, Muriat of.) Other fubftances
are employed in dyeing which come under this head, fuch
as muriats of foda and ammonia, acetat of lead, fulphat of
zinc, kc. In dyeing the turkey-red, the animal fubftance
with which the ftuff is impregnated is fuppofed to a& as a
mordant, by having a greater attraction for the madder than
the cotton to be dyed. See Dyrmnaand PrinTING.

MORDAUNT, Cuartes, in Biography, earl of Peter-
borough and Monmouth, diftinguifhed in the hiftory of our
country, the eldeft fon of John vifcount Avalon, and Eliza-
beth Carey, was born in 1662, and brought up to the
fea fervice. In 1680 he diftinguifhed himfelf by his courage
at Tangiers, then befieged by the Moors. Having fuc-
ceeded his father in his title and feat in the houfe of peers, he
{poke againft the repeal of the Teft aét, which James II. en-
deavoured to promete, and, difapproving the meafures pur-
fued by that prince, he obtained leave to go to Holland,
under the pretence of taking command of a Dutch {quadron
in the Welt Indies. At the Hague he was one of the firft
of the Englifh nobility that engaged in the defigns of the
prince of Orange, who paid great deference to his advice,
and whom he accompanied in his expeditionto England. On
the acceffion of that monareh, he was rewarded with feveral

Vor. XXIV.

MOR

high and important flate offices. In. 1692 he ferved a cam-
paign in Flanders under king William, by whom he had
been raifed to the dignity of earl of Monmouth, and in 1697
he fucceeded to the earldom of Peterborough, on the death
of his uncle Henry, the fecond earl of that title. In 1705
this noble lord was conftituted, by queen Anne, commander-
in-chief of the forces fent into Spain, in fupport of the arch-
duke Charles, competitor for the crown, and alfo joint-ad-
miral of the fleet with fir Cloudefley Shovel. He difplayed
great bravery and flill as commander of the Britifh forces in
Spain, where he took Barcelona, and brought feveral pro-
vinces to acknowledge Charles LII. as their king. A junc-
tion was afterwards made between the different corps in
Charles’ intereft, and lord Peterborough expected to have
had the chief command. Being difappointed in this, he
quitted the army in difguft, and embarking on board an
Englifh fhip, failed for Genoa. The lofs of the battle of
Almanza, and the other difafters in Spain which followed the
earl’s dereliftion, expofed him to cenfure, and the queen
refufed to admit him into her prefence till he fhould have
juitified himfelf from fome charges tranfmitted by king
Charles. The confideration of his condué, civil and mili-
tary, was, in confequence, taken up by both houfes of par-
liament, when he cleared himfelf fo effectually, that the en-
quiry was dropped, and the houfe of lords voted that he had.
performed many eminent fervices during his command in
Spain. In 1710, 1711, he was employed in negociations at
Turin, and at fome other Italian courts. He was created
knight of the Garter in 1713, and in a very fhort time after-
wards was fent again into Italy, as ambaffador-extra-
ordinary to'the king of the Sicilies, whence he did not re-
turn till after the queen’s death. During the reigns of
George I. and George II. he bore the commiffion of general
of all the marine forces in Great Britain, but was not again
engaged in active fervices. He died at Lifbon, in 1735, at
theage of 73. The private charaéter of this nobleman has
been thus defcribed: ‘* Born with an exalted imagination, a
romantic caft of mind, and a reftlefs aGtivity, he ftood dif-
tinguifhed from ordinary mortals in every thing which he
did.’ He faid of himfelf, ** that he had feen more kings and
more pottillions than any other man in Europe ;’’ and to this
part of his chara@ter Swift alludes in a poem on the earl,
which concludes with thefe ftanzas ;

« A fkeleton in outward figure,
His meagre corpfe, tho’ full of vigour,
Would halt behind him were it bigger.

* So wonderful his expedition
When you have not the leaft fufpicion
He’s with you like an apparition.

¢ Shines in all climates like a ftar,
In fenates bold, and fierce in war ;
A land commander, and a tar.

«¢ Heroic ations early bred in
Ne’er to be match’d in modern readin
But by his namefake, Charles of Sweden."

Lord Peterborough was a wit, and very ready at repar-
tee: being once furrounded by a mob, who took him for
the duke of Marlborough, then very unpopular; he faid
“ I will convince you I am not the duke: in the firft place,
I have but five guineas in my pocket ; and fecondly, here
they are, much at your fervice:”” he threw his purfe among
them, and got off with loud acclamations.

MORDEHI, an Eaft Ipdian name for a difeafe, to which
the people of that country are fubje@. It confifts in a vio-

U lent

MOR

lent diforder of the ftomach. The great heats, copious
fweats, and fupervening cold of that country, all naturally
tend to weaken the ftomach. Now if the inhabitants eat or
drink immoderately at night, the concoétion of their ali-
ments can be but very unduly performed. Hence, befides
this diftemperature of the ftomach, they are fubje& to others
of the bowels ; and diarrhceas are very common among them,
and with difficulty cured.

MORDELLA, in Natural Hiffory, a genus of infeQs
of the order Coleoptera, of which the generic chara€ter is,
antenne moniliform, or peétinate ; head defle€ted and bent
under the neck ; fhells curved downwards towards the tip:
at the bafe of the abdomen, and before the thighs, is a broad
lamina. Of this genus there are thirty-four {pecies enume-
rated by Gmelin, and divided into two fe¢tions.

The infeéts in feG@tion A have their antenne moniliform ;
fore-feelers clavate, hind-feelers filiform.

Species.

* AcuLreata. This is the moft common of the Britifh
{pecies, meafuring froma quarter to halfan inch in length :
it is entirely black, and of a {mooth furface ; the abdomen
is comprefied, and terminates in a {pine or fharp procels, ex-
tending beyond the wing-fheaths: the legs are rather long,

,and the infe&t, when difturbed, has the power of leaping or
{pringing to a {mall diftance. It is ufually found on plants,
in gardens, and other places. It is obferved to vary occa-
fionally in colour, having the wing-fheaths fometimes marked
by two tranfverfe; cinereous, villous bars.

Fasciata. Tail ending in a point ; body black ; fhells
with two cinereous bands. It is found on flowers in the
fouthern parts of Europe.

8.Puncrata. Tail ending in a point; fhells black, with
four yellow dots, the firft lunate. It inhabits South Ame-
rica. The head is brown; thorax yeilowifh, villous, with
four brown dots before, and waved ftreaks behind ; fhells
truncate ; body grey; {pine at the end of the abdomen
black.

Testacea. This is black; fhells are teftaceous, and
edged with black. It inhabits Africa, on the Daucus.

Ventratis. Tail ending in a {pine ; the body is black,
and the abdomen fulvous. It inhabits Germany.

* AgppomiNnaLis. The tail in this likewife ends in a {pine ;
the body is black; the thorax and abdomen fulvous. It is
found in many parts of Europe. ‘The head, breaft, hells,
abdominal {pine and bit black ; thorax and abdomen ful-
yous, polifhed, immaculate.

*Humerauis. Black; fhells yellowifh at the bafe. It
is found in this country, and other parts of Europe, on
flowers.

Larerauis. Black ; mouth, fides of the thorax and legs
teftaceous. Itis found in Holface on flowers.

FrontaAuis. Black; tront and legs yellowith.
Europe.

Ara.’ Black, immaculate ; tail not {pinous; found in
Denmark.

Tuoracica. Black ; head and thorax yellow.
found in divers parts of Europe.

Ruriconis. Black ; mouth, thorax and legs yellow. It
is found in France, and refembles the laft named fpecies.

*Frava. Yellow; hells tipt with black; is found on
umbellate flowers in feveral parts of Europe.

Tricuspipata. Yellow; abdominal lamina blue; tho-
rax tricufpidate behind; fliclls with three black dots. It
is found in Siberia.

Munwa. This is faid to be pubefcent, undulate and
einereous 3 the thorax has three black dots.

Inhabits

This is

MOR
6.Punctara. Glofly black ; fhells with three white dots.

It is found in Germany.

* OxyACANTHE.. Teftaceous ; head black ; thorax
brown. It inhabits England, and is found on the flowers
of the ‘ Crategus oxyacantha.”’

* Meranopus. Black; fhells, thorax, head and legs tef-
taceous. Thisis alfo an Englifh infec.

* Bicotor. A native of our own country ; black fhells
teftaceous tipt with black, a black band in the middle.

Pervata. Glofly black, fub-villous ; hinder margin
of the thorax, and four {pots on the thorax, pearled. It is
found among the Alps.

. Rasipes. An inhabitant of France ; brown, lega ferru-
ginous.

* CLavicornis. This f{pecies is entirely piceous; the
antenne are clavate; it is foundin England, on the flowers
of the ‘Rheum rhabarbarum,’’ and has been thought not
to belong to this genus.

B. The infeéts of this fection have the antennz pe¢tinate ;
the feelers uniform.

Species.

SuppipTERA. Shells very fhort, ovate, vaulted, paleifh.
It inhabits Provence. It is defcribed as having the antennz
yellow ; thorax gibbous, black; wings exferted, longer
than the body, whitifh with a brown [pot in the middle; legs
dufky, pale rufous at the tip; abdomen of the male black,
of the female pale, witha black tail.

FerruGines. Rufous; breatt, tailand legs black. It
inhabits the Eaft Indies. The antennz are black, the wings
brown.

Nasuta. Body entirely black, immaculate ; it inhabits
Japan, and has been defcribed by Thunberg.

Prectryata. Rufous; fhells black; found in America.
Antenne are black; head rufous ; eyes black ; thorax nar-
rower before, pointed behind; fhells black at the bafe, with
a cinereous blotch in the middle ; wings black ; legs rufous,
the joints black.

Parapoxa. Black; fides of the thorax and fhells tefta-
ceous. It inhabits the umbellate plants of Europe.

FLaBELLATA. Teftaceous; mouth, breaft, and back of
the abdomen black. It inhabits Italy. The antenne are
black ; the firft joint ferruginous; head teftaceous ; mouth
black ; abdomen very obtufe, teftaceous black on the
back.

Puncrata. Thorax teftaceous, dotted with black ;
fheils black-edged. Inhabits Cayenne. The antennz are
black ; dots on the thorax 4, 1, 2; margin and future of the
fhells teftaceous, with a black dot at the tip; the legs are
black ; fhanks teftaceous at the bafe.

6-Macutara. Black ; thorax ferruginous ; fhells tefta-
ceous, with three black f{pots. It is found in America.

2-Macutata. Ferruginous; breaft black; fhell teftas
ceous with a black fpot. Inhabits Hungary.

Dinipiata, Black; the fhells on the upper half are
yellow. The body is of a glofly black, except the upper
half of the fhells ; the abdomen is very obtufe and almoft
truncate,

Limsara, This is ferruginous ; the crown, difc of the
thorax, and fhells are black.

Porutnea. Black fhells are teftaceous with three
black bands, the firft annular; it is found in Germany on
the poplar-tree, whence it derives its name. ‘The head is
dufky ; the antenne are ferruginous tipt with black.

MORDELLES, in Geography, atown of France, in the
department of the Ile and Vilaine, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftrict of Rennes, The place contains 2292, and

4 the

MOR

the canton 6664 inhabitants, on a territory of 100 kiliometres,
in feven communes.

MORDENTE, Ital. literally means biting.

MORDEXYN, or Morpoxr, a name given to a difeafe
very frequent among the inhabitants of Goa, which confifts
in a naufea, and continued vomiting, and ufually feizes the
patient fuddenly and unexpectedly, and often proves fatal.

MORDOVA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Tambov ; 32 miles S.E. of Tambov. ~

MORDVINES, a nation of the Ruffian empire, called
by the Ruffians Mordva, and dwelling on the Oka and Volga,
in the governments of Kazan, Nifhnei-Novgorod, Ufa, Sim-
birfk, and Penfa. Although they are not fo numerous as
the Tfcheremifles and Tfchuvafches, they form a very con-
fiderable nation, which has been found to increafe on every
fucceflive enumeration, and divide themfelves into two main
ftems, Mokfchan and Erfan, by which they are peculiarly
named; though the general appellation of Mordva is not
unufual even among themfelves. This nation, in the opinion
of feveral Ruffian antiquarians, is the fame which Neftor
‘mentions under the names of Meres or Merenes, on occafion
‘of the national confederacy entered into by the five Slavonian
aad Finnifh tribes on the lake Ilman forthe founding of the
Ruffian ftate, and who, at that time, inhabited the diftriGs
of Roftof, Halitfch, Koftroma, and Yaroflaf. Tooke’s
‘Roffia, vol. i.

MORE, Anronio, in Biography, born at Utrecht in
1519, was a very fuccefsful painter of portraits in a ftyle
far advanced above his Flemifh or German contemporaries,
yet ftill formal and imperfeét, compared with that of Titian
and Vandyke. The cardinal Granvelles introduced him
at the court of the emperor Charles V. who fent him
to Portugal; where he painted the king, John ITII., his
queen, and the Infanta Mary, firft wife of Philip IT.
and was moft amply rewarded. He afterwards came to
England to paint the portrait of queen Mary, then en-
gaged to the fame Philip, and for that picture received roo/.
a gold chain, and was made painter to their majelties, with
a penfion of 1oo/, fer quarter. He remained in England
during Mary’s reign, and was very much employed, {fo that
moft of the noble manfions in the country are adorned with
fome of his pi€tures. On the death of that queen, More re-
turned with Philip to Spain, Inghly favoured by the king,
whofe familiarity with him placed his life in danger ; for More
ventured to return a flap on the fhoulder which Philip in a
playful moment gave him, by rubbing fome carmine on his
majefty’s hand. ‘This behaviour was accepted by the monarch
as a jeft, but it was hinted to More that the holy tribunal
might regard it as facrilege, and he fled, to fave himfelf, into
Flanders, where he was employed by the duke of Alva.
Philip invited him back to Spain, but he excufed himfelf,
and did not return. Though portraiture was the fource of
More’s general occupation, yet he had very confiderable
talents for hiftory. A very fine work of his reprefenting
the Afcenfion of our Saviour is in the gallery of the Louvre
at Paris, The ftyle of the compofition, which confiits of
Jefus Chritt afcending, crowned by two angels, and accom-
panied by the figures of St. Peter and Sr. Paul, is of the fe-
vere and grand ca{t employed by Fra. Bartolomeo ; the co-
louring is exceedingly fine, and correfpondent to the ftvle of
defign ; he has been leaft fuccefsful in the expreffion of the
principal figure ; if that had been more juft and grand, this
picture would alone place More among the very firft clafs of
artifts. He died in 1575, at the age of 56.

More, Sir Tuomas, an illuftrious ftatefman, the only
fon of fir John More, a judge of the king’s bench, was
born in London in 1480. Having received an’ excellent

MOR

education, he was placed in the family of cardinal Morton,
archbifhop of Canterbury, and chancellor. He there fo
much diftinguifhed himfelf by the quicknefs and brilliancy of
his talents, and by the amiablenefs of his temper, that the
cardinal was accuftomed to fay, “* This child, though only
waiting at table, will prove an extraordinary man.” Hence
we learn how cuftomary it was, at that period, for children of
gentlemen to fubmit even to menial conditions, when received
into the houfes of the great. However degrading this may
appear tous, it has been juftly obferved, that perhaps it was
not more fo than the cultom of fagging in our public {chools,
to which boys in the fame rank of life are obliged, even now,
to fubmit. The youth did not remain long in this fituation ;
he had put forth the promife of fine abilities and a powerful
mind, and was in a fhort time removed to Canterbury college,
now Chrift-church, Oxford, where he purfued his ftudies
with diligence and fuccefs, and when he had completed his
academical courfe, he was entered at the New Inn, to be
initiated in the legal profeffion, with the view of praétifing
at the chancery-bar. After this, he feems to have changed
his plans, and to have removed to Lincoln’s Inn, where he
remained till he was called to the bar. He was naturally
very facetious and cheerful, neverthelefs he began, before
he had arrived at the years of manhood, to prattife thofe
perfonal aufterities which are confidered as effential to the
devout chara¢ter in the church of Rome, to which church
he was, through the whole of life, zealoufly attached. In
his twenty-fecond year he was elected a member of the par-
liament called by Henry VII. for the purpofe cf demanding
an aid for the marriage of his eldeft daughter to the king of
Scotland. The commons in general thought the demand
exorbitant, but no one had courage to oppofe it, till Mr.
More fet the example, and by his powerful eloquence the
motion for complying with the king’s wifhes was rejected.
This fervice, fo honourable to hisintegrity, was unquettion-
ably attended with confiderable hazard. Henry was en-
raged at the oppofition made to his demand, and not finding
in a mere lad a profitable objeét of his royal vengeance, who
had probably nothing to lofe, he contrived a quarrel againft
his father, and threw him into the Tower as a clofe prifoner,
where he was kept, till he opened the dungeon gate by fub-
mitting to an arbitrary and heavy fine. The young man,
probably, felt a hundred times more for the confequences in-
flied on a parent for the exercife of his own virtuous inte-
grity, than he would from any perfonal fufferings, and, un-
willing to involve his father or friends again in the king’s
difpleafure, retired from public notice, and paffed feveral
years in privacy, and in the {tudies of the French language, of
hiftory, and of thofe arts and fciences which were deemed the
liberal arts, It is fuppofed that during this period he filled
the office of law-reader at Furnival’s Inn, which he held
three years, and after this we find him liviag in the neighbour-
hood of the Charter houfe, in the pra¢tice of all the devo-
tional exercifes and autterities of the rigid order which then
inhabited it, but without taking the vow. He had, it is
known, a great inclination to enter into the funétions of the
ecclefiattical ftate, but either from the perfuafions of his
father, or from an unwilliagnefs to be bound by the ftri@
rules of the church, he abandoned the defign, By the re-
commendation of his friend dean Colet, he married the eldet
daughter of Mr. Colt, of New-hall in Effex. It has been
faid that, in vifiting this gentleman, he was {truck with the
charms of the fecond daughter, but that, unwilling to mor-
tify the eldeft, he paid his addrefles to her. After his mar-
riage, he applied himfelf diligently to his profeffion as a
lawyer, in London, and very fon found himfelf in poffeffion
of am annual income of more than goo/. which at that time

U2 was

MORE.

was confidered no mean fum to be derived from a profeffion.
His great reputation caufed him to be employed by the
Englifh merchants as their agent in fome important matters
of difpute between them and the merchants of the Steel-
yard, on which occafion he went to Flanders. In 1516 he
accompanied, to that country, the commiffioners fent to
renew the alliance between Henry VIII. and Charles, then
archduke of Auftria, and his conduét on this occafion ren-
dered the king very defirous of engaging him in his parti-
cular fervice. Although his time muft have been fully oc-
cupied, yet in the midft of all his engagements he found
leifure to write, in the Latin language, his ‘ Utopia,’
which he dedicated toa gentleman of Antwerp. ‘This pro-
duction made him known to the learned abroad, and ht en-
gaged in a correfpondence with feveral eminent men of
letters, among whom was the great Erafmus. With this
illuftrious fcholar he had contraéted an intimate friendfhip in
1510, when he vifited England, which appears always to
have fubfifted between them.

Mr. More was not only a man of the itri€telt integrity,
but poffeffed a mind incapable of being {wayed by the prin-
ciples of avarice and ambition, and he {teadily refufeda pen-
fion from the king, which was preffed upon him by cardinal
Wolfey, on the ground that fuch an obligation from the
court would fhackle him in the performance of his duty as a
law-officer of the city, fhould any matter of difpute occur
between them. At length the great credit which he ac-
quired in pleading before the ftar-chamber for the releafe of
a fhip of the pope’s, which had been claimed as a forfeiture
to the crown, determined the king to infilt on his accepting
the place of matter of requefts. Ima fhort time after this, he
received the honour of knighthood, was admitted a member
of the privy-council, and received into a familiarity with his
mafter, which feemed to entitle him to all the honours and
emoluments of a chief favourite. Henry conferred with
him on all the topics of literature and philofophy with which
he wifhed to be generally acquainted, without the labour of
ftudy, and in this way, notwithftanding the affertion of the
ancient fage, there does feem to be a royal road to fcience.
The king likewife amufed himfelf with the wit and humour
of More’s relaxed converfation, and often required his at-
tendance at his private {uppers with the queen, for the pur-
pofe of “‘ making them merry.”? Sir Thomas was no doubt
very much flattered by this extraordinary mark of diftinc-
tion, but he found that it encroached too much upon his lei-
fure and domettic comforts, and he became grave in the pre-
fence of his fovereign, that he might have liberty to be merry
at home, In 1520, the king conferred upon him the office
of treafurer of the exchequer, and he removed to a {pacious
houfe at Chelfea. In 1523, when the king had fummoned
a parliament for the purpofe of railing fupplies for the war
with France, he procured the nomination of his favourite,
fir Thomas More, to be fpeaker of the houfe. On this oc-
cafion, his {peech to the king, on being prefented to him for
approbation, was unworthy his great mind, but he redeemed
his chara¢ter when the cardinal camt down to the houfe, with
all his ftate dignity to overawe that affembly into a com-

liance with his matter’s wifhes for a fubfidy, by refufing to
Bnd the king any anfwer by his minifter, and by granting
him only the half of what he demanded. If, however, in
this inltance, he gave any perfonal offence to the court, it
was of no long duration, for in 1526 he was appointed to. the
chancellorfhip of the duchy of Lancatter, and in the follow-
ing year was joined with Wolfey and others in an enibafly
to the French king. Shortly after this, Henry came to fee
him at Chelfea, and walked with him more than an hour in his
garden with all the marks of partial friendfhip. After he

was gone, Mr. Roper, fon-in-law to fir Thomas, ftruck with
the high honour, congratulated him upon fucha diftinguifhed
mark of the royal favour. The prudent {tatefman looked
beyond the furface, and was well aware of his mafter’s ca-
pricious and tyrannical temper ; while therefore he acknow-
ledged that for the prefent moment, he probably poffeffed
as much of the king’s regard as any fubject in the kingdom,
he added, “Son, I may tell thee that I have no caufe to be
proud on that account, for if my head would win him a
caftle in France, it would not fail to go off.”

The opinion of fir Thomas with regard to the intended
divorce of the queen, was unfavourable to the wifhes of the
king ; neverthelefs, upon the difgrace of Wolfey, Henry
raifed him to the high office of chancellor of England ; this
was in the year 1530, and he was the firft laymaa that ever
occupied that ftation. He proved himfelf, in every refpe&,
worthy of the elevated rank afligned him by his fovereign,
and the office was never filled by any perfon who furpafled
him in diligence, honour, and integrity. “The fuitors were
probably fewin number, but for the difpatch of their caufes
he fat every afternoon in his own hall, and when he refigned
the feals there was not one caufe remaining for decifion.
Bribes vere much the fafhion of the day, but he reje&ted
them all, and that without any fhow of aufterity, but in a
good-humoured way, that feemed peculiar to himfelf. An
inflance is mentioned very much to hiscredit; the wife of a
man, whohada {uit in chancery, having brought him a gold
cup as a prefent, he ordered it to be filled with wine, and
drinking her health, delivered it to her again as a new-year’s
gift. At another time a lady prefented him with a pair of
gloves, and forty pounds, in angels, in'them; ‘ Mittrefs,’’
{aid he, ‘ fince it would be unmannerly to refufe your gift,
I accept the gloves, but utterly refufe thelining.”? In proof
of his great impartiality, one of his fons-in-law, Mr. Heron,
having a caufe depending, was advifed by the chancellor
to fubmit to arbitration, which he refufed, prefuming, pro-
bably, upon the favour of his great relation, but he had the
mortification afterwards to find a decree given direély
againft him. He was zealous in his endeavours to difcourage
vexatious and litigious fuits, though he was not altogether
difinclined to the profecution of herefy. He had, as we have
feen, a warm and ardent attachment to the then eflablifhed
fyftem of religion, and could not bear the contempt that the
reformers threw upon it, which he conceived to be fubverfive ~
of all regular government and fubordination. He was, pro-
bably, confulted by Henry when he compofed his work
again{t Luther, and to that reformer’s contemptuous anfwer
he wrote a reply, in which, having the argument again{t him,
he heaped together all the terms of virulent abufe that the
Latin language could afford. He afterwards wrote againit
the hiftorian Tindal; and could not even {peak of the re-
formers, or heretics, as he called them, without hatred and
fury. In aletter to Erafmus, he declares, without hefitation,
that fo great was his difke to them, that unlefs they re-
pented he would torment them by all the means in his power. _
It is even faid, and feemingly on unquettionable authority,
that he caufed Mr. Bainham, a gentleman of the Temple,
accufed of favouring the new opinions, to be whipped at his
own houfe, -in his prefence, and afterwards faw him put to
the torture in the Tower. By thefe feveritics this unfor-
tunate gentleman was induced to recant; but, as it hap-
pened in other cafes, he afterwards repented of his timidity,
avowed his opinions, and was aQually burnt in Smithfield :
this was probably after More was out of office, as Erafmus
afferts that no one was ever put to death while he was chan-
cellor, His intolerance in matters of faith is a fubject of
great regret, but his prejudices were whofe of an honeft heart,

though

MORE,

though unquettionably in this refpect of a narrow mind.
The bithops, feeling their obligations to him for affiftance in
the fupport of their caufe, made up a purfe among them-
felves, and prefented it to him, but he refufed it, and would
not permit any of his family to accept it.

His integrity and {crupulous regard to confcience were
foon to be put to the fevereft teft, and the manner in which
he went through his trial has conferred great honour on his
memory. Nothing could indyce him ever to concur in the
king’s favourite project of a divorce, and being fenfible that
Henry would, notwith{tanding any advice to the contrary,
in the end carry the point, he refigned the feals after holding
them two years and a half.. He now refolved to quit all po-
litical concerns, and devote himfelf to literature and religion.
Although the king had expreffed himfelf very gracioufly to
fir Thomas on his refignation, yet the chancellor’s refiftance
to his will deeply offended him, and notwith{tanding any out-
ward marks of civility, the tyrant probably meditated
f{chemes, worthy of his own dark and guilty mind, to free
himfelf from the reproaches of fo worthy and upright a fer-
vant. In his reign, we have more than once hinted, ruin
was never far diftant from the man who dared to thwart his
pleafure, or oppofe his plans.

The firft circumftance that gave the king a handle againft
fir Thomas More, was the impofture of Elizabeth Barton,
the holy maid, or nun of Kent. When fhe opened her com-
miffion to admonifh the king of his crimes againit the church,
fhe ealled upon More, and made him privy to her pretended
revelations. Her affeGted fimplicity and holinefs feem to
have made confiderable impreffion upon him; he wrote her a
letter, and on this circumftance being made known, the
king dire€ted him to be profecuted as an accomplice with
her, and they were named together in one bill of attainder.
While this was fufpended over him, a committee was ap-
pointed to hear his juftification of himfelf ; this plan was not,
however, intended to free the accufed, but with the view of
entrapping him to affent to the king’s divorce, which Henry
thought he would gladly do, to efcape the danger that
threatened him. He nobly withftood the temptation, and
fo completely cleared himfelf from every imputation of crime,
that the king, though moft unwillingly, permitted his name
to be taken out of the bill. He was next involved in the

uilt of refufing to acknowledge the king’s claim to eccle-
fiaftical fupremacy, and a renunciation of all obedience to the
pope. Sir Thomas was cited again and again to appear and
take the new oaths, he as frequently refufed, and being at
length found infl-xible to his purpofe, was committed to the
Tower, and indi¢ted for high treafon, on the ftatute made
for the occafion. While he remained in prifon, his wife was
allowed to vifit him, and, in vain, ufed her worldly arguments
to perfuade him to comply with the king’s pleafure. "

Having remained in prifon about fifteen months, it was
refolved to bring him to trial at the king’s bench. The
indi€&tment was drawn, and being read to him, he, without
any hefitation, pleaded not guilty ; he juftified himfelf in fo
matterly a manner, that the attoney-general could not ven-
ture upon a reply. ‘The folicitor-genera!, Rich, to obtain
the favour of the court, fwore that he-had heard the vener-
able prifoner maintain that the parliament could not make
the king fupreme head of the church, and upon the evidence
of this wretch, which was not only not fupported by any
other perfons, but contradifed by fir Thomas More, and
by feveral noble lords who were prefent at the time, the
‘words charged were faid to be fpoken, and who all declared
they heard no fuch words; the jury fuffered themfelves to
be fo managed as to return in a few minutes a verdi&t of
«guilty of high treafon.”?

«In that difgraceful age of fervitude,” fays the writer
of the article in the General Biography, ‘‘ juries indeed
feemed to have no other rule than the king’s pleafure, and a
criminal in the eyes of the court was almolt fure of being
condemned by his country.’? Sir Thomas More was un-
moved at the fentence, which, though quite confcious of
his innocence, he probably expeéted ; and he was ordered
back to the Tower. On his road, his favourite daughter,
Mrs. Roper, who had been anxioufly waiting the event,
burft through the throng, fell on her knees before her
father, and clofely embracing him,‘could only utter the
words, “ My father, Oh my father!’ He tenderly re-
turned her embrace, exhorted her to patience, and refigna-
tion to the divine will, and parted from her. Scarcely had
they feparated, when in a new paffion of grief, fhe again
burft through the crowd, and clung round his neck in
{peechlefs anguifh. His firmnefs was now overcome ; tears
flowed plentifully down his cheeks, till with a final kifs fhe
left him. On the fatal day, July 5, 1635, he dreffed him-
felf in his beft apparel, and walked cheerfully to the place
of execution: obferving that the fcaffold was but flenderly
built, he turned to the lieutenant of the Tower and faid,
«I pray you, Mr. Lieutenant, fee me fafe up, and for my
coming down let me fhift for myfelf.”” He requefted the
{pe€tators to offer up their prayers for him, and to bear
witnefs that he died in and for the holy Catholic church, and
had been a faithful fervant of God and the king. Hethen
addreffed himfelf to his Maker, and calmly {fubmitted to
the blow of the executioner, having firft requefted him to
ftay his hand till he had removed his beard, which, faid he,
« has committed no treafon.”? A fingle ftroke fevered his
head from his body. Such was the end of fir Thomas More,
at the age of 55.

Sir Thomas More was efteemed one of the greateft pro-
digies of wit and learning that England ever produced
before his time. He was meek, humble, and charitable, and
a defpifer of the things of this world. His talents and
learning were great and profound. He probably had not his
equal in the knowledge of divinity, the laws of his country,
the Latin and Greek languages, poetry, and the mathe-
matics. His fociety or correfpondence was courted by all
thofe who, in his time, were regarded as the lights of the
world. He could enumerate among his friends Erafmus,

Colet, Tonftal bifhop of Durham, Fifher bifhop of Ro-

chelter, Lynacre, Lily, and many others, of whom feveral

have celebrated his memory in their refpective works.
Erafmus, {peaking of him in the period of his profperity,
fays, “ More has built near London, upon the Thames, a
commodious houfe, neither mean nor the obje& of envy.
There he converfes affably with his family, his wife, his fon
and daughter-in-law, his three grand-daughters, and their huf-
bands, with eleven grand-children. ‘There is no man living
fo affeGtionate to kis children, and he loves his old wife as
well as if fhe were a young maid. Such is the excellence of
his temper, that with whatever happens, which could not be
prevented, he is as well pleafed as if it could not have been
better. His houfe may be refembled to Plato’s academy,
or rather may be called a {chool or univerfity of the Chrif-
tian religion, for there is no one in it who does not read or
ftudy the liberal fciences ; piety and virtue are the care of
all: neither quarrels nor intemperate words are heard ; none
are feen idle. His houfhold difcipline is not maintained by
harfh and lofty language, but by kindnefs and courtefy ;
every one performs his duty with alacrity, nor is fober

mirth wanting.”
Sir Thomas More was author of many pieces befides his
Utopia, a catalogue of which may be feen in the a yO-
ume

MOR

Jume of the « Athenez Oxonienfes ;’’ they were chiefly con-
troverfial, and have been long fince forgotten. His Englifh
works were publifhed collectively, by order of queen Mary,
in 1557, and of his Latin works editions were given at
-Bafil, in 1567, and at Louvain in the preceding year. His
Utopia was tranflated by bifhop Burnet, and has been fre-
quently reprinted in an Englifh drefs. The edition referred
to in this article is by Thomas Williamfon, efq. in 1751, to
which are added a fhort account of the author’s life and
trial, and a prayer compofed by fir Thomas More while a
prifoner in the Tower.

OF his children, his favourite was Margaret, the wife of
William Roper, efq., whom he educated in claffical lite-
rature with great care, and who is celebrated by Erafmus on
account of her folid learning, the amiablenefs of her difpo-
fition, and the purity of her virtues. Her reverence and
affeGtion for her father were unbounded. After his head
had been expofed during fourteen days upon London bridge,
fhe found means to procure it, and preferving it very care-
fully in a leaden box, gave direétions that it fhould be placed
in her arms when fhe was buried, which was accordingly done.
Biog. Brit. Hume’s Hift. Utopia.

Morr, ALEXANDER, a celebrated preacher among the
French Proteftants, the fon of a Scotch divine, the principal
of a Proteftant college in Languedoc, was born in 1616.
He fcon diitinguifhed himfelf among his contemporaries by
his acquirements in literature, and when he was {carcely
twenty years of age, he obtained by his merit alone the
profeflorfhip of Greek at Geneva, in oppofition to a num-
ber of other candidates, whofe years, it might have been
expeéted, would have given them the afcendancy. Having
fulfilled the duties of this office for about three years, he
fucceeded the learned Spanheim, who had removed to Ley-
den, as profeffor of divinity, and as miniiter in the church of
Geneva. As a preacher, Mr. More poffeffed very popular
talents, which, united with great learning, gave him a fupe-
riority over many of his brethren, which excited their jealoufy
againitthim. His own temper was far from conciliating, it
was halty, vindictive, and fatirical; hence he became in-
volved in numerous quarrels. He held at different periods
the profefforfhips of divinity at Hardewyc, at Middleburg,
and the profeflorfhip of hiftory at Amlterdam. While in
the laft named fituation, he obtained leave of abfence for a
few months for ajourney to Rrance. He extended his route
to Italy, and was noticed with refpeét by the grand duke
of Tufcany, who made him feveral handfome prefents.
During his ftay in this country he wrote a fine poem on the
defeat of the Turkith fleet by the Venetians, for which the
republic of Venice prefented him with a chain of gold. Inthe
{pring of 1656, he returned to his profefforfhip in Holland,
and retained it till 1659, when he went to Paris, and became
minifter of a church in that city. Some attempts were
made to get him difmiffed, but they were ineffectual, In
the pulpit he attraéted great and extraordinary crowds of
auditors, and wasregarded by the auditory asan incomparable
preacher. It was a matter of confiderable difsute whether
his excellency lay in any thing folid, or only in fhow 5 whether
it deferved to be called a flafh of lightning, or a fteady light.
Thofe who were for decrying his talents, admitted that he
mull be heard with pleafure, and that he had the power of
exciting the paflions in a very extraordirary degree. In thie
midit of the applaufe with which he was followed, his repu-
tation was attacked, and he was accufed of deeds unbe-
coming the charatter of a Chriftian minifter, by perfons
who were themfelves refpeétable, and aguinft whom no
charges could be made, The particulars of thefe charges,
and of the proceedings inflituted againtt him, are given by

MOR

Bayle, who fays, farcattically perhaps, that * his death,
which was very edifying, and the marks of piety which he
difcovered in his laft ficknefs, blotted out the remembrance
of what might have been irregular in his behaviour.” He
died in 1670, at the age of fifty-four. He was author of
many works, written in the Latin language ; one on grace.
and free-will, and one on the holy fcriptures: fome Latin
orations, and Latin poems, more learned than elegant ; ne-
verthelefs fome of them were much read and applauded ;
anda piece entitled «¢ Alexandri Mori Fides Publica,’’ &c.
which was intended as a defence againft Milton’s attack
for fending into the world “ Regii Sanguinis Clamor ad
Ceelum.” :

More, Henry, an eminent divine of the church. of
England, and a Platonic philofopher, was born at Gran-
tham, in Lincolnfhire, in the year 1614. He was a lad of
fine promife, and was fent at the properage to Eton fchool,
where, in the courfe of three years, he made extraordinary
progrefs in the Greek aad Latin languages. From Eton
he was fent to Cambridge, and was entered of Chritt’s col-
lege in the year 1631: ‘¢ and now,”’ fays he, ‘a mighty
and almoft immoderate thirlt after knowledge poffeffed me ;
I immerfed myfelf over head and ears in the itudy of phi-
lofophy ; promifing a moft wonderful happinefs to myfelf
in it”? In this temper of mind he applied himfelf to the
diligent perufal of the works of Anitotle, Cardan, Julius,
Scaliger, and other eminent philofophers, and in a fhort time
made himfelf mafter of their do€trines; and took his de-
gree of B.A. in 1635. He appears to have met with but
little fatisfa@tion in their refpective fyftems, and abandoned
the {cholaftics, determining to fearch for better guides to
the obje& which he was feeking after. He accordingly be-
gan to fludy the Platonic philofophy ; from this he was
confirmed in the conviction, that fomething greater and
more divine than the knowledge of human things, con-
ftitutes the fupreme felicity of man; and that it is attain-
able only by that purity of mind, and divine illumination,
which will raife him to an union with God. In the year
1639, Mr. More took his degree of M.A., and in the fol-
lowing year he publifhed a work, entitled ** Pfychozoia, or
the firft Part of the Song of the Soul, containing a Chrif-
tiano-Platonical Difplay of Life,’’ which he reprinted in
1647, with other parts of the fong, and fome fmaller pieces,
in an oétavo volume, under the title of « Philofophical
Poems,”? which he ‘dedicated to his father. Having been
eleGted a fellow of his college, he became tutor to many
young perfons of rank, and among others to fir John Finch ;
and out of the college he was tutor to the fifter of fir John,
lady Conway, whofe genius and temper were nearly allied
to his own, and with whom he entered into an intimate
friendfhip. At the defire of this lady, who efpoufed the
tenets of the Quakers, he drew up fome of his treatifes,
particularly the ** Conje€tura Cabaliftica,” and the ‘ Phi-
lofophiz 'Teutonice Cenfura ;”’ in return for which the left
him alegacy of 400/ Previoufly to the publication of this
lal piece, he had taken his degree of do&or in divinity, and
from this period he appears to have devoted himfelf very
much to the retirement .of a college life. In 1642, he re-
figned the rectory of Ingoldfby, which had been purchafed
for him by his father. He might have beén elected to the
matterfhip of his own college, in 1654, in preference to Dr,
Cudworth, but he preferred the enjoynient of undiiturbed
Itudy and contemplation, to any honours and emoluments
which the world had to offer, In his college he lived ge-
nerally unmoletted, though he con{tantly refuted to fubferibe
the Covenant. He faw, and occafionally wept over, the
miferies of his country, but he was for the moit part, like

Archimedes,

MOR

Archimedes, fo bulily orcupied in his chamber; as to, be in-
attentive to things without. He correfponded with Des
Cartes, and embraced many of his theories, though his
difcernment pointed out the fallacy of fome of his argu-
guments, and the weaknefs of fome of his reafonings. _ Offers
of high church preferment were prefléd upon him, but he
~wefufed them all: he was almoft wholly occupied in com-
pofing and publifhing books, intended to eftablifh the
principles, and promote the practice, of virtue and reli-
jon. Of thefe, one of the moft popular was entitled
“ The Myttery of Godlinefs’’ The high character which
he had obtained by his works, though moitly theological,
occafioned his being feleéted to be one of the Royal So-
ciety, with the view of giving reputation to it before its
eftablifhment by the royal charter. He was accordingly
propofed as a candidate, by Dr. Wilkins and Dr. Cudworth,
and in due time eleéted. Dr. More died in 1687, in the
feventy-third year of his age. He was highly efteemed
and well fpoken of by perfons of all parties: he was dif-
tinguifhed by the moft ardent piety, and an irreproachable
life: he was meek, humble, charitable to the poor, and of
a moft kind and benevolent fpirit. He is defcribed by
bifhop Burnet, as an open-hearted and fincere Chriftian
philofopher, who ftudicd to eftablifh men in the greatett
principles of religion, in oppofition to the gloomy tenets of
Atheifm. Hobbes faid, ‘* If his own philofophy were not
true, he knew of none that he fhould fo much like as that
of Dr. More’s.’’ His Enchiridion Ethicum’’ is highly
applauded, by lord Shaftfbury and Mr. Addifon, as an ad-
mirable fyftem of ethics: and his ‘‘ Divine Dialogues,”’ on
the attributes and providence of God, have been much read
and admired. Biog. Brit. Enfield’s Hift. of Phil.

Mors, in Geography, a township in Northumberland county,
Pennfylvania.

More’s Head, in'the Manege.
Roan.

MOREA, in Geography, a country of Eurepean Turkey,
in the form of a peninfula, joined to the reft of Greece by
the ifthmus of Corinth; anciently called « Peloponnefus.”’
The kingdoms of which it once confifted were Sicyon, Ar-
gos, and Mycene, Corinth, Achaia propria, Arcadia,
and Laconia. I[t derives its prefent name, as it is faid,
from ‘ Morus,’’ a mulberry-tree, either from its refem-
blance in fhape to the leaf of this tree, or from the number
of mulberries which the country produces. It has feveral
rivers, lakes, and mountains, and alfo many fertile and de-
lightful plains. By the treaty of Carlowitz, the Turks

ceded the whole Morea to the Venetians, but in the year
It is divided into four

See Moor’s HEAp and

1717, again difpoffeffed them of it.
diftriéts.

MOREADGONG, a town of Hindoottan, in the circar
of Ellichpour ; 24 miles S.W of Akowla.

MOREAU, La Demoifelle Fancuon, in Biography, a
famous finger in the ferious opera at Paris, had great fuc-
cefs after La Rochois had retired from the ftage in 1697.
Her firft performance was in the prologue of Lulli’s opera
of Phaeton in 1683. She quitted the theatre in 1708, to
marry M. de Villiers, an officer of the king’s houfhold.

Her fifter, Louife Moreau, fung in the year 1680, in
the prologue to Proferpine, and was much applauded.
Laborde.

Moreau, René, an eminent phyliciam of the feventeenth
century, was born at Montreuil, in the,province of Anjou,
in 1587, and was admitted to the degree of doétor in the
faculty of medicine at Paris in 1615. He was diftinguifhed
as aman of general erudition, as well as by his profeffional
talents, and was in great favour with the court... He was

MOR

appointed profeffor of medicine and furgery at the Royal
College, and filled his poft with great reputation: and
during the years 1630 and 1631, held the office of dean of
the faculty of medicine, He died in Odtober, 1656, at the
age of fixty-nine. His principal writings were as follows;
“ De Miffione Sanguinis' in Pleuritide, cum vita Petri Brif-
foti,’’ Paris, 1622. ‘ Schola Salernitana, hoe elt, de vale-
tudine tuenda, &c.?’ 1625. This book paffed through many
editions. ‘ Vita et Icon Jacobi Sylvii,’”? Geneva, 1635,
prefixed to an edition of the works of that author, ‘ Epif-
tola exegetica ad Cl. V. Baldum de affeéto loco in Pleu-
ritide,”’ Paris, 1641. ‘ Epiftola de Laryngotomia,’’ Paris,
1646, publifhed with the “ Exercitationes de Angina” of
Thomas Bartholin. ‘ Tabulz methodi univerfalis curan-
dorum Morborum,” 1647. He alfo tranflated from the
Spanifh, Colmenero’s work, ‘* Du Chocolate, Difcours
susie divifé en quatre parties.” Eloy Dié&. Hit. de
ed.

Moreau, Jacos Nicnoias, counfellor of the court of
aids, hiftoriographer of France, librarian to the queen and
cenfor royal, was born at St. Florentine in 1717. He
wrote feveral works, the chief of which are, 1.‘ Memoires
pour fervir a l’Hiftoire des Cacouagas,”? t2mo. 2. * Me-
moires pour fervir a lHiftoire de notre Tems,’? 2 vols.
12mo. 3. ‘* Obfervateur Hollandois; quatre Principes de
Morale, de Politique et de droit Publique, ou Difcours fur
) Hiftoire de France,” 21 vols. 8vo. He was guillotined in
1794. Nouv. Di&. Hitt.

MORECAMBE Bay, in Geography, a bay in the Irifh
fea, on the coaft of Lancafhire, at the mouths of the rivers
Leven and Dudden. N. lat. 54° 4’. W.long. 2° 52’.

MOREE, a town of France, in the department of the
Loire and Cher, and chief place of a canton, in the diitri&
of Vendéme. The place contains g12, and the canton 7711
inhabitants, on a territory of 2374 kiliometres, in 10 com-
munes.—Alfo, a river of Bengal, which runs into the bay.
N. lat. 21° 50!. E. long. g1° 3!.

MOREIRA, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Beira ; 32 miles S.E. of Lamego. .

MOREL, in Biography, a name well known among the
eminent French printers. Frederick, the elder, a native
of Champagne, was king’s printer at Paris, and interpreter
to his majefty for the Greek and Latin languages; he com-
pofed feveral works, and died at Paris in 1583, at about the
age of 60, leaving a fon, known as Frederick Morel the
younger, the moft celebrated of the family, who fucceeded
his father, in 1581, as king’s printer in the Hebrew,
Greek, Latin, and French tongues. He was well verfed in
thefe languages, tranflated from the Greek, and publithed,
from the manufcripts in the king’s library, a number of
authors, particularly the fathers, with annotations of -his
own. He facrificed every thing to ftudy, and being in-
formed that his wife was in the a&t of expiring, he refufed
to quit his pen till he had finifhed what he was about, and
by that time news was brought him that fhe was dead ; to
which he coolly replied, «* I am forry for it—fhe was a
good woman.”” He died in 1638, at the age of 78. He
had a brother Claud, who was nominated king’s printer
in 1602. He gave valuable editions of feveral Greek
fathers, and other authors, to which he prefixed learned
prefaces of his own compofition. He died in 1626, while
he was engaged in an edition of St. Athanafius and Liba-
nius, which was completed by his fon Claud, who fucceeded
to the bufinefs. Charles, another fon of Frederick, exercifed
the fame office with credit, which he refigned, in 1639, to

his brother Giles, The latter printed an edition of Ariftotle,
2 Greek

¥

MOR

Greek and Latin, in four volumes folio, and the great Bib-
liotheca Patrum, in 17 volumes. Moreri.

Moret, WILLIAM, a native of Normandy, profeffor
royal of Greek, fucceeded Turnebe, in 1555, as director of
the royal prefs, and gave good editions of feveral Greek
authors. He wrote a ‘Commentary on Cicero de Fintbus;”’
« A Table of the Se&ts of Philofophers ;” and “* A Dic-
tionary in Greek, Latin, and French.’”’ He died in 1564.

Moret, AnpREWw, a famous antiquary, was a native of
Berne, in Switzerland. He excelled in the {cience of
medals, and was author of a work of great value, which he
did not live to complete,- entitled “* Specimen univerfe rei
nummariz antique,” 2 vols. 8vo. He was offered the
place of keeper of the royal cabinet of medals at Paris, on
condition of renouncing the Proteftant religion, which he
refufed. He was confined fome time in the Baftile, and on
gaining his liberty he went to D’Armftadt, in Germany,
where he died in 1703. In 1734 was publifhed, in z vols.
folio, ‘“* Thefaurus Morelianus, five Familiarum Romanorum
Numifmata omnia, et difpofita ab Andrea Morellio, cum
Commentariis Havercampi.”” Moreri.

MORELAND, in Geography, the name of two townfhips
of Pennfylvania ; one in Philadelphia county, the other in
that of Montgomery.

MORELET, the 4bé, in Biography, a man of letters,
contemporary and companion with all the firft men of genius
and talents in France during the latter part of the laft cen-
tury. He was in England, and a gueft at the earl of Shel-
bourne’s (marquis of Lanfdown) during the American war,
and intimate with Garrick, whom he had known-in France.
He had much tafte and paffion for all the fine arts, but
chiefly for mufic, which he had ftudied, and upon which he
feemed much to have meditated.

In 1759, he publifhed a {mall pamphlet “ Ov Mufical
Expreffion and Imitation,” which is full of ingenious ideas,
and well written.

M. Laborde, in 1780, {peaks of the abbé’s pamphlet in the
following manner. :

«¢ This little work on mufical expreffion is as well written
as well thought.

«« According to him, ¢ Mufic is a fucceffion or a combina-
tion of meafured founds; a fucceffion in fimple melody, a
combination in harmony,’ and it feems as if it could not
be better defined.

« He fuftains that mufic executed by the fame organ as
the language is fpoken, and aiming at the fame fenfe, be-
comes itfelf a language. We fhall fubfcribe to this opinion,
if he will allow that this language is extremely confined, and
can only give us the compreffed mafs of fentiments, as grief,
joy, hatred, &c. ; but never the details, as difdain, contempt,
fufpicion, &c.

“The abbé gives many examples of imitative poetry,
which, in his opinion, and in that of our greateft poets, is
the firlt, or rather the only poetry. We confefs, to our
fhame, that we prefer the poetry in which we find ideas, to
that which only furnifhes images, as we prefer that mufic
which conveys to our ears {weet harmony, fometimes by new
means, out of the common road, to the pretended dramatic
harmony which feems only to imitate the ¢ries and convul-
fions of a delirium, &c. Wherever there is no melody, we
find no mufic, and where that melody is not fultained by
harmony, we find nothing better. [The reader mutt be ap-
prized that M. Laborde is a {worn foe to Italian and Ger-
man mufic, and a true believer in Lulli and Rameau. ]

“We cannot make a ftronger objection to the abbé
Morelet’s doétrine than he has made himfelf,

** It may, indeed, be faid, that this pretended imitation is

8

MOR

abfolutely arbitrary, and the work of an imagination which
creates agreeable fictions for itfelf,; which fees relations and
refemblances where there are none. What refemblance can
there be between the rifing of the fun, the frefhnefs of the
morning, and all the-means which mufic has of imitation ?

«This work, continues M. Laborde, is a mafter-piece in
ftyle and found reafoning. Morever, we mean not here to”
contradi& the opinion of the author, nor that of thofe who
think like himfelf. Each is at liberty to believe what he
imagines he feels. Of all opinions we only condemn thofe
which are fupported infincerely and againft conviGtion ; yet
we fometimes meet with fuch in the commerce of fociety.”” ©

We {peak of this little work of the abbé Morelet, as it is
the only one with which we are acquainted that concerns
mufic ; but who does not know his other writings ?

Our readers will permit us to quote the following admi-
rable fimile from the abbé’s pamphlet before we leave it =
« A beautiful and pathetic air is the colleétion of a multi-
tude of accents efcaped from fouls of fenfibility, as the
features of Venus have each exifted feparately, but never
together. The f{culptor and the mutfician unite thefe dif-
perfed features, and give us pleafures which truth and nature
never gave.”

The abbé’s f{peculations of more than forty years ago,
feem to fuit modern mufic much better than any compofitions
fubiifting at the time his pamphlet was written, which has
drawn from us an article nearly as long as the ingenious
abbe’s little tract itfelf. ;

MORELL, N., a painter of flowers and fruits, born at
Antwerp about 1664, and a difciple of Verendaal. When
he had ebtained by his abilities a confiderable reputation, he
went to refide at Bruffels, where the court refided, and
there foon became known to, and employed by, thofe of
the higheft rank.

The compofitions of his pitures are in very good ftyle,
and are executed with freedom, and arich tone of colouring,
fuitable to the fubjeé&ts he ufually reprefented. He lived to
an advanced age, extremely refpected and efteemed.

MoreLL, Tuomas, a learned Englifh divine and lexico-—

grapher, was born in 1701, and died in1784. He publifhed
valuable editions of Ainfworth’s Latin Dictionary, and He-
dericus’s Greek Lexicon; and was the author of Annota-.
tions on Locke’s Effay on the Human Underftanding : he
alfo affifted Hogarth in writing his Analyfis of Beauty, and
fele&ted the paflages of f{cripture for Handel’s Oratorios.
Anecd. of Bowyer.

MORELLA, in Botany, named by Loureiro from the
circumftance of its fruit refembling a little Mulberry.
Loureir. Cochinch. 548.—Clafs and order, Monoecia Mo-
nandria. Nat. Ord. Holeracee, Linn. Atriplices, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. the fmall, flefhy, triangular
{cale of a flender, ftraight, imbricated catkin. Perianth
none. Cor. none. Stam. Filament none; anther one,
nearly ovate, at the bafe of the feale of the catkin. ;

Temale flowers towards the top of the fame catkin. Cal.
like the male. Perianth none. Cor, none. Pi. Germen
fuperior, roundifh; ftyle none; ftigmas two, awl-fhaped,
{preading. Peric. Drupa roundifh, clothed on the outfide
with a veficular pulp. Seed. Nut rather ovate, rugged, of
two cells; kernels ovate and flattifh,

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx the fcale of a catkin, Corolla
none, Anther feffile—Female, Calyx and corolla as in
the male. Stigmas two, feffile. Drupa with a rugged
nut of two cells,

1. M. rubra. Loureir, Cochinch.—Native of fields and
thickets in Cochinchina, and cultivated in China, where it
becomes much larger.—We know nothing of this plant, but

from

Seer

MOR

from Loureiro, who fays that it is a fre about eight feet
in height, with a tortuous brown /lem, and {preading branches.
Leaves on ttalks, oblong, a little pointed, moltly entire, occa-
fionally interruptedly ferrated, {mooth, fcattered. — Flowers
in lateral, fhort catkins. Drupa red, acid, about eight lines
in diameter, pulpy on the outfide after the manner of a myl-
berry, with a furrowed nut like a peach. Its flavour and
colour are like the acid red cherry, being grateful to the
tafte and wholefome for the ftomach. This fruit is eaten
by the Chinefe in its crude ftate, but the Europeans make
it into tarts or cakes. In Cochinchina, when half ripe, it
compofes a fauce for fith, and when ripe, a wine is extracted
from it, which is by no means to be defpifed either for its
tafte, {mell, or colour.

Obf. The above author conjeGtures that Aorella may
poflibly be “ Prunus japonica fruétu purpureo, Moro
fimili.”” Kempf. Hilt. Japan, v. 1. ror, and further fays
that it fomewhat refembles Cudranus, Rumph. Amboin.
book 7. t. 16. BY, :

More ta, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Valencia,
with a caftle; 26 miles W.S.W. of Tortofa.

MORELLI, Giovanni, in Biography, a comic opera-
finger with a powerful bafe voice, and a confiderable hare
of the true humour of a buffo caricato, arrived here from
Vienna in 1787, with the Storace. The firft time we heard
him perform, we made the following record in our mufical
memorandum-book ; which, though feventeen years have
elapfed fince he firlt trod our flage, he is till alive and
vigorous, at leait in voice, fo that our opinion of his abilities
remains the fame as when the following entry was made.

« Morelli has a bafe voice of nearly the fame force and
compafs as Tafca, but infinitely more flexible and agreeable.
He is likewife a good aStor, and fuperior in all refpects to
every buffo caricato we have had fince Morigi's firft ap-
pearance in the Buona Figlhiuola, 1766; yet, as a principal
finger to fupply the place of a tenor, it muft be owned that
he is inadequate to the expectations of thofe who remember
the {weet voice and excellent humour of Lovatini. _

MORELY, Lorp, an ingenious nobleman, was the fon
of fir Thomas Parker, in the county of Effex, and a great
favourite with Henry VIII., who raifed him to the peerage.
He fecured that monarch’s favour by concurring in his
divorce from Catherine, and his marriage with Anne Boleyn.
He died in 1547. Lord Morely wrote feveral Latin poems,
Walpole’s Royal and Noble Authors.

MOREMALLA, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; 30
miles S.E. of Moorfhedabad. it

MORENA Bay, a bay on the coaft of Chili, with a
convenient harbour for careening fhips, though narrow, and
not fafe with a N.W. wind. 5S. lat. 23° 45/,

MORENGO, a town of Italy, in the department of the
Serio; ro miles S.S.E. of Bergamo.

MORERI, Lovis, in Biography, celebrated as the firft
author of the great hiftorical dictionary which goes under
his name, was born, in 1643, at Bargemont, a {mall town
in Provence. He was educated with a view to literary
purfuits, and ftudied rhetoric and philofophy at the Jefuits?
college at Aix. He appeared as an author at the age of
eighteen, and publifhed a collection of poetry : after this he
obtained employment as a tranflator and compiler. He
took holy orders, preached on controverfial topics at
Lyons during five years, and was created a doctor of
theology. About this time he formed the plan of a new
hiftorical di€tionary, for which his principal qualification was
a good knowledge of the modern languages. His “ Dic-
tionnaire Hiftorique” was firlt publifhed at Lyons in 1674,

VoL, KXIV.

MOR

in ene volume folio. It was dedicated to’ M. de Longiu.
meau, bifhop of Apt, in Provence, with whom he paffed a
year in quality of chaplain. He accompanied that prelate
to Paris in 1675, and was introduced to the aflembly of
clergy, and to the principal men of letters. His great
object feemed to be to revife, correét, and augment his
dictionary, and to this he applied himfelf fo affiduoufly,
that he injured his conttitution, and died at the early age of
thirty-feven. He had, previoufly to his death, prepared a
fecond edition of his work, which appeared in 1681, in two
volumes folio. This work profefledly treats of hiftory,
chronology, geography, biography, mythology, &c. and
has pafled through many editions. One of the moft
important improvements which it received was from the
celebrated John le Clerc, who publifhed an edition of it in
1691, in four volumes folio. It has always been in high
eftimation, and may in general be relied on for matters of
fact : though the foundation of Bayle’s Dictionary was pro-
feffedly the correction of errors that he faid had crept into
the diétionary of Moreri. New editions and fupplements
were publifhed from time to time, till at length, in 1759,
the twentieth edition appeared at Paris in ten thick volumes
folio, It is to this edition that the prefent work is indebted
for much information in various biographical articles.
Under the article Moreri, in the edition juft referred to, we
have an hiftorical account of the progrefs of the Hiftorical
Diétionary from the commencement, and the writer con-
cludes by faying, «‘ The great number of editions that have
been publifhed of Moreri’s Di¢tionary, demonttrates the
great utility of this important work. Other nations have
envied France the execution of fo vatt a proje@, and many
perfons have given, in their own language, elaborate works
on the fame plan. Thus we have feen a Moreri in Englith ;
another in Germany, printed at Bafle; another printed in the
Spanifh language at Paris. And at this prefent time (1759)
there are four Jefuits, of whom two live at Turin, and two
at Florence, preparing a tranflation into the Italian, to be
printed at Nice, in 12 vols. folio.” Moreri.

MORES, Epwarp Rowe, an Englifh antiquary, was
born in 1730, at Tunftall, in Kent, and educated at Mer-
chant Taylors’ fchool, from whence he removed to Queen’s
college, Oxford, where he publifhed an ancient fragment,
entitled ** Nomina et Infignia Gentilitia Nobilium Equi-
tumque fub Edvardo primo Rege Militantium,” gto. In
1752, he was chofen a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries 3
and he projeéted the Equitable Society for infurance of
lives and furvivorfhip by annuities. He was the author of
“ The Hiftory and Antiquities of Tunftall in Kent,” and
“‘ A Differtation on Founders and Founderies.”” He died
in 1778... Pref. to Hilt, of Tunftall.

Mores, in Geography, a tow. of the ifland of Sardinia sH2e
miles E. Alghieri.

MORESK, or Monisxo, a kind of painting, carving,
&e. done after the manner of the Moors: confilting of
feyeral grotef{que pieces and compartments promifcuoufly
intermingled, not containing any perfect figure of a man or
other animal, but a wild refemblance of birds, beaits, trees,
&e.

Thefe are alfo called arabe/yues, and are particularly ufed
in embroideries, damaik-work, &c.

Morefque dances, vulgarly called morrice-dances, are thofe
altogether in imitation of the Moors ; as farabands, chacons,
&c. and are ufually performed with caftanets, tambours, &c.

There are few country places in this kingdom where the
morrice-dance is not known. It was probably introduced
into this country about, or a little before. the Teign of

xX Henry

MOR

Henry VIII., and isa dance of young men in their fhirts,
with bells at their feet, and ribbands of various colours
tied round their arms, and flung acrofs their fhoulders.

MORET, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Seine and Marne, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftri& of Fontainbleau ; 9 miles N.E. of
Nemours, The place contains 1650, and the canton $8253
inhabitants, on a territory cf 140 kiliometres, in 14, com-
munes.

MORETEL, 2 town of France, in the department of
the Ifére, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri&t of
La Tour du Pin; 7 miles N. of it. The place contains
849, and the canton 13,939 inhabitants, on a territory of
250 kiliometres, in 20 communes.

MORETON-Hamesteap, a market-town and parifh in
the hundred of Teignbridge, Devonfhire, England, is
fituated'r1 miles from Exeter, and 185 from London, on
a gentle eminence, bounded on every fide but the weft by
lofty hills. The face of the country in the vicinity is
ftrewed with fcattered fragments of rocks; fome of which
are fo large, and fo fingularly piled on each other, as to
give the idea of buildings thrown down by an earthquake.
The town is governed by a portreeve and other officers,
who are eleéted annually at the court-leet of the lord of the
manor. The inhabitants, as enumerated under the aé& of
the year 1800, amounted to 1768: the number of houfes
being 459. Many of the lower clafs of the people are
employed in the manufa&ture of woollen yarn and ferges.
The principal public edifices are the parith church, three
meeting-houfes for diffenters, and a refpeCtable charity-

{chool. Three fairs‘are ‘held here annually, and a weekly
market on Saturdays. Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. iv. y

Moreron-Hen-Marfo, or Moreton-in-the-Marfh, a well-
built village in the upper’ divifion of the hundred of Welt-
minfter, in the county of Gloucefter, England, is fituated
on the Roman fofs-way, four miles from Stow, 27 from
Gloucefter, and -83 from London: beiag about two miles
welt from the place where an ornamented pillar, infcribed
«‘ This is the Four-Shire Stone,’? marks the point of meet-
ing of the counties of Gloucefter, Oxford, Warwick, and a
detached part of Worcefter. Moreton was anciently the
property of the abbey of Weftminiter, and continued part
of its poffeffions till the diffolution, when it was granted to
the dean and chapter of Weftminiter, whofe property it {till
remains. The abbots endeavoured, by various means, to in-
creafe its importance ; and procured the charter of a market,
and the privileges of exempting the burgefles, as they were
then called, from tolls in the feveral counties above-men-
tioned. But the place never attained any confiderable con-
fequeice ; and the market has been long difufed; an an-
cient building, fupported by pillars, in the middie of the
village, is faid to have been the market-houfe. Two an-
nual fairs are ftill held here. According to the bene
furvey in the year 1801, the number of hoafes in this
parifh were 171; that of the inhabitants 829: the poorer
clafles of the latter are chiefly employed in {pinning linen-
yarn. Its fituation on the fofs, and the difcovery of fome
coins in the vicinity, indicate that Moreton was once a {mall
Roman ftation. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. v.
Rudge’s Hiftory of Gloucefterfhire, vol. i.

Moreton’s Bay, a bay on the E. coaft of New Holland,
between Cape Moreton and Point Look-out.

Moreton, Cape, a cape on the coalt of New Holland.
S. lat.26° 56’. EE. long. 206” 28'.

MORETTA, a town of France, in the department of

MOR

the Stura,-feated on a {mall river, which runs into the Po ;
16 miles S. of Turin. ,

MORETUM, among, the Romans, a kind of fallad,

compofed of the eight following ingredients, viz. garlic,
arfley, rue, coriander, onions, cheefe, oil and vinegar.

MOREUIL, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Somme, and chief place of a canton, in
the dittri€ of Montdidier; g miles N.W. of it. The place
contains 1499, and the canton 11,719 inhabitants, on a ter-
ritory of 192% kiliometres, in 25 communes.

MOREY, atown of France, in the department of the
Jura, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of St. Claude;
10 miles N.N.E. of it. The place contains 1218, and the
canton 10,834 inhabitants; on a territory of 2224 kiliometres,
in 11 communes.

MOREZZO, Sr., or St. Maurice, a town, or rather
village of Switzerland, belonging to the Grifons, in Upper
Engadina, is agreeably fituated upon the fide of a hill, over-
looking a {mall lake, which lies in the bottem of the moun-
tains, and is bounded by rifing banks, ftudded with wood
and pafture. This village is remarkable for a copious {pring
of mineral water, much efteemed for its efficacy in the cure
of feveral diforders: it iffues from the ground at the diftance
of half a mile on the other fide of the river Inn, and is
ftrongly impregnated with vitriol: 25 miles N.N.E. of
Chiavenna.

MORFIL, or Marri, a name given by the traders to
raw Ivory ; which fee.

MORGA, in Geography, ariver of Perfia, which runs into
the Sihon, on the borders of Bucharia.

MORGAGNI, Grampatista, in Biography, an eminent
phyfician, diltinguifhed particularly by his anatomical re-
fearches, was born at Forli; in Romagna, in February, 1682.
He loft his father in his infancy, but under the judicious
direGtion of his mother, his education was very fuccefsfully
conducted ; and he difplayed a proficiency in claffical and
philofophical acquirements beyond his years. Thus well
prepared with preliminary knowledge, he commenced his
medical ftudies at Bologna with great ardour, and foon
attraGted the attention and efteem of his able maiters, Val-
falya and Albertini; the former of whom availed himfelf of
his affiftance in the refearches into the organ of hearing,
which he was at that time profecuting, and in drawing up
his memoirs upon that fubje@&. Morgagnialfo performed the
duties of the profefforial chair during the abience of Val-
falva on a journey to Parma, and illuftrated the leCiures,
which he delivered on this occafion, by numerous anatomi-
cal preparations. ‘Thefe illuftrations, and the eafy and per-
fpicuous eloquence in which he addrefled his auditors, added
to his kind and engaging manners, obtained for him a ge-
neral efteem, as well as the friendfhip of the moft diftin-
guifhed philofophers of the place. His zeal in the purfuit
of knowledge led him, however, to vifit other {chools of
medicine. He went firft to Venice, where he cultivated
feveral branches of phyfics, with the affiftance of Poleni,
Zanichelli, and other {cientific men; and afterwards he vi-
fited Padua, where he attended the fchools, under the direc-
tion of diftinguifhed profeffors, with his accultomed indattry.
After having completed this comprehenfive courfe of fludy,
he returned to fettle at his native place. He foon perceived,
however, that this was too limited a circle for the exercife
of his talents, and readily followed the advice of Gugliel-
mini, who prefled him to return to Padua. Here he did
not remain long without occupation; for the death of Gug-
lielmini, in 1710, occafioning a vacant chair, by the fuc-
ceffion of Vallifnieri to that of the latter, Morgagni was

nominated

MOR

nominated to it, in 1711, and taught the theory of phytic.
He became the intimate friend of the celebrated Lancifi,
whom he affifted in preparing for publication the drawings
of Euttachius, which appeared in 1714. He had already
diftinguifhed himfelf by the publication of the firlt part of
his own work, the «* Adverfaria Anatomica,’’ Bonon, 1706,
quarto, which was remarkable for the originality of its
execution, and for the accuracy, as well as the novelty,
of the obfervations which it contained. He publifhed, fuc-
ceflively, from this time to the year 17109, five other parts of
this important work, which contains a- great many dif-
coveries in different parts of the human body, moft correétly
detailed.

The progrefs of this work had extended his reputation
throughout Europe; and in 1715, his talents were rewarded
by an appointment to the firft anatomical profefforfhip in
the univerfity of Padua; and henceforth to the clofe of a
long life he ranked defervedly at the head of the anatomifts
of his time. His knowledge was by no means limited to
profeffional fubje&ts; he was well verfed in general lite-
rature, and a proficient in hiftory and antiquities. Literary
honours were accumulated upon him from every quarter of
Europe. He was elected a member of the Academia
Nature Curioforum, in 1708; of the Royal Society of
London, in 1724; of the Academy of Sciences at Paris,
in 1731 ; of the Imperial Academy of Peterfburgh, in
1735; and of the Academy of Berlin, in 1754; and he
was one of the firft affociates of the Inftitute of Bologna.
All the learned and great, who paffed through Bologna,
vifited Morgagni ; he was honoured by the particular efteem
of three fucceffive popes ; and his native city of Forli
placed his buft in their public hall during his life, with an
honorary infcription, Ina word, both at home and abroad,
the charaGter of this diftinguifhed man was held in the
higheft eftimation, and the writings of the moft eminent of
his contemporaries bore teflimony to his various merits.
He married a lady of noble family-at Forli, by whom he
had fifteen children, eight of whom furvived him. He was
of a robult habit, tall, and of a lively and agreeable coun-
tenance, and is believed to have contributed to the regu-
larity of his good health by a continued praétice of cold
bathing. By his profeffional labours, and a life of fruga-
lity, he accumulated a large property, an excefs of eco-
nomy having been accounted one of his foibles. He died
at the advanced age of ninety years, about the end of 1771,
in the poffeffion of his faculties.

In addition to the Adverfaria, already mentioned, Mor-
gagni publifhed the following works: ‘ In Aurelium Cel-
fum et Quintum Serenum Sammonicum Epiitole quatuor,”’
1704. ‘¢ Nova Inftitutionum Medicarum Idea,’’ Patav.
1712; which was written upon his appointment to the theo-
retical chair, and teaches the proper method of acquiring
medical fcience. ** Vita Guglielmini,”’ prefixed to an edition
of the works of that phyfician, Geneva, 1719. ‘ Epiftolz
Anatomice duz, novas obfervationes et. animadverfiones
complectentes, quibus Anatome augetur, &c.’? which were
edited at Leyden by Boerhaave, and relate chiefly to a dif-
pute with Bianchi on the ftruéture of the liver. « Epiltole
Anatomice XVIII. ad Scripta pertinentes celeb. Ant. Mar.
Valfalvz,”? two volumes, quarto, Venice, 1740. To thefe
epiftles are prefixed a life of Valfalva. ‘ De Sedibus et
Caufis Morborum per Anatomiam indagatis, Libri quin-
que,’’ Venice, 1760, folio. This great and valuable work
was publifhed when the author had nearly reached his
eightieth year. It contains a ei kr collection of dif-
fedtions of morbid bodies, made by himfelf and his matter,
Valfalva ; arranged according to the organs of the body in

MOR

which the difeafes were feated. He followed the plan adopted
by Bonetus, in his “* Sepulchretum Anatomicum ;"’ but
the accuracy and fidelity of his details render this colle&ion
of morbid anatomy of very fuperior value to all that had
preceded it. His laft publication, in 1763, “* Opufcula
mifcellanea, quorum non pauca nunc primum prodierunt,”’
Venice, folio, contains diflertations on the lachrymal duéts,
on the glands, on gall-ftones, urinary calculi, &c. in addi-
tion to his firft-publifhed critical differtations on Celfus. In

765, a complete edition of his whole works was printed at
Baffano, in five volumes, folio. Eloy Dict. Hift. de Med.
Gen. Biog. ‘

MORGAN, Wixt1am, an eminent Welfh prelate, was
educated at St. John’s college, Cambridge, after which he
obtained the vicarage of Welfhpool, and in 1595 was made
bifhop of Landaff, from whence he was, in 1601, tranflated
to the bifhopric of St. Afaph. He died three years after
this clevation. He is particularly known as having had a
principal concern in the tranflation of the Bible into Welfh,
which was firft printed in 1588.

Morean, in Geography, a diltri& of North. Carolina,
bounded W. by the ftate of Tenneflee, and S. by the ftate
of South Carolina. It is divided into the counties of Burke,
Wilkes, Rutherford, Lincoln, and Buncomb ; and contains
49,184 inhabitants, including 4643 flaves.

MORGANATIC Marriace. See Marriace.

MORGANTIA, in Botany, fo called by Mr. R. Brown,
in honour of an apothecary named Hugh Morgan, who.
flourifhed at London in the days of queen Elizabeth,
and whofe garden is often mentioned by Lobel and Gerarde.
Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 441.—Clafs and order, Di-
dynamia Angiofpermia. Nat. Ord. Perfonate, Linn. Scro-

phularie, Sufi.

Eff. Ch. Calyx inferior, in five deep equal fegments.
Corolla ringent; its upper lip two-lobed ; iower in three
nearly equal, inverfely heart-fhaped fegments. Stamens in-
cluded ; lobes of the anthers divaricated, fimple. Stigma of
two flat lobes. Capfule of two cells, and two deeply
divided valves ; partition from the inflexed margins of the
valves. Brown.

A New Hoiland genus of herbaceous plants, next akin
to Herresris, fee that article, but differing in having an
equally divided calyx, and a more unequal corolla.. The flem
is erect, quadrangular. Leaveslinear. Flower-/lalks axillary,
fingle-flowered, each with a pair of éraéeas at the top,
Flowers blue.

1. M. glabra.—Smooth. Leaves linear, flightly toothed.
Stalks when in flower nearly as long as the calyx.

2. M. pubefcens.—Downy. Leaves fomewhat lanceolate,
toothed. Stalks when in flower fhorter than the calyx.

Both {pecies were gathered by Mr. Brown in the tropical
part of New Holland. He conceives them to be fpecifically
diftin&t, though very nearly related to each ether.

MORGANS, in Geography, a fettlement in Kentucky ;
38 miles E. of Lexington. ‘

MORGANTOWN, a poft-town and capital of the Mor-
gan diftric, fituated in Burke county, near Catabaw river,and
containing about 30 houfes, a court-houfe and gaol; 45 miles
from Wilkes. WN. lat. 35° 47'/-—Alfo, a poft-town of Vir-
ginia, and fhire-town for the counties of Harrifon, Monon-
galia, Ohio, and Randolph, fituated on the E. fide of
Monongahela river, and containing a court-houfe, a itone
gaol, and about 60 houfes; 30 miles from Brownfville.
This town may be confidered as the head of navigation on
the Monongahela,

MORGANZA, a town of Wathington county, Penn-
fylvania, almoft furrounded by the E. and W. branches of

X 2 Charter’s

MOR:

Charter’s river; 13 miles S.of Pittfburg. This town
from its fituation is likely to be the centre of a great
manufacturing country, as the lands in its environs are well
adapted to grazing and agriculture, and as it affords
confiderable quantities of excellent iron-ore. ‘The adjoining
hills are alfo fuitable for raifing live-ftock, and particularly
the fine long-wool breed of fheep. From this country con-
fiderable exports are already made to Orleans, of flour,
bacon, butter, cheefe, cyder, and rye and apple fpirits.
The black cattle that are reared here are fold to the new
fettlers and to cattle merchants, for the Philadelphia and
Baltimore markets; and many have been driven to Detroit
and Niagara.

MORGARTEN, mountains of Switzerland, in the can-
ton of Schweitz, in which is a pafs, famous for a victory gained
by 1300 Swifs pofted upon the mountains over Leopold
duke of Auftria, who in 1315 marched againtt the confe-
derate cantons, at the head of 20,000 troops. The Swils,
it is faid, loft but fourteen men in this memorable engagement,
which has been compared tothe battle of Marathon, that
afcertained the liberties of Greece, as this infured the inde-
pendence of the Swifs; ro miles S.E. of Zug.

MORGAY, in Jchthyology, an Englifhname for the fea-
fifh, called alfo the rough hound-ji/h, one of the galeus kind ;
the catulus minor of Salvian, and muffelus flellaris tertius of Bel-
lonius. See Squatus Catulus.

MORGENBERGHORN, in Geography, 2 mountain
of Switzerland, confidered as one of the principal Alps, in
the canton of Bern; its height is 7456 feet.

MORGENFELD, a town of Pruffia, in the province
ef Bartenland; nine miles N. of Rattenburg.

MORGES, atown of Switzerland, in the Pays de Vaud,
the capital of a bailiwic, on the N. fide of the lake of Ge-
neva, with a port and quay. Itis fituated at the extremity
of a beautiful bay, and its environs are extremely pleafant ;
the banks of the lake forming an amphitheatre, that gently
rifes tothe Jura, and Mont Blane prefenting itfelf through
an immenfe opening in the oppofite chain of rocks, which
feems to have been formed by nature for exhibiting a fublime
perfpeétive of that beautiful mountain. Near the town is a
lime-tree twenty-four feet four inches in circumference, with
branches of magnificent extent ; and it has alfo a companion
about three feet lefs in girth.

MORGII, among the Mahometans, a fe& who lay much
ftrefs upon belief, and ftand oppofed to the alwaidii.

MORGO, in Geography, an ifland in the gulf of Venice,
near the coalt of Friuli.’ N. lat. 45° 44’. E.long. 13°
16.
MORGONG, atown of Bengal; 25 miles W. of Moor-
fhedabad.

MORGUES, Marruew pe, in Biography, preacher to
Lewis XIII., and almoner to Mary de Medicis, was born
at Languedoc in 1582. He wrote feveral pieces againit car-
dinal Richelieu, on which account he was obliged to quit the
kingdom, but after the death of that minifter he returned to
Paris, where he died in 1670. He was author of “ Ser-
mons’? and many other works. Moreri.

MORGURRY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Myfore; 16 miles N. of Rettinghery.

MORHANGE, a town of France, and principal place
of a diltriét, inthe department of the Mofelle ; 21 miles
E.S.E. of Metz. N. lat. 48° 55’. E. long. 6° 43’

MORHOF, Daniet Gronce, in Biography, a learned
mifcellaneous writer, was born in 1639 at: Wifmar, in the
duchy of Mecklenburg. Having laid a good foundation in
claffical learning, he was fent to ftudy at Stettin and Roftock,
and in confequence of a copy of Latin verles which he com-

MOR

pofed while he was at the latter univerfity, was made pro*
feflor of poetry there in 1660. In 1665 he was appointed
to the chair of poetry and eloquence at the univerfity of
Kiel, and in 1671 he was made profeffor of hiftory, to
which was added the office of public librarian. e was in-
ceffant in his purfuit of knowledge, and laboured fo hard
in the duties attached to his different offices, that he fell into
a languifhing ftate, and died in his fifty-third year. The
writings of Morhof are numerous, confifting of poems,

orations, and differtations, on a great variety of topics, but:

that which | is beft known, and reckoned the moft valuable
of ail his pieces, is a general account of books and authors

entitled « Polyhiftor five de Notitia Autorum et rerum chat’
mentarii.”” ‘This was printedin 1688. It has paffed through

many editions with confiderable augmentations, of which’

Fat beft 1s that by John Albert Fabricius, in three volumes
4to. 1732.

MORHDA, in Schthyology, a name ufed by fome authors
for the common cod-fifh. See Gapus Morhua.

MORI, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ;
16 miles N.E. of Iyzabad. i

MORIA Kis, a town of Hungary; 18 mils S.S.E. of
Debreczin.

MORIAH, Moounrt, in Scripture Geography, a moun-
tain near Jerufalem, on which the famous temple of Solomon
was built (2 Chron. ii. 1.), fituated S.E. of Calvary, hav-
ing Millo on the weft, and fo called from the filling up of
that deep valley, in order to raife it to a level’ with the reft.
It has been commonly thought that on this mount Abraham
was commanded to offer up his fon Taac ; though this notion
is liable to fome objections. ‘The Samaritans, by reading
its name in Genefis (xii. 6—xiv. 2) Moreh, inftead of
Moriah, have taken occafion to affirm, that it was mount
Gerizizm, near Schechem and Moreh, on which God di-
reted the patriarch to make this facrifice.

MORIAM, in our Old Writers, a head-piece calle
flat.4 & 5 P.& M. c. 2. i x sara

The word comes from the French marion, or Italian mo-
rione, i.e. caffis. See Monion. :

_ MORIANTI, in Geography, a town of Corfica (Golo),
in the department of Baltia, the canton of which contains
2779 inhabitants.

MORICHES, a place with a pott-office in Suffolk coun-
ty, New York; 213 miles from Wafhington.

MORIENNE Bay, atolerably deep bay on the E. coatt
of the ifland of Cape Breton, near Miray bay, from which
it is feparated only by Cape Brule.

MORIGI, Anprea, in Biography, an excellent comic
finger with a bafe voice, who arrived in England with Lo-
yatiniin 1766. His voice, humour, and action in perform-
ing the part of Tagliaferro in the Buona Figliuola, were fo
perfeé& and fo amuling, that they eltablifhed his favour with
the public in whatever part he afterwards appeared. He
quitted England but afew years ere he returned again in
1783, and remained here till he was totally worn out in the
fervice of that public which fuffered him, unobferved, to
approach

« Mifery’s darkeft cavern—
Where hopelefs anguifh pour’d her groan,
And lonely want retired to die.”

MORILLEAH, in Geography, a fort of Hindooftan, in
Bahar; 15 miles E. of Bettiah.

MORILLES, a kind of mufhroom, about the bignefs
of a walnut, pierced with holes like a honey-comb, and
faid to be good for creating an appetite. They are alfo

accounted

MOR

accounted reftorative, and frequently ufed in fauces and
ragouts.

MORILLON, in Ornithology, the name of a f{pecies of
. duck, feeming the fame with the capo rofo}-1 {mall red-
headed wild duck. See Duck. "i

MORIMAL, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Cuddapa; 25 miles N.E. of Gandicotta.

MORIMGAMBO, a fea-port on the W. coaft of Ma-
dagafcar. S. lat. 14° 30!.

MORIN, Joun Baptist, in Biography, a celebrated
phyfician, mathematician, and aftrologer, was born at Ville-
Franche, in Beaujolois, in February, 1583. He made an
early proficiency in his ftudies at Aix, in Provence, and
even taught philofophy in that city before he was twenty
years of age. He afterwards went to Avignon for the
purpofe of ftudying medicine, and took the degree of
do&or in that faculty in 1613. He then went to Paris,
where he obtained the patronage of the bifhop of Bou-
logne, and was fent by him to examine the nature of
metals in the mines of Hungary. From the obfervations
which he made in thofe deep caverns, he imagined he had
difcovered three regions into which the interior of the earth
was divided ; and publifhed a work, entitled ‘* Nova Mundi
fublunaris Anatomia,’’ which, in thofe credulous times, ob-
tained the conviction of many readers. Uponhis return to
Paris, he found a Scotch altrologer, of the name of Davifon,
fharing the patronage of the bifhop ; and he not only ttudied,
but became a zealot in that art, and fubfequently obtained
much reputation in the practice of it. For at that period,
the courts of the greatelt princes, and fome of the molt diftin-
guifhed charatters in fcience, were mifled by the delufions of
judicial aftrology. His firft fuccefs in this fcience was prac-
tifed on his patron: for having confulted the ftars, in order
to calculate the events of the year 1617, he informed the
bifhop of Boulogne, that he was threatened with the lofs of
liberty or of life. At this intelligence, the prelate, though in-
fatuated with the pretended {cience, only laughed ; but,
luckily for the credit of the aftrologer, the bifhop engaged
foon afterwards in fome ftate intrigues, and having em-
barked with the unfuccefsful party, he was treated as a rebel,
and aétually imprifoned in that year. Morin alfo obtained
accefs to the two celebrated cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin,
who were weak enough to give their confidence to his pre-
tended fkill, and aGtually confulted him about their affairs.
The latter even granted him a penfion of two thoufand livres,
which was regularly paid ; and obtained for him the appoint-
ment of profeffor of mathematics in the Royal College of
Paris. The count de Savigny, fecretary of ftate, alfo de-
pended upon his aftrological computations, and efpecially
confulted him refpe&ting the proper time of paying his vifits
to the cardinal Richelieu. When queen Chriitina, of Sweden,
was at Paris, fhe fent for Morin, and exprefled her high ad-
miration of his talents, informing him that fhe deemed him
the greateft aftrologer in the world. Bayle has detailed a
great number of examples of his prediétions, and of his
proceedings in evading the conftru€tion of them, when not
fuccefsful ; to which the curious reader may refer. He at-
tempted to confute the fyftem of Copernicus; but was
treated with much pointed ridicule, in addition to folid
argument, by Gaflendi, Bernier, and other fcientific men,
who laughed at his follies, and expofed the falfehood of his
pretended art. Neverthelefs Morin was poffefled of {cienti-
fic attainments by no means contemptible ; infomuch that M,
des Cartes, on whofe theory of light he had publifhed fome
animadyerfions, entered into a correfpondence with him,

uid

MOR

confidering his objeétions as deferving of ferious confideras
tion. Morin died at Paris in November, 1656, at the age
of feventy-three.

He wrote a great number of works, in addition to the
anatomy of the earth already mentioned: namely, « A ftro-
nomicarum Domorum Cabala deteéta,” 1623. Trigono-
metriz canonice libri iii.” 1633. A book entitled, « Quod
Deus fit,’? which was afterwards publithed, in 1655, ina
larger form, with the title of “«* De vera Cognitione Dei ex
folo Nature Lumine.”’ « Famofi problematis de Telluris
Motu vel Quiete haétenus optata Solutio,”” 1631; and fome
other pieces againit the fy{tem of Copernicus. ‘ Ad Auf-
trales et Boreales A ttrologos pro A ftrologia reftituenda Epif-
tole,”? 1628 ;, and acurious treatife, entitled «« Refutatio
compendiofa erronei et deteftandi Libri de Preadamitis,’*
1656. His favourite work, the refult of thirty years of
labour, intended to illuftrate the pretended {cience of judicial
altrology, was publifhed after his death, in 1661, at the
Hague, with the title of «€ Attrologia Gallica.’? The
queen of Poland, at the recommendation of one of her f{e-
cretaries, defrayed the expence of this publication, on which
fhe expended two thoufand crowns. See Bayle, Di&. Hitt.
Eloy Di&. Gen. Biog.

Morr, Louis, a phyfician and botanift of much fingu- ~
larity of chara¢ter, was born at Mans, in July, 1635.
His father having a numerous family, and only the flender
income afforded by a place in the falt-office, was enabled to
give this, his eldeft fon, the mere rudiments of {cholattic
education. During this early period of his life, he acquired
a partiality for botanical purfuits; and when he left fchool,
he fet off for Paris on foot, herborifing by the way, for the
purpofe of ftudying philofophy irl the metropolis. His at-
tachment to botany naturally led him to the choice of me-
dicine as a profeffion ; and, during his application to this
{cience, perhaps from the neceflity of rigid economy, in
which his circumitances placed him, he led the life of an
anchorite, reftri€ting his diet to bread and water, with the
occafional indulgence of a little fruit. This mode of life
greatly diminifhed the number of his wants, and was pro-
bably the origin of that extraordinary difintereftednefs and
beneficence, by which he was greatly diftinguifhed. He
obtained the degree of doétor of phyfic in 1662. His
botanical knowledge procured him the efteem of Meflieurs
Fagon, Longuet, and Galois, and he was frequently con-
fulted by them, during their labours in the formation of
the catalogue of the plants in the royal garden, which was
publifhed under the name of M. Vallot, the firft phyfician,»
in 1666. He had been feveral years in praétice, before he
obtained any public mark of efteem, when at length he
was appointed expediant at the Hotel Dieu; but a confider-
able time elapfed, before his humble merit, unfupported by
intrigue or {olicitation, was recompenfed by the place of
penfionary-phyfician to that hofpital. Yet he derived no
advantage from the penfion, which he always returned into
the money box, taking care that that aét was feen by no
one. Although his conftitution was delicate, and his frame
flender, yet he continued to reftriét himfelf to the following
regular fyitem of aGlivity and abitemioufnefs. At all fea-
fons he rofe at two ia the morning, and {pent three hours
in his devotions. Before fix in fummer, and fomewhat
later in winter, he vifited the poor patients in the Hotel
Dieu, and ufually heard mafs at Notre Dame. He dined at
eleven ; and after dinner indulged his botanical taite at home,
or, in fine weather, at the royal garden. He then fhut
himfelf in his clofet, if he had no poor patients to yilit, and
concluded the day in fludy, or received yilits at home,

which,

MOR

which, however, he did not encourage.
to reft at feven.

In 1699; Morin was appointed aflociate-botanift to the
revived Academy of Sciences, through the recommendation
of M. Dodart, whom he fucceeded as penfionary-botanift,
in 1707. During the abfence of Tournefort, on his voyage
to the Levant, in 1700, the poft of demonftrator of plants
in the royal garden was confided to him, at the requeft of
that great botanitt ; who alfo honoured him by giving his
name to a new plant, Morina Orientalis, which he brought
from the Eaft. A few years before his death, his ftrength
began to fail, and incapacitated him from continuing his
aGtive duties; and he then found it neceffary to add a little
wine to his diet: but he funk under a gentle and gradual
decay in 1715, in the 8oth year of his age. He left be-
hind him no other property, except a library, valued at
nearly 20,000 crowns, 4 herbal, and a collection of medals.
He publithed two papers in the Memoirs of the Academy ;
one, containing an erroneous phyfiological hypothefis re-
fpecting the paflage of the drink to the bladder ; and the
other, a ‘¢ Memoire fur les Eaux de Forges.’’? Among his
papers were a very minute index to Hippocrates, Greek
and Latin; and a meteorological journal of more than 40
years. Eloy Di&. Hilt. de la Med. Gen. Biog.

Morin, Joy, a learned French ecclefialtic and oriental
{cholar, was born at Blois in the year 1591. Having been
in{truéted in claffical learning and the belles lettres at Rochelle,
he was fentto Holland, and entered as a ftudent at. the uni-
verfity of Leyden. Here he went through the ufual courfes
of philofophy, mathematics, and the law, and afterwards
applied himfelf to the ftudy of divinity and the oriental
languages, in which he greatly excelled. He had been edu-
cated in the principles of the Proteftant religion, but on his
return to Paris he became a convert to popery, through the
arguments or perfuation of cardinal Perron. For fome time
he refided in the cardinal’s houfe, afterwards he became a
member of the congregation of the Oratory, and in this re-
treat he applied himfelf with the greateit affiduity to the
{tudy of literature, and from time to time prefented the
world with the various fruits of his labours. In 1626 he
publithed, « Exercitationes de Patriarcharum et Primatum

He always retired

Origine, et Antiqua Cenfurarum in Cleros praxi,’” which °

he dedicated to pope Urban VIII. He was next employed
in a new edition of the “ Septuagint,” after the Vatican
edition, publifhed at Rome by order of pope Sixtus V. in
1587. Thisedition was publifhed, in 1628, under the title of
4° Biblia facra LXX. Interpret. Grace et Latine ; cum
Novo Teftamento Gr. Lat. &c.” in three volumes folio,
which is now very rare. In 1631 he publifhed “ Exercita-
tiones in utrumque Pentateuchum Samaritanorum,” the
principal obje¢t of which is to prove the fuperior integrity of
the Samaritan to that of the Hebrew text. ‘This was followed
by his edition of the Samaritan Pentateuch, with a Latin
yerfion in the Polyglot of Le Jay. In the year 1635, M.
Morin publifhed the firft part of another work in fupport
of the fuperior integrity of the Samaritan to the Hebrew
text. The fecond part of this work did not make its ap-
pearance till after the death of the author. The reputation
of this writer ftood fo high with the clergy of France, that
the prelates in their aflemblies were frequently determined by
his advice, on fubjeéts of the greatelt difficulty and import-
ance. His fame extended to Rome, and he was invited by
Urban VIII. into that city, with a view of affording his
affiftance in promoting an union between the Latin and
Greek, as well as the other oriental churches. He arrived
at Rome in the year 1639, and met with a very friendly

MOR

reception from cardinal Barberini, who introduced him to
the learned men of the city, and particularly to Lucas Hol-
ftenius, and Leo Allatius,the former, keeper of the Vatican,
and the latter, of the Barberini library. In thefe vait repofi-
tories of leataing he met with ample ftores for the gratification
of his literary curiofity, but he had not been occupied more
than nine months in the bufinefs for which he came, before car-
dinal Richelieu direéted his fuperiors to recal him to France.
He returned in 1640, and from this period {pent his time in
laborious ftudy, and in the publication of many learned
works. He died in 1659, at the age of fixty-eight, highly
refpected for the qualities of his heart, as well as for his
great literary acquirements. In 1682 father Simon caufed
to be printed at London, «* Antiquitates Ecclefie Orien-
talis,’’ confifting of letters to and from Morin ; to which is
prefixed a life of Morin, fuppofed to be written by father
Simon ; in this work is inferted a lift of his «‘ Opufcula,”’ to
the number of eighteen articles. To Simon’s life of our
author the reader is referred for more particulars relating to
Morin. ;

Morin, Joun, a French prieft and philofopher, was born
at Meung, near Orleans, in the year 1705. Of his early |
life we have no account, but in 1732 he obtained the pro-
feflorfhip of philofophy at Chartres, and difcharged its duties
with uncommon zeal and affiduity for eighteen years. In
1750, as a fort of recompence for his fervices, he was, by
the bifhop, nominated to a canonry in his cathedral. He
had fome years previoufly to this publifhed a treatife «On
Univerfal Mechanifm,’’ and alfo ‘A Treatife on Elec-
tricity :”’ this was laid before the public in 1748, when the
laft named fcience was in the flate of its infancy, and the
work of Morin led him into a controverfy with the cele-
brated abbé Nollet, who wrote ftri@ures upon it. Morin
replied to them, and with his anfwer he clofed his labours as
an author. His name and reputation ftood high as a phi-
lofopher in the academies of fciences at Paris and Rouen,
of both which inftitutions he was a correfpondent. He
purfued his experiments till his death in 1764, when he was
about the age of 59. :

Morin, Perer; a man of letters, biblical fcholar and
critic, was born at Paris in the year 1531. His father
had employment in the-parliament, and as he intended his
fon for the fame pvrfuits, he direéted his attention, ata
very early age, to the ftudy of the civil law. At the fame
time he was carefully initru€ted in claffical learning. When
his judgment began to ripen, he became deeply enamoured
with the fludy of the belles lettres, and afterwards ap-
plied himfelf diligently to the facred feriptures, the fathers,
and ecclefiaftical antiquities: He went to Italy, at that
period the grand refort of men of learning, where he was
employed by Paul Manutius, the learned printer at Venice.
From this city he removed to Vicenza, in 1555, where he
taught the Greek language and cofmography; and from
that place he went to Ferrara, where he was introduced to
the cardinal, brother of Hercules, duke of Ferrara, with
whom he lived fome time. In 1559, he was defirous of
paying a vifit to Rome, when his father recalled him to
France, where he wifhed him to enter at once into domeftic
life, and into the bufinefs of parliament, but he was too
much attached to literary purfuits, to gratify the wifhes of
his relation; returned to Italy, and arrived at Rome in 1565.
He examined the remains of ancient art and grandeur, and
vilited every place of celebrity. At Verona fome notes
upon St. Chryfoftom’s « Commentary on the Epiftles of
St. Paul’? were communicated to him, which induced him
to attend carefully to that work of the Greek father, and

to

a

MOR

to give a new verfion of it. His profound, knowledge of
eccle fa iéal antiquities, and his high and deferved reputa-
tion for zeal and piety, recommended him to the efteem otf
St. Charles Boromeo. By command of the pope, Gre-
gory XIIL., he tranflated into Latin the fpeeches made in
the aflembly of the ftates of France, and wrote “ A Trea-
tife on Elocution and rhetorical Figures.” The latter
piece is faid to have given Boromeo fo much pleafure, that
he fent for the author to Rome, and placed him in the aca-
demy of the Vatican. After this he employed his talents
in writing a treatife ‘On the good Ufe or Abufe of the
Sciences.’’? He was entrufted by popes Gregory XIII.
and Sixtus V. with the revilion of the text of the ‘ Sep-
tuagint,’’ which was printed at Rome in’ 1578, and alfo
with that of the “ Vulgate Verfion,’’ which appeared foon
afterwards. On this occafion he wrote ‘“*‘ A Letter to Pope
Sixtus V. concerning the Septuagint,” from which may be
gathered the leading rules obferved by him in the condué&
of this work. Morin had alfo the fuperintendance of the
editions of the “ Decretals,” and of ** The Oecumenical
Councils,” which were printed at Rome in his time. He

.was author of feveral tranflations, and fome original pieces,

particularly of ‘* Letters,'’ which are noticed by Dupin.
He died at Rome in 1608, at the age of 77. He has been
applauded in very high terms on account of his piety, in-
tegrity, and difintereftednefs, and for his zealous attach-
ment to the interefts of literature. He pofleffed great cri-
tical fkill, a found judgment, and a wonderful memory.
Moreri.

Morty, Summon, a French fanatic, was born about the
year 1623, at Riehemont, in Normandy, of poor parents,
who, however, contrived to give him an education fufficient
to enable him to obtain a living as a copyift. He wrote a
fine hand, and going to Paris, he was taken into the office
of M. Charron, as clerk, on account of his fkill in penman-
fhip. He foon betrayed fymptoms of a deranged imagina-
tion, and attached himfelf to the ///uminées, who were nu-
merous at Paris. In company with fome of. thefe people,
he was arrefted and thrown into prifon, where his deport-
ment was, in general, fo inoffenfive, that he was very foon
fet at liberty. He now gave himfelf out as an infpired
teacher fent from God, and obtained the countenance of a
vaft number of followers as weak or as mad as himfelf’ The
police again interfered, and he was thrown into the-Battile,
where he was confined nearly two years. He was liberated,
and returned to his former companions. In folitude he had
time to form his plans into a concerted fcheme of proving
himfelf the Meffiah, coming a fecond time in his ftate of
glory. His triumph was but of a fhort duration; he was
imprifoned, moft cruelly and barbaroufly treated, and at
length, upon the charge of a vile fpy, condemned to be
burnt, alive. Againit this favage fentence, of a brutal
court, he appealed to the parliament, but without fuccefs,
and it was carried into execution when he was about forty
years of age. Moreri.

. Morty, Sreruen, a Proteftant divine, was born at Caen,
in Normandy, in the year 1623. He ftudied theology
under the celebrated Du Moulin, and afterwards became
minifter of a congregation at his native place ; but on the
revocation of the edi¢t of Nantes he retired to Holland,
and was appointed profeffor of the Oriental languages, in
which he was deeply learned at Amiterdam. . He died in
the year 1700, at the age of feventy-feven. He was author
of «* Differtationes Octo, in quibus multa facre et profane
Anntiquitatis monumenta explicantur,” and feveral other
very learned pieces, the titles of which may be found in
Moreri’s Dictionary. He wrote the life of Bochart, which

+12

MOR

was prefixed to the third edition of his very learned labours,

publifhed by Morin in 1692. Alfo thelife of Le Paulmier,

prefixed to the work of that learned man, entitled «“ Grecix

Aman Defecriptio,” edited by Morin after the author’s
eath.

Morty, in Geography, a town of Hifpaniola; 10 miles
E. of cape Frangois.

MORINA, in Botany, received its name from the cele-
brated Tournefort, who during his refidence at Erzeron in
Armenia, met with this new plant in one of his daily bota-
nizing excurfions, in the valley of the four mills near that
town. ‘In one of thefe mills," fays he, «we proceeded to
name one of the fineft genera of plants in the Levant ; to
which therefore we gave the name of a perfon highly efti-
mable for his fcience and virtue, M. Morin, of the Royal
Academy of Sciences, Doétor of Medicine of the faculty
of Paris, who has fince had the fingular good fortune of
raifing this plant from feed in his garden, it having fuc-
ceeded no where elfe. The flower feems proud to bear the
name of M. Morin, who has always been paflionately de-
voted to botany. Vaillant however would not adopt this
name. Tourn. Voy. v. 2. 119. Cor, 48.t.480. Linn. Gen.
18. Schreb. 24. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.152. Mart. Mill. Dig.
v.3- Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 1. 66. Sm. Prodr. Fl.
Gree. Sibth. v. 1, 18. Juff. 194. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 21.
(Diotctheca; Vaill. Mem. de la Acad. des Sc. for 1722.)—
Clafs and order, Diandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Aggre-
gate, Linn, Dipfacee, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. double. Perianth of the fruit inferior, of
one leaf, cylindrical, tubular, permanent, its orifice bor-
dered with upright, awl-fhaped, fpinous teeth, of which the
two oppofite ones are longeft. Perianth of the flower fu-
perior, of one leaf, tubular, the fize of the former, in two
rather deep, obtufe, emarginate, upright, permanent feg-
ments. Cor. of one petal, two-lipped: tube very long,
thread-fhaped at the bafe, gradually dilated upwards, a little
incurved ; limb flat, obtufe ; its upper lip rather the {malleft,
cloven half way down; lower three-cleft ; all the feements
rounded, uniform, the middle one rather the moft prominent.
Stam. Filaments two, briflle-fhaped, parallel, curved, ra-
ther fhorter than the limb ; anthers ere¢t, heart-fhaped, dif-
tant. Pi. Germen globofe, between the two perianths ;
ftyle thread-fhaped, parallel to the itamens, but rather
longer ; itigma ‘capitate, inflexed. eric. none. Seed {o-
litary, roundith, crowned by the calyx of the flower.

Eff. Ch. Corolla unequal. Calyx of the fruit of one
leaf, unequally tcothed; that of the flower two-lobed.
Seed one, crowned with the calyx of the flower.

1. M. perfica. Perfian Morina. Linn. Sp. Pl. 39. Sm.
F]. Graec. Sibth. v. 1. 20. t. 28. (M. orientalis ; Mull. Dia.
ed. 8. M. orientalis, carline folio; Tourn. Cor. 48. Voy.
Vv. 2, 120. t, 120,)—Native of Armenia, according to
Tournefort ; Linneus fays, of Perfia near Hpahan, but we
cannot find his authority. Mr. Hawkins informs us he ga-
thered this fine plant on the mountains of Parnaflus and Cyl-
leni, in elevated fields, where the foil is rather rich, flowering
in Auguit. Dr. Sibthorp has left no mention of the place
where he met with it. From plants raifed formerly at Paris,
the Morina was once in our gardens ; but was killed both
in England and France, by the hard winter of 1740, except
that M. Du Hamel, according to Miller; faved it in his
garden. The late Mr. Davall hadit alive at Orbe in Swit-
zerland, and, if we miftake not, M. Olivier brought fome
feeds from Perfia, which vegetated at Paris.—The root is
perennial, tap-fhaped. Svem ereét, ftraight, three feet high,
perfectly fimple, leafy, obfcurely quadrangular, furrowed,
downy ; fpongy and bollow within. Leaves oblong, narrow,

acute,

MOR

acute, generally fmooth, pinnatifid; the lobes numerous,
palmate, with {trong fpreading fpines : radical ones ereét,
tapering at the bafe: thofe on the ftem fhorter, four in a
whorl: the floral ones feffile, {till fhorter and broader.
Whorls very numerous, axillary, many-flowered. Flowers
ereét, about two inches long, reaching from one joint to the
next, extremely elegant, white, changing to pink before they
decay; the tube hairy. Tournefort compares thejr {cent to
the honey-fuckle. They form a fingular combination with
the thiftle-like herbage.

Morina, in Gardening, affords plants of the hardy
herbaceous flowery perennial kind, of which the fpecies cul-
tivated is, the Perfian or Oriental morina (M. periica).

Method of Cultire.—This is increafed by feeds or offsets
from the roots. The feeds fhould be fown in the autumn
in the places where the plants are to grow, as, from their
having a ftrong tap-root, they do not bear fhifting well
The ground in the bed or border near them fhould not be
afterwards much difturbed, the plants being only kept ‘clean.
They moftly flower in two or three years after being
raifed.

In the latter mode the offsets fhould be flipped from the
roots while young, and be planted out where they are to
ftand, in the latter end of the fummer, being afterwards
treated as thofe raifed from feeds.

The plants decay to the ground in the autumn, new leaves
being fent up in the {pring ; but the roots continue feveral
years when not ftirred, or injured by fevere frofts.

Thefe plants are highly ornamental in the principal beds
and borders of pleafure-grounds and gardens.

MORINDA, in Botany, a name of hybrid, and {carcely
allowable, derivation, from morus, the mulberry-tree, aud inda,
Indian, alluding to the afpeét of the fruit, and its tropical
origin. Linnzus took the name from Vaillant, feduced per-
haps by its pleafing found. Homer, weare told, fometimes
nods, and any thing lefs than a Hercules might occafionally
faint, in cleanfing an Augean ftable.-—Linn. Gen. 94. Schreb.
127. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 991- Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 3. Ait.
Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v.1. 375. Juffl. 209. Lamarck Illuftr.
t.153. Gertn. t.29. {Roioc; Plum. Gen. r1.t. 26.)—
Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Aggre-
gate, Linn. Rubiacee, Jufl.

Gen Ch. Gal. Common receptacle roundifh, collecting
the flowers, which are feffile, into a globular head. Peri-
anth fcarcely obfervable, five-toothed, fuperior. Cor. of one
petal, funnel-fhaped ; tube cylindrical ; limb in five lanceo-
late, acute, flat, widely f{preading fegments. Svam. Fila-
ments five, very fhort, inferted into the upper part of the
tube; anthers linear, ereét, nearly as long as the tube.
Pift. Germen inferior ; ityle fimple ; ftigma cloven, rather
thick. Peric. Berry nearly ovate, niin in confequence
of preffure from thofe around it, abrupt, of one cell.’ Seeds
two, convex on the outer fide, flat on the inner.

Eff. Ch. Flowers aggregate, of one petal, five-cleft,
fuperior. Stigma cloven. Berries aggregate. Seeds
two.

Obf. It muft be confeffed that Juflieu has been much
happier than Linneus, in his determination of the natural
order of this genus.

1. M. umbellata. Umbellate Morinda. Linn. Sp. Pi.
250; excluding the fynonym of Rumphius. (M. n. 81;
Linn. Zeyl. 34.) —Ereét. Leaves lanceolate-ovate. Tlower-
jtalks umbellate.—Native of the Eaft Indies. Linnzeus de-
feribes it as a tree, with /eaves refembling thofe of Cepha-
Janthus, oppofite, ovate inclining to lanceolate, ftalked, en-
tire. Lmbels {effile, each confilting of feveral equal flalks,
hearing folitary heads of aggregate Jowers, and terminating

MOR

the obtufe branches:—We have never feen an authentic .

{pecimen, nor do we find any figure. Profeffor David Van

- Royen has favoured us with a {pecimen of what he took for

this plant, in which the remains of fix umbellate fower-flalks
terminate the branch, but all remains of frudification are gone.
The /eaves are obovate, pointed, entire, paler beneath, with
alittle glandular pubefcence at the origin of each vein, as in
both the other fpecies ; otherwife they are {mooth on both
fides, and not unlike Cephalanthus. Stipulas intrafoliaceous,
tubular, clofe. Itis very probably what Linnzus intended.
ser this be Plukenet’s t. 361. f. 5? or Lamarck’s t. 153.
a3)
2. M. citrifolia. Broad-leaved Morinda. Linn. Sp. Pl.

250. Ait.n. 1. (M.n. 82; Linn. Zeyl. 34. Cada Pilava ;

‘Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 1. 97. t. 52. Bancudus latifolia ;

Rumph. Amb. book 5. 158. t. 99.)—Stem arboreous.

Flower-ftalks folitary, lateral, {mooth. Leaves fmooth,

elliptic-oblong.—Native of the Eaft Indies. The Linnzan

fpecimen, certainly the plant of Rheede, has very {mooth

laurel-like deaves, elliptic-oblong, four or five inches in length,

acute at each end, rather oblique, with one rib and many

tranfverfe veins ; which laft are glandular, with a fort of pu-.
befcence, where they feparate from the mid-rib. F/ower-
fialk oppofite to one of the leaves, taking the place of a

leaf which is wanting, {mooth, about twice the length of

the foot/lalks. Head oblong. Corolla externally {mooth.

Rheede fays this is a free, growing in fandy, ftony places.

The aggregate fruit is ovate, two ar three inches long, fcetid

and bitter. ar

We have from Dr. Roxburgh, under the fame name,
what feems a different {pecies ; the /eaves being {maller, more
ovate and pointed, all of them oppolite, the floqwer-falks
axillary, and the limb of the corol/a externally hairy. Indian
botaniits, who may have opportunities of comparing more
perfeét {pecimens, muft decide whether this be more than a
variety. M. Poiret, in Lamarck Diét. v. 4. 315, makes
mention of another variety, or probable {pecies, confounded
under citrifoliay;which may poflibly be what weffhall next
defcribe. 4

3. M. pubefcens. Downy Morinda.—Flower-ftalks late-
ral, hairy. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, tapering at each end,
roughifh. Heads globular. Corolla fwellimg upwards,
nearly {mooth.—Native of the ifland of Mauritius. Com-
municated by Thouin to the younger Linneus. The /lem
is woody, with twilted, and perhaps trailing, dranches, downy
when young. eaves three inches long and one broad, lan-
ceolate, fomewhat obovate, tapering much at each end, paler
beneath, roughifh on both fides with minute points ; the ribs
and veins hairy. /Vower-falks lateral, oppolite to a folitary
leaf, hairy, an inch long, folitary except at the end of the
branch, where there are two, one of them being terminal,
the other oppofite to the uppermoft leaf. Head globofe,
{mall, of but few flowers. Corolla above an inch long,
flightly rough at the tips, and edges of the fegments
only.

4. M. Roioc. Procumbent Morinda. Linn. Sp. Pl. 250.
Ait. n, 2. Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 1. t. 16. (Roioc humifufum,
fruétu cupreflino; Plum. Gen. 11. Periclymenum ameri-
canum, ¢ cujus radice fit atramemtum; Pluk. Phyt. t. 212.
f. 4.)—Stem procumbent. Leaves obovato-lanceolate,
{mooth ; with axillary downy glands to the veins. Flower-
{talks very fhort, lateral or terminal. Tube of the cc-
rollal cylindrical, roughifh.—Native of South America and
the Welt Indies, abundantly. The /lem is woody, long,
and trailing, growing erect when fupported by other bufhes,
much branched, Leaves about two inches long, obovate, nar-
row, acute. lowers white, in little round heads, on fhort

{moothifh

MOR

fmoothith fa/ks, fometimes oppofite to a leaf, but more ge-
nerally terminal. The raot is reported to yield a yellow or
purple colour, becoming black with iron, which probably
may be of ufe in dyeing. Jacquin fays it may be procured

in any quantities.

5. M. axillaris. Axillary Morinda. Lamarck Dié.
Vv. 4. 315.—Leaves oval, bluntifh, Heads axillary, feffile.
Tube of the corolla yery fhort.—Native of Madagafcar.
* Branches long and pliant. Leaves fomewhat wrinkled,
paler beneath. Flowers fmall, with a very fhort tubs,
the head lefs crowded+than in the reft of the fpecies, and
difpofed in fomewhat of a whorled manner. The /eaves vary
in acutenefs.”” Pourret ia Lamarck. .

6. M. retufa. Blunt Morinda. Lamarck Di&. v. 4.
316.—Arboreous, Leaves oval, abrupt. Heads feflile,
terminal.—Native alfo of Madagafcar. * Very diftin& from
the former. Branches hard, knotty, forked. Leaves much
more crowded than in any of the foregoing, eval; obtufe
and abrupt at their fummit; contra¢ied at the bafe.’’
The Flowers are defcribed as perfe@ly terminal, in a round
feffile head, and yet in the {pecific charafter they are called
lateral.

We adopt this, as well as the laft, entirely from
Pourret.

His fourth fpecies, MM. mujfcofa, Jacq. Amer. 65. t. 45,

MOR

commonly worn by the harquebuffiers and mufqueteers. See
Morram and Por,

Morton, in Botany, a name given by the ancients to a
kind of nightfhade. The ancient Greeks, Theophrattus
and others, culled all the nightfhades in general by the
name flrychnos. Some of thete they faid were poifonous,
and others efculent. The poifonous were of two kinds,
fome bringing on fleepy diforders, and others making the
patient mad.

The efculent kind was the pomum amoris, or love-apple,
eaten at this time by the Portuguefe and many other na-
tions, and by fome in England. Some after-writers ufe
the word morion as a diftinctive name for thofe kinds of
nightfhade which caufed fleepy diforders; and after thefe
fome ufed it as the peculiar name of one fpecies, and
others as the name of the male mandrake of Diofcorides,
whofe fruit, according to that author, was commonly
eaten by the shepherds; but when taken ‘too largely,
threw them into fleepy diforders. From this word morion
has come, in all probability, the Latin name morellz,
given at firft to the pomum amoris, or love-apple; and
afterwards, according to /Emilius Macer, to all the night-
fhades ; for he exprefsly fays, that thofe plants which the
Greeks called /frychna, the Latins called morella ; and
we find that the old Greeks called all the nighthhades

is Cephaélis mufcofa, Swartz. Ind. Occ. v. 1. 442. Willd. jrychna.

Sp. Pl. v. 1.979.

MORINELLA, Turwsrone, or Sea-Dotterel, in Orni-
thology... See TRinGA Morinella.

MORINELLUS, Dorverer.
rinellus.

MORINGA, in Botany. See Hyprranrnera.

MORINGEN, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the principality of Furitenbers ; 26 miles N.W. of Con-
ftance.—Alfo, a town of Weftphalia, and principality of
Calenberg, feated on the Mohr, which runs into the
Leine, and containing two churches; ro miles N.N.W. of
Gottingen. N. lat. 54° 38". E. long. g? 55'.—Alfo, a
town of Bavaria, four miles S. of Friedberg.

MORIN], in Ancient Geography, the name of a people
who inhabited the fea-coaft in the northera part of France,
from Montreuil-fur-Mer to Calais ; and hence Virgil calls
them “extremi hominum.’? However, they feem to have
advanced into the interior of the country, for Ptolemy
affigns them for their capital the town of 'Ternamia, and they
alfo poffefied on the fea, towards the coaft, Gefloriacam:
Their name was derived from the word «* Mor,’’ fignirying
in Celtic the fea, and thus defignates a maritime people.
Some authors have afcribed to the Morini the diocefe of
Yournay ; but M. d’Anville was of opinion that this be-
longed to the Nervii.. The country of the Morini was in a
great meafure covered with forefts, lakes, and iflets, eti-
compafled by marfhes; and hence they were enabled to
maintain their liberty. Czfar at length fubdued them and
fubjugated them to the Atrebatii. Pliny fays that their
country fwarmed with geefe, and that thefe furnifhed a
principal article of merchandife. He adds that their linen
cloth was alfo a commodity in which they had confiderable
traffic.

MORINIERE, Anprrian CraupeE LE Fort pe 1a, in
Biography, a French writer, was born at Paris in 1696, and
died in 1768. He was author of many works, of which the
principal are, 1. ‘* Choix des Poefies Morales.’”? 2. Bib-
liotheque Poetique.’’ 3. * Paffe-temps Poetiques, Hifto-
riques, et Critiques.’

MORION, in ancient Armoury, a kind of open helmet
wfthout vifor or bevers fomewhat refembling a hat: it was

Vou. XXIV.

See CHarapnivus Jfo-

Morton, in the Natural Hiffory of the Ancients; a name
given to one of the femi-pellucid gems, more commonly
called pramnicn. It is a ftone appearing externally only of
a fine deep black ; but when held up again{t a candle, or
againft the fun-fhine, giving a very beautiful red, in different
degrees, from that of the hyacinth to that of the amethy{t
or carbuncle.

MORIS, in Geography, a town of New Mexico, in the
province of Mayo; too miles N.E. of Santa Cruz.

Monis’s, or AMorris’s Bays a bay on the S.W. coalt of
Antigua ; four miles W. of Falmouth harbour.

MORISA, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ;
165 miles S.W. of Mexico, N. lat. 34° 6'. E. long.
¥3T° 30/.

MORISCOES, an appellation given by the Spaniards to
the Moors of Granada, in order to diftinguifh them from
the Moors of Barbary. The expulfion of thefe people from
Spain forms an important event in the hiftory of that coun-
try, and alfo in the hiftory of perfecution; and it therefore
deferves to be recorded, with a detail of the leading circum-
ftances that attended it. It is well known that when the
city of Granada was taken by king Ferdinand of Aragon
and queen Lfabel of Catftile, in the year 1492, the Moorith
government in Spain, which had laited above 700 years, ter-
minated ; and-yet the Moors did not immediately leave the
country. ‘he body of the people, not only of the king.
dom of Granada, but alfo of Valencia, though conquered
by the Chriitians in 1236, and of Murcia, conquered by
them in 1265, belonged to that race; and befides thefe,
others were difperfed in great number over Ca(tile, Eftra-
madura, Aragon, Catalonia, &c. All thefe Moors main-
tained their {eparation from the Spaniards, by an obftinate
adherence, not only to the language, habit, and cultoms of
their anceftors, but to their religion likewife, which was the
Mahometan; few or none of them, ina long feries of years,
having been converted to the Chriftian faith, by all the
efforts of the Spanifh friars for this purpofe. The Spanith
princes, apprifed of the danger that was likely to refult
from the conne¢tion that was likely to fubfilt between the
Moors of Barbary and thofe of their own country, fo nearly
fituated with re{peQ to one another, made every attempt in

their

MORISCOES. a

their power to diffolve their natural attachment, cemented
by fimilarity of religious profeffion; and with this view
they employed the ecclefiaftics in vigorous meafures for con-
verting them to Chriftianity. The friars, failing in their
cafual endeavours, for accomplifhing the object recom-
mend2d to them, reprefented the Moors as an obiftinate
and hardencd fet of people, who were not to be overcome
by arguments, nor by any other methods, unaccompanied
with violence. Accordingly they advifed the princes either
to banifh the Moors, or to make them all flaves, if they re-
fufed to become Chriftians; of, at lealt, to take all their
children from them, and baptize them, fo that the next ge
neration might become Chriltians. The council of Toledo,
however, exprefsly prohibited the compulfion of infidels to
be baptized ; and Thomas Aquinas, and moft of their other
divines, declared it to be unlawful to baptize the children of
infidels without the confent of their parents; and, there-
fore, the methods prepofed by the friars were not adopted :
more efpecially, as the Moors, when they poffeffed the do-
minion of the country, had never forced any of their Chrif-
tian fubjeéts to change their religion, and king Ferdinand,
upon the furrender of Granada, had engaged himfelf by oath,
if the Morifcoes withed to remain in Spain, not to moleft
them on account of their religion. The Jews, however, not
having been proteGted by any fuch engagement, were or-
dered by a royal edict, within three months after the cap-
ture of Granada, if they would not be baptized, to depart
with their families in the courfe of four months, on pain of
death ; upon which many of them removed, and thofe who
remained, after the expiration of the ftipulated term, were
ftripped by the king of all their property, and fold to his
fubjeéts for flaves. It is faid that above 8c0,oc0 men, wo-
men, and children, were driven out of Spain at this time.
As to the Moors, it was found that, in the year 1499, few
of thofe who inhabited Granada had been converted to
Chriftianity ; and therefore Ximenes, archbifhop of Toledo,
was charged to purfue fome courfe for converting the Moors
to the Chriftian faith. The archbifhop, determined to fucceed
in every meafure which he undertook, began by mild treatment
to engage 1n his intereft the chief men among the Moors, fome
of whom became converts; but others were found invincible
by bribes and promifes. The prelate changed his plan, and
had recourfe to fevere methods of converlion, ordering the tr-
reclaimable to be loaded with chains, thrown into dungeons,
and treated as the moft notorious malefaGtors. Irritated by
this cruel treatment, the Moors took up arms; but their
infurreétion being fupprefled, 50,000-of them, inhabitants of
the city of Granada, purchafed their lives by confenting to
be baptized ; and the archbifhop fo far triumphed in his
fuccefs, as on his departure not to have left one profeffed
Mahometan in the city. The Moors of the country were
alarmed, and fortilied themfelves among the mountains, re-
folving to die Mahometans with their {words in their hands,
rather than fubmit to be baptized by compulfion, as their
countrymen had been in the city; but though many of
them, with their women and children, were put to the
{word, others collected together in a formidable body, which
called forth the interpofition of the king in perion, who
being joined by a powerful holt, very rapidly reduced all the
Moorilh towns that were in arms; obliging all the inha-
bitants to purchafe their lives by confenting to be baptized.
The Moors that were flill in arms among the fortrefles of
the mountains petitioned the king to allow them to tranf-

sort themfelves to Barbary, offering to pay ten dollars per
ead for every one that embarked: the king’s want of mo-
ney permitted the fe who could pay their ranfom to depart,
and thofe who were under a neceflity of remaining were

7

forced to be baptized. In a few months, above 200,000
men, womer, and children were converted by the king”
and the archbifhop of Toledo from the Maloretan to the
Chriftian profeffion, though it is feid that {carcely one in
that large number was truly converted to the Chriftian faith.

The Ingnilition, regarding thefe forced baptifins as good and.

valid, exercifed its ufual cruelties on thofe Moors who were
convicted of having afterwards returned to Mahometamfm.
Not fewer than 100,000, living and dead, prefent and abfent,
had been condemned for apoltacy by the inquifition of Se-

ville in the {pace of forty years; of which number 4000

were burned, and 30,000 were reconciled, the reft having
made their efcape into Barbary. During the remaining part
of the reign of Ferdinand and Ifabel, and the whole reign
of Charles V., we hear little more of the Granada Morifcoes,
than that they univerfally continued to be Mahometans,
and manifefted an extraordinary averfion to Chriftianity,

which averfion was increafed by the fiery zeal of the inqui-

fition. Thus the friars went on preaching and the inquifiiors
went on burning the Morifcoes, until the year 1568; when
Philip IL., by advice of his council and ecclefialtics, pub-
lithed certain laws, which were framed with a view of extin-
uifhing in the Morifcoes the memory of their being de-
{cended of the Moors; the remembrance of which was thought
to contribute not a little to their obitinacy in the religion
of that nation. The rigorous execution of thefe laws in-
duced the Morifcoes to feek relief from the grand fignior
and the Moors in Barbary ; who fent 8co Turks, with a
great quantity of arms and ammunition, into the kingdom
ef Granada, who were joined by the Moors from all parts,
taking up arms and rencuncing the profeffion of the Chrif-
tian religion. _Again{t thefe the king ordered his troops to
march ; but in the courfe of eighteen months, he was able
neither to conquer them nor to ftarve them among the moun-
tains. At length, however, they were totally fubdued, and
compelled to leave the kingdom of Granada.
time they were difperfed oyer the kingdom of Catlile, and
fome other inland provinces, in which they and their pof-
terity continued until the time of their general expulfion,
in the year 1610. Notwith{tanding all the diligence and
cruelties which were ufed to reconcile thefe Morifcoes to
Chrittianity, they and their pofterity {till continued as much
Mahometans in their hearts as ever they had been,

This was alfo the cafe with regard to the Morifcoes of the
kingdoms of Valencia and Aragon, who continued profeffed
Mahometans for 300 years, after they were conquered by
the Chriftians ; and who, having been all baptized by ex-
treme force, remained Mahometans in their hearts till they
were all expelled Spain. The Spanifh hilterians are not
agreed as to the number of the Morifcoes that were driven
from Spain in the year 1610. Some fay they were a mil-
lion, others that they were goo,oco; but the greater nem-
ber of writers concur in aflerting, that they were 600,000
men, women, and children, befides thofe that were flain or
detained. Thefe Morifcoes were indultrious and peaceable
inhabitants of Spain, and conftituted the ftrength of the
kingdom by their application to agriculture, manufactures,
and trade. The expulfion of them was fuch a fatal blow
to Spain, that fhe has not to this day, ror, indeed, is ever
likely to recover it. Soon after this difallrous event, Spain
began to feel its bad effects, as we may infer from a memd-
rial delivered in 1618, to Pluhp I1I."by a Junta that had
been affembled by the king, to confider what remedy might
be applied to the ruined ltate of his kingdom. ‘Che duke
of Lerma, the chief author of the depopulating expulfions,
was turned from court and deprived of all his offices; his
chief confideut and counfellor, Don Rodrigo Calderon, was

committed .

From this.

ie 2b > Tomy

MOR

‘committed to prifon, and after imprifonment for 2% years,
put publicly to death in the great placa of Madrid ; and the
archbifhop of Toledo, who had been alfo a zealous promoter
of the expulfions, died, a few days after his brother the duke
was difmiffed from court, merely of grief and difcortent.
And king Philip, who died foon after, is faid by a famous
Spanifh hittorian, to have had his con{cience upon his death-
bed overwhelmed with horrors, which has been attributed
to his concern in thele expnifions, by means of which, in
violation of all the laws of religion and humanity, he had
plunged more than 100,000 families in diitrefs and mifery ;
a reflection that muft have been agonizing to a perfon fum-
moned by death to anfwer for his conduct before the divine
tribunal, where, as an excellent writer expreffes himfelf in
immediate reference to this fubje@, ‘they are to have
judgment without mercy, who have fhewed no merey to
their fellow creatures.’’ In the inftance above mentioned,
we perceive the injurious effeéts of perfecution, with refpe&
to the internal profperity of acountry. A fimilar inftance
occurs in the revocation of the edi& of Nantes. Geddes’s
TraGs, vol. i.

MORISON, Roserz, in Biography, a botanilt of the
17th century, whofe name is familiar to all, from the popu-
larity of his principal work asa book of reference, was born
at Aberdeen in 1620. Being defigned for the church, he
devoted himfelf to the ftudy of mathematics in that univer-
fity ; but was diverted from {ech purfuits by a tafte for
phyfic, aad efpecially botany. Thefe ftudies in their turn
gave way, fora time at leaft, to his loyalty, and he actually
became a foldier in the fervice of king Charles. After re-
ceiving a dangerous wound in the head, in a battle near his
native town, which for a while difabled him, he retired, like
many of his countrymen after the ruin of the royal caufe,
to Paris. Here he became tutor to a young man of fome
fortune, while he feduloufly cultivated the ftudies neceffary
for his profeflion, and took the degree of doétor of phytic
at Angers, in 1648. Botany however was his moft fa-
vourite purfuit; for it appears that as foon as a profpe&
opened of his deriving a living from that fource, he * threw
phyfic to the dogs.’ M. Robin, who had then the care of
the royal garden at Paris, conceived fo favourable an opinion
of Morifon, that he recommended him to the patronage of
Galton, duke of Orleans, and he was entrufted with the
care of that prince’s garden at Blois, accompanied by a
handfome falary. He held this charge from the year 1650
to 1660, when the duke died. During that period, he
devoted himfelf to the ftudy of theoretical as well as praGtical
botany. He began to plana fyftem, on the fubje& of which
his royal patron 1s reported to have delighted to confer with
him. He was alfo difpatched- on feveral botanical expedi-
tions, to various parts of France, for the purpofe of enrich-
ing the garden. A catalogue of this garden was printed in
1653, by Abel Brunyer, phyfician to the duke; of which
Morifon afterwards publifhed at London, in 1669, a new
and enlarged edition, accompanied by a regular and pro.
feffed criticifm of the works of Cafpar and John Bauhin.
For this lait performance he has perhaps incurred more
blame than he juftly deferves. Hialler terms it ‘¢ an invi-
dious work,’’ though he fays the remarks are for the molt
part true. Morifon gives to thefe great men all the rank
and honour which their eminent learning and induitry de-
ferve ; and while he proceeds, without ceremony, to a plain
and fimple indication of their miltakes or imperfeGtions, he
exprefles a wifh of having his own errors, of which he does
not doubt the exiftence, likewife pointed out. The Hortus
Blefenfis is difpofed in alphabetical order, and accompanied
by a double dedication, to king Charles II., and Jamea

MOR

duke of York, to whom its author had become known in
France. When king Charles refumed the fceptre of his
fathers, Morifon, who the fame year was deprived, by the
death of the duke of Orleans, of his chicf attachment to
France, gladly obéyed the {ummons of his royal matter, to
fettle in England. The minifter Fouquet 1s faid to haye
offered, in vain, the moit liberal temptations to retain him.
On arriving in’ London, he received the titles of King’s
Phyfician, and Royal Profeflor of Botany, with a falary of
20c/, a year, and a houfe, as fuperintendant of the royal
gardens. He was alfo eleGeda Feilow of the College of
Phyticians. 2

Whether the gardens of Charles II. were very botav'cal,
or whether they flourrfhed much under the care of the fub-
ject of this article, does not appear. He was himfelf tranf-
planted to a» more promiling f{cientific ftation, nine years
afterwards, when he became Profeffor of Botany at Oxford,
and was again dubbed Doétor of Phytic, his foreign degree
giving him no rank in that univerfity. He gave a courle of
leGtures there in the autumn of 1670; as well as in feveral
fucceflive years, as long as he lived. He had for fome time
been meditating, and collecting materials for, a great univer-
fal work on botany. Of this he publifhed an excellent {pe-
cimen in 1672, being a methodical arrangement of umbelli-
ferous plants, in folio, accompanied with plates. He takes
the leading charaéters of thefe plants from the feeds, though
he admits under the fame denomination a tribe of different
genera, whofe inflorefcence in fome meafure, though very
flightly, agrees with the true uméc/late, but which are other-
wile totally different, fuch as Valeriana, Thaliarum, Spirea,
This is certainly as great an error as ever the Bauhins com-
mitted.

Tn 1674, Morifon edited at Oxford a thin quarto, from
the manulcripts of Boccone, deferibing a number of new
plants from Sicily, Malta, France, and Italy; a work il
luflrated with 52 plates, 45 of which were re-engraved,
after fome, lefs accurately bnifhed, under Boccone’s infpec-
tion. The figures, though diminifhed, are in general very
expreflive, and many of the plants are no where elfe repre-
fented,

Morifon’s great work, entitled Plantarum Hebaia Uni-
verfalis O-onienfis, appeared in 1680, in one volume folio,
compriling five fe€tions of herbaceous plants, with numerous
plates, in each of which 12 plants are commonly delineated.
This was called the fecond part of the work; the firlt, con-
fifting of trees and fhrubs, having been poftponed, as the
mott eafily to be finifhed at any time ; but it never appeared,
nor is there any certainty of its ever having been written,

A fecond volume, called the third part, was publithed in
1699, long after the author's death, by Jacob Bobart, This
comprehends 19 feétions more, and concludes the fy{tem,
as far as regards herbaceous plants. Of ihefe 10 feGtions,
four only were finifhed by Morifon ; the reft having been the
performance of the editor. The plates of grafles, which
make a part of the eighth fection, are remarkably good,
and are univerfally cited by fucceeding writers. The other
figures throughout thefe volumes, though in general ufe, are
for the moft part not original, nor are they entitled to the
praife of accuracy ascopies. The drawing of many of them
is defective; their outline unlike the originals; parts are im-
properly added, or carelefsly mifreprefented ; and the whole
betray figns of hafte and frequent inattention ; defects in-
deed not altogether avoidable, in fo great an undertaking,
‘Ihe editor of this latter volume claims for the author great
honour as the inventor of a fyltem. It cannot be denied
however that the outlines of Morifon’s fyitem are evidently
tobe traced in the work of Cefalpinus, publifhed in 1589,

x aad

MOR

and Ufe of Two Arithmetic Inftruments: together with a
fhort Treatife, explaining the ordinary Operations of
Arithmetic, &c. Prefented to his moft excellent Majetty,
Charles II., by S. Morland, in 1662.” This work, which
is exceedingly rare, but which has been in the hands of the
writer of this article, is illuftrated with twelve plates, in
which the different parts of the machine arc exhibited ; and
whence it appears that the four fundamental rules in arithme-
tic are very readily worked, and, to ufe the author’s own
words, without charging the memory, difturbing the
mind, or expofing the operations to any uncertainty.”
That thefe machines were at the time brought into practice
there feems no reafon to doubt, as by an advertifement pre-
fixed to Mr. Morland’s work, it appears that they were ma-
“nufa@tured for fale by Humphry Adanfon, who lived with
Jonas Moore, efq. in the Vowerof London. _

~ In this place, having omitted it under the article ArITH-
METIC, we may juft notice that earl Stanhepe, about thirty
years fince, invented two machines for the like purpofes
as thofe of Mr. Morland were intended, and it is faid his
lordfhip, when propofing a plan to parliament for the re-
duAtion of the National debt, verified the truth of all his
calculations by means of thofe inftruments, of which the
following is a brief defcription. ‘The fmalleft machine,
which is intended for the fir two rules of addition and fub-
traétion, is not larger than an o¢tavo volume, and by means
of dial-plates, and {mall indices moveable with a fteel pin,
the operations are performed with undeviating accuracy.
“The fecond, and by far the moft curious inttrument, is about
half the fize of a common table writing-defk. By this, pro-
blems in multiplication and diyifion, of almoft any extent,
are folved without the poffibility of a miftake, by the fim-
ple revolution of a fmall winch. The multiplier and mul-
‘tiplicand, in one inftance, and the divifor and dividend in the
other, are firft properly arranged; then, by turning the
winch, the produ€& or quotient is found. What always
appears fingular and’ furprifing to fpedtators, is, that in
working fums in divifion. if the operator be inattentive to
this bufinefs, and thereby attempts to turn the handle a fingle
revolution more than he ought, he is inftantly admonifhed of
his miftake by the fudden fpringing up of a {mall ivory
ball.

MORLEY, Tuomas, a difciple of Bird, bachelor of
mufic, and one of the gentlemen of queen Elizabeth's chapel,
who, though a good praétical mufician, acquired more cele-
brity by his treatife, entitled, «A plaine and eafie Intro-
duétion to Pra&tical Muficke,”’? than by his performance or
compofitions, though eminent for both,

If due allowance be made for the quaintnefs of the dia-
logue and ftyle of the times, and the work be confidered as
the firft rezular treatife on mufic that was printed in our
Janguage, the author will merit great praife for the learning
and inftruétion it coutains. At prefent, indeed, its utility
is very much diminifhed, by the difufe of many things which
colt him great pains to explain; as well as by the introduc-
tion of new methods of notation, new harmonies, and new
modulations, fince his time, which, to render intelligible,
require a more recent elementary treatife. Yet though this
work is redundant in fome particulars, and deficient in
others, it is (till curious, and jultly allowed to have been
excellently adapted to the wants of the age in which it was
written. However, its late republication in the original
form, totidem verbis, whatever honour it may refleét on the
memory of the author, fomewhat difgraces later times,
which have not fuperfeded this treatife, by producing a
better aod more complete book of general inftruétions in
Englith, after the laple of fo many years, and the perpetual

MOR

cultivation and pratice of the art, in our country, both b
native muficians and foreigners. :

« Analyfis of Morley’s IntroduGtion.”-—The gammut and
time-table employ the eight or nine firft pages of this work.
After which, moods, ligatures, points of imperfeCtion, and
alteration, augmentation, and diminution, all now obfolete,
occupy fifty pages? The old and exploded proportions
given under the names of figuration, ‘tripla in the minim,
quintupla, fefquialtera, induction, and fefquitertia, would
now be ftudied @ pure perte, as no good ear can bear, or
found judgment make ule of them.

The fecond part likewife is wafted tn frivolous dialogue
a-d now ufelefs matter. The definitions of concords and
difcords, indeed, and their ufe in difcant, or plain counter-
point, are the frbjeéts of converfation ; but the knowledge
It conveys is fo inadequate to prefent purpofes, and the
ftudent is led to it by fuch an indire&t road, that it is to be
feared he will be fo bewildered in the purfuit, as to acquire
but little clear gain for bis tronble. Indeed the prohibitions
are fuch as will iead a ftudent of the prefent time into doubt
and errcr. Page 75, he utterly condemns, as againft the
principles of mufic, the ufe of two hiths, thcugh one be
fal. Indeed the ufe of the tritonus and falfe fifth is con-

‘ftantly avoided by old harmonifts; which is excluding the

ufe of one of the moft abundant fources of beauty and

paffion in modern mufic. Whoever firlt combined the fharp

3d and‘7th to the 5th of the key, and inverted this chord
6 :

6 i
into 4 to the fecond, : to the fharp feventh, and 4 to the
+2

3

fourth of a key, conferred as refrefhing a benefit on the
craving lovers of mutic, as Mofes did on the thirity Hraelites,
in producing water with his wand from the rock on mount
Horeb. Thefe combinations, though unknown to old
‘matters, are utterly indifpenfable in the prefent regle de
Voétave. ‘ i

To fay the truth, mafter Morley is not very nice or accu-
rate in thefe examples of counterpoint which are given as
his own, and left as models of perfection. Page 76, in the
laft examples, there are two faults, which would not be
pardoned by modern ears or judgment; in the firft ‘of the
two, bar 5, the fourth between C and G, is infipid and un-
meaning ; and in the fecond of the examples, bar 5, the
modulation from the chord of D major to C, 1s ufed /ans
liaifon, and, in tzo parts, without a warrantable or good

effect. nee. Few of the examples are elegant, or worthy

of imitation, now; and it appears as if the attentive exa-
mination of good modern compofitions, in fcore, would be
of infinitely more fervice to a ftudent, than the perufal of
all the books on the fubjeét of mufic that were written
during the fixteenth and feventeenth centuries. Corelli,
Handel, and Geminiani, for fugues; Haydn, Mozart, Bac-
cherin, Pleyel, John Chriftian Bach, Abel, Giardini, Beét-
hoven, &c. for fymphonies, quartets, trios, duets, and other
mufic for violins; T'artint and Giardini for folos ; Dome,
nico Scarlatti, Alberti, Emanuel Bach, Schobert, Eichner,
Haydn, Mozart, Kotzeluch and Becthoven, Clementi, Duffie,
Stetbelt, Burney, Cramer, &c. for harptichord and piano-
forte pieces; Vince, Pergolefi, Haffe, Jomelli, Perez, Ga-
luppi, Piccini, Sacchini, Paefiello, Sarti, and Nafolini, for
vocal compolitions; and above all, Handel and Sebattian
Bach for organ and choral mufic, almott all to be found in
our own country, and all models of perfection in correctnefs
of compolition, knowledge of initrumepts, rhythm, modus

lation, new effects, pathos, fire, invention, and grace,
It has ever been our with conftantly to do jultice to the
learning

~oly

MORLEY.

Rearning and contrivance of old malters, and to recommend
the ftudy and performance of their works to our readers, as
curious and hiftorical fpecimens of the belt mufe of their
own times; but not as the /ole ftucies and models of per-
feRtion to young profeffors for all times, who with to pleafe,
profper, and are expeéted to keep pace with moderaim-
provements. ‘T'o fuch we would fr/# recommend the ftudy of
the bell modern authors; and then, as matters of curlolity
and amufement, to enquire into the productions: and genius
of former times, in order to extend their knowledge and
views, and prevent embarraflment or furprize, whenever
they happen to be*called upon to perform or {peak of fuch
works. : ; ; Y
The thifd part of Morley’s Treatife contains more curious
fpecimens of ufeful knowledge in old counterpoint, than the
reft of the book. He is much obliged, however, to Tigrini,
whofe Compendium was publifhed in 1588, and others, for
many of his examples, whofe names ought not to have been
concealed: Tigrini has indeed been pillaged with fuch hafle,
that a typographical error has not been corrected 3a few of
thefe cadences have even been difingenuoufly difguifed, and
ei ces tranfpofed.
Stee the nee though the book is curious, and full
of information concerning the mufic of the fixteenth century,
it muft be owned, that the language in which it is written,
is at once uncouth and affeG&ted; and that neither the melody
nor harmony it recommends and teaches, is of this world,
at leaft of this age; no certain feale is given of major or
minor keys; nor is the modulation he ufes that of the
prefent times. Indeed no keys are determined except F
major, and D and A minor; ard though fo much is written
concerning the moods, or meafure, yet nothing 1s faid of
accent, or the preparation, ufe, and refolution of difcords
in general.
. Fliving fpoken fully of Morley as a theorift, we fhall pro-
ceed to confider his merit as a praéical mufician. And in
comparing his compofitions with thofe of his predeceffors,
they do not appear fo original as we at firft imagined them.
During the time of writing his Introduétion, he mutt of
courfe have confulted the produétions of mazy authors ; and
he has not done it unproftably, as a compofer, any more
than a theorift. It has been faid, that « we often remember
what we read, without recollecting that we ever had read it;
hence it frequently happens; that what we take for invention,
is only reminifceice ;”” which is a charitable apology for
feeming plagiarifm. The melodies, however, of Morley,
are fomewhat more flowing and po ifhed than thofe of the
old authors, on whofe property his memory, perhaps imper-
ceptibly, had fattened ; but, befides thefe, at is plain that
he fometimes condefcended to ufe the fame materials as his
contemporaries, and to interweave the favourite paflages of
his times into his works, of which the following is a chrono-

logical lift :

Canzonets, or little fhort fongs, of three voices 1593
Madrigals, to four voices = m 4 1594
Ballets, or Fa /as, to five voices S 2 1595
Madrigals, to five voices wid “ st 1595
Canzonets, or little fhort Airs, to five and fix

voices - = = 2 L 1597

* OF the following publications he was: little more than

the editor. }

Madrigals, to five voices, collected out of the bet
Italian authors - - - Ar 3598

The Triumphs of Oriana, to five and fix voices :
compofed by divers feveral authors. Newly

publifhed by Thomas Morley, Batchelor - of

who is figured under the name of Oriana.
of the reft were Michael Efte, Diniel Norcome, John.

Muficke, and) Gentleman of hir Majefties. hoe.
nourable chappel - - ~ t 1601

Thefe madrigals, in number twenty-foar, of which the
mufic of the 13th and 24*h was compofed by Morley, were
written, fet, and publifhed, in honour of queen Esizabeth,
The compofers

Mundy bachelor of mufic, Ellis Gibbons, John Benet,
John Hilton B. M., George Marfon B. M., ‘Richard Carl-
ton, John. Holmes, Richard Nicholfon, Thomas Tomkins,
Michael Cavendih, William Cobbold, John Farmer, Joba
Wilby, Thomas Hunt B. M » Thomas Weilkes, John Mil-
ton, father of the great poet, George Kirbye, Robert
Jones, John Lefley, and Edward Johnfon B. M:

As Italy gave the fon to the refl of Europe, but particu-
larly to England, in all the fine arts, during the reign of
queen Elizabeth, it feems as if the idea of employisg all
the beft compofers in the kingdom to fet the fongs in the
Triumphs of Oriana to mulic, in honour of our virgin
queen, had been fuggefted to Morley, and his patron, the
earl of Nottingham, by Padre Giovenale, afterwards bifhop
of Saluzzo, who employed thirty-feven of the moft renowned
Italian compofers to fet canzonetti and madrigals in honour
of the Virgin Mary, publifhed under the following titte :
“Tempio Armonico della beatiffima Virgine noftra Signora,
fabbricatole per opera del Reverendo P. Giovenale, A. P.
della Congregatione dell’ Oratorio. Prima Parte, a tre
voci. Stampata in Roma da Nicolo Matii, 1 599, in gto.”
Confort Leffous, made by divers exquifité authors,

for fix different inftruments to play together, viz,

the treble lute, pandora, citterne, bafe violl, flute,

and treble violl. Dedicated to the Lord Mayor,

2d edit. = = - - - 1614

Mafter Morley, fuppofing, perhaps, that the harmony
which was to be heard through the clattering of knives,
forks, fpoors, and plates, with the gingling of glaffes, and
clamorous converfation of a city-feaft, need not be very ac-
curate or refined, was not very nice in fetting parts to thefe
tunes, which are fo far from corre, that almoft any one of
the city waits would, in mufical cant, have vamped as good
an accompaniment fur le champ, or rather Jur le chant, which
feems the original and true reading of that phrafe. We.
remember very early in our mufical life, to have heard one
of the Tower waits at Shrewfbury playhoufe, vamp a bajfe,
upon all occafions, he being utterly unable to read any one
that was written ; and as our ears were not very much of-
fended by the diffonance, we fuppofe that by habit, he con-
trived, at leaft, to begin and end in the right key, and was
quick in purfuing accidental modulation. Sze what has been
faid of Extemporary Difcant, in Dr. Burney’s Hilt. of Mutic,
vol. i. p. 142. See alfo Discanr.

A plaine and eafie Introduéion to Pradticall Mu-

ficke, - - - - 1597 and 160g

It does not appear that any of Morley’s church mutfic
was printed during his life. Dr. Tudway, however, has
inferted feveral valuable choral compolitions, by him, in the
collection made for lord Harley, 1715 ; among which are
his ** Funeral or Dirge Anthems, as performed at Weftmin-
fter Abbey at Royal and Noble Funerals,’ and printed by
Dr. Boyce, in the firft volume of his Cathedral Services ;
and an Evening Verfe Service, in five parts, in D minor,
which has never been printed. In queen Elizabeth’s mufic.
book there are likewife five different fets of leffons, or pieces
for the virginal, compofed by Morley.

is fo many of his pieces have been printed in feore for
the new edition of his Introduétion, under the eye of the

late

MOR

late Dr. Samuel Howard, by Randal, we hall fay ‘no more’

-about them.

The Burial fervice, compofed by Morley, which is fup-
pofed to be the firlt that was compofed after the Reforma-
tion, ftill continues to be uled in Weftminfter Abbey on
great and folemn cccations.

We heard this fervice admirably performed in 1760, by
the three united cheirs of Weftminfter, St. Paul’s, and the
chapel-royal, at the funeral of his late majefty George Il.
in Weftminiter Abbey, avhere it had a molt folemn effe&.
Nothing ‘feems better fuited to fo awful an occafion than
this mufic, ina minor key, and chiefly in fimple counter-
point, but with a grave, and now uncommon, harmony and
modulation, which added to the grandeur of the effect.
The few hort points of fugue and imitation introduced in
this compofition are fuch as were not common when the
fervice was produced, nor have any of them been debafed
fince ‘by vulgar ufe. As this compofition is fo gdmirably
printed by Dr. Boyce, and may be eafily confulted, we
fhall detain the mufical reader with a few remarks on it, re-
ferring to that copy, as we are unable to admit it in our
plates. And we shall begin by obferving, that the four firlt
bars are remarkably folemn, and that the major third to G,
after being ftri€ily in G minor, the preceding part of the
phrafe, ‘is unexpectedly grand and pleafing. ‘The point at
« And though after my fkin, worms deltroy this body,’’ is
admirably conduéted. And, though in fimple counterpoint
osly, the harmony and modulation to “The Lord gave, and
the Lord hath taken away,” convey fomething particularly
majeftic and grateful to our ears. ‘The points at “ He
cometh up, and is cut down,” and * Of whom may we
feek for fuccour,’” diverfify and give relief to the plain coun-
terpoint if an ingenious manner; but the paffage “ Shut not
thy merciful ears to our prayers,’’ is extremely beautiful in
the three effentials of good! mufic: melody, harmony, and
accent. Every part is chantante, or figns, without any feem-
ing fubferviency to the reft: and the words, which feldom
happens in mufic of the fixteenth century, are well exprefied,
if we except the length given to the particle ¢o in the treble
and counter-tenor parts, which might eafily be correéted by
affigning the two firft founds to the more important word
“ears,” and allowing only a crotchet to the following’ pre-
pofition. And in this manner the words of many of our
old and venerablé compofitions for the church might be ad-
jufted, in order to obviate the obje@tions that are jultly made
to the want of attention in their authors to accent and fyl-
labic quantity : and this feems to be infinitely more defirable
than the fuperfeding of thefe admirable {pecimens of choral
harmony, in favour of more infipid modern productions,
which can boaft of no other perfeGtion than that, which,
according to Pope, is in the power of every dull gram-
marian and critic, who ‘* Commas and points can fet exactly
right.”” But this alone will not conttitute good mutic,
without genius, invention, melody, harmony, modulation,
and variety of mealfures and effects. We fhall only mention
one point more in this venerable fervice,- where the greateft
mufical art is united with the happicit verbal expreffion, at
«« Suffer us not at our laft hour,’? and where the fupplica-
tion is made in each part with great reverence and folicitude.
Indeed we fee but one paflage which we could wifh other-
wife than the author has left it: and that is at “ I heard a
voice from heaven,’ where the word “ from,’’ being in the
fame harmony as the fubftantive “heaven,” is infipid and
unmeaning. The natural combination for that leading and
unaccented part of the bar, feems to be C, with a 6th,
We cannot conclude, without requelting fuch of our readers
as underftand and feel good compofiuon, to attend to the

MOR .

folemn. unufual, and pleafing effect produced in many places
of this fervice by mere common chords: particularly at thefe
words, ‘“* He fleeth as it were a fhadow;” and by the flat
6th given to G, when the ear is habituated to expeét a sth:
as at thefe words, “ Blefled are the dead which die in the

_ Lord.”

Morey, Grorce, a learned prelate of the church of
England, was born at London in the year 1597. His
parents died while he was very young, and left him almoft
deftitute. He met, however, with friends, by whofe intereft
he was elected one of the king’s fcholars in Weftminfter
{chool, at the age of fourteen, and in 1615 he was admitted.
a ftudent of Chrilt-church college, in the univerfity of
Oxford. He took bis degree of B.A. and M.A. in 1618
and 1621. In 1628, he accepted an invitation to become,
domeftic chaplain to Robert, earl of Carnarvon, in which
fituation he continued till the year 1640. Afterwards he
was made chaplain to Charles I., who prefented him with.
the canonry of Chriit-church, in 1641. In the following
year he took his degree of D. D.: he was a zealous ad-.
herent to the canfe of the king, and gave one year’s income.
towards the expences of the civil war. He poffeffed great
influence among the leaders of both parties, and fo highly
was his integrity eftimated, that he was told he fhould remain
unmolefted in the emoluments ef his preferment, and not be
required to fub{cribe any thing againit his confcience, pro-
vided he would affure the rsling powers that he would not.
aGtually oppofe them. He chofe rather to participate in
the fortunes of his fuffering brethren, and was thrown into
prifon. Upon his liberation, finding himfelf deprived, of all
his poffeffions, and, what was dearer to him, of liberty of
confcience, he refolved to retire to the afylum of kin
Charles II. in Holland. He accordingly quitted Frat
in 1649, repaired to the Hague, and was gracioufly received
by his prince, whe kept him conftantly about his perfon.
While Dr. Morley continued abroad, he formed an ac-
quaintance and intimacy with feveral foreigners, who held
diftinguifhed {tations in the ranks of literature, particularly
with the fameus Bochart, Salmafius, Daniel Heinfius, and
others. When meafnres were fecretly preparing for the
reftoration of Charles II., chancellor Hyde fent Dr. Morley
over about two months before it took place, with letters from
the king, and himfelf, to the leading men in the nation, and as
a proper perfon to affift in paving the way for that event.
The chief purpofe of his miffion was to contradi€t the
opinion, that the exiled prince had become a convert to
popery.. Upon the reftoration of Charles, Dr. Morley
was initantly reftored to his canonry, and in a few weeks
after he was promoted to the deanery of Chrift-church,,
which was followed by his nomination to the bifhopric of
Worcetter. He was confecrated in O&ober 1660, and in
the following year he was one of the principal managers at,
the famous Savoy conference. In 1662, he was tranflated
to the fee ef Winchetler, in which he remained till his death,
in 1684, when he was in the eighty-feventh year of his age.’
« He was,”’ fays bifhop Burnet, ‘* in many refpetts a very
eminent man, pious and charitable, of a very exemplary
life, confiderably learned, but extremely paffionate and ob-
flinate.”’ He had been a liberal benefa&tor to the univer«
fity of Oxford, in whieh he received his education ; for he
gave a hundred a-year to Chrift-church college, and he
founded in Pembroke college three fcholarfhips for the ifle
of Jerfey, and two for Guernfey, of ten pounds per annum
each, Biog.

MORLING, or Mort ine, in our Old Writers, the
wool which is taken from the fkin of dead fheep, whether
killed, or dying of the rot. See SHorvine.

MOR-

awe

MOR
MORLUNDA, in Gercraphy, a town of Sweden, in

the province of Smaland; 41 miles N. of Calmar.

MORMANDO, a town of Naples, in Calabria Citra ;
16 miles N.W. of Caffano.

MORMANT, a town of France, in the department of
the Seine and Marne, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrict of Milan;.a0 miles N.E. of Milan. The place
contains 995, ard the cauton 10,056 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 227+ kiliometres, in 29 communes.

MORMON, in Zoology. See Stmsa Mormon. i

~MORMORA, Lz, mn Geography, atown of France, in
the department of the Stura, on the Maira; 14 miles S.W.
of Saluzzo.
_ MORMYRUS, in Ichthyology, a genus of fifhes of
the order Branchioftegous, according to the Linnzan fy{tem,
having gills without bony rays: but Dr. Shaw and fome
other naturalifts have put it in the order Abdominales.
The generic chara&ter is, head fmooth; teeth numerous,
notched ; aperture of the gills linear, without a cover 3
gill-membrane with one ray; body fealy. ‘lhree fpecies
are defcribed by Gmelin, which are as follow :

Species.

-Cyprinorves. Tail bifid, appendaged ; its habits re-
femble, in fome meafure, thofe of the genus Cyprinus,
whence it derives its name. It has an obtufe fnout; the
upper jaw is longer than the lower, and it has twenty-feven
rays in the dorfal fin. It is a native of the river Nile.

Ancuittoipes. This fpecies has a fharp fnout, equal
jaws, twenty-fix rays in the dorfal fin, and a bifid acute
tail. The dorfal finis placed oppofite to the anal, and is
fomewhat fhorter than that fin. This alfo is an inhabitant
of the Nile. ,

Kannume. ‘Tail bifid, obtufe; dorfal fin with fixty-
three rays. It has a whitifh and very much comprefled
body, aud is found inthe Nile. The aperture of the gills
is perpendicular; the fnout is conic, deflected ; the lower
lip is the longer ; belly fraight, but rifing from the vent ;
lateral fine ftraight, in the middle of the body ; tail and
dorfal fin linear. .

This genus has of late years been examined with much
attention by M. Geoffroy, who has increafed the fpecies
from three to nine. He obferves, that the body is com-
prefled, and that the ftru€ture of the tail is unufual, being
of a confiderable length, and of a fub-cylindric and inflated
appearance, on account of its containing the glands from
which the oily matter along the lateral line is fecreted : he
alfo obferves that the ftomach is dtrongly mufcular ; that
the ovarium is fingle, and that the {wimming-bladder is
almoft the length of the abdomen, The new fpecies are the
following : .

Oxyruyncnus. This fpecies has a ftraight {nout ; the
lower jaw is longer than the upper ; and the dorfal fin runs
the whole length of the back. Found in the Nile.

Saxania. In this the lower jaw is longer than the
upper, and the dorfal fin is fhorter than the anal, but op-
polite to it. It was obferved by Geoffroy in the defert
near Salaya, in Africa, where it had been thrown by an
inundation, and left in a dry fate.

Best. This has an obtufe fnout, and the dorfal fin is
fix times fhorter than the anal, but is placed direGtly op-
polite to it, as in the Salahia. It is a native of the Nile,
and obferved in plenty near the region of Bebe.

Herst. A native of the Nile, having an obtufe fnout ;
the upper jaw longer than the lower, and dorfal fin running
the whole length of the back.

Bank. This likewile has an obtufe fhout; the upper

Vor. XXIV.

MOR

jaw is much longer than the lower, and the dorfal fin is of
equal length with the anal.

HaAssexquisri.. This fpecies has twenty rays in’ the
dorfal fin, twelve in the anal, anda forked tail. It derives
ite ieee name from the naturalift who firft obferved it in
the Nile,

Mormyrus, a fpecies of fparus. See Sparus Mor-
myrils.

MORNANT,, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Rhdéne, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri. of Lyons; 10 miles S.S.W. of Lyons. The
place contains '2500, and the canton 9779 inhabitants, on a
territory of 120 kiliometres, in 12 communes. *

MORNAY, Pump pe, lord of Plefiis de Marly, in Bio-
graphy, an illuftrious French Proteitant, who flourithed in the
fixteenth and feventeenth centuries, was born at Buhy, or
Bifhuy, in the French Vexin, in the year 1549. His fa-
ther, James, was a defcendant of an ancient and noble family,
and as he was zealoufly attached to the Romifh religion, he
intended to educate his fon Philip, the fubjeét of this article,
to the ecclefiaftical profeffion. He was the rather induced
tothis ftep from the circumftance of his having a brother
already high in the church, who promifed to refign hereafter
his benefices in favour of his nephew. Thefe profpects
were difappointed by the death of the dignitary, while Philp
was only in the eighth year of his age. Inthe mean time
his mother had become a convert to the Proteftant religion,
and had taken care to inttil its principles into the mind of
her fon. His father died in 1560, after which his widow
made an open and undifguifed profeffion of her religious
principles, and had the Proteftant worthip conduGted at her
manfion of Buhy. Philip ftudied at feveral of the univer-
fities at Paris and elfewhere, and made a rapid progrefs in
the feveral departments of literature to which he bent his
mind. Before he had completed his eighteenth year his
uncle, the archbifhop of Rheims, came to Paris, and hav~
ing examined the young man, as to the proficiency he had
made in his ftudies, was furprifed at the depth and extent
of his erudition. He was aware alfo of his dereliGtion from
the religion in which he had been brought up, and endea-
voured by every means in his power to reclaim him, pro-
mifing to refign his bifhopric in his favour at fome future
period, and to find him promotion in the church immedi-
ately. Thefe offers he declined, and in 1567, upon the
commencement of the troubles in France, M. du Pleffis
found himfelf under the neceffity of quitting the metro-
polis, and returning to Buhy. He refoived to take up arms,
and to ferve under his maternal uncle, but in proceeding to
the army his horfe fell under him, and both bones of his
leg were broken. During along confinement, the refult of
this accident, he compofed a poem on the civil war, and
fome fonnets in praife of Coligni. On the peace figned ia
1568, he began a tour in foreign countries, as well for the
improvement of his mind, as with the view of the more per-
fect recovery of his crippled limb. He went to Geneva,
which he was obliged to quit in a very fhort time, owing to
the plague breaking out in the city. From Geneva he
pafled to Heidelberg, where he began the ftudy of ‘the civil
law, and the German language. In the courfe of fix months
he made himfelf fo far acquainted with the language, as to
be able to read all kinds of books init. Having quitted
Heidelberg he travelled to the principal cities in Italy, and
we find him proceeding to Frankfort, Padua, and Venice.
At the lait named city he became acquainted with Perrot
de Mezieres, who excited in him a defire of tra velling into
the Eaft; but owing to the war which then exifled between
the Turks and Venetians for the ifland of Cyprus, he was

obliged

MORNAY.

obliged to relinquifh the defign. In 1571, he went to
Rome, where he was expofed to fome danger on account
of his religion. In the following year we find him in Eng-
land, where he met with a mott gracious reception from
queen Elizabeth, whofe courtiers feemed to vie with each
other in the attention which they fhewed him. On his re-
turn to France he paid a vifit to Coligni, and while ftaying
with him, he drew up a memorial of the obfervations that
he had made in Flanders ; and a piece intended to demon-
ftrate the juftice and advantages of declaring war again{t
Spain ; both of which were prefented to the king by the
admiral, who urged his majefty to improve the opportunity
that offered itfelf by fending M. du Pleffis to the prince of
Orange, for the purpofe of concerting a combination of the
efforts of France and the United Provinces, but the king
refufed to attend to the advice thus offered: he had no with
to come to a mifunderftanding with the Spaniards, and he
was meditating, at the very moment, the dettruétion of the
Proteftants of his own country. Du Pleffis forefaw the
mifchief before it arrived, but he could not perfuade Coligni
to diftrult the king’s fincerity. The former, from the ap-
prehenfion which he entertained, took the precaution of re-
moving his mother, while he determined to remain in Paris
to brave the ftorm, and to affift his fuffering brethren. At
length the fatal eve of St. Bartholomew arrived ; and he
was awakened in the dead of the night by the favage
butchers who were executing the orders of a itill more
favage monarch. Coligni fell a facritice among the mul-
titudes whofe lives were taken away on that tremendous night.
But Du Pleffis, when he found that all refiftance would
be in vain, efcaped to England, the happy afylum of the
perfecuted in many periods of her hiltory. Here he met
with a cordial reception from perfons of all ranks, and par-
ticularly from Mr. Secretary Wallingham. When it was
known at Paris that he was fafe in England, the ambaffador
of the ele€tor of Saxony, and other German princes at the
court of Charles IX., wrote to his friends to fupply him
with every thing of which he might itand in need. To
confole himfelf under the miferies cf his affli@ed country-
men, he betook himfelf to his ftudies; and to drive away,
if pofible, the wretched thoughts refpecting his friends, lefs
fortunate than himfelf, he wrote Remonttrances,’’ in
which he exhorted the queen of England to undertake the
protection of the fuffering church. In 1574, he returned
to France, and upon his arrival he attended a council of
feveral of the Proteftant chiefs, in which it was propofed
that the parcy fhould immediately take arms to provide for
the fecurity of their own rights by promoting the views of
the duke of Alencou. This proje&, though oppofed by
Du Pleflis, was carried by a majority, and he, forefeeing the
ill confequences, retired to Sedan.

While at this place he married, and wrote, at the requett:
of his lady, ‘“‘ A Treatife on Life and Death,’? which was
afterwards publifhed at Geneva, and tranflated into feveral
different languages. Previoufly to his marriage he had en-
gaged in an unfuccefsful conteft with part of the king’s
troops ; was wounded and taken prifoner ; but after the con-
finement of a tew days, and by afluming a falfe name, he
was allowed to ranfom himlelf on eafy terms. In 1576, he
again took arms, and now his adherents were fo powerful,
that the king’s party deemed it expedient to propofe a nego-
ciation, which was accepted. After this Du Pleffis entered
into the fervice of the king of Navarre, afterwards Hen-
ry LV. of France, and was admitted into his mott intimate
councils, and by this ftep he was enabled to render effential
fervice to the Proteflant caufe. “In 1577. he was fent by
his matter on an embaffy to the queen of England, to ex-

5

plain to her the juftice of their caufe, and folicit pecuniary
affiftance, which he obtained to the amount of eighty thou-
fand crowns. During his continuance in England he was
enabled to perform very acceptable fervices, as well for the
United Provinces as for the Low Countries. He devoted
his leifure moments to the diligent perufal of the Greek and
Latin fathers, and compofed his treatife “* Concerning the
Church,”? which was publifhed in 1577. In the following
year the prince of Orange was called by the States-generak
to Antwerp, and Du Pleflis having taken leave of Elizabeth,
went to that city to affiil at the deliberations. Here his
pen was employed in endeavours to check the intemperate
zeal of fome reformers, who difgraced their caufe, and ex-
cited prejudices againft it, which occafioned a rupture be-
tween the provinces by their outrages againit the ecclefi-
aftics, the churches, and other religious houfes. The ta-
lents and zeal of M. du Pleffis were held in fuch dread by
his opponents, that a bafe attempt was made to take him
off by poifon, but the ftrength of his centtitution was
fuperior to its effets. Scarcely had he recovered from this
attack, when he was called again into the a¢tive fervice of
the king of Navarre. But in the midit of his political ex-
ertions he compofed, and in 1580 publithed at Antwerp,
a work entitled ‘* On the Truth of the Chriftian Religion,’”
in which he fhewed himfelf a very able combatant of atheittic
and other erroneous principles; and in the following year,
to render his labours more generally ufeful, he tranflated it
into the Latin language. In 31552, he left Antwerp for
Paris, and from this time till 1593, when the king ( Hen-
ry IV.) renounced the Proteftant religion, Du Pleffis was
confulted by him on a variety of occations, and called upon
to write his ediéts, manifeltos, and other ftate papers. In
1582, his fovereign was defirous of nominating him his
chancellor, but this he declined: in a few years afterwards
he was appointed governor of Saumur, and upon the ac-
ceffion of Henry IV. he was made counfellor of flate. In
1593. when the king intimated his intentions of conform-
ing to the Catholic church, Du Pleffis did all in his power
to difluade him from that meafure; and when he found it
impoffible to fave him from the difgrace which he believed
mui{t attach to his name by fuch a dereliction of principle,
he withdrew from the court, and occupied himfelf in his
ftudies, in the duties attaching to his government, and in
exertions for the Proteftant caufe. He took an active part
in all the negociations between the king and his fubjects of
the reformed communion, till the celebrated ediét of Nantes
was obtained in 1598. He alfo diltinguifhed himfelf by his
writings in defence of religion. In 1598, he publifhed his
book on the * Eucharift,’? which occalioned a conference
between him and Du Perron; the refult of this was, that
Du Pleffis obtained the appellation of the Proteftant pope.
In 1607, he publifhed his treatife, entitled « The Myftery
of Iniquity, or the Hiftory of Papacy.’? About the fame
time he publifhed « An Exhortation to the Jews concerning
the Meffiah,”’ in which his knowledge of the Hebrew literature
is advantageoufly difplayed. He was author of other works,
and from his papers have been publifhed, ** Memoirs, &c. .
confilting of Difcourfes, Inftructions, Letters, Difpatches,
&c.’’ in four volumes, quarto. In 1621, he remonitrated
freely with Lewis XIII. again{t his determination to make
war upon the Proteltants, but his zeal on this occafion was
the means of depriving him of his government of Saumur,
upon which he retired to Poitou, where he died in 1623, at
the age of feventy-four, fincerely regretted by the Pro-
tettants, whofe champion he had been, and efteemed by the
Catholics on account of his talents and integrity, and for
the private virtues which adorned his character, Moreri.
Mornay,

MOR

Mornay, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Ain, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri@& of Nantua. The place contains 405, and the canton
6590 inhabitants, on a territory of 1474 kiliometres, in 15
communes.

MORNE av Draster, a cape on the W. coaft of Hif-
paniola, N. lat. 19° 12'. W. long. 72° 47'. ;

Morne Pagoua, a cape on the E. coalt of Dominica.
N. lat. 15° 39'.. W. long. 61° 19!.

Morne /e Gros, a town of the ifland of Hifpanio!a, on
the N. coaft; 25 miles S.E. of Porte Paix.

Morne Rouge, a town of the N. coaft of Hifpamola ;
7 miles S.S.W. of Cape Francois.

MORNING, the beginning of the day ; or the time of
the fun-rifing.

The aftronomers reckon morning, mane, from the time of
midnight, to that of mid-day, Thus an eclipfe is faid to
begin at eleven o'clock in the morning, &c.

MorninG-Star is the planet Venus, when a little to the
weltward of the fun; that is, when the rifes a little before
him. In this fituation fhe is called, by the Greeks, Phofpho-
rus ; by the Latins, Lucifer, &c.

MorninG-Star, or Morgan-Stern, in Ancient Artillery, a
weapon formerly ufed in the defence of trenches. It was
a large ftaff banded about with iron like the fhaft of a
halbert, having an iron belt at the end with crofs iron
fpikes.

Morninc-Twilight. See CrepuscuLum.

MORNSHEIM, in Geography, a town of Bavaria, in
the principality of Aichftatt; 6 miles W. of Aichftatt.

MORO, a river of Hindooltan, which runs into the
Chumbu!, about ten miles N.E. of Suifopour, in the circar
of Rantampour.—Alfo, a mountain of Piedmont ; 14 miles
W. of Domo d’Ofcella. ;

Monro Cajile, a fortrefs on the Headland, on the E. fide
of the channel of the Havannah, in the N.W. part of the
ifand of Cuba; it is the firft of two ftrong caltles for the
defence of the channel. This fort is a kind of triangle, for-
tified with baftions, on which are mounted about 60 pieces
of cannon, of 24-pounders. From the caltle runs a wall
or line mounted with 12 long brafs cannon, of 36-pounders,
called, by way of eminence, “ the Twelve Apottles;’" and
at the point between the caltle and the fea is a tower, where
a perfon is {tationed for giving fignals of approaching veflels.
See HavANNAH.

MOROCARPUS, in Botany, fo called by Ruppius,
from the refemblance of its fruit to a mulberry. See
Biirum.

MOROCCO, or Marocco, Empire of, comprehends the
two kingdoms of Morocco and Fez, which were formerly
part of the ancient Mauritania, (which fee,) and are fituated
on the moft weftern borders of Barbary, hence fometimes
called Weff Barbary ; itis bounded on the N. by the ftraits
of Gibraltar and the Mediterranean; on the E. by the
kingdom of Tlemfen or Tremecen, and the defart of An-
gad, from which it is Separated by the river Mulluvia and
its fouthern branches, and alfo Wled d’Elgerid, Bled-el-
Jerrede, or Biledulgerid; on the S. by the Defart, or Sa-
hara, and on the W. by the Atlantic ocean. It extends
from the 28th to the 36th degree of N. Jat. and from about
2° to 11° 30! of W. long.; its greateft length from the
N.E. tothe S.W. being about 590 miles, and its yreatelt
breadth about 260, and about half as much where it is nar-
rowelt. The territories of Morocco are formed by the
union of feveral {mall kingdoms, anciently limited to a fingle
province, and perpetually at variance among themfelves,
till at length they were fubdued and united under one

MOR

fovereign by the fharifs. The fouthern part of the empire
contains the kingdoms of Suz or Sus, ‘larudant, Morocco,
Tafilet, and Sugulmeffa; and the northern, thofe of Fez,
Meqvinez, and Tremecen; the latter, which was formerly
fubjeét to Morocco, having been conquered by the Turks of
Algiers, is now a part of the territories of that regency.
See each refpectively.

The kingdom of Morocco comprehends at prefent the
provinces of Morocco, Efcura, Ramna, Duquella, Abda,
Shernia, Hea, Sus, Dra, and Gefula; that of Fez con-
tains thofe of Temfena, Shavoya, Tedla, Beni-Haffen, Fez,
Rif, Garet, Shaus, and Algaub or El-Garb. Thefe pro-
vinces have been called by other names, fo that the geo-
graphy of the country has been confufed; and befides,
the limits of thefe provinces have frequently varied, ac-
cording to the different tribes that have occupied them,
and this variation of extent has occafioned a variation of
name. LBefides the provinces which compofe the empire of
Morocco, the fharifs claim fovereignty of the Vled de Nun
and the defart or Sahara, but their authority over thefe is
very precarious, being dependent on the will of their fub-
jects and temporary circumftances. The people who in-
habit thefe defarts, far removed from the centre of defpotic
authority, live in tribes or {mall republics, and choofe their
own chiefs. They neverthelefs retain for the emperor of
Morocco that refpeé and veneration which his power, and
the idea they have of his fupremacy, as head of the church,
infpire ; but they pay or refufe tribute according to their
own pleafure. This part of the eoaft has heen called Vied
de Nun, from Cape Non, difcovered by the Portuguefe in
the beginning of the 15th century, and to which they gave
this name, becaufe thofe who firlt doubled it never re-
turned. j

The whole empire of Morocco is furrounded to the E.,
N., and*S., by a chain of vallies and mountaizs, which are
diftinguifhed according to the numbers and names of the
tribes by which they are inhabited. From Laracha to near
Safi, the weftern part of it forms a fort of plain, which,
in many places, is fifteen or twenty leagues in breadth,*
from eaft to weft. The maritime provinces of this empire
are Garet, Rif, Garb, Beni-Haflen, Temfena, Duquella,
Abda, a part of the former, Hea, Sherma, and Sus. The
northern provinces, E. of that of Sus and N. of Vled de Nun,
are thofe of Dra and Gefula, near mount Atlas, the pro-
vince of Morocco, of confiderable extent, bounded to the
N. by the province of Efeura or Afcora, and by mount
Atlas to the E., Efcuraand Ramna, Tedla, along the eatt-
ern fide of mount Atlas, and having to the W. the province
of Shavoya, and the province of Fez, with its numerous
dependencies. (See each of thefe refpeCtively.) The eaft-
ern boundary of all the weitern provinces of Morocco is
mount Atlas. To the eaft of this mountain is the kingdom
of Tafilet, which fee.

The towns in this empire are neither large, numerqus,
nor populous. The defpots, jealous of their authority, and
fearful of being deprived of the power they abufe, confider
cities and ftrong places as more favourable to rebellions
and the liberty of the fubjeé&t, than camps ; and therefore
their towns are weakly fortified, and in a fmall degree ca-
pable of defence on the land fide. The empire of Morocco
is feparated on the N. from the kingdom of Algiers,
(which fee,) by the river Mulluvia, which falls into the
Mediterranean. The emperor poflefles no place on this
northern coaft known by the name of Rif; thofe which he
once had having been taken by the Spaniards, who fii!
poffefs them, fuch are Alhufema, Melilla, and Veles ce
Pegnon or Gomera, Other cities and towns are Teruas,

“2 Ceuta,

MOROCCO.

Ceuta, Tangiers, Arzilla, five leagues from Tangiers, La-
racha, Mamora, Sallee, Rabat, Shella, Fedala, Anafa or
Dar-Beyda, Azamore, Mazagan, Waledia, Safi, Mogodor,
and Santa Cruz, beyond which there is no frequented port.
The country of Tarudant, S. of this place, and a part of the
province of Sus, are the fouthern boundary of the empire of
Morocco. The principal mland cities and towns are Taru-
dant, Morocco, Mequinez, Fez, and Alcaffar-Quiber.

The chief rivers in the empire of Morocco are the Mullu-

via, Molucha or Mullooyah, the Taga, Talmuda or Ta-
muda, which, as well as the former, fprings from mount
Atlas, and difcharges itfelf into the Mediterranean, the El
Kofe, or Luccos, deriving its name from its arched windings,
El Kofe fignifying, in Arabic, an arch, the Baht, rifing
in the Atlas, and partly lofing itfelf in the fwamps and lakes
of the province. of El Garb, and partly failing into the
river Seboo, Seboo or Cebu,’ Bu-Regreg, rifing in the
Atlas, and after traverfing the plains of Beni-Haffen, dif-
charging itfelf into the ocean between the towns of Sallee and
Rabat, the Morbeya, Ommirabih or Ammirabea, which
rifes inthe Atlas, and after feparating the province of Fez
from that of Tedla, and dividing the part of the empire W,
of Atlas into two parts, enters the ocean at the port of
“Azamore, the Tenfift, a deep large river, which rifes in
the Atlas and difcharges itfelf into the ocean about 16 miles
S. of Saffi, Tidfi, which runs into the ocean a few miles S.
of Tegrewelt, or Cape Offem, the majeftic river Sus or Sufe,
which runs into'the ocean, Draha, rifling in the Atlas and
difappearing in the abforbing fands of Sahara, the Mefla,
called Wed-Mefla, which flows from the Atlas, drained off
by the farmers during its paffage for irrigating their land,
&c., at low water feparated from the ocean by a bar of
fand; and finaliy the Akaffa, navigable to Nun or Noon,
ealled Wed-Noon, or Wed-Akafla. Many other ftreams
fall into thefe principal rivers. The mountains of Morocco
are thofe of the greater Atlas, furrounding the empire on the
S. in form of a crefcent, and feparating Barbary from Bile-
dulgerid. ‘This then pafles about 30 miles E. of the city of
Merocco, is immenfely high, the moft elevated part being
eftimated at 11,980 Englith feet, and through the year co-
vered with fnow. It is vifible at fea feveral leagues off the
coaft. The mountains that form this chain are in many
places very fertile, and produce excellent fruits. In the
branches E. of Morocco are mines of copper, and thofe
which pafs through the province of Sus yield befides
copper, iron, lead, filver, fulphur, and faltpetre: here are
alfo mines of gold mixed with antimony and lead-ore.

Some of thefe mountains confift of lime-ftone, or clay, or
of a mixture of both: the granite on which thefe maffes
yeft muft be at a confiderable depth, fince no vettiges of it
are any where vifible, not even among the fragments and
loofe ftones with which the fields abound. The calcareous
mountains are generally ftocked with fhells of various kinds,
and other marine produétions, fo that no doubt can be
entertained with regard to their origin. ‘The argillaceous
mountains exhibit either horizontal or vertical ftrata, and are
not feldom diffeéted by veins of foliated calcareous fpar.
The confiderable thicknefs of the ftratum of mould by which
all thefe mountains are covered, is a fufficient proof of the
wery remote antiquity of the vegetation they exhibit.

The foil confitts either of pure fand, often palling into
quick-fand, or of pure clay, fometimes fo abundantly mixed
with iron ochre, that the produétions of the earth are con-
fiderably influenced by it. A great part of the province
Abda, near Saffi, is on this account called ded hamar
(the red land); all its natural produétions, fuch as wax,

gum, wool, &c. being diftinguifhed by a reddifh tint pe-

culiar to them. ‘The wool is fo much affected by it, tha¢’
neither wafhing nor bleaching can produce a change ; whence
the natives of the province of Abda are known from other
Moors by their Aaicks, which are conttantly of a reddifl»
colour.

The inhabitants of the upper region of Atlas. live four
months in the year in excavations of the mountains, viz.
from November to February inclufive. The little Atlas
extends along the Barbary coaft from the {traits of Gibraltar
to the diftriét ef Bona in the kingdom of Algiers. See
ATEAS.

The climate of Morocco is temperate and falabrious, and”
not fo hot as its fituation would lead us to fuppofe. It is
defended by the Atlas from the ealt winds, that would fcorch
the earth; watered by the ftreams defcending from this lofty
amd extenfive chain, which not only diffufe verdure over the
face of the country, but temper the fummer heats ; and re-
frefhed from the welt by the regular breezes that are wafted
from the fea. In this climate the rains are regular in winter,.
though the atmofphere is not loaded with clouds. In Ja-
nuary the country is covered with verdure, and enamelled
with flowers. Barley is cut in March, and the wheat harvelt
isin June. Aili fruits are early in this climate ; the vintage
terminates in the beginning of September; and grapes are
occalionally ripe atthe end of May. ‘The winters are not -
fevere, fo that ice is unknown, except on the fummits of
the mountains, and fnow and hoary froft are uncommon
phenomena, and fire is feldom neceflary. The thermometer
feldom finks to more than 5° above the freezing point. The
foil is exceedingly fertile, and cultivation requires little la
bour. Notwith{tanding the falubrity of the climate and the:
produdtivenefs of the foil, the fwarms-of loeuits that infelt
this country commit the moft dreadful ravages.

The wealth of Morocco very much confifts in the fer-
tility of its foil; its corn, fruits, flocks, flax, falt, gumss,
and wax, would not only fupply the wants of the imha-
bitants, but yield an immenfe furplus for trade and barter
with other nations, if its government were ftable and fecure,.
and if fubje&ts were allowed to enjoy the fruits of their
labour and their property in fafety. The increafe of corn
in Morocco is often as fixty to one, and the propertion of
thirty is held to be an indifferent harveft. The exportation:
of corn, however, is forbidden by an intolerant religion and
reftriGting laws, which do not permit the fuper-abundance
to be fold to infidels. The property of land is alfo prec-
carious. Every thing in this defpotic empire is fubje@ to
the caprice of the fovereign, and the laws of the moment.

Hence it is that in this country the prefent {yitem of
hufbandry is exa€tly fimilar to what it was feveral hundred
years ago ; the whole of its agriculture, in particular, being
confined to the cultivation of the moft indifpenfable grains,.
fuch as wheat, barley, Turkey-millet, or aldora (Holcus
forghum), mays, and chich-peas (Cicer. arietinum). Mott
of thefe are fown in the'months of November and Decem-
ber, and reaped in May or June. Their implements of
agriculture are in exact correfpondence with their ignorance
of every thing relative to the cultivation of the foil: all
that is done before fowing confitts in harrowing up the
earth witha moft wretchedly conitruéted plough; but with
all this mif{management the crop will exceed twenty, nay
even thirty times the quantity of feed committed to the
earth. In general they make ufe of no manure, except
that which is left on the fields by their flocks and herds.
But thofe people who inhabit places near forefts and woods,
avail themfelves of another method to render the foil pro-
dutive. A month or two before the rains commence, the
farmer {ets fire to the underwood, and by this conflagration

® : clears

MOROCCO.

Clears as much land as he intends to cultivate. The foil
iminediately after this treatment, if carefully ploughed, ac-
quires confiderable fertility, but is liable foon’ to become
barren, unlefs annually aflited by proper manure. This
fyitem of burning down the woods for the fake of Sane
arable land, though not generally permitted in itates dif-
ferently regulated from this, is allowable in a country, the
population of which bears fo {mall a proportion to the fer-
tility of the foil, and in which the moft beautiful fields are
fuffered to remain unproduétive for want of hands to cul-
tivate them. In this manner the nomadic Arab proceeds
in his conflagrations till the whole neighbourhood around
him is exhaulted ; he then packs up his tents and travels in
fearch of another fertile place, where to fix his abode, till
hunger again obliges him to continue his migration. Thus
it is computed, that at one and the fame time, no more than
a third part of the whole country is in a {tate of cultivation.
Extenfive forelts are not to be met with in Morocco ;, the
woods confift chiefly of middle-fized trees, fuch as oaks, and
oftener merely of fhrubs, particularly of fome {pecies of
thamnus, rock rofes (Ciltus), phillyrea, a few {pecies of
arbutus, broom (Spartium), furze (Genifta), piftachios
(Piftazia), heaths (Erica), &c. The banks of the rivers
are decorated with rofebay (Nerium oleander), the rough
fmilax (Smilax afpera), and the bramble { Rubus fruticofus).
In the fields, near old walls, are found among other plants,
the prickly caperbufh (Capparis {pinofa), and dwarf palm
(Chamzrops humilis). The more confiderable woods, or
foreits, in the northern parts of the country, confilt of cork-
trees (Quercus fuber), ever-green oaks (Quercusilex ), and
onthe mountains of the interior a fpecies of fpruce fir is
found, the wood of which has the pleafant fcent of cedar,
and is ufed for the purpofe of building, &c. The woods of
the fouthern paris are compofed of the Argan oil-tree
(Elzodendron argan), Egyptian mimofa ( Mimofa nilotica),
a new fpecies of arbor vite (Thuiaarticulata, Vahl.), purple
juniper (Juniperus pheenicea). In the neighbourhood of
Tafilet, Sus, and in the fouthermoft provinces, the date trees
(Phoenix daétyfera), form continued forefts, and produce
plenty of fruit; but in the northern parts they are culti-
vated only as curiofities, and are almoft conftantly barren.
The inclofures of the gardens are quick hedges, made of In-
dian figs (Caétus opuntia), and the great aloe (Agave ameri-
cana); which two vegetables are particularly well calculated
for this purpofe in a country where they are not affected by
the winter feafon, and where the faving of the foil is no ob-
je to the agyiculturift. The produce of the gardens con-
fifts chiefly in grapes, oranges, lemons, figs, almonds, pom-
granates, walnuts, chefnuts, peaches, apricots, mulberries,
and the caroba tree or St. John’s bread (Ceratonia filiqua),
being of rare occurrence. Of the fmaller plants the moft
elteemed are water and other melons, calabafhes, cucum-
bers, love apples (Solanum lycoperficam), beans, lentils,
red and white leeks, radifhes, artichokes, &c. Alhenna
(Lawfonia inermis) is particularly cultivated in the fouthern
provinces on account of its leaves being made ufe of for dye-
ing’and for other purpofes. Tobacco is cultivated chiefly at
Mequinez and Fez, from whence the leaves are exported to
other places of the kingdom, where they are manufaCtured
as well into tobacco for fmoaking as into fnuff. Hemp is
cultivated in the gardens ; the herb 1s dried, cut into fmall
pieces, and ufed as tobacco, or externally asa powder, called
Hajfbifha. Its operation on the body is that of opium, fpi-
rituous liquors, or other intoxicating fubftances; and, in-
deed, it is mace ufe of by the Moors as a fubftitute for wine,
which their religion forbids themto drink. Apples, pears,
and cherries are here and there met with, but they are moftly

very indifferent, and therefore not held in eeem. The
Moors, who are naturally indolent, negleé&t the culture of
their fruits. ‘The almoft fpontaneous fruits of the country
are oranges, lemons, grapes, and figs. Water-melons are
reared every where, and apricots, apples, and pears are
occafionally found, as we have already mentioned. The
olive is cultivated along the coaft, particularly to the fouth.
Gum, almonds, dates, chefnuts, wax, and falt, are the pro-
duétion of various provinces in this empire.

As to the ancient commerce of this country, we can
find no certain or fatisfa€tory report. It is probable, how-
ever, that the Carthaginians, who were ‘an enlightened and
induftrious people, and who governed parts of Africa and
eltablifhed fettlements on its coaft, mu{t have conttituted
caravans to exchange their produéts for the gold and other
produétions of interior Africa. The progrefs which navi-
gation made, in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, muft
have confiderably affe€ted the commerce of Africa, and have
infenfibly attracted it from the centre towards the fea-coaft,
on the weft, which approaches the equator, and where the
French, Portuguefe, Dutch, and Englifh, each emulative
of the other, have fucceflively formed eftablifhments. The
great rivers of Africa, which empty themfelves in thofe
feas, united its utmoft boundaries, and the ports of Europe,
then received gold-dult, ivory, ambergris, Guinea pepper,
and other produtions, of inland Africa; the exclufive
enjoyment of which had, till that time, been confined to the
bordering nations, and even to them became objects of
luxury, After the deftruG@ion of Carthage and Rome, the
Moors, having had no intercourfe of a commercial nature
with Europe till towards the fourteenth century, muft have
confined their trade to the more central nations of Africa,
with which they refpectively interchanged their products.
There they probably vended their merchandize of woollen-
ftuffs, fheep-fkins, cloth, corn, falt, and dried fruits. In
exchange for thefe they obtained gold-duft, ivory, Guinea
pepper, and flaves. Such was, probably, the firft fource
of the wealth of the empire of Morocco.’ The Moors on
the confines of Africa might till poffefs nearly the fame
refources, if they had the fame facility of communication.
Thofe of Morocco, whofe fituation is more central, have,
perhaps, profited the leaft by them during the three laft
centuries, either on account of the frequent revolutions which
their empire has undergone, or becaufe their defpotic go-
vernment has fo entirely fhackled trade and induftry, In
the fequel of this article it will appear what is the prefent
commercial intercourfe between the empire of Morocco and
the nations of Europe.

The inhabitants of the empire of Morocco, known by the
name of Moors, are a mixture of Arabian and African
nations, formed into tribes; with the origin of which our
acquaintance is very imperfe€t. It feems probable that
moit of the “ Cafts,"? whiclt occupy the provinces of Mo-
rocco, have been repulfed from the eaftern to the weftern
Africa during the different revolutions that have agitated
this part of the world ; that they have followed the ftand-
ards of their chiefs whofe names they have preferved ;
and that by thefe they, as well as the countries which
they inhabu, are diftinguifhed. At prefent thefe tribes
are called “ Cafiles,” or “ Caliles,” from the Arabic word
“ Kobella ;” and they are fo numerous that it is impoffible
to have a knowledge of them all. The different tribes
that people this empire may-be diftributed into two princi-
pal claffes, viz. the Brebes or Brebbers, probably the abo-
rigines, and the Moors, moft of whom are the defcendants
of thofe who were driven out of Spain. (See Moriscoes.)
Both thefe tribes. adopted the Mahometan. religion. on. the

firlt

.

MOROCCO.

fir invafion of the Arabs. For an account of the Brebes,
hat article.

cae is another clafs of perfons, denominated Shellahs,
who inhabit the Atlas mountains, and their various branches
fouth of Morocco; they live generally in towns, and, like
the Brebes, are moftly occupied in hufbandry, though dif-
fering from them in their language, drefs, and manners :
they live almott entirely on (Affoua) barley-meal made into
gruel, and barley wathed or granulated, which they mix
with cold water when travelling; this is called « Zimeta.’
Many of thefe people are reported to be defcended from
the Portuguele, who formerly poffefled all the ports on the
coalt, but who, after the difcovery of America, gradually
withdrew thither. Eaft of Morocco, near Dimenet, on the
Atlas mountains, there is {till remaining a church, having
infcriptions in Latin over the entrance, {uppofed to have
been built by them, which, being {uperftitioufly reported
to be haunted, has efcaped deftruction. _ Their language is
called Amazirk.

‘As fer the Moors, the greateft number of them are ex-
tended over the country, and the refit inhabit the cities.
The former live in tents, and every year form frefh encamp-
ments, in order to give reft to the land, and to obtain freth
patturage ; but they are not allowed to remove without
having ficlt informed their governor. Like the ancient
Arabs, they are wholly addiéted to a rural life. Their en-
campments are called “ Douhars,’’ and comrofed of nu-
merous tents, which form a crefcent, and their flocks and
herds returning from pafture occupy the centre. Each
douhar has a chief, who is invefted with authority for fuper-
intending and governing a number of thefe encampments ;
and many of the lefler {ubdivifions are again re-united
under the government of a ** bafhaw ;”’ fome of whom have
yooo douhars under their command. Their tents, of a
conical form, and about 8 or 10 feet high in the centre,
and from 20 to 25 in length, are made of twine, compofed
of goats’ hair. camels’ wool, and the leaves of the wild
palm, fo that they keep out water; but being black, their
appearance at a diltance is not agreeable. In camp the
Moors live in the utmoft fimplicity, and prefent a faithful
picture of the earth’s inhabitants in the firlt ages. In the
milk and wool of their flocks, they find every thing necef-
fary for their food and clothing. It is their cultom to
have feveral wives, who are employed in all domettic affairs.
Beneath their ill-fecured tents they milk their cows and
make butter; they fort and fift their wheat and barley,
gather vegetables, grind flour with a mill compofed of two
round ftones, 18 inches in diameter; in the upper one of
which is fixed a handle by which it is made to turn upon an
axle. They daily make bread, which they bake between
two earthern plates, and very often on the ground heated
by fire. Their common food is ** Coofcoofoo ;’’ which fee.
When the officers of the camps receive ftrangers, they kill
a fheep, which they immediately roalt and ferve up in a
wooden, platter. ‘The women are alfo employed in prepar-
ing their wool, {fpinning, and weaving in looms hung length-
ways in their tents. "Thus they make their haicks"” or
«« hykes,’’ which, without drefling, milling, or dyeing, are
immediately applied to ufe. This is the conttant drefs of
the country Moors, without either fhirts or drawers, linen
being deemed a luxury fit only for the court and city. The
finery of which the country women are molt defirous confilts
of large ear-rings, 10 the fhape of a crefcent, or filver rings,
with bracelets and rings for the {mall of the leg. They
alfo wear necklaces of {mall coloured glafs-beads, or clove-
grains ftrung on a filken thread, They alfo paint the face,
seck, bofom, and almoft their whole body with the forms

of flowers and ornaments; making impreffions with models
in which are the points of needles, that flightly raife the
fkin, under which a blue colour is inferted, or gunpowder
pulverized, which is never effaced. The women of fome
Moorifh tribes bear on the forehead, or on the chin, a crofs,
denoting probably that they are the defcendants of thofe
who were formerly fubjeGed to the Chriflians of Africa,
and who, to avoid paying taxes like the Moors, thus im-
printed croffes upon their fkins, that they might pafs for,
Chriftians. The country Moors regard their wives more
as flaves than as companions, and compel them to fubmit to
every drudgery, except that of tilling the ground. The
fin of the country women is tanned, as they walk unveiled ;
and in fome places they paint their cheeks, and every where °
{tain their hair, their feet, and their finger ends, with an
herb called «* Henna,’’ (fee Atcanna,) which produces
a deep faffron colour. In their douhars, which are fcattered
over the country, and commonly fixed near fome rivulet
or well, there is a tent for the reception of travellers,
where they find poultry, milk, and eggs, and forage for
their horfes. Over the tents of travellers there is a guard,
left any of the Moors, who are naturally thievifh, fhould
attempt to commit arobbery. The douhar is refponfible
for all thefts committed in its vicinity, during the day, or
in fight of its encampment. ‘To facilitate barter there is a
public market held every day, except Friday, in various
quarters of each province. Here the neighbouring Moors
affemble to buy or fell cattle, corn, vegetables, dried fruits,
carpets, haicks, and all the produétions~of their country.
On the outfide of the market they have ufually fhows,
buffoons, fingers, dancers, and merry-andrews. On one
fide is the place of the barbers or furgeons, to whom they
bring their fick to be cured of ftrains, diflocations, or
other accidents. The Moors of the cities differ but little
from thofe who live under tents; but they affect a fupe-
riority, of which they are vain. They are of the fame
general origin; unlefs we fuppofe, that the former are in-
termixed with the defcendants of thofe Moors of Spain,
who, after their expulfion, preferred a city to a rural life.
Their houfes have in general few conveniences : they have
no windows, and they are feldom more than 16 feet high.
They have all terraces on the roof, which are formed of
earth and mortar; their furniture chiefly confifts of mats,
carpets, fome chairs, a cheit, a table, and a bed, which is
concealed by curtains. The inhabitants of cities have only
one wife; but they have female negroes, whom they may
take as concubines. In their drefs they are diftinguifhed
from the country Moors by wearing a fhirt and linen
drawers, and an upper garment of cotton in fummer, and of
cloth in winter, which they call a ‘¢ Caftan.’’ Obliged as
they are to conceal their riches, the Moors wear no jewels ;
very few of them have fo much as a ricg, a watch, or a
filver fnuff-box. The Moorifli women of the cities feldom
leave the houfe, and they are always veiled, They are not,
however, in general very referved; thofe of the fouth are
the handfomeit, and they are fo referved, or fo guarded,
that their relations do not enter their houfes, nor their
tents. Neverthelefs there are tribes, who hold it to be an
act of hofpirality to prefent a woman to a traveller. ‘The
females of the cities are more addiéed to finery than thofe
of the country. ‘The Moors prefent their wives with jewels
of gold, filver or pearl, but very few wear precious {tones.
They have riags both of filver and gold, alfo ear-rings, in
form of crefcents, bracelets of filver and gold, and filver
rings at the lower parts of their legs. Although the ufe
of white paint 1s unknown among the Moorifh women, and
that of red feldom recurred to, it is not POSER, for
them

MOROCCO.

them to dye their eyebrows and eyeiafhes, and to trace on
their feet, the palms of their hands, and the tips of their
fingers, regular figures with henna,

Among the Moors and Jews, who people the empire of
Morocco, there is an intermediate clafs of perfons, called
renegadoes, who have renounced Chriftianity to embrace
Mahometifm. Many of thefe were originally Jews: the
Moors do not hold them in the leaft refpect, and the Jews are
ftill lefs honoured. Thefe apoltates only intermarry among
each other. The Jews are very populous in the empire of
Morecco. Profcribed in Spain and Portugal, they have
fought an afylum in this empire. They poflefs neither
fn nor gardens, nor can they enjoy their fruits in tran-
quillity. They mult wear only black, and are obliged,
when they pafs near mofques, or through {treets in which
there are fauétuaries, to walk barefoot. Notwithftanding
their oppreffion, and the contempt with which they are
treated, they have many advantages over the Moors: better
under{tanding the nature of trade, they act as agents and
brokers, and profit by their own fkill and cunning, and the
ignorance of the Moors. Some are mechanics, fuch as
gold{miths, tailors, gunfmiths, millers, and mafons; they
are alfo employed by the emperor in receiving the cuftoms,
coining the money, and in intercourfe with European mer-
chants, and in all negociations with the various European
governments. The wives of the Jews in Morocco are in
general well-formed, handfome, with good complexions, and
very fine eyes, addicted to drefs, and fomewhat inclined to
gallantry. As the Jews throughout the empire live fepa-
rate from the Moors, they enjoy their religious rites with
confiderable liberty. See Aucrers and Barpary.

The Moors, as we have already faid, are a paitoral people,
and their wealth confilts in their flocks and herds. The
wool of their fheep is partly employed in their own cloth-
ing and carpets, and partly fold to foreign nations. The
wool is of various forts; fome kinds being very coarfe
and others very fine, and particularly that of Tedla. In
the empire of Morocco there are few black fheep. Oxen
of a {mall breed are plentiful; for home confumption the
Moors falt their beef and preferve it from year to year;
their raw hides are fent in prodigious quantities to Mar-
feilles. ‘The camel is an animal of great value and ufe to
the Moors ; as it is ufed for the purpofes of agriculture, as
wellas for travelling ; and its flefh alfo ferves for food. The
horfes of Morocco are in general good, and they are taught
to endure fatigue, heat, cold, hunger, and thirlt. They
are formed for fleetnefs and aétivity, but the breed is de-
creafed, except in Abda, and about Morocco. Mules are
much ufed, and the breed is encouraged. Poultry is abun-
dant in Morocco; pigeons are excellent; partridges are
plentiful; woodcocks are fearce; but {nipes are numerous
in the feafon; the oftrich is hunted both for {port and for
profit, as its feathers are a confiderable article of traffic:
hares are good; but rabbits are confined to the northern
part of the empire from Laracha to ‘Tetuan. Fallow deer,
the roebuck, the antelope, foxes, and other animals of Europe,
are not very abundant {n Morocco ; lions and tigers are not
uncommon in fome parts of the empire: of all the fpecies
of ferocious animals found in this empire, the wild boar is
the moft common: the fow has feveral litters in the year,
and her young, which are numerous, ferve as food for the
lion. The fame varieties of fifh, that are found in the
Mediterranean, are taken on the fhore of Weft Barbary.

The religion of the Moors is Mahometifm, which they
very rigidly obferve. They follow the fect of Abdallah
Melek, or Melu, who was one of the four commentators
on the Koran, Saints and their fan¢tuaries are very nume-

rous among the Moors ; and they are devoutly invoked by
the men for the cure of their difeafes, for the fertility of
their lands, and for fuccefs in their undertakings ; and by:
the women for the bleffing of children. Some of them pre-
tend to have charms againft wizards, forcerers, the poifon
of ferpents, and other venomous infeéts.. They even eat
fcorpions. The number of faints contributes very much
to the increafe of fuperitition’among the Moors, of which
their def{potic governors are not at a lofs to avail themfelves.
The Moors of the country never fail, after harvett, to per-
form a vifit of pilgrimage to the faint, whom they highly
venerate, carrying their firft fruits as an expreffion of ho-
mage and gratitude. “Their priefts, their judges, all the
learned in the law, every well informed perfon, together
with their fharifs or nobles, are held by the Moors to be
holy ; and they extend their veneration even to Chriltian
prieits. Madmen, idiots, and dotards are fuppofed by
thefe people to be pofleffed by a divine {pirit. The fan@tu-
aries of the faints are very numerous, and there are fome
to which large poffeffions are annexed. The propenfity of
the Moors to fuperttition, enthufiafm, and fanaticifm, in-
fpires them with a veneration for fuch of their number as
have made the pilgrimage to Mecca. Even a camel, that
has been at Mecca, is well fed, maintained without work,
and allowed to graze freely wherever he fhall ftray.

The two. Mahometan feltivals, called Bairam and Corban,
are each of them kept by the Moors for eight days; and
they alfo obferve the anniverfary of Mahomet in the fame
manner ; and they celebrate the feftival of the new year
for ten days after its commencement.

No government can be imagined more abfolute than that
of Morocco. The fubject throughout the empire has no-
thing which he can call his own, not even his opinions or
his exiftence: his matter deprives him of his property or
of his life whenever he pleafes. The fervices that are per-
formed to the fovereign are gratuitous, and merely honorary ;
and the favours, which he may think proper to beftow at
his own pleafure, are the only revenue of thofe who perforna
them. Wherever the monarch happens to be, he grants public
audiences four times a week for the diftribution of juitice 5,
and this the Moors call holding the “ Methooar.”? While
he performs thefe fundtions, he fits on horfeback, with an
umbrella held over his head by one of his grooms; and.
this, in Morocco, is the fole diltinétive mark of royalty.
Although all may have accefs to thefe public audiences, no
one is admitted without a prefent proportioned to his wealth
or ftation, or the importance of the matters depending,
and the circumitauces under which he is obliged to treat.
The governors of provinces give money, flaves, horfes,. and.
camels ; private perfons prefent haicks, carpets, cloths, or
other effeéts; a poor man will offer an old camel, two
fheep, a goat, nay even three hens, or a dozen of eggs.
The governors or .bafhaws exclufively regulate the police
of their diftri@s ; and they take care to increafe the revenue
by their authority, or by availing themfelves of the alter-
cations which the fpirit of inquietude raifes among the
Moors. When the bafhaws have acquired wealth, the em-
peror trips them of it, and this kind of retributive juftice
conduces to the benefit of his treafury. Money, in this
government, conttitutes the crime, or obtains the pardon of
the accufed.

In the empire of Morocco there is no code of laws; but
the practice of juvifprudence is reduced to the application of
certain principles deduced from the Koran, and its com-
mentators. All litigations concerning property, fucceflion,
and the feveral claims of intereft, are brought before the
cadi of each town, or diltri& of a province; and after

pleadings,

MOROCCO.

pleadings, he, affifted by fome other men of the law, gives
fentence according to the majority of opinions. If the
parties are diflatisfied, they may appeal to the emperor; but
this is a cafe which feldom happens. The Moors, when
they quarrel, infult and abufe each other, but feldom
ftrike.

As to the ftate of knowledge among the Moors, much
cannot be faid in commendation of it. Deriving their lan-
guage and religion from the Arabs, they feem not in any
degree to have participated of their knowledge. The
Moors of this empire, though the Moors of Spain blended
with thofe of Morocco may be found among their pro-
genitors, have preferved no traces of the genius of their an-
ceftors. ‘The Moors have no conception of the fpeculative
{eiences: thofe among them who can read, and their num-
ber is very fmall, feldom read any thing but their books of
religion. Education confifts merely in learning to read and
write; and as the revenues of the learned are derived from
thofe talents, the priefts and talbas among them are the fole
depofitories of this fcanty knowledge. The Moors, like
the Arabs, adopt the praftice of rhyming and finging the
hiftory of any extraordinary event. The Moors of Spain
paid particular attention to the itudy of phytic and aitro-
nomy, and they have left valuable monuments of their fkill
and attainments; but the modern Moors are much degene=
rated: they have no inclination to the ftudy of {cience, and
they are fhamefully ignorant both of difeafes and their re-
medies. Their’ moft common phyficians are their tatbas,
their fakirs, and their faints, in whom they repefe a fuper-
ftitious confidence. Aftronomy is almoft unknown to the
Moors: although they lead a kind of wandering life, under
the canopy of the heavens, always open to their view, they
have little acquaintance with celeltial bodies; and they are
totally unable to calculate eclipfes, which they always in-
terpret to portend evil. However, magic, the companion
of aftrology, has here its followers, and it is particularly
ftudied by the talbas in the fouthern parts, who fuccefsfully
ufe it in impofing upon Moorifh credulity with ftrange
dreams, and ambiguous forebodings and predictions. The
language of the empire of Morocco is Arabian; but it exifts
among them in a very corrupted ftate.

In the chara&ter and manners of the Moors we difcern the

deplorable effeéts of defpotifm on the one hand, and flavery ~

on the other. Defpotifm fo debafes the foul, that it 1s
fufceptible neither of fortitude nor of elevation: the flaves
only learn the will of their mafters, and have not even an
idea of liberty. With lefs fenfibility than other men, they
are faithful neither to their relations, nor friends, nor coun-
try; their vices are the oppolite of all good faith ; they love
not one another, and foreigners they love {till lefs. Eafily
fupplied, and inhabiting a naturally fertile country, the
Moors are little addiéted to labour; and hence it is that
they have little vigour, and little of that charaéteriltic
energy which gives birth to noble ideas, and to great crimes
or great virtues. This flumber of the faculties keeps them
in eternal ftupidity, and is the very prop of defpotif{m; for
it feems to be a well-founded remark, that governments are
more or lefs arbitrary, in proportion as the people are more
or lefs informed. The Moors are enervated in body as well
as in mind: though they are tolerably well-formed, have
regular features, good teeth, and fine eyes, yet their coun-
tenances are deftitute of expreffion or mind. Their whole
afpeét bears the ftamp of flavery and oppreffion. Avvaricious
by nature, thefe people are addiéted to accumulate and to
conceal wealth. This propenfity of the Moors renders them
pliant, cunning, and diffembling ; and generally inclined,
efpecially among the lower orders, to theft and rapine.

Although truth and candour would not warrant our faying
that there are no individuals, whofe ations are juft. or
generous; yet it behoves thofe who deal with them to be-
ware, for they will ever difcover fomething of the Moor.
Let any one read the account of Mungo Park’s travels,
and their indignation will be excited by the treatment which
he experienced from the Moors.

The Moors, like other Mahometans, ufe, in the coms
putation of their time, the lunar months and year; but im
fome of their aftronomical calculations, and for the purpofe
of regulating the hour of prayer according to the feafons,
they have recourfe to the folar year, adhering to the old
file. They count the days of the week by firft, fecond,
third, &c. from Sunday to Saturday, which mode of rec-
koning they feem to have received from the Hebrews.’ :

The Moors marry young, the age of puberty of the fe
males being 13. They are permitted to have four wives,
and as many concubines as they can maintain. In fome parts
the hufband receives no portion with his wife, but pays for
her; but it is moft common for the parents to give a portion
with the bride. If fhe be repudiated, the hufband rellores
it two-fold; if the hufband die, the wife recovers her por-
tion, and the eighth part of his efle@s. The children of the
wives have all equal claim to the effeéts of the parents; thofe
of the concubines can only claim half as much. As women
are not admitted into the fociety of men, young pérfons do
not marry here from love, but for convenience; and the re-
lations form the contra&t, and fettle the terms of it. The
purity of the bride at the time of marriage is much regarded,
and proofs of it are required and publicly exhibited. Among
the Moors it is cuftomary to marry their male and female
negroes, and after a certain period to reitore them to free-
dom; but after they recover their liberty, they live by la-
bour.

At the clofe of harveft, it is the cuftom of the Moors to
lay up their corn in matamores, that is, in pits where it is
long preferved. (See Maramore.) They alfo depofit
their riches, as well as their corn, in the ground. They
have fome other cuftoms, which we fhall fummarily recite ;
fuch as their repugnance to the killing of itorks, which they
deem finful: they hold it contrary to the {pirit of religion,
and betraying irreverence, to bury the dead in mofques,
thus profaning the temple of the Moft High by the putre-
faGtion of dead bodies. The deceafed is not kept in the
houfe, unlefs he expires after fun-fet, but his body is tranf-
ported to the mofque. The Moors fing at their burial fer-
vice, an ufage which they have probably adopted from the
Chriftians of Spain, as the Mahometans do not fing. On
Friday women repair to the fepulchres of the dead, to weep
and pray at the relting-places of thofe whofe memory they
hold dear. The Moors have a cuftom of making bon-fires
at the feaft of St. John, but can give no reafon for it. ; how-
ever, the origin of this cuftom is of very ancient date. The
people of this country have a particular averfior to bells,
originating probably from their averfion to Chriltians.

The military eftabliftment of the empire of Morocco is
the refult of a fucceflion of accidental circumitances. Some
few years ago 50,000 negroes were kept in pay in Morocco ;
but with views of economy, the emperor difarmed and dif-
banded them; and now the total amount does not exceed
more than between 15 and,18,000 men, who are kept in
con(tant pay ; and even fome of thofe are fent into diftant
provinces, to proteét the tax-gatherers. Neverthelefs, molt
of the Moors are foldiers ; as each of them keeps a horfe, a
fabre, and a mufket, and they are ready to march at the
firft warrant of the monarch. Although the population of
this empire bears but a fmall proportion to its extent, the

emperor

MOROCCO.

emperor might with great eafe raife from 2 to 300,000 men,
if fuch a force were found to be neceffary. The emperor
has few infantry in his fervice, the chief force of his army
confifting of cavalry. ‘The Moors are good horfemen, and
capable of being good foldiers, though not aétually formed
for this purpofe. Armies among the Moors are ufually
drawn up in a crefcent, the ftrength of which is in the
centre, and here the artillery is placed ; and their whole art
of attack confifts in aéting with the detachments “of the two
extremities, fo as to furround the enemy, put him between
two fires, and at the fame time expofe him to be cannonaded
by the artillery. The emperor has of late procured more
than 60 mortars of various dimenfions, and above 200 pieces
of artillery ; and he has exercifed fome perfons in the art of
gunnery. The mufquets are forged in the empire of Mo-
rocco of iron procured from Bifcay ; they are about 62 feet
long, and are fo much loaded with iron as to fatigue the

foldier. Their fabres are alfo manufaGured in Morocco
of Bifcay iron. Gunpowder is likewife made in this em-
pire.

It is probable that, after the expulfion of the Moors from
Spain (fee Mortscogs), and thofe revolutions which inter-
nally diftraéted the empire of Morocco, all naval exertions
were long renounced. ‘The coafts of Barbary, wafhed by the
Mediterranean and the Weflern ocean, only gave harbour to
fome pirates; and the progrefs of thefe, it is prefumed,
would not be very great, when the Portuguefe had conquered
Ceuta, Arzilla, and Tangiers. Navigation began to be en-
couraged under the reign of Muley Ifhmael. When thefe
towns had been abandoned, and commerce became more ge-
nerally promoted throughout Europe, Sallee became a port of
fome confequence, and the Sallee rovers were formidable to
the merchants of Europe. When Sidi Mahomet, a Jate
emperor, had made peace with the principal nations of Eu-
rope, he collected all his veffels into a fquadron, that he
might maintain his marine force, and add to its refpeéta-
bility. Although the naval ftrength of the emperor of
Morocco is not very confiderable, the fituation of his ftates
will always afford him an advantage: he poffefles Tangiers
and Tetuan at the different mouths of the ftrait, through
which veffels from all parts of the globe, failing for the Me.
diterranean, mult pafs; and his row-gallies, in fo narrow a
paflage, are always capable of calculating their diftance and
afcertaining a fafe retreat.

The revenues of the emperor of Morocco cannot be
eafily eftimated, as they entirely depend on his will. In the
prefent exhaufted ftate of the empire, the various taxes united
are {earcely fufficient for its own fupport : and the treafury
of the emperor, which was formerly very confiderable, was
reduced in 1782 to about two millions of ducats, or about
five hundred thoufand pounds fterling. Such is the ftate of
an empire which nature has enriched with her gifts, and
which, after having been laid defolate by the conflicting paf-
fions of man, is at prefent {carcely fufficient to fupply his
wants.

Various and contradiGtory ftatements have been made by
travellers of the population of this country. A late writer
has colleéted from the beft fources of information to which
he could have accefs a variety of particulars, from which we
deduce the following general refults. The total population
of the principal towns, which he enumerates, is {tated at
895,600: that of the provinces and itates, alfo fpecified, is
given at 10,341,000: and the total is as follows: the tribes of
the Brebers of North Atlas altogether amount to 3,000,000 ;
the diftri& of Tafilet contains 650,000; the provinces of
the Morocco empire, welt of Atias, include 10,341,000 ;
and the inland cities, towns, and ports contain 895,600 ; fo

Vor. XXIV.

that the total population of the whole empire, including ‘T'a-
filet, amounts to 14,886,600 perfons.

If we except fome trifling barter, the fafety of the fea has
been the principal caufe why the nations of Europe have
made treaties with the emperor of Morocco. England is
the firft power which concluded treaties of friendfhip and
commerce with the emperors of this country. Pofleflin
Tangiers, ceded to her by Portugal in 1662. an hifevecirle
fubfiited between England and Morocco ; but it was often
interrupted by the caprices of Muley Ifhmael. At the com-
mencement of the laft century a treaty of peace was re-
newed under GeorgeI. After the death of Muley Ifhmael
this treaty was confirmed, and renewed in 1728 by Mule
Achmet Daiby, and a little time after by Muley Abdallah.
The Englifh have long maintained a trade on the coat of this
empire, where they fell coarfe cloths, ferges, linens, pewter,
lead, mercer’s commodities, and the iron which their fhips
bring from Bifcay. In return they receive fometimes oils,
gums, wax, elephants’ teeth, and have often fent, in French
bottoms, to Marfeilles oils, raw hides, and wool. Before
the American war, that feparated America from England,
they alfo exported a number of mules to North America; ,
but the difmemberment of that part of their dominions has
greatly diminithed their trade with Morocco, which was not
very confiderable.

In 1732 an ambaflador was fent by Muley Abdallah into
Holland, and the republic then made its pe«ce with that em-
peror ; but fubfequent revolutions gave little “ability :o that
treaty. Holland was the firft power that renewed treaties
of peace with Sidi Mahomet; but this emperor after-
wards, viz. toward the end of 1774, declared war again{t
the Dutch. However, Holland renewed the peace in
1778. Holland afterwards carried on fome trade with the
coaft of Morocco, and cuftom has almoft rendered her im-
portations neceffary. She there vends quantities of Silefian
linens, called platillas, many of the coarfe linens of the
Baltic, and others, fome few fpices, drugs, tea, timber,
iron of Bifcay, and quantities of the cutlery and mercery
wares of Germany. Holland has been ufed to receive from
the coaft of Morocco, in return, fometimes oils, wax, gums,
and elephants’ teeth; but as thefe returns, which fuit the
Dutch merchants, are infufficient to balance the quantity of
merchandize they fend thither, they have almoft continually
profited by the facility with which they can run for the
French ports, to fend oils to Marfeilles, wools, and raw
hides, which there find a more ready fale than in the north.
The court of Denmark began to negociate with Sidi Ma-
homet in 1755. But interruptions occurred, and the Danes
could obtain the continuation of peace merely by paying
annually the fum of 25,000 piaftres. Denmark has not itfelf
any trade with that coafl. The Swedes concluded peace
with the emperor of Morocco in 1763, on condition of pay-
ing a certain tribute; but in 1771 Guftavus IIT. objected
to this tribute ; and it was at length agreed, that the king
of Sweden fhould fend an ambaffador and a prefent once in
two years to the emperor of Morocco. The Swedes have
no commercial intercourfe with this empire. The republic
of Venice made peace with the emperor of Morocco in 1765,
on condition of paying an annual tribute of upwards of four
hundred thoufand pounds, but after fome temporary dif-
cord, peace was eftabliiked im 1781. That republic has no
commercial intercourfe with Merocco, and therefore, like
the courts of Denmark and Sweden, pays this tribute
folely for the fafety of navigation. The court of Spain, as
well as that of France, wade peace with the emperor of
Morocco in 1767, But arupture occurred between Spain
and the emperor ; aud the court of Madrid, deferring to con-

Aa clude

.

MOROCCO.

clude a treaty, was fatisfied with remaining in a kind of
truce. Sidi Mahomet renewed peace with Spain in 1780.
Between Portugal and Morocco there is no continued trade ;
and the intercourfe of the two courts is fimply confined to
teftimonies of friendfhip : the republic of Genoa only enjoys
a kind of truce with the empire of Morocco, wholly un-
‘upported by any treaty. In 1777 the emperor of Morocco,
being at peace with the principal commercial nations, granted,
by public letters, entire liberty to all fhips to trade with, and
enter, his ports, profefling himfelf defirous of maintaining
peace with the whole world. But this declaration produced
little effe@, and was foon counterafted by his condué¢t.
Lhe United States of North America, after fecuring their
independence, wifhing to profit, during the year 1786, by the
pacific difpofition which the emperor of Morocco announced
to all commercial nationa, concluded a treaty of peace with
this monarch. The French have been accuftomed to vend,
on the coaft of Morocco, much of the linen of Britanny,
and of other places, fome raw filks for the manufactures of
Fez, unfpun cotton, Bifcay iron, common papers, mercery
goods, fome few filks, cloths, fugar, and coffee, and as
much fulphur as the emperor requires: and they have re-
ceived, in exchange, wool, oils, raw hides, gums, and ele-
phants’ teeth.

The duties, coins, weights, and meafures in Morocco are
almoft as variable as the opinion of the emperor. The duties
both of exportation and importation have been very various,
and are entirely arbitrary. The coins, which are current
over the coalt of Morocco, are thofe of the emperor, and
thofe of Spain. The coins of the emperor are thofe of
gold, filver, and copper, which have no fixed value. The
gold ducat, which is very fcarce, and which has little circu-
lation, is worth 15 ounces, correfponding to eight and four-
pence Englith. ‘Che filver money is the current ducat, the
ounce, and the blanguil. The current ducat is worth 10
ounces, the ounce four blanquils, and the blanquil 24 flus.
The flus is the only current copper coin. The value of the
blanquil is nearly feven farthings Englifh ; fo that the ounce
is worth five fhillings and fixpence three farthings. The
Spanith piaftre is current in trade, but though in general its
value is fixed, it may vary according to the convenience of
the emperor, and his intereft ig rendering piattres {carce or
common. The weights by which they buy and fell in Mo-
rocco are equivalent to the weights of Paris, or to the poids
de mare or pound of 16 ounces ; the fubdivifions of which
are in both places the fame. Merchandize is generally fold
by the quintal of 100 pounds; but fome commodities are
fold by the great quintal, or 150 pounds. Corn is meafured
along the coaft of Morocco in different ways. In the
fouthern provinces, known by the name of the kingdom
of Morocco, wheat is fold by the garara and the mood.
The garara contains 40 mood, and the mood weighs from 18
to 20 pounds; fo that the garara muft be nearly Boo weight.
In the kingdom of Fez, from Sallee to the north, corn is fold
by the fafla, the fahah, and the mood. Four mood make
one fahah, and Go mood one faffa ; and hence the weight of
the faffa mult be 12 quintals. The corn meafures, however,
are liable to variation according to the will of the emperor.
The meafure by which cloths, linen, and woollen are fold is
called coode, which isthe cubit of the ancients. The coode
contains 1g inches four lines; andas the French ell is 44
inches, 24 coodes are nearly equal to an ell.

Morocco, Hiflory of. "This country, having continued
about four centuries under the Roman yoke, from the inva-
fion of Julius Cwfar to the declenfion of the empire, fell
immediately under the Goths, who croffed over from Spain,
and made an eafy conqueft of its provinces. ‘This new

government lafted till about the year 600, when the Saracens,
a nation no lefs furious than the Vandals, tyrannized over
them in their turn, till they were driven out by the Arabians,
who, befides their natural ferocity, were actuated by a fiery
zeal to propagate Mahometifm, every where by force of
arms, and overrun this whole country, obliging the inha-
bitants to fubmit to their religion as well as government.
For fome time the adminiftration of the country was ex-
ercifed by the lieutenants of the caliphs ; but their feat of
government being diftant, having been fucceflively removed
from Medina to Damafcus, from Damafcus to Cufa, and
from Cufa to Bagdad, infenfibly enfeebled their authority.
The Arab generals in Africa, availing themfelves of thefe
circumftances, in favour of their ambitious projects, excited’
commotions towards the end of the eighth century, and af-
pired themfelves at fovereignty. The defcendants of Ma-
homet, called to the throne by the veneration in which they
were held by the vitlgar, railed new factions; and the firit |
of thefe were the Edriffites, who took their name from
Edris, fon of Abdallah, defcendant of Ali, hufband to the
daughter of Mahomet. From Herbelot we learn, that their
dynafty was exterminated by the Fatimites, who pretended
that they were the defcendants of Ali and Fatima, the
daughter of Mahomet; this latter dynaity, the founder of
which teok the name of Mohadi, director of the faithful,
had fome {uccefs in Egypt; but its duration in Mauritania,
which was expofed to numerous revolutions, was only mo-
mentary. This part of Africa was afterwards governed by
four principal dynafties, the Morabethoon, the Moahedins,
the Benimerins, and the Sharifs of two different branches.
Edris, having efcaped the maflacre of all the kinfmen of
Ali at Medina, fled in 768 into Mauritania, in order to
avoid the perfecting {word. Here he conduéted himfelf
with fo much prudence, that he gained the affection of the
people, fo that they were defirous of living under his
government and embracing his religion. His exemplary con-
duct and diligent inftruction {eattered the feeds of Mohammed-
ifm in this country, where the great aptitude of this religion
to the manners of the Moors facilitated its progrefs. Edris,
taking advantage of his afcendancy over the minds of men,
fent troops into Spain to fuccour the Mahometans, and this
zeal for the propagation of his religion contributed yet more
to increafe the afle¢tion of the Moors, His fon was ac-
knowledged as fovereign after his death, and in 793 he
founded the city of Fez ; which was the capital of the firit
monarchy eftablifhed in Africa after Mahomet. This Edris
much interefted himfelf in favour of the Arab Moors in
Spain. From Marmol we learn, that the houfe of Edris,:
and the houfe of Mequineci, reigned in Mauritania in 914,
and that reinforcements were fent over from this country
into Spain in 920 and g25. During the progrefs of the
roth century, dilturbances occurred; aud I:l-Mohadi, faid
to bea defcendant of Ali and Fatima, declaimed againft the
houfe of Edris on the ground of herefy, and having. made
himfelf mafter of feveral cities, depofed the fons of Edris
from their governments, before the fuccours which they had
intreated from the king of Cordova arrived. El-Mohadi
declared himfelf caliph, aad marched towards mount Atlas
to extend his domains. In procefs of time.this ufurper was
affaffinated, and with him terminated the dynafty of the
Fatimites. This was fucceeded by that of Morabethoon,
fo furnamed from the ftrict obfervanct of religion by the
tribe of which he was chief. The armies of this chief were
conftantly vidtorious, and after various battles, he remained
fovereign of Mauritania. In 1086 he was fucceeded by his
fon Wtept, whofe fubjects proclaimed him king. te is
faid to have finifhed the city of Marakefch, or Morocco,
4 which

MOROCCO.

which had been begun by his father, and there eltablithed
his feat of empire. This prince vanquifhed the king of Fez,
and feized on his kingdom, which was thus, for the firit
time, united to that of Morocco. The reputation acquired
by Jofeph Ben-Teffifin was fo great, that in 1097 the Ma-
hometan kings of Spain fought his alliance, and offered him
the fupreme fovereignty, thus hoping to eftablifh and ex-
tend their empire. Accordingly he paffed over into Anda-
lufia, and joining his forces to thofe of the Mahometans in
Spain, conquered the city of Seville and its environs. Upon
his return to Africa, he proclaimed the “‘ Gazia,” or war of
religion. Attended by a large force, he again pafled over
into Spain, and in 1102 he was matter of all Andalufia,
Granada, and Murcia. Jofeph died at Morocco in 1110,
and was fucceeded by his fon Ali, who built the grand
mofque at Morocco, continued to fuccour the Mahometans
of Spain, commanded refpe€t by his military exploits be-
tween the years 1112 and 1115, and had for his fucceffor
his fon Brahem, with whom terminated the dynafty of the
Morabites or of Morabethoon. The firlt king of the race
of the Moahedins, called by the Spaniards Almohades, was
Abdulmomen, or, as Herbelot calls him, Mohamet Abdul-
momen Ben-Tomrut, who was chofen king of Morocco in
1148. This king ftrangled the fon of Brahem, who had
been acknowledged king, and who was the laft of the houfe
of Teffifin, the founders of the city, as well as the empire
of Morocco. Although Abdulmomen deftroyed Morocco
on his acceffion to the throne, he afterwards rebuilt it: but
at the fame time iffued a favage order, that all the Morabe-
thoon, who were found throughout his empire, fhould be put
to death. The eaftern provinces of Africa, however, fhook
off the yoke of the kings of Morooco, and eleéted for them-
felyes independent chiefs; but Abdulmomen remained matter
of all Mauritania, and preferved the two kingdoms of Fez
and Morocco, which had been united under Jofeph Teflifin.
He was alfo able in 1149, and again in 1151, to fuccour
the Mahometans of Spain. This prince died in 1155, and
was fucceeded by his fon Jofeph, who profecuted the mea-
fures in Spain, which his father had projected. In 1184,
he was killed in Spain by a fall from his horfe, and after
feveral divifions ameng the Moors, his fon Abu-Jacob, fur-
named Almanfor, the inviycible, was proclaimed emperor.
The condu@, courage, and attivity of Jacob foon eftablifhed
his fupremacy over the African coaits as far as Tunis, and
alfo preferved that which had been acquired over the Arab
Moors of Spain. Almanfor, having reduced his fubjeéts
to fubordination, publifhed the “‘Gazia,"’ or war againft
infidels, fimilar to the crufades of the Chriftians, and marched
into Spain with a large army. After a feries of fuccefsful
exploits till the year 1197, he returned into Africa to quell
fome commotions that had occurred during his abfence.
Almanfor, having violated his promife, by putting to death
a Marabaut, whom he had promifed to pardon, on account
of fervices rendered to him during his fiege and capture of
Morocco, is faid to have difappeared and wandered through
the world, or moft probably performed the pilgrimage to
Mecca, as a private perfon, in expiation of his crime.
During his abfence, his fon, Mahomet Ben-Nafler, called
alfo Naffer-Al-Melek Ben-Manfoor, was proclaimed king,
and tock pofleffion of his father’s throne in 1210. This
prince went over to Spain, in order to extend his conquette,
but in July 1212, the Moors, in an engagement with Al-
phonfo, fuffered a total rout, fo that Mahomet.Ben-Naffer
returned to -\frica in difgrace, and foon after died, leaving
his empire to Said Barrax, one of his grandfons. After the
death of Said, who was affaffinated by a traitor, the prin-
cipal perfons of the Moahedixs elected his uncle, Abdel

Cader, in his room; but this prince, not able to fecure the
confidence of the people, was obliged to furrender. his
power to Abdallah, one of the race of the Benimerins, who
was the firft of that dvnafty, that poffeffed himfelf. of the
fovereign authority. Abdallah was fucceeded by his fon,
a his death made way for the acceflion of his uncle Ben-
Je&feph; who wholly deprived the Moahedins of their power,
The kingdom of Morocco, by this change of its monarchs,
loft the fovereignty of Spain; but Ben-Jofeph, unoccupied
with foreign conquefts or government, eltablifhed more
firmly his authority in Mauritania. In 1275, however, he
pafled over into Spain, and having committed various ravages
in the kingdom of Andalufia, returned into Africa. After
the death of Ben-Jofeph, he was fucceeded by his fon Abu-
Said, who, like his father, made feveral expeditions into
Spain, all of which were unfuccefsful. His reign was
tranquil ‘until the year 1303, when his fon occupied the
throne, which was vacated by his death; and he was fue-
ceeded in 1318 by Jofeph-Ben-Jacob. After the death
of this monarch, Abul-Haflen, his fon, took poffeffion
of the throne, and by yarious military operations in Spain,
involved himfelf in expences, which, joined to his il fuc-
cefs, produced murmurs among his fubjeéts, of which
one of his fons, named Abdalharaman, availing himfelf,
drew over feveral tribes to his fupport. Abu-Hennon,
another of his fons, inftigated a rebellwn againft him, and
ultimately fucceeding, took poffeffion of the kingdom in
1354, and remained in quiet poffeffion of it till his death in
1409, when he was fucceeded by his fon, Abu-Said, a prince
addicted to pleafure and debauchery; ‘in-confequence of
which, feveral internal commotions made way for the fuc-
ceffion of his fon Abdallah, in the year 1423. Abdallah
reigned with juftice for feveral years, bat at length he was
flain by an inhabitant of Fez, who was a fharif, and who was
proclaimed as fovereign initead of Abdallah, with whom
terminated the family of the Benimerins. - This fharif was
overpowered by Muley-Shaik, who twas the firft of the
kings of the race called Merini, the defcendants of a branch
of the Benimerins.. The family of the Merini were unable
to maintain their authority, and the kingdoms of Fez and
Morocco continued in a itate of anarchy till the beginmag
of the 16ch century. At this time, a Moor, of the: pre-

vince of Dara, whofe name was Mahomet-Ben-Achmet,

calling himfelf a fharif and defcendant of the prophet,
availed himfelf of the opportunity that prefented itfelf for
accomplifhing his proje¢ts of ambition, . With this view he
feut his three fons, in 1508, in pilgrimage to Mecca, who,
on their return, were highly honoured by the Moors. Hay-
ing thus eftablifhed their-reputation, their father profecuted
his {cheme of ambition. At length Achmet, the eldeit of
his three fons, aided by the principal’men of Morecco, was
proclaimed king. In procefs of time, the power and the
ambition of the fharifs advanced together; and two of the
brothers divided their conquetts ; the eldeft, Muley Achmet,
retained Morocco, and Muley Mohamet took up his refi-
dence at ‘T'arudant, by which they could mutually fuccour
each other againft the Portuguefe and their allies, who were
matters of the greateft part of the weitern coail, from. the
cape of Aguer to the province of Duquella inclufive. , After
a variety of fucceffive contentions: between thefe two bro-
thers, Muley Mchamet, having feized on the kingdom of
Fez, fent Muley Achmet into the defert, with a part of his
family, that he might have nothing to fear from his ambi-
tion. The former; however, was aflaflinated in 1 5565 and
the latter was murdered in prifon sand thus both thefe fha-
rifs, who had perfidioufly made religion and good faith a
pretext to defpoil their matters and benefaGors of fove-

Aaz reignty,

MOROCCO.

reigntv, fell themfelves, as did alfo moft of their pofterity,
by the hands of murderers. and thus received the juft recom-
pence of their crimes. Muley Abdallah, the fon of Muley
Mohamet, was, in 1557, joyfully received at Morocco,
whither he repaired as foon as he heard of the death of his
father ; and having affembled the chiefs of the army and the
principal men of the city, he was proclaimed king of Fez,
Morocco, and other towns and provinces, under the do-
minion of the fharif. Upon the death of Abdallah in 1574,
he was fucceeded by his eldeft fon Muley Mohamet, fur-
named the negroe ; and when he prematurely died, Muley
Achmet, uncle of Muley Mohamet, was proclaimed king
of Fez; and he obliged his brothers to {wear fidelity to his
fon Muley Shek, and to infure to him the fucceffion. Muley
Achmet was loved and refpeéted by his fubjecis: he was the
laft defcendant of the fharifs, and died in 1603, much re-
gretted. Afver his death, Muley Sidan, the youngett of his
fons, was proclaimed his fucceffor ; and notwithftanding the
various competitions of his brothers, he remained fovereign
of the empire. At length, in 1630, he died at Morocco,
leaving princes, as his fucceffors, who were little qualified to
abt Muley Abdelmeleck, eldeft fon of Muley Sidan,
ucceeded his father, and was the firft king of Morocco,
who, beholding feveral {mall kingdoms united under his go-
vernment, affumed the title of emperor. His conduét ex-
cited public difcontent, and in 1635 he was affaflinated.
Upon his death, his brother Muley El-Valid afcended the
throne; and his reign was diltinguifhed by condefcenfion
and affability, fo that he gained the cordial efteem of his
fubje&s. His death took place in 1647, and Muley Ach-
met Shek, the laft of the fons of Muley Sidan, was eleéted
emperor. The indolence and effeminacy in which this mo-
narch lived, and the oppreflions of the governors of pro-
vinces and cities, excited murmurs among the people, and
at length univerfal difcontent. The mountaineers, having
befieged and taken Morocco, put Muley Achmet to death,
and proclaimed one of their chiefs, named Crom-El-Hadgy,
who reigned fome years, but without the love of his people.
This prince inhumanly maffacred all the defcendants of the
fharifs, who might difturb his reign; and by his cruelty,
revenged the blood and the rights of the houfe of Merini,
whofe monarchs thefe fame fharifs had deftroyed, after hav-
ing ftripped them of wealth and fovereignty. Crom-El-
Hadgy. after having reigned about feven years, clofed life
tragically, and was fucceeded by his fon Muley Shek, who
was dethroned by a new revolution, which placed the pre-
fent reigning family on the throne. The Moors of Tafilet,
who, on account of a dearth in the province, made a pil-
grimage to Mecca, brought back a fharif, named Muley
Ali, a defcendant of Mahomet, born at the town of Yambo,
near Medina, who was treated with great refpe&, and was
at length advanced te the throne. This dynafty acquired
the name of Fileli, derived from Tafilet, of which Muley
Sharif was fovereign. He is faid to have had 84 fons, and
a greater number of daughters. However that be, the firlt
and the two laft, viz. Muley Mohamet, Muley Arfhid, and
Muley Ifhmael-Semein, reigned in fucceflion. The firft
died in 1664, and was fucceeded by Muley Arfhid, who
terminated his life in 1672, and left behind him a character
marked by a fucceffion of cruelties, which the ferocity of his
nature rendered habitual, and led him to praétife for his
amufement. His fucceflor, Muley Ifhmael, pofiefled the
fame qualities, and flill greater vices than his brother,
Wholly regardlefs of the lives of men, the emperor made it
his pation to affaflinate them with his own hand. The days
fet apart for prayer were generally dedicated by him to thefe
maflacres, and he feems to have cftimated the value of his

devotion by the number of his murders. After a reign of
54 years, continually agitated by inquietude, fufpicion, and
revolt, and fullying his fceptre by the molt tragical acts,
Muley Ifhmael died in 1727, at the age of 81 years. His
fucceffor was his fon Muley Achmet Daiby, who was pro-
claimed emperor by the grandees and the negroes, and who
became brutal by infolence and intemperance, fo that he
was defpifed and hated by his fubjeéts. He died of an in-
curable dropfy in 1729, and was fucceeded by Muley Ab-
dallah, who was no lefs capricious and cruel than his father
Muley Ifhmael. He was fix times depofed, and as often
regained the throne. Death coniftrained him to vacate the
throne in 1757, after having divided the empire with his for
Sidi Mahomet, who having accuitomed the people to re-
fpec his authority, fucceeded to the throne without oppo-
fition. This prince manifefted a laudable defire of making
peace with the powers of Europe; and accordingly, after
confirming that already made between Morocco, England,
and Holland, he began his reign with concluding treaties
with Denmark and Sweden, and in the following year with
Venice, France, Spain, and Portugal. In 1782 the em-
peror and the grand duke of Tufcany made peace, and the
other powers of Italy enjoyed a kind of truce with the em-
pire of Morocco. For the encouragement of commerce,
he built the town of Mogodor, where nature had formed a
port acceffible at all feafons. He ordered the fortreffes of
Laracha and Rabat to be repaired, embellifhed each of thefe
cities with fome edifices and public markets, and made ad-
ditions to his own palace at Morocco. He multiplied mer-
cantile eftablithments on the coaft of Morocco; and mer-
chants fettled at Santa Cruz, Mogodor, Saffi, Rabat, La-
racha, and Tetuan. Defirous of effacing the remembrance
of all the caprices of his father, he wholly employed himfelf
in the reftoration of order, of re-eftablifhing rules for govern-
ment, and uniformity in the decifions of juftice ; and with a
view of carrying all his laudable plans into full effet, he
raifed his relation, Muley Dris, to the rank of his affociate
in the empire; but after the death of this prince in 1772,
Sidi Mahomet indulged his own propentfities more freely, to
the difhonour of his government, as well as to the detri-
ment of his country. Sidi Mahomet, who, after a reign of
33 years, died in 1790, was fucceeded by one of his fons,
Muley Yezid. The prefent emperor is Muley Solyman.
Chenier’s Morocco. Jackfon’s Account of the Empire
of Morocco, &c. 1809. Lempriere’s Tour, &c. 1791.

Mod. Un. Hilt. vol. xiv.
Morocco, the metropolis of the empire of Morocco, was
formerly the capital of the kingdom of the fame name,
bounded by the river Omarbaym, or Morbeya: diltant 20
leagues from the fea, E,.S.E. of Saffi, and not far from
mount Adas, and built nearly on the fpot where the ancients
placed “ Bocanum Hemerum.” Abu Teflifin, firft king
of the Moors, of the race of the Morabethoon, or Mara-
boots, firit fixed his refidence at the city of Agenil, on the
weftern declivity of mount Atlas, at a little diltance from
Morocco. But wifhing to found a capital for his domi-
nions in a more eligible fituation, he chofe the fpot where
Morocco now ftands, which is called by the Arabs Marra-
kefch, and by the Spaniards Marraccos. This city was
begun by that prince in the year 1052, and continued by
his fon and fucceflor Jofeph Ben Abu Teffifin, who kept his
court here. In the time of his grandfon, Ali Ben Yufif,
it is faid to have contained a million of inhabitants, but in
later times, it has been much depopulated, and by reafou
of the devaftations of fucceeding conquerors, retains little
of its ancient magnificence except its general form ; and its
decay is very perceptibly indicated by the accumulated ruins
of

MOROCCO.

of houfes and gardens within the town, which were once
the {cites of habitations. Its walls are extremely thick,
and formed of a cement, compofed of lime and fand, which is
put in cafes, and beaten with rammers. This mortar, which is
called by the Moors and the Spaniards * tapia,”” hardens in
time, and turns to ftone, efpecially when the compofition is
well made, and when it contains a fofficient quantity of
lime. The extent of the walls, which, with few exceptions
are entire, leads one to conceive of a city that might contain
300,000 fouls; though it now appears little better than a
defert. The quarters, which have been rebuilt, are ata
confiderable diftance from one another ; and the honfes are
low, dirty, and extremely inconvenient. Chenier doubts
whether it contaigs 30,000 inhabitants, even when the court
is there. Other writers reduce the number to 20,000.
Mr. Jackfon, profeffing to derive his ftatement from authen-
tic information, extracted from the imperial regifter, {wells
the amount of inhabitants in the city of Morocco to the
prodigious number of 270,000. He fays, that the breaches
in the walls were repaired previoufly to the fiege and cap-
ture of the city by Muley Yezid, in 1792; and that fome
of the houfes are built with much elegance and tafte, but as
they are placed behind high walls, they are not vifible from
the ftreets.

Morocco is fituated in a pleafant plain, planted with palm-
trees, and mount Atlas to the eaft, which has a fine and ro-
mantic effect: and this plain is rendered capable of the
higheft cultivation by the numerous ftreams that traverfe it.
It was formerly divided into a large number of enclofed gar-
dens, and beautiful plantations of olive-trees, which have, in
part, efcaped the barbarous devaftations of contending fac-
tions. It is faid that this plain was beautified and enriched
by waters iffuing from more than 600 {prings in mount At-
las, and that it abounded with country-houfes and pleafure-
grounds ; but thefe were ruined by the revolutions which
preceded and diftinguifhed the reign of Muley Ifhmael ; and
it was, with difficulty, that, in 1768, the courfe of 1200
ftreams, which wind through this fertile country, was renewed.
The city is fupplied with water partly from thefe {prings,
and partly from the river Tenfift, which flows near the
city, but principally from a fubterraneous brick aquedua,
that goes round the town, 20 feet below the furface, and
from which, at about every 100 yards, pipes of brick-work
branch off, aud convey the water into the different houfes.

Morocco pofleffes feveral large mofques, without much
pretenfion to magnificenee. Within the walls are large
enclofed fpaces, containing gardens of orange-trees, and
pavilions, covered with coloured tiles, and exhibiting a
itriking contra{ft to the wretched buildings that furround
them; in thefe pavilions the princes lodge. The body of
one of the mofques is {upported by many marble pillars, and
under it is a ciltern, capable of holding a large quantity of
water, which is collected in the rainy feafon, and ufed by
the Mahometans in their numerous ablutions. The town is
{quare, and refembles thofe of Sallee and Seville ; it confiits
of feven {tories, and is afcended by a gradually winding ter-
race, compofed of lime and {mall ftones, fo tirmly cement-
ed as to be almoft as hard as iron. On the fummit is a tur-
ret, in form of a fquare lantern, which commands a moft
extenfive profpeé, and from which Cape Cantin, diftant
about 120 miles, is diftinétly vifible. Another tower is ren-
dered famous by the three golden balls on its top, which to-
gether weigh ten quintals, or 1205|bs. avoirdupois. A tradi-
tion prevails that feveral fruitlefs attempts have been made for
taking them down, and that thofe who were concerned in the
bufinefs were foon after killed. Among the public edifices
in this city, we may mention the Elcaiflaria, or Kaflaria,

I

which is an oblong building, furrounded with {mall fhops
filled with filks, ches, Baan and other valuable ibe
for fale. This is a place of refort for converfation, as well
as for trade, fomewhat refembling our Exchanges in Eu-
rope. At the extremity of the city, and near the palace, is
the quarter of the Jews, enclofed by walls nearly two miles
round, where the Jews refide under the guard of an alcaid,
to preferve them from infult. Not lefs than 3000 Jewith
families formerly refided here ; of which there now fcarcely
remain 200, (Mr. Jackfon fays 2090,) fubje& to tyranny, and
debafed by poverty ; oppreffion having obliged the reft to
feel refuge among the mountains. At the extremity of the
city, and fronting mount Atlas, is the emperor’s palace,
which is a very extenfive and folid buildiag. The principal
gates are Gothic arches of hewn ftone, embellifhed with orna-
ments in the Arabian talte. Within the walls are various
courts and gardens, elegantly laid out. In each of thefe is
a pavilion, to which the emperor retires to take his reft, or
amufe himfelf with his courtiers. Thefe pavilions are f{quare
pyramidal edifices, about 4o feet in length, and fomewhat
lefs in height, covered with varnifhed tiles of various co-
lours ; and the interior is a kind of {pacious hall, admitting
light and air. The infide of the halls is painted and gilt in
the Arabefque fafhion, and ornamented with cartouches
containing paflages of the Koran, or other Arabic fen-
tences. The furniture is very fimple. The pavilion, con-
taining apartments for the emperor and his women, is in
one of thefe gardens. This building is very f{pacious, but
furnifhed without any fplendid ornaments. The emperor.
Sidi Mahomet, who was particularly attached to this city,
has caufed to be built by Europeans, regular pavilions, on a
piece of ground which he has added to his palace. Thefe
are finifhed in an excellent tafte, and give an air of gran-
deurand magnificence to this part of the palace. Between
thefe pavilions and the old palace is a large vacant {pace,
inclofed with walls, called «* Mefhooar,?? where the emperor
gives public audience four times in a week. Mount Atlas,
E. of the city, defends its environs from the E. wind, which
in fummer would be fcorching, while the fnows on its fummit
ferve to moderate the heat of the climate. The nights are
conftantly cool, and the principal heat is felt from nine in the
morning to four or five inthe afternoon. In winter, the fhow
which falls on the mountains produces a fenfible cold: ne-
verthelefs, the climate is very healthy. The houfes, how-
ever, are inconvenient habitations for foreigners, as they are
full of bugs; and in fummer, {corpions, ferpents, and
gnats are very troublefome. The city of Morocco, befides
its trade with the various diftri@s of the interior country,
receives the moft confiderable fupplies of European mer-
chandize from the port of Mogedor, which is diftant about
four days’ journey, according to the rate of caravan travel-
ling; a caravan journey being 24 wiles. Some of the more
valuable articles, however, are tranfported from Fez to the
Morocco market, fuch as muflins, cambrics, fpices, tea,
pearls, coral, &c., and the elegant Fez manufaétures of
filk and gold. here is held at Morocco a confiderable
market every Thurfday; at which all articles of foreign as
well as home manufaéture are bought and fold; and alfo
horfes, horned cattle, flaves, &c. Samples of all kinds of
merchandize are carried up and down the market and
{treets of the city by the delals, or itinerant auctioneers,
who proclaim the price offered, and when no one offers more
the beft bidder is apprifed of his purchafe, the money is
paid, and the tranfaétion terminates.. The fhops of Moroc-
co are fupplied with merchandize of various kinds by the
merchants of Mogodor, who receive, in return for Euro-
pean goods, the various articles of the produce of Barbary
for

MOR

for the European markets. A confiderable difference, how-
ever, has lately taken place in the mode of traafa¢ting bu-
-finefs at Morocco: for the prefent emperor's father ref{peét-
ed European merchants, and their book-debts were feldom
difputed, and commerce was much encouraged: but Muley
Solyman’s political principles differ fo widely from thofe of
his father, that the molt trifling tranfaGtion fhould now be
confirmed by law, in order to enable the European to be on
equal terms with the Moor, and to entitle him to recover
any property or credit given: thefe meafures have their va-
rious impediments in the way of commerce, which have very

much reftricted and diminifhed it. N. lat. 30°57’. W.
long. 7°.
Morocco, or Marroguin, the fkin of a goat, or fome

other animal refembling it, drefied in fumach or galls, and
coloured of any colour at pleafure ; much ufed in book-bind-
ing, &c. ; t :

The name is ordinarily derived from the kingdom of Mo-
rocco, whence it is f{uppofed the manner of preparing thefe
fkins was firft borrowed.

We have Merocco fkins brought from the Levant, Bar-
bary, Spain, Flanders, and France ; red, black, yellow,
blue, &c. The various manners of preparing morocco,
both black and in colour, are fo curious, and fo little known
among us, that the public will not be difpleafed to find them
here.

Morocco, Manner of preparing black. The fkins having
been dried in the hair, are fteeped in clear water three days
and nights; then they are itretched ona wooden horfe or
leg, like that ufed by tanners; then beaten with a large
knife for the purpofe, and fteeped afreth in water, changed
daily till they be well come again. In this ftate they are
thrown into a large vat in the ground, fullof water, where-
in quick-lime has been flaked, where they lie fifteen days :
whence, however, they are taken, and again returned every
night and morning ; they are thrown into a frefh vat of lime
and water, and {hifted night and morning, as before, for
fifteen days longer ; then rinfed in clear water: and the hair
is then taken oe on the leg, with the knife; the fkins are
then returned into a third vat and fhifted, as before, for
about eighteen days; then fteeped twelve hours in a river ;
then taken out, rinfed, put in pails, where they are pound-
ed with wooden peftles, changing the water twice; then
laid on the horfe, and the flefh taken off, returned into
pails of new water, taken out, and the hair-lide {craped ;
then returned into frefh pails ; taken out, and thrown intoa
pail of a particular form, having holes at bottom; here they
are beaten the {pace of an hour, and frefh water poured on
from time to time ; ftretched on theleg, and fcraped on ei-
ther fide; returned into pails of frefh water; taken out,
ftretched and fewed up all around, in manner of bags,
leaving out the hind legs, which ferve to make an aperture
for the conveyance of a mixture mentioned hereafter.

The fkins, thus fewed, are put into lukewarm water,
where dogs’ excrement has been diffolved. Here they are
ftirred with long poles half an hour, left at reft a dozen,
taken out, rinfed in frefh water, and filled bya tunnel with
a preparation of water and fumach, mixed and heated over
the fire till ready to boil; and as they are filled, the hind
legs are fewed ip to ftop the paflage. In this ftate they are
let down into the veffel. of water and fumach, and kept {tir-
ring four hours fucceffively ; they are then taken out, and
heaped on one another; after a little time, their fides are
changed; and thus they continue an hour and a half, till
drained, ‘This done, they are loofened, and filled a fecond
time with. the fame preparation, fewed up again, and kept
ftirred two hours, piled up, and drained as before. This

MOR

is again repeated a third time, with this difference, that they
are now orly ftirred a quarter of an hour; after which, they
are left till the morrow morning, when they are taken out,
drained on a rack, unfewed, the fumach taken out, folded
in two from head to tai!, the hair-fide outwards, laid over
each other on the leg, to perfeé& their draining, ftretched
out, and dried; then trampled under foct by two and two,
ftretched on a wooden table, what flefh and fumach remains
{craped off, and the hair-fide rubbed over with oil, and that
again with water.

Having thus received their oil and water, they are wrung
in the hands, then {tretched and preffed tight on the table
with an iron inftrument like that of the curriers, the flefh-
fide uppermoft ; then turned, and the hair-fide rubbed
itrongly over with a handful of rufhes, to fqueeze out as
much of the oil remaining within as poffible. The firlt
courfe of black is now laid on the hair-fide, by means of a
lock of hair twilted and fteeped in a kind of black dye, pre-
pared of four beer, in which pieces of old rufty iron have
been thrown. When half dry, by hanging in the air, they
are f{tretched on a table and rubbed over every way with a
paumelle, or wooden-toothed inftrument, to raife the grain,
over which is pafled a light couche of water, then fleeked
by rubbing them with rufhes prepared for that purpofe.
Thus fleeked, they have a fecond couche of black ; they are
then dried, laid on the table, rubbed over with a paumelle
of cork, to raife the grain again; and, after a light couche
of water, fleeked over anew ; and, to raife the grain a third
time, a paumelle of wood 1s ufed.

After the hair-fide has thus received all its preparations.
the flefh-fide is pared with a fharp knife for the purpofe, and
the hair-fide rubbed ftrongly over with a woollen cap, having
firfk given it a luftre with barberries, citron, or orange.
The whole is finifhed by raifing the grain lightly, for the
laft time, with the paumelle of cork, which leaves them in
a condition for fale and ufe.

Morocco, Manner of preparing red. "Phe ‘Skins are
fteeped twenty-four hours in a river, taken out, ftretched on
the leg, beaten with the knife, returned into the water fer
twenty-four hours, re-beaten on the leg, re-fteeped; thrown
into a vat, and for three weeks taken out, and turned every
morning, to difpofe them to peel. Being taken out for the
laft time, they are feraped with the knife, and when the hair
is quite off, thrown into pails of frefh water, where they are
rinfed; then the fiefh-fide fcraped, thrown into pails, and
thus alternately from the leg to the pails, till they leave the
water quite clean; then they are put in luke-warm water,
with the fumach as before; and, after twelve hours, they
are rinfed in clear water, and {craped on the leg on both
fides, pounded in pails, and the water changed three times;
then wrung and ftretched on the leg, and paffed after each
other into water, with alum diffolved in it. ‘Thus alumed,
they are left to drain till the morning, then wrung out,
pulled on the leg, and folded from head to tail, the flefh
inwards. .

In this ftate they receive their firft dye, by pafling them
one after another intoa red hiquor, prepared with lacea, and
fome other ingredients, kept fecret among the maroquineers.
This they repeat again and again, till the fkins have got
their firft colour. They are then rinfed in clear water,
{tretched on the leg, and left to drain twelve hours; then
thrown into water, into which white galls pulverized have
been paffed through a fieve, and ftirred inceffantly for a
whole day with long poles, taken out, hung on a bar acrofs
the water all night, white againft red, and red againit white;
and in the morning the water is ftirred up, and the fkins are

returned

MOR

returned into it for twenty-four hours. For other approved
procefles, fee Turkey Leather.

Morocco, Red, in Gardening. See Anonis.

MOROCHI, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in New
Bifcay ; 75 miles E.S.E. of Parral, cf

MOROCHTHI, an unfcientific name given to dendrite
of a white colour; as alfo to the fpongy variety of carbo-
nate of lime, called lac lune.

MOROCHTHUS, inthe Hi/ory of Foffils, a name of
an indurated clay, commonly known among us by the name
French chalk, or marking-ftone ; and its principal ufe with
us is the taking of fpots out of clothes, and the ferving
tailors to mark with, as it makes a much more determinate
and a neater line than chalk. The ancients, however, had
it much in elteem in medicine, and ufed it as an aftringent,
and in colics and hemorrhages, and externally in diforders of
the eyes.

It is diftinguifhed from all otheg earths, by being the
hardeft of all, confiderably heavy, femi-tranfparent, of a
very fmooth, unétuous, gloffy furface, and of a greyifh-
white colour, witha confiderable admixture of green; it is
of a difagreeable brackifh tafte, and does not ferment with
acids; it does not colour the hands; nor adhere to the
tongue, nor melt in the mouth, and it is not diffufible in
water. It burns to a great hardnefs, and a white colour.
It is dug in Germany, the ifland of Sardinia, and many
other places; but no where fo plentifully as about Briancon
in France, whence it is there commonly called Briangon
chalk.

MOROCTES, one of the names by which Pliny, and
fome other of the older authors, called the morochthus, or
French chalk.

MOROKINNEC, or Mororinnec, in Geography, one
of the {maller Sandwich iflands, uninhabited, fituated be-
tween the S.W. coaft of Mowee and the ifland of ‘Tahoo-
rowa. N. lat. 20° 39’. W. long 156° 29! 30”.

MORON,a town of France, in the department of the
Morbihan; 9 miles N.N.E. of Ploermel—Alfo, a town
of Spain, in the province of Seville; 23 miles E.S.E. of
Seville.

MORONA, a river of South America, which rifes
about 20 miles S.E. of Riobamba and runs into the Mara-

aon, 40 miles E. of St. Francifco de Borja.

MORONE, Joun, in Biography, a cardinal and ftatef-
man, born at Milan in 1509, was fon of Jerome Morone,
grand chancellor of Milau, an eminent political charaéter.
John was educated partly at Modena, after which, it is {up-
pofed, he ftudied at the univerfity of Padua. At the age
of twenty he was nominated by Clement VII. to the bifhop-
ric of Modena, but he did not enter upon the charge till the
year 1533; even before this fo much confidence was placed
in his early talents and difcretion, that he was fent by the
pope into France to induce the king to confent to a peace.
In 1536 pope Paul III. appointed him nuncio in ordinary
to Ferdinand king of the Romans; he was prefent at the
diets held at Hagenau and Spire, and it was owing to him
that the approaching general council was held at Trent. In
1542 he was made a cardinal, and fixed upon as prefident of
the council, though then only thirty-three years of age. In
1544 he was appointed to the legation of Bologtts of which
he was deprived in 1548 from the fufpicions of the French,
who thought him too much devoted to the intere(ts of the
emperor, It was, perhaps, for a fimilar reafon, that on the
affembling of the council of Trent he was excluded from
the prefidentfhip to which he had been elected. In 1553 he
was fent by Julius III. as legate to the diet of Augfburg,
where he vigilantly and warmly defended the interefts of the

: MOR

holy fee. About this time he exchanged the bifhopric of
Modena for that of Novara. The cardinal, though zea-
loufly attached to the church of Rome, was an enemy to
perfecution, and on that account fell under the fufpition of
the bigot cardinal Caraffa, afterwards pope Paul IV., who
caufed Morone to be arrefted and confined in the caftl: of
St. Angelo. In 1558 he was brought to trial upon the
charge of ‘teaching and having taught many opinions con-
nected with the reformed faith. He made his innocence fo
apparent, that the pope offered to liberate him from prifon,
which he refufed, unlefs he would grant him, at the fame
time, a folemn declaration that he believed him invocent.
The pope hefitated, and died without coming to a determina-
tion, and Morone was admitted to the conclave which ele@ed
Pius IV. The examination of his caufe was then refumed,
and he obtained a complete abfolution not only from crime,
but even from all fufpicion in matters of faith. As a re-
compence for fo ferious an injury, he was appointed to fuc-
ceed cardinal Gonzaga as prefident of the council of Trent,
and by his addrefs he brought its bufinefs to a conclufion in
1563. After this he obtained many fees appropriated to
the cardinals, as thofe of Paleftrina, Frefcati, Porto, and
Oftia. During the troubles of Genoa in 1575, he was fent
thither as legate by Gregory XIII., and contributed very
much to the re-eltablifhment of tranquillity. He died at
Rome in 1580, leaving behind him a very high charaéter for
integrity, and a¢tivity in the various fervices which he under-
took. Some Latin and Italian letters; an oration before
the council of Trent, and another before the emperor Fer-
dinand ; fynodial conftitutions for Modena, and a code of
laws for the government of Genoa, are proofs that his
public occupation did not entirely prevent him from exer-
cifing his pen to ufeful purpofes.

MORONOBEA, in Botany, Aubl. Guian. 788. t. 313.
Juff. 257. Lamarck Illuftr. t.644. See SyapHonra,

MOROSINI, Anpvrew, in Biography, a fenator of
Venice, was defcended from James Morofini, of a very illuf-
trious family, and was born in 1558. He received an ex-
cellent education, and rofe through the different degrees of
nobility to the rank of ‘ favio grande,’’ and to a place in
the council of ten. He was three times one of the re-
formers of the univerfity of Padua, had obtained much
wifdom by experience in public affairs, and was accomplifhed
in every branch of polite literature. In 1598 he fucceeded
to the office of hiftorian of the republic. He was employed
in this tafk till his death, which happened in 1618, and.he
had not then put the laft hand to it. This hiftory was
written in Latin, and is a continuation of that of Peter
Bembo. It comprehends the period between 1531 and
1615. It was firft publifhed in 1623, and reprinted in 1719
at Venice, in the colleétion of Venetian hiftorians. It has
been ranked among the belt performances of that age. He
alfo publifhed, in Latin, a volume of Opufcula and
Epittles ;”’ and a narrative in Italian of ‘« Expeditions to
the Holy Land, and the Acquifition of Conftantinople by
the Venetian Republic.”

Moxosin1, Pau, brother to the preceding, and like-
wife a Venetian fenator, was appointed to the fame polt of
public hiftorian, after Nicholas Cortrarini. He pave an
entire hiflory of the republic from its origin to the year
1487, in the Italian language. It was publifhed in 1637.
It is faid to be valuable for feveral notices omitted by other
writers who preceded him.

MOROTOL, in Geography, one of the Sandwich iflands,
25 leagues W.N.W. from Mowee. The S.W. coatt is very
low, but the land rifes backward to a confiderable height,

and appeared to be entirely without wood. Its produce
contitts

MOR ;

confifts chiefly of yams. On the S. and W. fides the coaft
forms feveral bays, that promife good fhelter from the trade
winds, N. lat. 21°10’. W. long. 157° 17! :
MOROTOUNA, a town of Hindooftan; 24 miles’ E.
of Tellicherry. ‘

MOROZZO, a town of France, in the department of
the Stura; 9 miles E. of Coni.

~MORPETH, a market and borough town in the weftern
divifion of a ward of the fame name, and county of Nor-
thumberland, England, is feated on the northern and fouthern
banks of the Wonfbeck river, in the courfe of the great
road from London to Edinburgh. It isa place of remote
antiquity, and a borough by prefcription, under the govern-
ment of two bailiffs and feven burgefles. ‘Two members
have been fent from this town tu parliament fince the year
1553s who are ele&ted by the bailiffs and free burgefles, and
returned by the former. The number of voters is eftimated
at about 200, the greater part of whom are under the in-
fluence of the earl of Carlifle, and William Ord, efq. who
poflefs the chief part of the burgage tenures. The coniti-
tution of this borough is rather fingular: among the bur-
geffes there are a few perfons of independent principles ; but
their number is too {mall to produce any material effet at
elections. :

Camden informs us that this town was ** burned down by
its inhabitants in 1215, out of hatred to king John,” but
the Chronicle of Melrofe afligns a more probable caufe for
the event, by afferting that the barons deftroyed it, as they
did many other towns, with the view of diftrefling that mo-
narch, when on his march to punifh their revolt. It was
again vifited with fimilar deftruction in 1689, at which time
the damage was eftimated at 3500/. The prefent appearance
of Morpeth is that of a fmall, neat town, fituated between
the woody banks of the Wonfbeck. Here are a county gaol
for Northumberland, and an ugly town-houfe, built at the
expence of the earl of Carlifle in 1714, from a defign by
Vanbrugh. The market day is on Wednefday, when there
is ufually a confiderable fhow of fat cattle and fheep for the
confumption of Newcattle, Shields, and Sunderland. The
parifh church ftands about a quarter of a mile from the
town, on Kirk-hill; and there is, befides, a chapel at the
bridge end. Adjoining to this laft, in an old chantry, is a
free {chool, which was founded by king Edward VI. Here
was formerly alfo an hofpital for the fick ; and at about the
fame diftance as the church, weft of the town, appears the
whole of a {mall door-way, which anciently led into the
New Minfter abbey, founded in 1139 by Ranulphus de
Merlay, who placed in it monks of the Ciltertian order.
The abbots of this monaftery were frequently fummoned to
parliament during the reign of Edward I.

Of Morpeth caltle, which was feated on a confiderable
eminence clofe to the town, few veltiges remain, except a
portion of the gateway tower, and fome fragments of the
outer walls. This fortrefs owed its ereétion to William
lord Greyftock in the year 1358, and is faid to have been
of fome extent and confequence as a baronial manfion. In
the time of Leland, who fays ** Morpeth caitle ftandeth by
Morpeth town,” it was the property of lord Dacres, as
hufband of Elizabetlr baronefs Greyltcck; and continued
in his family till the reign of queen Elizabeth, when a
daughter of ‘Thomas lord Dacres conveyed it to lord Wil-
liam Howard of Naworth, anceftor to the prefent earl of
Carlifle, whofe landed property nearly encircles the whole

town. ‘The north end of Morpeth, called Bullers-green,
formerly belonged to New Minter abbey. It was purchated
by Thomas Wharton in 1677, and is now the property of
Mrs. H. Burdon, his lineal defcendant.

MOR

According to the parliamentary returns of 1S01, this
town contains 427 houfes, and its inhabitants are eftimated
at 2951 in number, vx. 1342 males, and 1609 females, of
whom 689 are engaged in fome branch of trade or manufac-
ture, and 116 in agriculture.

About two miles and a half fouth-weft from Morpeth
ftands the village of Mitford, which was formerly a market
town. The barony here was originally the property of a
family which gave its name to the village, and after chang-
ing matters feveral times, and in different ways, has, by an
unufual accident of fortune, returued to a collateral branch
of its ancient owners, the Mitfords of Molefden. The caftle
of this barony ftood on a lofty, natural eminence on the
fouth bank of the Wonfbeck. When it was originally built
is uncertain, but it is mentioned in hiltory as having been
deftroyed by king John and his Rutars (a band of Flemifh
troops), when they laid wafte this part of the country in
1215. It was rapidly however rebuilt, for in the following
year, we find it belieged by Alexander, king of the Scots.
Leland fays, “it was beten downe by the kynge, for one fir
Gilbert Middleton robby’d a cardinall cominge out of Scot-
land, and fled to his caftle at Mitford.” The ruins of this
fabric, now remaining, are the keep-tower and the exterior
walls, which have a deep ditch on the fouth and eaft fides,
cut out of the folid rock. Near the caftle ftands the prefent
manor-houfe, the feat of Bertram Mitford, efg.; and alfo
the parifh church. On a hill, immediately above the village,
is St. Leonard’s hofpital, founded by fir William Bertram
in the reign of Henry I., and now converted into a family
refidence called ‘* The Spital,’’ the refidence of Bullock, efq.
Above three miles eaft of Morpeth, on the banks of the
Wonfbeck, are fome remains of Bothal cattle, built by fir
Robert Bertram in the time of Edward III. According
to a furvey of it, taken in 1576, the circumference of the
walls was 490 feet. Thefe were flanked, on the north, by
two polygonal towers, fifty-three feet high, and on the
fouth-welt angle by a {quare turret, whofe height meafured
fixty feet. Inthe church, which adjoins thé caftle, may be
feen a curious tomb of one of the barons and hislady. It
is made of alabafter, and exhibits the recumbent figures of
the deceafed, with a variety of emblematical figures and
armorial devices. Four miles and a half fouth-eaft of Mor-
peth is Hartford, the feat of William Burdon, efq. author
of « Materials for Thinking,’’ &c. The houfe, a plain
fubftantial building of yellow ftone, confifts of a centre and
two wings; and was completed in the year 1803, on the fcite
of an old manfion. Near its principal front is the channel
of the river Blyth, which meanders through a romantic and
picturefque. valley. The open country abounds with coal
pits, and the foil is moitly a ttrong clay. The general afpeét
is dreary and unpleafant.

To the north of Morpeth are feveral other feats and ruins
not unworthy of notice. Cockle-park tower, called m
Speed’s map Cockley tower, is a curious remnant of anti-
quity, in the fafhion of the old border manfions. Wed-
drington cattle was formerly a moft diiinguifhed edifice,
though the work of different ages; but was pulled down
about 30 years ago, with the exception of an o¢tangular em-
battled tower, to which a {quare modern building has been
fince added, Telton-hall, north-weft of Weddrington, is
diflinguifhed as the place where the barons of Northum-
berland affembled in the reign of king John, and did ho-
mage to Alexander, king of Scotland. A few miles down
the river Coquet, on which this’ manfion f{tands, is Guy-
zance, once remarkabley for a nunnery built by Richard
Tyfon; and at Brinkburn was a priory founded by Roger
Bertram, baron of Mitford, in the reign of Henry T.

This

_

MOR

This building ftands on the north brink of the river above-
mentioned, finely fheltered by lofty banks and hanging
woods. The fhell of the church fuill remains entire. Its
architecture is in the plain, pointed ftyle, but the. north
and fouth doors are charged with very rich Saxon orna-
ments. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xu. by the
Rey. Mr. Hodgfon. A Tour in Scotland by Thomas Pen-
nant, sth edition, 1790, 3 vols. 4to, Gough’s Cainden,
3 vols. folio. Hiftory of the Boroughs of Great Britain,
&e., 1792, 3 vols. 8vo. Hiftorical and Deferiptive View
of the County of Northumberland, 2 vols. 8vo. 1817.
The latter work contains a comprehenfive account of the
county..

-MORPHASMUS, poedzspor, among the Ancicnis, a
Kind of dance, in which, by a great many figures, they imi-
tated the transformations of Proteus. >

MORPHEUS, in Mythology, one of the dreams which
were reckoned the children of Sleep, but which dertves its
name from pogdn, form, or /hape, becaute this dream, or
fymbolicaliy Morpheus, excelled the others, viz. Phobeter
and Phantafia, in afluming the gait, mien, air, and tone of

-voice of thofe whom he was to reprefent.

MORPHEW, Morpuza, in Medicine, a term which
has been ufed, efpecially by the tranflators of the writings of
the Arabians, and their followers, to denote the flighter
fpecies of fcaly leprofy, which was denominated alphos by
the Greeks, and albohak by the Arabians; and which is in-
cluded by Celfus under the head of Vitiligo. See Lerrosy
of the Greeks, and Leucr, where the charatteriltics of thefe
difeafes are detailed at length.

MORPHO, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cy-
prus, the refidence of an aga anda cadi; 33 miles W. of
Nicofia.

MORRA,a town of Naples, in Abruzzo Ultra; 32 miles
N.E. of Aquila—Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ;
8 miles N. of Arrah.

Morra, Za, a town of France, in the department of
the Tanaro ; 3 miles E. of Cherafco.

MORRHA, in Natural Hiffory, a name given by fome
to the fubftance more properly called murra or myrrha,
of which the cups called murrhina and myrrhina were
nmide.

MORRHINA Vasa, in the Writings of the Ancients.
See Murruina.

MORRICE-Dance. See Moresx-.’

MORRIS, Lewis, in Biography, a Welfh antiquary
and poet, was born in the ifle ot Anglefey in 1702, and
died in 1765 at Penhryn, in Cardiganfhire. He furveyed
the coaft of Wales in 1737, by order of the admiralty-board,
and his work was pubiifhedin 1748. Some of his poetical
pieces in the Welth language have been printed, and he left
above 80 volumes of manutcripts of antiquity, now depofited
in the Welfh charty-fchool, Grays-Inn lane, Londun.
Owen’s Camb. Biog.

Morris, Ricuarp, brother of the above, was alfo a
poet and critic in his native language. He was clerk in the
navy pay-office, and fuperiotended the printing of two va-
luable editions of the Welfh Bible. He died in 1779.
William Morris, another brother, was a great collef&tor of
Welfh manuleripts, and died comptroller of the cuftoms at
Holyhead in 1764. Owen’s Camb: Bing.

Morris, in Geography, a county of America, on the
northern line of New Jeriey, weft of Bergen county. It is
about 25 miles long, and 20 broad, is divided into five town-
fhips, and contains about 156,509 acres of improved, and
30,429 acres of unimproved land. Tie eaftern part of the

Vor. XXIV.

7 MOR

county 4 level, and affords fine meadows, and good foil! for
Indian corn. The. weltern part is more mountamous, but
produces crops of wheat. Here are feven rich iron mines,
and two {prings famous for curing rheugyatic and chronic
diforders. Black lead, &c. has been found in the moun-
tains. ‘The number of inhabitants in the county is 17,750,
of whom 775 are flaves.

Morris Bay, a bay on the welt coaft of the ifland of
Antigua,

Morris Pike, or Moori/fh Pike, in ancient Artillery, a
kind of pike that was much in fafhion about the reigns of
Henry VILL. and queen Elizabeth. Thefe pikes were ufed
both by land and fea; and though their chara@teriflic pecu-
harities are not precifely afcertained, many of the motions,
ufed in the exercife of them, refembled thofe practifed with
the common pike.

MORRISTOWN, in Geography, a town of America,
and capital of Morris county in New Jerfey, containing a
Prefbyterian and Baptift church, a court-houfe, an aca-
demy, and about 50 compaét houfes ; about 100 miles N.E,
of Philadelphia.

MORRISVILLE, a town, or rather village, of Penn-
fylvania, in Berks county, on the welt bank of Delaware
river; 9 miles from Briftol.

MORRO de Bonifacio, a cape on the coaft of Chili. S.
at. 39° 25'.

Morro Chico, a cape on the coaft of Honduras. N. lat.
15° 35".

Morro Cohir,; a cape on the coaft of Africa, in the
Indian fea. N. lat. 8° 5’.

Morro de Carapucho, a headland on the coatt of Peru.
S. lat. 19° 35/.

Morro de /os Diabolos, a headland on the coaft of Peru.
S. lat. 18°.

Morro Hermofo, a cape on the weit coat of California.
N. lat. 27° 52'.. Eslong; 245° 7/.

Morro Morena, a cape on the coat of ‘Chili. S. lat.
23% 10% y :

Morro-Morro, a town of the government of Buenos
Ayres, in- the diocefe of La Plata; 40 miles N.E. of
Cocha.

Morro de Puercos, acape on the weft coaft of Mexico,
N.vlat. 7? 35'.

Morro de S. Jorge, a cape on the welt coaft of America.
S. lat. 24°.

Morro Quemado, a headland on the coaft of Peru. S.
lat. 14° 20’. ¢
2 Morro de S. Jo/2f, a headland on the coaft of Peru. S.

fe 24%

MORRON, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 40 miles
N.W. of Villa del Principe.

MORRONE, a'town of Naples, in Lavora; 8 miles E.
of Capua.

MORROPE, a town of Peru, near the coaft of the At«
lantic, in the bifhopric of Truxillo, and jurifdiGion of Sana;
lying on the road between Quito and Lima, and containing
a 160 families, ali Indians; 105 miles N.W. of Trux-
illo.

MORROSQUILLO, a bay of the Spanifh main, on
the coaft of South America. N. lat. g 20/. W. long.

° 40!.

MORS, an ifland of Denmark, in Lymfiord gulf, about
18 miles from north to fouth, with various breadth from
t mile to riz miles. It has feveral towns and villages. The
chief place is Nikioping. N. lat. 56° so’. E. long.

8° 47’.
Bb Mors,

MOR

‘Mors. See Mevurs.

MORSCHANSK, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Tambov, on the Tzna; 56 miles N. of Tambov. N.
lat. 53° go’. E. long. 41° 34’.

MORSE, in Zoology, the name of a monftrous fea animal,
called by fome the ro{marus and walrus, and by others, very
improperly, the hippopotamus and equus marinus.

The morfe, or trichecus rofmarus of Linnzus, is an iil-
fhaped amphibious animal, of the fize of a large ox, covered
with a fkin like that of the feal, and fomewhat refembling
an ox in the head; for which reafon fome have called it the
fea~cow, or vacca marina; whence it has been erroneoufly
confounded by fome with the manati.

It has two large prominent znd crooked tufks in the upper
jaw, which are as fine as ivory, and are ufed by artificers
ror the fame purpofes ; and four grinders on both fides above
and below, but no cutting teeth. The teeth have been
fometimes found of the weight of twenty pounds each: It
brings forth ufually but one young at a time, never more
than two. Its a very ftrong and vigorous animal, and dif-
pore th taken; when it is caught, it is ufually at land, feldom
at fea. ;

Vorftius, who met with a young one of this creature, has
very accurately defcribed it: whence we have the beft de-
{cription extant of the nature of the animal.
One was of the fize of a large dog, and in fhape much re-
fembled the phoca or fea-calf. Its head was round; its
eyes large, and like thofe of an ox; its noftrils deprefled
and wide, and opening and drawing together, as the crea-
ture pleafed ; it had apertures on the fides of the head for
ears; its mouth opened round, and not very large; and on
the upper lip it had a fort of whifkers, compofed of thick
cartilaginous briftles; the lower jaw was of a trigonal form ;
the tongue fhort and thick, and the mouth well furnifhed
with broad and flatted teeth; its fore-feet, as well as the
hinder ones, were very broad ; and the hinder extremity of its
body very much refembled that of the phoca or fea-calf; when
it walked, the fore-feet were dire€ted forwards, the others
turned backward; the toes were five on each foot, and thefe
were joined by a membrane, which was remarkably thick ;
the hinder feet had claws, the fore-ones had not; and the
creature had no tail, and crept rather than walked on the
hinder parts; its fkin was thick and tough, and covered
with a few fhort grey hairs; it made a noife like the grunting
of a hog,

Thefe animals inhabit the coaft of Spitzbergen, Nova
Zembla, Hudfon’s bay, and the gulf of St. Lawrence, and
the icy fea, as far as cape Tfchuktfchi: they are gre-
garious; in fome places appear in herds of hundreds ; are
fhy animals, and avoid places that are much haunted by
mankind. The method of killing them on the Magdalene
ies is faid to be as follows: the hunters watch their land-
ing, and as foon as they find a fufficient number for what
they call a cut, go on fhore, each armed witha fpear, fharp
on one fide like a knife, with which they eut their throats ;
taking care not to ftand in the way of thofe which attempt
to get again to fea, which they do with great agility, by
tumbling headlong ; for they would cruth any body to death
by their valt weight. They are killed for the fake of their
oil, one walrus producing about half a tun. The know-
ledge of this chace is of great antiquity: O@her, the Nor-
wegian, about the year 890, made a report of it to king
Alired, having, as he fays, made a voyage beyond Norway,
for the convemence of fifhing for horfe-whales, which have in
their teeth bones of great value, of which he brought fome
at his return to the king, Pennant.

This young .

MOR

MORSEE, in Geography. See Morces:

MORSELLI, or Morsutt, are denominations given to
thofe forms of medicine intended to be fucked in the month,
as a lozenge; the word fignifying a little mouthful.

MORSIGLIA, in Geography, a town of the ifland of
Corfica; 21 miles N.N.W. of Battia.

MORSKOM, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Nyland; 16 miles N. of Borgo. N, lat. 60°39’. E. long.
25° 49’.

> MORSONA, a town of Naples, in the county of Mo-
life; 14 miles N.E. of Molife.

MORSUS Drazort, in Anatomy, a whimfical name ap-
plied to the broad aperture of the Fallopian tube.

Morsus Diaboli, Devil’s Bit, in Botany, a plant of the
f{cabious kind, which feems to have a fringe around the bot-
tom of its root; otherwife called /ucci/a. See Scastous.

It has its denomination from its roots, whieh appear as
if bitten off at the bottom; which fuperititious people at-
tributed to the devil, as done out of envy, left we fhould
have too much of fo falutary a root. It was formerly
looked on as a good alexipharmic ; but is now much out
of ufe.

Morsus Canis Rabidi, in Medicine.
BIA.

Morsus Rane, in Botany, Frog-bit.
CHARIS.

Morsus Vipere. See VIPER.

MORT p’AncestreE, in Law.
d’ Ancefire.

Morr, among the fifhermen of fome parts of England,
a name given to the falmon while in its third year’s growth.

Mort, La, in Geography, a lake of Upper Canada,
where the traders have a poit to purchafe furs of the Indians ;
40 miles N.N.W. from Sturgeon lake.

MORTA, a lake of_Italy, in the Trevifan; 5 miles N.
of Ceneda. i

Morra, in Medicine, an appellation given by Linnzus,
and fome others, to a fuppofed peltilential and mortal dif-
eafe, which has been more commonly denominated Pemphi-
gus, in confequence of the appearance of large veficles, or
bulle, upon the fkin, during the fever. It is probable,
however, that the hiltory of this veficular fever is very in-
correétly drawn, if it has not originated altogether in mif-
take. See Pempuicus. See alfo Linnzi Genera Mor-
borum, clafs i. gen. 1.

MORTAGNE, in Geography, a town of France, and
principal place of a_ diitrict, in the department of the
Orne; 18 miles N.N.E. of Alengon. The place contains
5720, and the canton 13,998 inhabitants, on a territory of
155 kiliometres, in 16 communes. N. lat. 48° 31'. E. long.
o° 27'.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the
Vendee, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of Mon-
taigu; 33 miles N.N.E. of Lucon, ‘The place contains
633, and the canton g220 inhabitants, on a territory of 1874
kiliometres, in 12 communes.—Alfo, a town of France, in
the department of the Lower Charente; 12 miles S.S.W.
of Saintes.

MORTALN, atown of France, and principal place of a
diftriét, in the department of the Channel; 16 miles E. of
Avranches. The place contains 2650, and the canton
10,705 inhabitants, on a territory of 1574 kiliometres, in
ro communes

MORTALITY, a term frequently ufed to a a
contagious difeafe, which deftroys yreat numbers of either
men or beatts.

Moxrrauiry, Bills of, are accounts or regifters fpecifying

7 e

See Hypropno-

See Hypro-

See Assize of Mort

MORTALITY.

the numbers born, married, and buried in any parifh, town,
or diltri&. In general they contain only thefe numbers ;
and, even when thus limited, are of great ufe, by iba
the degrees of healthisefs and prolificknefs, and the progrefs
of population in the places where they are kept. It is,
therefore, much to be wifhed, that fuch accounts had been
always correctly kept in every kingdom, and regularly

ublifhed at the end of every year. We fhould then have
had under our infpection the comparative ftrength of every
kingdom, as far as it depends on the number of inhabitants,
and its increafe or decreafe at different periods.

But fuch accounts are rendered more ufeful, when they
include the ages of the dead, and the diftempers of which
they have died. In this cafe they convey fome of the mott
important inftruction, by furnifhing us with the means of
afcertaining the law which governs the walte of human life,
the values of annuities dependent on the continuance of any
lives, or any furvivorfhips between them, and the favourable-
nefs or unfavourablenefs of different fituations to the dura-
tion of human life. There are but few regifters of this
kind ; nor has this fubje€t, though fo interefting to mankind,
ever engaged much attention till lately. The firft bills con-
taining the ages of the dead were thofe for the town of
Breflaw in Silefia. It is well known what ufe has been
made of thefe by Dr. Halley, and after him by De Moivre.
A table of the probabilities of the duration of human life at
every age, deduced from them by Dr. Halley, has been
publifhed in the Philofophical TranfaGtions (fee the Abridg-
ment, vol. ili. p. 669.) and has been inferted under the
article Lire-Annuities in this work; and this is the firft
table of this fort that has been ever publifhed. Since the
publication of this table, f{milar bills have been eftablithed
in a few towns of this kingdom ; and particularly in London
(in the year 172), and at Northampton in 1735.

Two improvements of thefe regifters have been propofed ;
the fir is, that the fexes of all that die in every period of
life fhould be fpecified in them, under the denominations of
boys, married men, widowers, and bachelors ; and of girls,
married women, widows, and virgins. The fecond is, that
they fhould f{pecify the numbers of both fexes dying of
every ditemper, in every month, and at every age. (See
the end of the fecond eflay in Dr. Price's Treatife on Re-
verfionary Payments, vol. ii. 7th edit.) Regilters of mor-
tality thus improved, when compared with the records of the
feafons, and with the circumitances that difcriminate dif-
ferent fituations, might contribute greatly to the increafe
of medical knowledge ; and they would afford the neceflary
data for determining the difference between the duration of
human life among males and females ; for fuch a difference
there certainly is, much in favour of females, a3 will appear
from the following fats, in addition to thofe which have
been already recited under the article MArniace, which
the reader is defired to confult, ;

At Northampton, though more males are born than fe-
males, and nearly the fame number die; yet the number of
living females appeared, by an account taken in 1746, to be
greater than the number of males, in the proportion of 2301

1770, or 39 to 30,

% re tke ae ar Holy Crofs, Salop, in the year 1760,
the number of females turned of S80 was 13, of males 2. In
the year 1770, thefe numbers were 11 and 6 refpectively ;
and for 20 years, from 1760 to 1780, eleven out of 966
had died above go in this parifh, and they were all females.

At Berlin it appeared, from an accurate account which
was taken of the inhabitants in 1747, that the number of
female citizens exceeded the number of male citizens in the
proportion of 459 to 391. «And yet out of this {maller

number of males, more had died for 20 years preceding *
1751, in the proportion of 19 to 17.

At Edinburgh, in 1743, the number of fernales was to
the number of males, as 4 to 3. (See Maitland’s Hiltory
of Edinburgh, p. 220.) But the females that died annually
from 1749 to 1758, were to the males in no higher propor-
tion than 34 ta 3.

He that will take the pains to examine the accounts in
Phil. Tranf. abr. vol. vii, part iv, p- 46, &c. referred to
under Marriacg, will find, that though in the towns there
enumerated, the proportion of males and females born is no
higher than 19 to 18, yet the proportion of boys and girls
that die is 8 to 7; and that, in particular, the {till born and
chryfom males are to the {till born and chryfom females as
3to2. See Marriage.

In thirty-nine parifhes of the diftri@ of Vaud, in Swit.
zerland, the number of males that died during ten years
before 1766, was 8170; of females 8167; of whom
the number that died under one year of age were 1817
males, and 1305 females ; and under ten years of age 3099
males, and 2598 females. In the beginning of life, there-
fore, and before any emigrations can take place, the rate of
mortality among males appears to be greater than among
females, And this is rendered yet-more certain by the tol-
lowing accounts. At Vevey, in the diftri& of Vaud, jutt
mentioned, there died in the courfe of twenty years, ended
at 1764, in the firft month after birth, of males 135 te Sg
females; and in the firlt year 225 to 162. To the fame effect
it appears from a table given by Sufmilch, in his Gottliche
Ordnung, vol. ii, p. 317, that in Berlin 203 males die
in the firft month, and but 168 females 3 and in the firft year
489 males and but 395 females. And it alfo appears from *
a table of Struyck’s, that in Holland 396 males die in the
firft year to 306 females.

The authorities for the fats here mentioned, and much
more on this fubje&t, may be found in the fecond volume of
Dr. Price’s Treatife on Reverfionary Payments, feventh
edition.

We hall here only add the following table, taken from a
memoir of Mr. Wargentin’s, publifhed in the colle@ion of
the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Stock-
holm, printed at Paris in 1772.

In all Sweden for nine years, ended in 1763, the propor.
tion of females to males that died out of a given number
living, was

Under the age of one year - 1000 to 1099
From to 3 years of age - 1000 — 1022
3— 5 - - - - 1042

5—l!I0 - - - - 1674
10-15 - - ~ - icSo
15—20 - . - : 1097
2Z0—25 - - - : 1283
25—30 - - : - T1161

Beare Ny ; F ii ; 993
355-49 3 ; 5 T159
40-45 - - - : Ils
ieee) 5 ; . , 1349

Some ia 7 ; r : 1339

55 —Go - - > - 1292
G6o—65 - - - - T115
65;—70 - - : - 1089
7O—8o - - . . 19022
80—go . - - : 1046
Above go > . - 1044

Regifters of mortality on the improved plan before-men.
tioned, were eftablifhed in 1772 at Chetler, and alfo in 1773

Bb a at

oy MORTALITY.

at Warrington in Lancathire; and they are fo comprehenfive
and correét, that there is reafon to expe& they will afford
much in{truétion on the fubjeét of human mortality, and the
yalues of lives.

But the country moft diftinguifhed in this refpe& is
Sweden; for in that kingdom exaét accounts have been
taken of the births, marriaves, and burials, and of the num-
bers of both fexes that died at all ages in every town and
diftri& ; and alfo, at the end of every pericd of five years,
of the numbers living at every age; and at Stockholm a
fociety was eitablifhed, whofe bufinefs it was to fuperimtend
and regulate the enumerations, and to colleét from the
different parts of the kingdom the regifters, in order to
digett them into tables of obfervation. Thefe regulations
were begun in Sweden in 1755; and tables containing the
refalt of them from 1755 to 1763, have been publifhed in
Mr. Wargentin’s memoir juft ‘referred to, and the moft
material parts of them may be found in an eflay by
Dr. Pace on the * Difference between the Duration of
Human Life in Town and in Country Parithes,’’ printed
in the lixty-fifth volume of the Philofophical Tranfactions,
part i. ;

In the fecond effay in Dr. Price’s ‘* Treatife on Rever-
fionary Payments and Life-Annuities,” vol. ii. p. 73, the fol-
lowing account is given of the principles on which tables of
obfervation are formed from regilters of mortality; and of
the proper method of forming them, fo as to render them
juft_reprefentations of the number of inhabitants, and the
probabilities of. the duration of human life in a town or
country. :

“In every place which juft fupports itfelf in the nur-ber
of its inhabitants, without avy recruits from, other places,
or where, for a courfe ef years, there has been no increafe
or decreafe, the number of perfons dying every year at'any
particular age, and above it, muit be equal to the number
of the living at that age. The number, for example, dying
every year, at all ages, from the beginning to the utmoit
extremity of life, muft, in fuch a fituation, be jutt equal, to
the whole number born every year. And tor the fame
reafon, the number dying every year at.one year of age
and upwards; at tcs2—years-ef age and upwards; at
three and upwards, and fo on, mutt be equal to the nam-
bers that attain to thofe ages every year; or, which is
the fame, to the numbers of the living at thofe ages.
It is obvious, that unlefs this happens, the: number of
inhabitants cannot remain the fame. If the former oum-
ber is greater than the latter, the inhabitants mutt de-
sreafe; if lefs, they mutt increa/e. From this obferva-
tion it follows, that in a town or country, where there is
no inereafe or decreafe, bills of mortality which give the
ages at which all die, will fhew the exaG& number of in-
habitants; and alfo the exaé& law, according to which
Human life waltes in that town or country.

In order to find the number of inhabitants; the mean
numbers‘dying annually, at every particular age and up-
wards, mult be taken as given by the bills, and placed under
one another in the order of the fecond column of the fol-
Jowing tables. ‘Thefe numbers will, it has appeared, be the
numbers of the living at 1, 2, 3, &c. years of age; and,
confequently, the fum, diminifhed by half the number born
annually, will be the whole number of inhabitants,

In fuch a feries of numbers, the excefs of each number
above that which immediately follows it, will be the number
dying every year, out of the particular number alive at the
beinning of the year ; and thefe exceffes fet down regularly
as in the third column of the table to which we have re-

6

ferred, will thew the different rates at which human life
waftes through all its different periods, and the different
probabilities of life at all particular ages.

~ It mult be remembered, that what has been now faid
goes'on the fuppofition, that the place whofe bills of mor-
tality are given, fupports itfelf, by procreation only, in thé
number of its inhabitants. In towns this very feldom hap-
pens, on account of the luxury and debauchery which gene-
rally prevail in them. They are, therefore, commonly kept
up by a conitant acceffion of ttrangers, or fettlers, whoremove
to them from country parithes and villages. In thefe cireums
ftances, in order to find the true number of inhabitants, and
probabilities of life, from bills of mortality containing an
account of the ages at which all die, it is neceflary, that the
proportion of the annual births to the annual fettlers fhould
be known, and alfo the period of life at which the latter
remove. Both thefe particulars may be difcovered in the
following method. :

If for a courfe of years there has been no fenfible increafe
or decreafe in a place, the number of annual fettlers will be
equal to the excefs of the annual burials above the annual
births. If there is an iucreafe, it will be greater'than this
excefs. If there is a decrea/e, it will be b/s.

The period of life at which thefe fettlers remove, will
appear in the bills by an increafe in the number of deaths at
that period and beyond it. Thus in the London bills, the
number of deaths, between 20 and 30, is generally
above double; and between 30 and 4o, near triple the
number of deaths between 10 and 20; and the true account
of this is, that from the age of 18 or 20, to 35 or 40,
there is an afflux of people every year to London from the
country, which occafions a great increafe in the number of
mhabitants at thefe ages; and, confequently, raifes the deaths
for all ages above 20, contiderably above their due propor-
tion, when compared with the number of deaths defore 20.
‘This is obfervable in all the bills.of mortality for towns with
which we are acquainted, not excepting even the Breflaw
bills. Dr. Halley takes notice, that thefe bills give the
number of deaths between 10 and 20 too fimall. This he
confidered as an irregularity in them, owing to chance; and,
therefore, in forming his table of obfervations, he took the
hberty fo far to correé it, as to render the proportion of
thofe who die to the living in this divifion of life, nearly the
fame with the proportion which, he fays, he had been in-
formed die annuaily of the young lads in Chrilt-church hof-
pital. But the truth is, that this irregularity in the bills
was derived from the caufe we have juft affigned. During
the five years for which the Breflaw bills are given by Dr.
Hailey, the births did, indeed, a little exceed the burials ;
bat it appears, that this was the effe&t of fome peculiar
caufes that happened to operate juit at that time; for,
during a complete century, from 1633 to 1734, the annual

_medium of births was 1089 Ve Dr. Short’s Comparative

Hittory, p.63.), and of burials 1256. ‘This town, there-
fore, mutt have been ull along kept up by a number of yearly
recruits from other places, equal to about a /even/h part of
the yearly births.

What has been now obferved concerning the period at
which people remove from the country to fettle in towns,
would appear fufficiently probable, were there no fuch evi-
dence for it as we have mentioned; for it might be well
reckoned, that thefe people in general mutt be fingle perfons,
in the beginning of mature life, who not having yet obtained
fettiements in the places where they were born, migraté to
towns in queft of employment. Having premifed thefe
obfervations, we thall endeavour to explain diflin@ly, the
effect which thefe acceffions to towns muft have on tables

of

MORTALITY.

of obfervation, formed from their bills of mortality ; and
the following general rule may be given on this fubje@.

If a place has, for a courfe of years, been maintained ina
flate nearly ftationary, as to number of inhabitants, by
recruits coming in every year, to prevent the decreafe that
would arife from the excefs of the burials above the births ;
a table formed on the principle, * that the number dying
annually, after every particular age, is equal to the number
living at that age,” will give the number of inhabitants,
and the probabilities of life, too great for all ages preceding
that at which the recruits ceafe, and after this it will give
them right. If the acceffions are fo great as to caufe an
increafe in the place, fuch a table will give the number of
inhabitants, and the probabilities of life, too (ite, after
the age at which the acceflions ceafe ; and too great, if there
is a decreafe. Before that age it will in doth cafes give
them too great ; but moft confiderably fo in the former cafe,
or when there is an increafe. .

If a place increafes, not in confequence of acceffions from
other places, but of a conttant excefs of the births above

the deaths; a table, conftruéted on the principle that has
’ been mentioned, will give the probabilities of hfe too low
through the whole extent of life; becaufe, in fuch circum-
{tances, the number of deaths in the firft ftages of life muft
be too great, in comparifon of the number of deaths, in the
latter {tages ; and more or lefs fo, as the increafe is more or
lefsrapid. The contrary, in all refpects, takes place where
there is a decreafe, arifing from the excefs of the deaths
above the births.

For example. Let us fuppofe, that 244 of thofe born
in a town, attain annually to 20 years of age; and that 250
more, all likewife twenty years of age, come into it annually
from other places; in confequence of which, it has, for a
courfe of years, been juft maintained in the number of its
inhabitants, without any fenfible increafe or decreafe. In
thefe circumftances, the number of the living in the town of
the age of 20, will be always 244 natives and 250 fettlers,
or 494 in all; and, fince thefe are fuppofed all to die in the
town, and no more recruits are fuppofed to come in, 494
will be likewife the number dying annually at 20 and up-
wards. Inthe fame manzer it will appear, on thefe fupno-
fitions, that the number of the living, at every age, fubfe-
qtent to 20, will be equal to the number dying annually at
that age and above it; and confequentiy, that the number
of inhabitants and decrements of life, for every fuch age,
will be given exaétly by the table. But for all ages before
20, they will be given much too great, For let 280 of ail
born in the town, reach 10; in thts cafe, 280 will be the
true number of the living in the town at the age of 10; and
the recruits not coming in till 20, the nuniber given by the
bills, as dying between 10 and 20, will be the true number
dying annually of the living in this divifion of life. Let this
number be 36; and it will follow, that the table ought to
make the numbers of the living at the ages between 10 and
20, a feries of decreafing means between 780 and (280 di-
minifhed by 36, or) 244. But in forming the table oa the
principle juit mentioned, 250 (the number above 20 dying

annually in the town who were not born in it) will be added”

to each number in this feries; and, therefore, the table will
give the numbers of the living, and the probabilities of life
in this divifion of hfe, almoft twice as great as they really
are. This obfervation, it is manifeft, may be applied to all
the ages under 20.

It is neceflary to add, that fuch a table will give the num-
ber of inhabitants, and the probabilities of life equally
wrong before 20, whether the recruits all come in at 20,

agreeably to the fuppofition juft' made, or otly degin then
to come in. In this laft cafe, the table will give the num-
ber of inhabitants, and probabilities of life, too great through-
out the whwle extent of life, if the recruits come in at all
ages above 20. But if they ceafe at any particular age, it
will give them right only from that age; and before, it will
err all along on the fide of excefs; but lefs confiderably be-
tween 20 and that age, than before zo. For example: if,
of the 250 fuppofed to come in at 20; only 150 then come
in, and the reft at 30; the number of the living will be
given 100 too high, at every age between 20 and 30; but,
as juft thewn, they wiil be given 250 too high at every age
before 20. In general, therefore, the number of the livin
at any particular age mult be given by the fuppofed table,
as many too great as there are anoual fettlers afier that age;
and, if thefe fupplies come in at all ages indifctiminately,
during any certain interval of life, the number of inhabitants
and the probabilities of life wili be continually growing lefs
and lefs wrong, the nearer any age is to the end of that in-
terval. Thefe obfervations prove, that tables of obferva-
tion ‘formed in the common way, from bills of mortality for
places where there is an excefs of the burials above the
births, mutt be erroneous, for a great part of the duration
of life, m proportion to the degree of that excels. They
fhew likewife at what parts of life the errors in fuch tables
are moft confiderable, and how they may be in a great mea-
fure corrected.

All this fhall be exemplified in the particular cafe of
London.

The number of deaths between the ages of 10 and 20, is
always fo {mall in the London bills, thac it feems certain
few recruits come to London under 20; or, at leaft, not
fo many as before this age are fent out for education to
fchools and univerfities. After 20, preat numbers come in
till 32, and fome, perhaps, till 40 or 50. But at every
age after 50, it is probable, that more retire from London
than come to it. ‘The London tables of obfervation, there-
fore, bemg formed on the principle already mentioned, can-
not give the probabilities of life right till 4o. Between 30
and 40 they mutt be a little too high; but more fo between
20 and 30; and moit of all fo before 20. It follows alfo,
ihat thefe tables muft give the number of inhabitants. in
London much too great.

The firft of the tollowing tables is formed in the manner
here explained, from the London bills for ten years, from
1759 to 17685 and adapted toa rc00 bern as aradix.. The
fum of the numbers in the fecond column, diminifhed by
half the number born, is 25,757. According to this table,
then, for every 1000 deaths in London,. there are 253 as
many inhabitants; or, in other words, the expectation of a
child juft born is 253; and the inhabitants are to the annual
burials, as 253 to 1. But it has appeared tkat the numbers
in the fecond column, being given on the fuppofition, that
all thofe who die in London were born there, mult be too
great ; and we have from hence a demonftration, that the
probabilities of hfe are given in the common tables, of
London obfervations, toe high, for, at leaft, the firft 30
years of life; an¢ alfo that the number of inhabitants in
London. muit be /ée/s than 253, multiplied by the annual
burials. ‘The common tables, therefore, of London ob-
fervations undoubtedly need corretion, as Mr. Simpfon fug-
gelted, and in fome meafure performed; though too im-
perfectly, and without going upun any fixed principles, or
fhewing particularly, how tables of obfervation ought to be
formed, and how far in different circumftances, aad at dif-
ferent ages, they are to be depended on. ‘The way of doing

this,

MORTALITY.

this, and, in general, the right method of forming genuine
tables of obfervation for towns, may be learnt from the fol-
‘lowing rule.

«From the fum of all that die annually, affer any given
-age, fubtra& the number of annual fettlers afier that age ;
and the remainder will be the number of the living af the
given age.”

This rule can want no explication or proof, after what
‘has been already faid.

If, therefore, the number of annual fettlers in a town at
-every age could be afcertained, a perfe& table of obferva-
tions might be formed for that town, from bills of morta-
lity, containing an account of the ages at which all die in
it. But no more can be learnt in this inftance, from any
bills than the whole number of annual fettlers, and the ge-
neral divifion of life in which they enter. This, however,
may be fufficient to enable us to form tables that fhall be
tolerably exaé&. For inftance: fuppofe the annual deaths
in a town which has not iancreafed or decreafed, to have been
tor many years in the proportion of 4 to 3, to the annual
births. It will hence follow, that + of the perfons who die
an fuch a town are fettlers, or emigrants from other places,
and not natives; and the fudden increafe in the deaths after
20, will alfo fhew, agreeably to what was before obferved,
that they enter after thisage. In forming, therefore, a table
for fuch a town, a quarter of all that die at all ages through-
out the whole extent of life, muft be deducted from the
fum of all that die after every given age before 20; and the
remainder will be the true number living at that given age.
And if, at 20, and every age above it, this deduction is
omitted, or the number of the living at every fuch age is
taken the fame with the fum of all that die after it, the
refult will be ({uppofing mof of the fettlers to come in
before 30, and a// before 40) a table exa& till 20; too high
between 20 and 30; but nearly right for fome years before
40; and after 40 exact again. Such a table, it is evident,
will be the fame with the table laft defcribed at all ages
above 20, and different from it only under 20. It is evi-
dent alfo that, on account of its giving the probabilities of
life too great for {ome years after 20, the number of inha-
bitants deduced from it may be depended on as fomewhat
greater than the truth; and more or lefs fo as the annual
recruits enter in general later or fooner after 20.

Let us now confider what the refult of thefe remarks will
be, when applied particularly to the London bills.

In muft be here firft obferved, that, at leaft, one quarter
of all that die in London are emigrants from the country,
and not natives. ‘The medium of annual burials for ten
years, from 1759 to 1768, was 22,956; of births, 15,710.
The excefs is 7246, or neara third of the burials. The
fame excefs, during ten years, before 1750, was 10,500, or
near half the burials. London was then decreafing. For
the lalt 12 or 15 years it has been increafing. ‘This excefs,
therefore, agreeably to the foregoing obfervations, was then
greater than the number of annual recruits, and it is now
lefs. It is, however, here fuppofed, that the number of
annual recruits is now no more than a quarter of the annual
burials, in order to allow for more omiffiens in the births
than the burials; and alfo, in order to be more fure of ob-
taining refults that fhall not exceed the truth.

Of every thoufand then who die in London, only 750
are natives, and 25 are recruits, who come to it after 18
or 20 years of age; and, confequently, in order to obtain
from the bills a more correé¢t table than the firfl of the fol-
lowing tables, 250 muft be {ubtra¢ted from every one of
the numbers in the fecond column till 20; and the numbers

in the third column muft be kept the fame, the bills always
giving thefe right. After 20, the table is to be continued
unaltered; and the refult will be, a table which will give
the numbers of the living at all ages in London much nearer
the truth, but fill fomewhat too high. Such is the fecond
of the following tables. The fum of all the numbers in
the fecond column of this table, diminifhed by 500, is
20,759. For every 1000 deaths, therefore, in London,
there are, according to this table, 20,750 living perfons in
it; or for every fingle death, 203 inhabitants. It was be
fore fhewn, that the number of inhabitants in London could.
not be fo great as 253 times the deaths. It now appears
(fince the numbers in the fecond column of this table are
too high) that the number of inhabitants in London cannot
be fo great as even 203 times. the deaths. And this is a
conclufion which every one, who will beftow due attention
on what has been faid, will find himfelf forced to receive.
It will not be amifs, however, to confirm it by the following
faét, the knowledge of which is derived from the particular
enquiry and information of Mr. Harris, the late ingenious
matter of the Royal Mathematical School in Chrift-charch
Hofpital. The average of lads in this fchool has, for thirty
years paft, been 831. They are admitted at all ages be-
tween feven and eleven; and few itay beyond fixteen; they
are, therefore, in general, lads between the ages of eight
and fixteen. They have better accommodations than it can
be fuppofed children commonly have ; and about three hun-
dred of them have the particular advantage of being edu-
cated inthe country. In fuch circumftances it may be well .
reckoned, that the proportion of children dying annually,
mult be lefs than the general proportion of children dying
annually at the fame ages in London. The fact is, that for
the laft thirty years, 112 have died annually, or one in 707.

According to Table II. of all who complete their eighth
year in London, and who are living at that age, and at every
intermediate age till 16, one in 74 die annually. It follows,
therefore, that according to this table, fuppofing the lads
in Chrift-church fchool all admitted exa@ly at eight years
of age, and none difcharged before they have completed 16
years of age, or before they have refided eight years (fuppo- -
fitions much too favourable) only a 74th part ought to die
annually. This table, therefore, gives the decrements of tife
in London at thofe ages too little, and the numbers of the
living too great, and if this is true of thefe ages, it muft be
true of all ages under 20; and it follows demonitrably, in
conformity to what was betore fhewn, that more people
fettle in London after 20, than the quarter fuppofed above 5
and that from 20 to 35 or 40 the numbers of the living are
given too great in proportion to the decrements of life,

In this table the numbers in the fecond column are doubled
at 20, agreeably to what really happens in London; and
the fum of the numbers in this column diminifhed by half
the whole number of deaths, gives the expectation of life,
not of a child juft born, as in other tables, but of all the
inhabitants of London at the time they enter it, whether
that be at birth, or at 20 years of age. The expectations,
therefore, and the values of London lives under zo, cannot
be calculated from this table. But it may he very ealfily
fitted for this purpofe, by finding the number of births
which, according to the given decrements of life, will leave
494 alive at 20; and then adapting the intermediate num.
bers in fuch a manner to this radix, as to preferve all along
the number of the living, in the fame preportion to the num.
bers of the dead, ‘This is done in the third of the followe
ing tables; and this table may be recommended as bette
adapted to the prefent {tate of London than any other table,

The

MORTALITY.

The values of lives, however, deduced from it, are in ge-
neral nearly the fame with thofe deduced by Mr. Biaptrn
from the London bills, as they ftood forty years ago; the
main difference is, that after 52, and in old age, this table
gives them fomewhat lower than Mr Simpfon’s table.

For the method of applying thee obfervations in deter-
mining the number of inhabitants in London, &c. fee
Expectation of Life.

Under the article ExrecratTion, an account has been
given of the difference between the rate of human mortality
in great towns and in country parifhes aud villages. The
fourth and fifth of the following tables, compared with the
two laft, will give a more diltin& and full view of this.
difference :

Tasce I.
Shewing the Probabilities of Life in London, on the Sup-

pofition that all who die in London were born there.
Formed from the Bills for ro Years, from 1759 to 1768.

D |
ecr. ecr.
Perfons |

Taste II,

Shewing the true Probabilities of Life in London, till the

Age of 19,

Perfons

Decr. of

BSS ving. | Wile che
o| 750 12 |
1 | 510 13
2 | 411 14
3.| 369 15
4| 340 16
51 3a9 17
6 | 308 18
7 |-298 19
8 | 291 20
49) |i 285; 21
Io | 280 &e,
11 | 276

.

!

Perfons IDecr, of
Life.

Part
avin.

272
268
265
262
259
256
25a
249
494
487
&e.

WWW Ww

The numbers inthe fecond column to be continued as in

Perfons Deer: | Perfons ;
‘ Ages. living. ee Ages.| living, Life. living. | 3A er ae
© | 000 l240 31 | 404 132 7 Taste III.
1 | 760 | 99 | 32 | 395 Tag} 7 ‘ Hee
2| 661 2-133 | 386 118. | 7 Shewing the true Probabilities of Life in London, for all
3. | 619 } 29 | 34] 377 III 7 Ages. Formed from the Bills for 10 Years, from 1759
4 | 590 | 21435 | 368 7 to 1768.
5 569 | 11 | 36} 359 7 ae
55 10 | 37 35° 7 | ect. cr. lecr
7-| 548 W 38 | 341 7 lakes Perfons Ages Huh ie i Ages ole ef i
8 540 6139 | 332 G i living. ' Life living. | Life. living. lia.
9} 535 5 | 49 | 322 6 ——|_—_ bib eis pote
Io | 530 4 | 41 | 312 6 ©} 1518 486 | 31 | 404 9 | 62 | 132 7
11 | 526 41 42 | 302 5 1 | 1032 |200 | 32 | 395 91 63 | 125 [7
12 | 522 | 4] 43 | 292 5 2| 832 | 85 | 33] 386 | 9] 64] 118 | 7
13. 513 | 3444) 282 5 3] 747 | 59434) 377 | 9] 65 | 11t fF 7
14] 515 | 3145 | 272 5 4 | 688 | 42 | 35 | 368 | 9 | 66} 104 [7
15 | 512 | 3446 | 262 5 5 | 646 | 23} 36] 359 | 9] 67} 97 |-7
16 | 509 | 3447 | 252 4 6 | 623 | 20] 37] 350 | 9] 68) 90 [7
17 | 506 | 3448) 242 | 9 4 7{ 603) 14} 38] 341 | 9} 69} 83 | 7
18 | 503 | 4149] 233 | 9 3 8 | 589 | 32] 39] 332 | 10] 70] 76 | 6
19 | 499 5 150 | 224 9 gi) 9] 577.| 19} 40 | 322 | ro] 71 70 | 6
20 | 404 Pin SEs|. 205 9 3 1O.| (567 | G9 [i4i |) 312 | 10 [72 |" 64.) [6
21 | 487 8 | 52 | 206 8 3 Ir] 558 | 9] 42] 302 | 10} 73 | 58 [5
22 | 479 8 } 53 | 198 8 2 12| 549) 8 1)43'|| 292 | Io] 74-1 53 | [5
23 | 471 | 8} 54] 190 | 7 2 13) 541} 7) 44] 282 | 10] 75.) 48 Fs
24} 463 | 8455] 183 | 7 2 14) 534| G1 45] 272.) 10], 76] 43 | 5
25 | 455 8] 56| 176 7 2 BS | 4528 [2 6 [¥46|4 262, | FO} 77°) 738 | hs
26] 447 | 857} 169 ) 7 I 16} 522 | 7147) 252 | 190} 7 33/4
27 | 439 | 8} 58) 162 | 7 I 7} 515 | 7448 | 242 | 9179] 29 | 4
28 | 431 9} 59} 155 8 I 18} 508| 7149] 233 Qif.85 L., 25.. 133
29 | 422 g | 60 | 147 8 19 | 501 7] 50} 224 9 {| 81 2a ba
30 } 413 9 | 61 | 139 7 2OW AQKt! (a Tha Zito Of: 824 he tou, 1.3
21.| 487.|. 8} 52 | 206 8 | 83 16 |3
22| 479.| 8] 53.} 198 8} S4 | 13 2
Pe | a Peace) | (meso Co Yen yl Tet TA es oh a lf
24}. 463 | &] 5s | 183 | 74 86) 9 | 2
25} 455 | 8156) 176.] 7] 87 7 2
26} 447) 8157] 169) 7}88] 5 {1
27 | 439} 8] 58] 162 7 | 89 4 I
28} 4311 9159] 155 | S90} 3 [1
29 22 9 {60} 147 8
3°} 413} 9] Or | 139] 7

MORTALITY.

Taste IV. ‘Taste V.

Shewing the Probabilities of Life in the Diftri& of Vaud, Shewing the Probabilities of Life in a country Parifh in
Switzerland, formed’ from the Regifters of 43 Parifhes, Brandenburgh, formed from the Bills for 50 Years, from
given by M. Muret, in the firft Part of the Bern Me- 1710 to 1759, asgiven by Mr. Sufmilch, in his Gottliche
moirs for the Year 1766. Ordnung.

Age. |Living. | Decr.} Age. Living. Decr§ Age. | Living. |Decr. . |Living. |Deer. § Age. |Living. |Decr.

Aim | NAADAAN

Ppp

———_— } |} — | —— |

PPP PU

74
6 |
5 |
5
3 |
5 |
5 |
44
4
4

Urn
ah
mnivivniw

o~!

wpnN wb wb

©
'

=O

ta wo Bs Gs WD

MPM
> wb

All the bills, from which this and the following tables are
formed,’ give the numbers dying under 1 as well as under 2
years 5 and, in the numbers dying under 1, are included, in
the country parifh in Brandenburgh, and at Berlin, all the
ftill-borns. Alithe bills alfo give the numbers dying in every
period of five years,

MORTALITY.

Tasce VI. Taare V1i.

Shewing the Probabilities of Life at Vienna, formed from Shewing the Probabilities of Dife at Berlin, formed from
the Bills for eight Years, as given by Mr. Sufmilch, in the Bills for four Years, from 1752 to 1755, given by
his Gottliche -Ordnung, p. 32. Tables, Mr. Sufmilch, in his Gottliche Ordnung, vol. ii. p. 37.

Tables.

, | ly 3. 2
4 Age. | Living. |Decr. PAge. {Liting: Decr. | Age.| Living. | Deer.

——————— < —y Age. | Living. |Decr.4 Age. Age. | Living. | Decr.
o fr495 (682°h35 | 340 8 | 70 71 6 2 EL eS | ee
1 | 813 j107:f 36 | 3321 8] 71 | Os | 5 0 (1427 |524 6
21.706 | 61.) 37 | 32 81172 ile <Qon ls I | 993 6
3 | 645 | 46938 | 316.) 9 1 73 | 55 | 4 2 | 752 6
4 | 599 | 33:1 39 | 397) 9474) ST | 4 3 | 691 5
eee 2 — —-] ——_|—--; —} 4 | 618 | 4 5
5} 506 | 30 P40 | 298 S] 75) 47) 5 0 eae
6 |} 536 | 20:>b4r | 290) 7 | 76 2 ig 5 1 573 5
7 | 516 | ref 42 | 2835), 6 T7137 115 6 |, 552 5
9 6478) 32] 5 7} 536 5
7 7 P79 049 1) 4+ 8 | 523 5
oe su ears | 9 sna 4
6 8] S80} 2 3 ee ees eee 1 aes
5 9] 81 20 2 Io | 507 7 4
5 9 1824.5 kp }) 2 1T | 502 7 3
6 9 | 83 416 |} 2 12 | 498 7 2
6 9] 84} m4] 2 13 | 494 7 2
ay Ss PS el Se Fa, i4 | 490 7 2}
6 8 | 85 12 2 = oS ae
7 7 1862). 20 | 2 15 | 486 7
6 7 | 87 8] 2 16 | 482 7
6 7/88| 6) 2 17 | 477 i
6 71 89 i a 18 | 472 8
are 19 | 467 8
8 | go 3 I —-|— a
8 | 91 ZY 201 461} 6 8
9 | 92 Ea opt 211455 | 6 8
7 22 | 449 | 6 8
8 23} 443 | 7 9
= Ta, aaa Va! (GLa a A; CA 24} 436 | 8 9
7 —
7 25 | 428] 9 8
6 26} 421] 9 4
7 27 | 412 | 9 | 6
7 28 | 403 | 9 6
3 291394) 9 6
8 30 | 385 | 9 6
8 31 | 376] 9 7
yf 2 | 368 8 7
7 33} 361] 7 6
34 | 354] 7 6

This writer has alfo given the bills of the parifh of St.
Peter, at Berlin, for 24 years; and a table formed trom
them agrees nearly with this.

Vou. XXIV. Cc TaBLe

MORTALITY.

Tasze VIII.

Shewing the Probabilities of Life in the Kingdom of Swe-
den among Males and Females, according to the Medium

Males.

Females.

of Seven different Enumerations in 1757, 1760, 1763, ia

1766, 1769, 1772, and 1775. Age. Living. Decreafe, Living. Decreafe.

45 4,071 80

Males. Females. 46 3,991 Be

Born 10,282—282 Born 10,277—21 47 39911 eS

born dead. born ae ’ 48 31831 80

49 39751 85

Ee 50 3,666 95

Ace. Living. Decreafe. Living. Decreafe. 51 35571 95

an 52 39476 95

rnalive! 10,000 10,090 53 39381 95

I year 75700 75910 54 3,286 95

72200 79392 55 39191 95

6,863 79042 56 3,096 95

6,623 6,792 57 3,001 1co

65473 6,657 58 2,901 100

6,348 65537 . 59 2,801 100

6,243 6432 60 25701 105

6,153 65347 61 2,596 110

6,078 65277 62 2,486 115

6,013 6,217 63 2,371 115

53958 6,165 64 2,256 115

55913 6,119 65 2,141 II5

53868 6,079 66 2,026 115

5,828 6,044 ; 67 1,gi1 120

5,788 6,009 68 1,791 125

59749 59974 69 1,666 125

5»710 52934 72 1,541 125

5,671 5,894 71 1,416 125

5,627 59852 72 1,291 120

5583 52809 73 1,171 120

59533 59766 74 1,051 110

5483 53723 75 941 105

59433 52680 76 836 100

59378 5,636 77 736 go

59323 5 59591 78 646 85

5,268 59546 79 561 80

59213 5496 80 481 75

59158 59444 8r | 406 70

53103 59389 82 336 65

51049 59334 83 271 60

4,988 59274 84 211 50

4928 59214 85 161 40

4,868 55149 86 121 30

4,808 5,084 87 gl 22

49748 5019 88 69 17

4,688 45959 89 52 14

4,628 | 4,903 go 38 12

4568 | 4347 91 26 9

4,508 4:79! 92 17 7

49448 4/733 93 10 6

45353 4,668 94 4 3

45311 49593 9 I

41231 49517 9 0 °

°

45151 As441 97 | ° 1

MORTAR.

MORTAR, or Monten, in 4rchite@ure, a compofition
ef lime, fand, &c. mixed up with water: ferving as a ce-
ment to bind the ftones, &c. of a building.

The ancients had a kind of mortar fo very hard and bind-
ing, that, after fo long a duration as to this time, it is next
to impoffible to feparate the parts of fome of their buildings ;
though there are fome who afcribe that exceffive ftreagth to
time, and the influence of certain properties in the air,
which is, indeed, found to harden fome bodies very fur-
prifingly.

The lime ufed in the ancient mortar, is faid to have been
burnt from the harde(ft ftones, or often from fragments of
marble. :

De Lorme obferves, that the beft mortar is that made of
pozzolana for fand ; adding, that this penetrates black flinte,
and turns them white. See PozzoLana, and Puteolanus
Putvis. ~

Mr. Worledge obferves, that fine fand makes weak mor-
tar, and that the larger the fand the ftronger the mortar.
He therefore advifes, that the fand be wafhed before it is
mixed ; and adds, that dirty water weakens the mortar con-
fiderably. ‘ ;

Wollfius obferves, that the fand fhould be dry and fharp,
fo as to prick the hands when rubbed; yet not earthy, fo
as to foul the water in whichit is wafhed.

Vitruvius obferves, that foffile fands dry fooner than thofe
taken out of rivers. Whence he adds, the latter is fitted for
the infides, the former for the outfides of a building. He
fubjoins, that foffile fand, lying long in the air, becomes
earthy. Palladio takes notice, that of all fands white ones
are the worft ; and the reafon is owing to their want of
afperity.

The proportion of lime and fand in our common mortar
is extremely variable : Vitruvius prefcribes three parts of
pit-fand, and two of river-fand, to one of lime; but the
quantity of fand here feems to be too great.

The proportion moit commonly ufed in the mixing of lime
and fand is, to a bufhel of lime a bufhel and a half of fand,
i. e. two parts of lime and three of fand ; though the common
mortar, in and about London, has more fant in it than ac-
cording to this proportion. ‘The improvement of mortar is
certainly an objet of great importance: and different
fchemes have been fuggetted for giving it that degree of
durability for which the mortar uled by the ancients is fo
juftly celebrated.

Mr. Doffie, in the fecond volume of the Memoirs of Agri-
culture, p. 20, &c. gives the following method of making
mortar impenetrable to moifture, acquiring great hardnefs,
and exceedingly durable, fimilar to that ufed by the ancients,
which was difcovered by a gentleman of Neufchatel: take
ef unflaked lime and of fine fand, in the proportion of one
part of the lime to three parts of the fand, as much as a la-
bourer can well manage at once; and then adding water
gradually, mix the whole well together with a trowel, till
it be reduced to the confiftence of mortar. Apply it imme-
diately, while it is hot, to the’ purpofe, either of mortar, as
a cement to brick or ftone, or of platter to the furface of
any building. It will then ferment for fome days in drier
places, and afterwards gradually concrete, or fet, and be-
come hard: but in a moilt place it will continue foft for three
‘weeks or more; though it will, at length, attain a firm con-
fiftence, even if water have fuch accefs to it fo asto keep the
furface wet the whole time. After this, it will acquire a
ftone-like hardnefs, and refift all moifture. The perfection
of this mortar depends on the ingredients being thoroughly
blended together; and the mixture being applied imme-
diately after to the place where it is wanted. The lime for
this mortar muft be made of lime-{tone, fhells, or marle ;

and the ftronger it is, the better the mortar will be; befides;
the lime fhould be carefully kept from the accefs of air or
wet ; otherwife, by attra¢ting moifture, it will lofe propor-
tionably that power of a¢ting on the fand, by which the in-
corporation is produced. It is proper alfo to exclude the
fun and wind from the mortar, for fome days after it is ap-
plied ; that the drying too faft may not prevent the due con-
tinuance of the fermentation, which is neceflary for the ac-
tion of the lime on the fand. When a very great hardnefs
and firmnefs are required in this mortar, the ufing of fkim-
med milk inftead of water, either wholly or in part, will pro-
duce the defired effe&t, and render the mortar extremely te-
nacious and durable.

M. Loriot’s mortar, the method of making which was
announced by order of his majefty at Paris in 1774, is made
in the following manner: take one part of brick-duft finely
fifted, two parts of fine river-fand fkreened, and as much
old flaked lime as may be fufficient to form mortar with
water, in the ufual method, but fo wet as to ferve for the
flaking of as much powdered quick-lime as amounts to one-
fourth of the whole quantity of brick-duft and fand.
When the materials are well mixed, employ the compofition
quickly, as the leaft delay may render the application of it
imperfe& or impoffible. Another method of making’ this
compofition is to make a mixture of the dry materials ; i.e.
of the fand, brick-duft, and powdered quick-lime, in the
prefcribed proportion ; which mixture may be put in facks,
each containing a quantity fufficient for one or two troughs
of mortar. The above-mentioned old flaked lime. and water
being prepared apart, the mixture is to be made in the man-
ner of plalter, at the inftant when it is wanted, and is to be
well chafed with the trowel. With refpeé to this method,
Dr. Higgins obferves, that M. Loriot corre¢ts the bad
quality of the oldand effete lime, which conftitutes the bafis
of his mortar, and which has regained a part of the fixed
air that had been expelled from it, by the addition of freth
and non-effervefcent lime, haftily added to it, at the time of
ufing the compofition, which muft undoubtedly improve the
imperfeét mafs. And he adds, that when an ignorant artift
makes mortar with whiting inftead of lime, he can mend it
confiderably by adding lime to it; but his mortar will ftill
be defective, in comparifon with the beft that may be made,
by reafon of the old flaked lime or whiting ; this on repeated
trials he has found to be the true ftate of the cafe. Dr.
Higgins has made a variety of experiments, in confequence
of the modern difcoveries relating to fixed air, for the pur-
pofe of improving the mortar ufed in our buildings. Ac-
cording to this author, the perfection of lime, prepared for
the purpofe of making mortar, confifts chiefly in its being
totally deprived of its fixed air. On examining feveral fpe-
cimens of the lime commonly ufed in building, he found that
it is feldom or never fufficiently burned ; for they all effer-
vefced, and yielded more or lefs fixed air, on the addition of
an acid, and flaked flowly, in comparifon with well burned
lime. “Dr. Higgins alfo relates fome experiments, which
fhew how very quickly lime imbibes fixed air from the at-
mofphere ; on its expofure to which it by degrees foon lofes
thofe charaéters which chiefly diftinguifh it from mere lime-
ftone or powdered chalk: by foon attraGting from thence
that very principle, to the abfence of which it owes its ufe-
ful quality as a cement, and which had before been expelled
from it in the burning. Hence he concludes, that, as lime
owes its excellence to the expulfion of fixed air from it in
the burning, it fhould be ufed as foon as poffible after it is
made, and guarded from expofure to the air, as much as
poffible, befure it as ufed. It is no wonder, therefore, he
fays. that the London mortar is bad, if the imperfection of
it depended folely on the badnefs of the lime ; fince the

Cc. lime

MORTAR.

ime employed in it is not only bad whem it eomes frefh from
the kiln, becaufe it is infufficiently burned, and the air has
accefs to it, but becomes worfe before it is ufed, by the
diftance and mode of its ‘conveyance, and when flaked, is
as widely different from'good lime, as itis from powdered
chalk. Fora fimilar reafon, every other caufe, which tends
to reftore to the lime the fixed air, of which it had been
deprived in the burning, muft deprave it. It mutt receive
this kind of injury, for inftance, from the water, fo largely
ufed, firft in faking’ the lime, and afterwards in making it
into mortar; if that water contains fixed air, from which
few waters are perfeCtly free, and which will greedily be at-
traéted by the lime. The injury arifing from this caufe ts
prevented by the fubftitution of lime-water, fo far as may
be praéticable or convenient.

From other experiments, made with the view of afcertain-
ing the belt relative proportions of lime, fand and water, in
the making of mortar; it appeared that thofe fpecimens were
the beit which contained one part of lime in feven of the
farid ; for thofe which contained lefs lime, and were too fhort
whilft frefh, were more eafily cut and broke, and were per-
vious to water ; and thofe which contained more lime, al-
though they were clofer in grain, did not harden fo foon, or
to fo great a degree, even when they efcaped-cracking by
lying in the fhade to dry flowly. It appeared farther, that
mortar, which is to be ufed where it muft dry quickly,
ought to be made as ftiff as the purpofe will admit, or, with
the fmalleft praéticable quantity of water,\and that mortar
will not crack, although the lime be ufed in exceflive quan-
tity, provided it be made ftiffer, or to athicker confiltence
than mortar ufually is.

Dr. Higgins has alfo fhewn, that though the fetting of
mortar, as it is called-by the workmen, chiefly depends on
the exficcation of it, yet its induration, orits acquiring a
ftony hardnefs, isnot caufed by its drying, as has been fup-
pofed, but is principally owing to its abforption of fixed
air from the atmofphere, and is promoted in proportion as
it acquires this principle ; the acceffion of which is indifpen-
fibly neceffary to the induration of calcareous cements. In
order to the greateft induration of mortar, therefore, it muft
be fuffered to dry gently and fet ; the exficcation mult be
offe&ted by temperate air; and not accelerated by the heat of
the fun or fire; it muft not be wetted foon after it fets ; and
afterwards it ought to be proteéted from wet as much as
poffible, until it is completely indurated ; the entry of aci-
dulous gas muft be prevented as much as poffible, until the
mortar is finally placed and quiefcent; and then it muft be
as freely expofed to the open air as the work will admit, in
erder to fupply acidulous gas, and enable it fooner to fuftain
the tridls to which mortar is expofed in cementitious build-
mgs, and incroftations.

Dr. Higgins has‘alfo enquired into the nature of 'the belt
fand or gravel for mortar, and into the effeéts produced by
bone-afhes, plafter powder, charcoal, fulphur, &c. and he
deduces great advantages from the addition of bone-afhes,
in various proportions, according to the nature of the work
tor which the compofition is intended.

This author defcribes a water-cement or ftucco, of his own
wvention, for incruftations internal and external, exceeding,
as he fays, ‘Portland: ftone in hardnefs, for ‘which he ob-
tained! his’ majefly’s lettere patent in 1779. As for the
materials of which this is made; drift fand, or quarry
fand, or, as itis commonly called, pit fand, confitting chiefly
of hard quartofe flat-faced grains, with fharp a 2a the
molt’ free from clay, falts, and calcareous, gypleous, or
other’ Wrdins, lefy durable’ than quartz, containing ‘the
Ciialtelt quantity of pyrites, or heavy metallic matter, in-
fepacable by wathing, and admitting the leatt diminution in

bulk by wafhing, is to be preferred toany other. The fand’
is to be fifted in ftreaming clear water, through a fieve which:
fhall give paffage to all fuch’ grains as do not exceed one
fixteenth of an inch in diameter :; and the ftream of water
and fifting are to be fo regulated, that all the fand, which ie
much finer than the Lynn fand, together with clay and’
other matter, fpecitically lighter than fand, may be wafhed’
away with the ftream ; whilft the purer and coarfer fand,
which paffgs through the fieve, fubfides in a convenient re-
ceptacle; and whillt the coarfe rubbifh and fhingle remain:
on the fieve to be rejected. The fubfiding fand is then
wafhed in clean ftreaming water, through a finer fieve, fo
as to be farther cleanfed and forted into two parcels, a
coarfer, which will remain in the fieve which is to give paf--
fage to fuch grains of fand only as are lefs thaw one thir-
tieth of ‘an inch in diameter, and which is to be faved apart-
under the name of coarfe fand; and a finer, which will
pafs through the fieve and fubfide in the water, and which
is to be faved apart under the name of fine fand. Thefe
are to be dried feparately, either in the fun, or onaclean
iron plate fet on a convenient furface, in the manner of a
fand heat. Let the lime be chofen, which is ftone-lime,.
which heats the moft in flaking, and flakes the quickelt
when duly watered ; which is the frefheft made and mot’
clofely kept ; which diffolves in diitilled vinegar with the
leaft effervefcence, and leaves the fmalleft refidue infoluble,
and in this refidue the fmalleft quantity of clay, gypfum,
or martial matter. Let this lime be put im a brafs-wired:
fine fieve, to the quantity of fourteen pounds. Let the
lime be flaked by plunging it in a butt, filled with foft
water, and raifing it out quickly and fuflering it to heat
and fume, and by repeating this plunging and raifing al-
ternately, and agitating the lime, until it be made to pafs
through the fieve into the water: reject the part of the lime
that does not eafily pafs through the fieve; and ufe frefh
portions of lime, till as many ounces of lime have pafled
through the fieve as there are quarts of water in the butt.
Let the water, thus impregnated, ftand im the butt, clofe
covered, until it becomes clear; and, through wooden
cocks placed at different heights in the butt, draw off the
clear liquor, as faft and as low as the lime fubfides, for nfe.
This clear liquor is called the cementing liquor. Let fifty-
fix pounds of the forefaid chofen lime be flaked, by gre-
dually fprinkling on it, and efpeciaily on the onflaked
pieces, the cementing liquor, in a clofe clean place. Let the
flaked part be immediately fifted through the fine brats-
wired fieve. Let the lime which paffes be ufed inftantly,
or kept in air-tight veffels, and let the part of the lime
which does not pafs through the fieve be rejeéted: the
other part is called purified lime. Let bone-afh be pre-
pared in the ufual manner by grinding the whiteft burnt:
bones; but let it be fifted to be much finer than the bone-~
afh commonly fold for making cupels. Having thus pre-
pared the materials, take fifty-fix pounds of the coarfe
fand, and forty-two pounds of the fine fand; mix them on
a large plank of hard wood placed horizontally : then {pread
the fand fo that it may ftand to the height of fix inches, with
a flat furface on the plank; wet it with the cementing li-
quor; tothe wetted fand add fourteen pounds ofthe puri-
fied lime, in feveral fucceflive portions, mixing and beating
them up together; then add fourteen pounds of the bone-
afh in fucceflive portions, mixing and beating all together.
This Dr. Higgins calls the water-cement coarfe-grained,
which isto be applied in building, pointing, plattering,
{tuccoing, &c. obferving to work it expeditioufly in all
eafes, and in ftuccoing to lay it on by fliding the trowel up-
wards upon it ; to well wet the materials ufed with it, or
the ground on which it is laid, with the cementing liquor, at
. the

MORTAR,

the time of laying it on; and to ufe the cementing liquor alone, the {pace between the cogs need not be made fo wide

for moiftening the cement and facilitating the floating of it.

If a cement of a finer texture be required, take ninety-
eight pounds of the fine fand, wet it with the cemeuting
liquor, and mix it with the purificd lime and the bone-ath
as above, with this difference, that fitteen pounds of hime
are to be ufed inftead of fourteen pounds, if the greater
part of the fand be as fine as Lynn fand. This is called
water-cement fine-grained ; and is ufed in giving the laft
coating or the fini to any work, intended to imitate the
finer grained {tones or ftucco. Fora cheaper and coarfer
cement, take of coarfe fand or fhingle fifty-fix pounds, of
the foregoing coarfe fand twenty-cight pounds, and of the
finer fand fourteen pounds ; and after mixing and wetting
thefe with the cementing hquor, add fourteen pounds, or
fomewhat lefs, of the purified lime, and then as much of the
bone-afh, mixing them together. When the cement is re-
quired to be white, white fand, white lime, and the whiteft
bone-ath are to be chofen. Grey fand, and grey bone-ath,
formed of half-burnt bones, are to be chofen to make the
cement grey ; and any other colour is obtained, either by
chufing coloured fand, or by the admixture of the neceffary
quantity of coloured tale in powder, or of coloured vitreous
or metallic powders, or other durable colouring ingredients,
commoniy ufed in paint. The water-cement above defcribed
is applicable to forming artificial ftone; by making alter-
nate layers of the cement and of flint, hard ftone, or brick,
in moulds of the figure of the intended ftone, and by ex-
poling the mafles fo formed to the open air to harden,
When it is required for water fences, two-thirds of the
bone-afhes are to be omitted, and in its ftead an equal mea-
fure of powdered terras is to be ufed. When the cement
is required of the finelt grain, or in a fluid form, fo that
it may be applied with a brufh, flint powder, or the powder
of any quartofe or hard earthy fubftance, may be ufed in
the place of fand, fo that the powder fhall not be more than
fix times the weight of the lime, nor lefs than four times its
weight. For infide work, the admixture of hair with the ce-
ment is ufeful. Higgins’s Exp. and Obf. on Calcareous
Cements, &c. 8vo. 1780, paflim. See Srucco.

Mortar, Mixing and Blending of. M. Felibien obferves,
that the ancient mafons were fo very ferupulous in this procefs,
that the Greeks kept ten men conitantly employed; for a long
fpace of time, to each bafon ; this rendered the mortar of
fuch prodigious hardnefs, that Vitruvius telis us the pieces
of platter falling off from old walls ferved to make tables.
The fame Felibien adds, it is a maxim among old mafons to
their labourers, that they fhould dilute with the iweat of
their brow, 2. e: labour it a long time, inftead of drowning
it with water to have done the foolieds

Mortar-Mill, in Rural Economy, a machine contrived
by Mr. Supple, for the purpofe of faving labour in the
making up of mortar, as well as doing the bufinefs more
effetually and at a trifling expence. It may alfo be ufeful
m working clay, &c.

And the mode of doing it is thus deferibed by the in-
ventor: * A pit is dug in the ground, which is bricked
at the bottom and fides, into. which the operator puts. the
lime. He has the command of a fmall ftream of water,
which is conveyed at pleafure-into the pit, and in a few
days the lime is fufficiently flaked ; he then puts the lime
and fand, or gravel, into the mill, which not only mixes both
together, but incorporates.them in a very effectual manner ;
and, as the lime is fufficiently moift when taken out of the
pit, no more water is required’ for the mortar. If for
prefent ufe, the quantity he makes at a time is fix bushels,
as he finds when more is put in, it is apt to ftrain the cogs,
if not made very ftrong. Ifthe mortar is made with fand

3

as three inches. He has ‘a fecond’ fhaft, with clofer cogs,
in order to give the mortar another working ; the {pace be-
tween thefe cogs is but two inches ;) but it does' nét anfwer
well till after the firft thaft has been ufed, nor is‘if neceéffary,
unlefs for very nice work.’ He adds,’ that’ le * made
200 barrels of lime into mortar Taft fummer, | and: ‘has now
the like quantity of lime in the pit for the fame purpofe.
He made fix barrels of mortar in a day with eafe; a boy
of feven years old drives the horfe, and the moft indifferent
one is good enough for the purpofe, the draught being’ fo
eafy.”? "This machine may be wrought by any other power,

‘as water, wind, or fteam.

The nature, plan, and conftruction of the machine are feen
at fig. 4, in Plate XXIV. Mifcellany, in which A is the plan of
the boarded floor, raifed eight inches from the ground, four
feet two inches in diameter, and furrounded by a fourteen-
iach wall, whofe outfide height is two feet. B, a fliding
door, two feet wide. C, plan of the fhaft, with “its cops,
or teeth; its length eleven feet eight inches, breadth eight
inches, depth five inches. D,plan of the po’, or axis, on
which the fhaft turns round ; diameter feven inches, height
twenty inches. EE, plan and upright of one of the cogs.
as it {tands in the mill. The plan is a rhombus, the longeft
diagonal is three inches, the fhortelt but two, in order to
make the angles of the cogs more acute, by which means
they will pafs through the mortar with the greater eafe.
F, elevation and feGtion of the mill in perfpeétive.

The inventor ftates, that the fpace between the cogs is
three inches, except the firft to the left of the poft, which is
but half an inch diitant from it, in order to give the cogs to.
the left a different direGtion from thofe on the right ;
and its ufe will, by infpe&tion, readily appear. There
muft be a fpace of two inches between the end of the
cogs and the floor, in order to give the gravel a free paf-
fage, which would otherwife ftrain the cogs, and ftop the
courfe of the mill.””

Befides the common mortar ufed in laying of ftones,
bricks, &c. there are feveral’ other kinds > as,

Morrar, /Vhite, ufed in plattering the walls and ceilings ;
made of ox cr cow’s hair mixed with lime and water, with-
out any fand. The common method of making this mortar
is one bufhel of hair to fix buthels of lime.

Mortar uféd in making Water-Courfes, Cifferns, Fc. is
very hard and durable, being made of lime and hogs-greafe,
fometimes mixed with the juice of figs, and fometimes with
liquid pitch; and, after application, is wafhed over with
lnfeed-oil. See Beron.

For this purpofe, mortar made of terras, pozzolana, tile-
duft, or cinders, is mixed and prepared: in the fame manner
as common mortar: only that thefe ingredients. are mixed
with lime, inftead of fand, in a due proportion, which is
about half and half. ‘'he lime fhould be made of fhells or
marble ;. and in works which are fometimes dry and fome-
times wet, inftead of terras, which is very dear,, tile-dult or
cinder-dult may be ufed, :

Mortar for Furnaces, Se. See Lute.

Morvrar for Sun-Dials on walls may be made of lime
and fand, tempered with linfeed-oil;. or,, for want of that,
with ikimmed milk. ‘This will grow to the hardnefs of a
fione.

For buildings, one part of wafhed foap-afhes, mixed with
another of lime and fand, make a.very durable mortar.. See
CEMENT.

The faltpetre workers in France ufing the mortar of old
buildings for extracting that falt, M. Petit has thought it
worthy a peculiar attention, and has made feveral trials,

by way of analyfis of mortar, to determine whether. it really
and

MORTAR.

aud effentially contains nitre in it, or whether it be only
ferviceable in that mixture of falts from which nitre is pro-
duced.

The common managers of the faltpetre works are of

opinion, that mortar contains in it all the faltpetre they
procure from it; and that the wood-afhes, and other fub-
_ftances they ufe with it, only ferve to abforb the fat or oily
parts, and to fet the faltpetre at liberty to fhoot. This
they pretend to affirm upon experience ; but they do not
confider, that though they can procure faltpetre from the
rubbifh or mortar without the addition of wood-afhes, yet
it is not pure mortar that they make their experiments upon,
but fuch as is taken from their own heaps, upon which they
always throw all the refiduum of their former works, and
all that liquor which will fhoot no more cryftals, but which
they call the mother-water of faltpetre.

This gentleman, therefore, very properly judged, that to
make a regular trial of the mortar or rubbifh alone, he muft
not take it from their ftores, ufed in the faltpetre works,
but pick it himfelf from the ruins of old buildings.

The mark the faltpetre workers have to know good mor-
tar for their purpofe is, that it taftes acrid and falt when
applied to the tongue ; but to this it may be alfo added, that
it ought to be of a greyifh colonr, and fuch as, when pow-
dered and fprinkled upon burning charcoal, yields fome
{parks of fire ; and the more {parks it gives, the better it is
for the purpofe: and another character of the goodnefs is,
that thefe well impregnated mortars have a certain unc-
tuofity or fattinefs to the touch, which other kinds have
not.

The fineft of all kinds of mortar for faltpetre work is
fuch as is had from the ruins of old buildings in a low fitua-
tion, and out of the way of much funfhine; where there
has been no great quantity of fire kept, and efpecially fuch
as has ferved for the cements of the walls of ftables, or the
like. , <

M. Petit chofe from fuch a wall twelve pounds of old
mortar: this he had beaten to powder, and poured upon it
eighteen pints of water; the whole was then fet over the
fire, and ftirred from time to time for three or four hours,
that the water might be well tin&tured from the mortar ;
after this the water was filtered through paper, and was then
found to be tin&tured to a pale, yellow, tranfparent bitter,
and fomewhat acrid to the talte.

The impregnation may be made without heat, by only
ftirring the mortar about for nine or ten days in cold water,
and a quantity of the falt taken up will be according to the

oodnefs of the mortar and the quantity of water employed.

he common fpecific gravity of this liquor to water is as
32 to 31, or thereabouts. M. Petit having procured the
unéture of fifty pounds of mortar, by feveral impregnations,
in 72 French pints of water, evaporated it fo far till it ap-
peared hiyhly charged with faline particles, tafting very
acrid and bitter, and being of a brownifh-red colour ; and its
fpecific gravity was in this ftate to water as 4 to 3, there
being more in quantity than about four pints. ‘Chis was {till
limpid and of a dufky colour, and was afterwards evaporated
over a gentle fire, to the confiftence of an extraét, which, as
it cooled, became much thicker and firmer, refembling but-
ter. This being left open to the air, foon relented into a
liquor of the confiltence of a fyrup: its {pecific gravity was
now to water as 5 to 33 but in leaving it open to the air, it
continually attraéted trefh humidity, and became lefs {peci-
fically heavy. Experiments made with this extract fuc-
eceded in the following manuer :

1. It turned the common blue paper to a fine deep red.
The impregnations tn water unin{piffated do this alfo in dif-
ferent degrees, according to their {trength.

2

2. Mixed in equal quantities with fpirit of nitre and with
{pirit of fea-falt, it made no effervefcence or alteration in
either.

3- A leaf of gold being put into the mixture of this im-
pregnation with fpirit of nitre, was immediately diffolved ;
and in an hour or two afterwards, the liquor was much
clearer than before. -

A leaf of gold being put into the mixture of this impreg-
nation and fpirit of fea-falt, was in the fame manner diflolved
in a few minutes, It is generally fuppofed, indeed, that the
fpirit of falt alone will diffolve gold ; but there feems to be |
an error in this, founded on the inaccuracy of the prepara-
tion of fuch fpirit of falt; for Mefirs. Geoffroy and Bouldue
have at different times produced before the French Academy
{pirit of falt carefully prepared by themfelves, which would
not at all diffolve gold, not even with thi affiftance of heat :
even fuch fpirit of falt would, however, be made to diffolve
gold, by mixing this impregnation with it; fo that it has
the power of diffolving gold in a great degree. :

_ 4. A leaf of filver being diffolved in fpirit of nitre, and
this impregnation of mortar added to the folution, the whole
became turbid, and a precipitation happened, part’ of the
matter being thrown to the bottom, and part remaining fuf-
pended in form of a white cloud, which kept its place with-
out falling.

5. The impregnation being mixed in equal quantities with
oil of vitriol formed a coagulum, and made a great effer-
vefcence, with copious red vapours, and a ftrong {mell of
aqua fortis; and thefe vapours appeared at any time, on
ftirring the mixture, for feveral days together. Ifa larger
quantity of oil of vitriol be added to this coagulum, it all
becomes fluid, but ferments violently; and finally, there
will be a white matter precipitated to the bottom of the
clear liquor ; and if a leaf of gold be brought near this mix-
ture, it will be diffolved even by the vapour which exhales
from it. Spirit of nitre has no effeét upon this mixture,
either in its ftate of coagulum, or when reduced by more oil
of vitriol into a clear liquor; but the volatile fpirit of urine
ferments violently, without the leaft heat with it.

6. Oil of tartar per deliquium being added to the impreg-
nation, the liquors would not readily mix, but remained fe-
parate, the impregnation finking to the bottom; but on ftir-
ring them thoroughly together, they finally were made to
unite into a white fubftance like butter, with a ftrong
urinous fmell. If a {mall quantity of corrofive fublimate be
added to this mixture, the urinous {mell ceafes; and if oil of
vitriol be added, there is a violent fermentation occafioned ;
and, in fine, a large quantity of precipitate.

7. This impregnation of mortar being mixed with an
equal quantity of a folution of corrofive Phtioate there is
nothing remarkable produced, though the mixture be ever fo
much fhaken; but if a little oil of tartar per deliguium be added
to this, the mixture becomes turbid, and, on ftirring all
together for fome time, it becomes white and thick like but-
ter. Ifto this, more corrofive fublimate be added in folu-
tion, it becomes. orange-coloured: and, on more {ftirring,
this becomes again white ; and finally gives a white precipi-
tate at the bottom of a tranfparent liquor.

8. If, inftead of oil of tartar, an equal quantity of lime-
water be added, this in the fame manner gives an urinous
{mell, and the whole difference is, that the mixture will not
become thick with this, as it will with oil of tartar.

g. The impregnation of mortar produced the fame coa-
gulum in mixing with fpirit of urine, that it did with oil of
tartar per deliquium ; but it made no coagulation with {pirit
of fal ammoniac with lime: the occafion of this difference
is, that the fpirit of urine contains a great deal of volatile
falt, and the other but little, .It is a common error to fup-

pole

MOR

pofe that the f{pirit of fal ammoniac, which is moft pungent,
contains the greateft quantity of falt ; but this is not the cafe,
for the {pirit made with lime is much more pungent than that
with falt of tartar, though the laft is well known to contain
a much larger portion of faline particles.

1o. If a piece of paper or linen be wetted in this impreg-
nation, and afterwards dried, it takes fire very violently,
and fparkles with the fame violence as if it was impregnated
with faltpetre,

From thefe experiments it is abundantly proved, that the
impregnation of mortar contains a large quantity of a faline
and nitrous ammoniac falt ; for a diffolution of fal ammoniac
and fpirit of nitre, mixed together, are found to produce all
the changes in the different bodies before named, that the
impregnation does. On the whole, though it has been fup-
pofed by Mr. Tournefort, and others, that mortar con-
tained faltpetre, fea-falt, and a fixed alkali; yet there does
not appear any proof of its containing any of thefe falts: no
fixed alkali can ever be feparated from the impregnation of
it; and though the linen or paper, wetted in the impregna-
tion of it, fparkled when on fire, yet it is not nitre, but
merely a nitrous fal ammoniac, which occafions that pheno-
menon. he fame effect is produced, if the linen or paper
be wetted with a mixture of {pirit of urine and fpirit of nitre.
And the feveral experiments betore recited prove, that there
is in mortar a fpirit of nitre and a {pirit of fea-falt, which,
with the volatile urinous falts, form a nitrous or a faline am-
moniac. Mem. Acad. Scienc. Par. 1734.

Mortar, in Chemifiry, &Fc. is an inftrument very ufeful
for the divifion of bodies, partly by percuffion, and partly
by grinding. They have the form of an inverted bell, and
are made of all fizes and materials, as marble, copper, ¢lafs,
iron, grit-ftone, and agate. The matter intended to be
pounded is to be put into them, and there ftruck and bruifed
by a long inftrument called a peffle. ‘This, when large and
heavy, ought to be fufpended by a cord, or chain, fixed to a
moveable pole, placed horizontally above the mortar, which
confiderably relieves the operator, becaufe its elalticity aflitts
the raifing of the peftle.

Morrar, in the Military Art, a hort piece of ordnance,
thick and wide, proper for throwing bombs, carcafes, fhells,
ftones, bags filled with grape fhot, &c. The ufe of mortars
is thought to be olderthan that of cannon: for they were
employed in the wars of Italy, to throw balls of red-hot
iron and ftones, long before the invention of fhells. It is ge-
nerally believed that the Germans were the firlt inventors.
See Boos.

The method of throwing red-hot balls out of mortars was
firft put in praétice at the fiege of Stralfund in 1675, by the
elector of Brandenburgh ; though fome fay, in 1653, at the
fiege of Bremen. For a further account of mortars, fee
CANNON.

Mortar, Cochorn, a {mall kind of mortar, invented by
the famous engineer baron Coehorn, to throw {mall thells
or grenades. Thefe mortars are commonly fixed, to the num-
ber of a dozen, to a block of oak, at the elevation cf 45°.
See CANNON.

Mortars, Fire-lock, or Bombards, are {mall mortars,
fixed at the end of a fire-lock : they are loaded as all common
fire-locks are; and the grenade, placed in the mortar at the
end of the barrel, is difcharged by a flint lock ; and to prevent
the recoil from hurting the bombardier, the bombard refts on
a kind of halberd made for that purpofe. They were firft
invented by major-general Siebach, a German, about the
year .1740.

Mortars, Hand, were frequently ufed before the invention
of coehorns. See CANNON.

Mortars, Land. See Cannon.

MOR

Mortar, Partridge. See CANNON.

Mortars, Sea. See CANNON.

Mortars, Stone. See CANNON.

Mortar, #0 charge, or load a, the proper quantity of gun-
powder is put into the chamber ; and, if there be any vacant
{pace, they fill it up with hay ; fome choofe a wooden plug ;
over this they lay a turf, fome a wooden tompion, fitted to
the bore of the piece ; and laftly the bomb, taking care that
the fufe be in the axis thereof, and the orifice be turned from
the muzzle of the piece ; what {pace remains is to be filled
up with hay, ftraw, turf, &c. fo as the load may not be ex-
ploded without the utmoft violence,

The quantity of gunpowder to be ufed, is found by di-
viding the weight of the bomb by 30; though this rule is
not always to be ftri€tly obferved.

When the proper quantity of powder, neceflary to charge
a fea-mortar is put into the chamber, it is covered with a
wad, well beat down with the rammer. After this the fixed
fhell is placed upon the wad, as near the middle of the mor-
tar as poffible, with the fufe-hole uppermoft, and another
wad preffed down clofe upon it, fo as to keep the hell firm
in its pofition. “The officer then points the mortar, accordin
to the propofed inclination.—When the mortar is thus fixe
the fule is opened; the priming-iron 1s alfo thruft into the
touch-hole of the mortar to clear it, after which it is primed
with the fineft powder. This done, two of the matrofles, or
failors, taking each one of the matches, the firft lights the
fufe, and the other fires the mortar. The bomb, thrown out
by the explofion of the powder, is carried to the place in-
tended: and the fufe, which ought to be exhaufted at the in-
ftant of the fhell’s falling, inflames the powder contained in
it, and burits the fhell in fplinters: which, flying cf circu-
larly, occafion incredible mifchief wherefoever they reach.

If the fervice of mortars fhould render it neceffary to ufe
pound-fhots, 2c0 of them, with a wooden bottom, are to be
put into the 13-inch mortar, and a quantity of powder, not
exceeding five pounds; and 100 of the above fhot with
24 pounds of powder, for the 10-inch mortar, or three
pounds at moft.

Mortar, to elevate the, fo as its axis may make any given
angle with the horizon, they apply the artillery-level, or
gunner’s quadrant: the ufe whereof fee under the articles
Lever and QuapRANT.

An elevation of 70 or 80 degrees is what is commonly
chofen for rendering mortars molt ferviceable in cafting fhells
into towns, forts, &c. though the greatelt range be at 45
degrees.

All the Englifh mortars are fixed at an angle of 45 de-
grees, and lathed ftrongly with ropes at that elevation. Al-
though, in a fiege, there is only one cafe, in which fhells
fhould be thrown with an angle of 45 degrees; that is, when
the battery is fo far off that they cannot otherwife reach the
works: for when fhells are thrown out of the trenches into
the works of a fortification, or from the town into the
trenches, they fhould have as little elevation as poffible, in
order to roll along, and not bury themfelves; whereby the
damage they do, and the terror they eccafion, are much
greater thanif they fink into the ground. On the contrary,
when fhells are thrown upon magazines, or any other build-
ings, with an intention to deftroy them, the mortars fhould
be elevated as high as poffible, that the fhells may acquire
a greater force in their fall, and confequently do greater
execution. If all mortar-pieces were, as they ought to be,
exa@ly fimilar, and their requifites of powder as the cubes
of the diameters of their feveral bores ; and if their fhells,
bombs, carcafes, &c. were alfo fimilar; then, comparing
like with like, their ranges on the plane of the horizon under
the fame degree of elevation would be equal; and confe-

quently

MOR
«quently one piece ‘being well proved, i. ¢. the range of the
grenado, bomb, carcafe, &c. being found to any degree of
elevation, the whole work of the mortar-piece would become
very eafy and exact. :

But fince mortars are not thus fimilar, it is required, that
the range of the piece, at fome known degree of elevation, be
accurately found by meafuring; and from hence.all the other
ranges may be determined. s

Thus, te find the range of the piece at any other elevation
required:;; fay, as the fine of double the angle under which
the experiment was made, is to the fine of double the angle
-propoted, fo is the range known to the range required.

Suppofe, for inftance, it be found, that the range of a
piece, elevated to 30°, is 2000 yards: to find the range of
the fame piece with the fame charge, when elevated to 45°:

take the fine of 60°, the double of 30°, and make it the firlt
term of the rule of three; the fecond: term muft ke the fine
of 90° the double of 45°; and the ‘third the given range
2000; the fourth term will be 2310, ‘the range of the piece
at 45°. If the elevation be greater than 45°, inftead of
doubling it, take the fine of double its complement to go”.
As fupyofe the elevation of a piece be 50°, take the fine of 80 5
the double of 40°. Again, ifa determined diftance to which
a fhot is to be caft, is given, and the angle of elevation to
produce that effect be required; the range known mutt be
the firft term in the rule of three, which fuppofe 2000 yards 5
the range propofed, which we fuppofe 1600 yards, the
fecond term; and the ‘fine of 60° double of the elevation
for the range of 2000 yards, the third term. The fourth
term will be found the fine of 43° 52/, whofe half, 21° 56’,
is the angle of the elevation the piece mu{t have to pro-
duce the defired effet. And if 21° 56’ be taken from
go°, you will have 68° 4’ for the other elevation of the
piece, with which the fame effe& will likewife be pro-
duced. t
Nete, to avoid the trouble of finding fines of double the
angles of propofed elevations, ‘Galileo and Torricelli give
us the following table, in which the fines of the angles fought
are had by infpeétion.

| Degrees.| Degrees.| Ranges. |Degrees.| Degrees.|| Ranges.

go ° ° fo) ° °
89 I 349 | 66 | 24 | 7431
88 2 698 65 25 7660
87 3 1045 64 26 7880
86 4 1392 63 27 8090
85 5 1736 62 28 8290
84 6 2709 61 2 8480
83 7 2419 60 30 8660
82 8 2556 59 31 8829
81 9 3099 58 32 8988
80 10 3420 57 33 9135
79, , 4 3746 56 34 9272
78 12 | 4067 55 1 35. | 9397
77 13 | 4384 | 54 | 36 | o5i1
78 1 14 4095 53 37 96.13
25 15 5090 2 38 | 9793
74 16 5209 51 39 9781
73 17 5592 59 | 40 | g84t
72 18 5870 49 41 99°3
7! 19 6157 | 48 | 42 9945
70 2 6428 47 43 9976
69 21 6601r 40 44 9994
68 23 6947 45 | 45 10000
67 23 7193

MOR

The ufe of the table is obvious. Suppofe, for inftance,
it be known by experiment, that a mortar elevated 15°,
charged with three pounds of powder, will throw a bomb
to the diftance of 350 fathom: and it be required, with the
fame charge, to throw a bomb too fathom farther: feek
in the table the number anfwering to 15 degrees, and you
will find it 5009. Then as 350 is to 450, fo is 5000 te
a fourth number, which is 6428. Find this number, or
the neareft to it, in the table, and againit it you will
find 20°, or 70°; the proper angles of elevatiun. See
RANGE. "

For the weight, dimenfions, &c. of the bombs, &c. to
be caft out of mortars, and the lines of their projection,
fee Boms and ProsrcriLe. : :

MORTARA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
Lumelline, near which Didier, king of the Lombards,
was defeated by Charlemagne; feven miles N. of Lumello.

MORTARIOLUM, a word applied by different writers
to different things, from their refemblance to a‘mortar m
fhape. The chemifts exprefs by this name a {mall mould
made for fafhioning their copels; and anatomifts call the
fockets of the teeth, the mortariola of the jaws. ‘

MORTE, in Geography, a lake of the county of Tyrol;
10 miles E. of Trent. ;

Morte Point, acape of England, on the W. coat of
Devonfhire, at the entrance of the Briftol channel. N. lat.

1 10'. W. long. 4° 8'.

MORTEAU, a town of France, in the department of
the Doubs, and chief place of a canton, in the dittri@ of
Pontarlier ; 12 miles S.E of it. The place contains 1384,
and the canton 6601 inhabitants, on a territory of 200 kilio-
metres, in feven communes.

MORTELLARI, Micue xy, in Bisgraphy, a Neapolitan
compofer, and excellent finging-mafter, came from Italy to
England with the earl and countefs of Spencer in 1780, and
immediately had offers of numerous pupils in the firft fami-
lies in the kingdom. He had compofed feveral operas
before he left Italy: as « Le Afturie Amorofe,’’ in 1775 ;
“¢ Erio,”? in 17763 “* Don Salterio Civetto;’’ “ 11 Barere
di Lago nero,’’ 1778; ‘ Aleflandro nell’ Indie.” His
ftyle, though very agreeable and in good tafte, never reached
the grand or fublime; but his fingle airs and cantatas
abound in grace and elegance of a particular kind: there
is fo much facility in them, and they feem fo natural, that
it is difficult to imagine the melodies to be new ; however,
he is guilty of no common plagiarifm ; for upon examination,
we can only find, that he has rebbed nature in fentimental
expreffion. :

He compofed in England the opera of ‘ Armida,’’
jointly with Grefnich, in 1786, for Rubinelli and the Mara.
Indeed all the muiic of this drama, except Mara’s fongs,
were furnifhed by Mortellari, who had been a difciple of
Piccini; but though of the Neapolitan {chool, his compofi-
tions are lefs bold, nervous, and fpirited, than elegant,
graceful, and pleafing ; but being by birth Palermitano, his
itrains may perhaps be more properly called Sicilian than
Neapolitan.

When he quitted England, where, by great labour and
economy, he had scedientinend a confiderable fum of money,
which he lent to a Venetian nobleman, who dying before
the writings were properly executed, we fear the money,
which he had haftily advanced, was never refunded by the .
executors of his noble friend.

After this melancholy event he went into Ruffia, whence
we have not heard of his return.

MORTER, or Morrara, perhaps the Colentum of
Pliny, in Geography, an ifland of the Adriatic, near the coaft
of Dalmatia, three miles beyond the rock Steffano, tz

miles

MOR

miles in circuit, dehghtfully fituated, fufceptible of-culti-
vation, but thinly inhabited. It has a good harbour, and
a town in an agreeable valley. Its marble is full of marine
fub{tances ; the foil is various; and the ftrait by which it
is feparated from the continent is narrow and dangerous. Its
inhabitants are addicted to {muggling and piracy. Not far
from Morter, on the continent, is ‘¢ Vodizza,’”’ a village
noted for its cherries, from which a delicious liquor, called
Marafquin, is extrated. N, lat. 43°57'. E. long. 15° 44!

MORTERE, in Englifh Antiquity, @ mortarium, alight
or taper fet in churches, to burn over che graves or fhrines
of the dead.

MORTERO, in Geography, a {mall ifland of the Medi-
teranean, near the coaft of Sardinia. N. lat. 41° 8. EK.
long. 9° 45'. aici

MORTGAGE, in Law, an obligation, whereby lands
or tenements of a debtor are pawned or bound over to the
creditor for money, or other effeéts, borrowed; peremp-
torily to be the creditor’s for ever, if the money be not re-
paid at the day agreed on.

In this fenfe, mortgage, in the common law, amounts to
much the fame with hyvotheca, in the civil law.

The creditor holding fuch land on feck agreement, is in
the mean time called fenant in mortgage. He, who lays the
pawn or gage, is calléd the mortgager ; aud he that takes it,
the mortgagee. Jf a mortgage includes exceflive ufury, it
is prohibited by the ftatute 37 Hen. VIII.

The French fometimes ufe the word mortgage in the
fame fenfe in their language, where it ftands m contra-
diftinétion to a fimple contrat, which does not carry with
it the mean profits, aud which they call vif gage, life-
pledge. .

Granville defines mortgage, mortuum vadium, to be
that cujus frudus vel reditus interim percepti in nullo /e ac-
quietant. Thus, it is called mortgage, i. ¢. dead gage,
of mort, death, and gage, pledge ; becaufe whatever profit
it yields, yet it redeems not itfelf by yielding fuch
profit, except the whole fum borrowed be likewile paid at
the day ; the mortgager being by covenant to receive the
profits till default of payment. Others hold it called mort-
gage, becaufe, if the money be not paid at the day, the
land, moritur, dies, to the debtor, and is forfeited to the
creditor. ;

Thus, if a man borrows of another a {pecific fum (e. g.
2oo/.) and grants him an eftate in fee, on condition that if
he, the mortgager, fhall repay the mortgagee the faid fum
of 200/. on acertain day, mentioned in the deed, that then
the mortgager may re-enter on the eitate fo granted in pledge;
or, as is now the more ufual way, that the mortgagee fhall
reconvey the eftate to the mortgager ; in this cafe, the land,
which is fo put in pledge, is by law, in cafe of non-payment
at the time limited, for ever dead and gone from the mort-
gager; and the mortgagee’s eflate in the lands is then no
longer conditional, but abfolute. But as it was formerly
a doubt (Litt. § 357. Cro. Car. 191.), whether by tak-
ing {uch ettate in fee, it did not become liable to the wife’s
dower, and other incumbrances of the mortgage, (though
that doubt has been long ago over-ruled by our courts of
equity, Hard. 466.) it, therefore, became ufual to grant
only a long term of years, by way of mortgage; with con-
dition to be void on repayment of the mortgage-money :
which courfe has been fince pretty generally continued,
principally becaufe, on the death of the mortgagee, fuch
term becomes vefted in his perfonal reprefentatives, who
alene are intitled in equity to receive the money lent, of
whatever nature the mortgage may happen to be. As foon
as the eftate is created, the mortgagee may immediately

Vor. XXIV.

MOR

enter on the lands ; but is liable to be difpoffeffed, upon per-
formance of the condition by payment of the mortgage-
money at the day limited. And, therefore, the vfual way
is to agree, that the mortgager {hall hold the land till the
day affigned for payment; when, in cafe of failure, whereby
the eftate becomes abfolute, the mortgagee may enter upon
it and take .pofleflion, without any poffibility, at law, of
being afterwards evicted by the mortgager, to whom the
land is now for ever dead. But here again the courts of
equity interpofe: and, though a mortgage be thus forfeited,
and the eflate abfolute'y velted in the mortgagee, at the
common law, yet they will confider the real value of the
tenements compared with the fum borrowed. And, if the
eflate be of greater value than the fum lent thereon, they
will allow the mortgager at any reafonable time to recal or
redeem his eltate ; paying to the mortgagee his principal,
intereft, and expences: for, otherwife, in ftri&nefs of law,
an eftate worth 1ooo/. might be forfeited for non-payment
of roo/. or a lefs fum. This reafonable advantage, allowed
to mortgagers, is called the equity of redemption. And
this enables a mortgager to call on the mortgagee, who has
poffeffion of his eltate, to deliver it back and account for
the rents and profits received, on payment of his whole
debt and intere{t; thereby turning the moriuum into a kind
of vivum vadium. But, on the other hand, the mortgagee
may either compel the fale of the eftate, in order to get
the whole of his money immediately, or elfe call upon the
mortgager to redeem his eltate prefently, or in default
thereof to be for ever foreclofed from redeeming the fame,
i. e. to lofe his equity of redemption without poflibility of
recal. And alfo in fome cafes of fraudulent mortgages,
{fpecitied in 4 & 5 W. & M. cap. 16. the fraudulent
mortgager forfeits all equity of redemption whatfoever.
It is not, however, ufual for mortgagees to take pofleflion
of the mortgaged eitate, unlefs where the fecurity is pre-
carious or {mall; or where the mortgager negle&ts even
the payment of intereft. When the mortgagee is frequently
obliged to bring an ejeétment, and take the land into his
own hands, it is in the nature of a pledge, or the pignus of
the Roman law: whereas, while it remains in the hands of
the mortgager, it more refembles their hypotheca, which
was, where the poffeflion of the thing pledged remained
with the debtor. But, by 7 Geo. II. cap. 20. after
payment or tender by the mortgager of principal, intereit,
and cofts, the mortgagee can obtain no ejectment; but may
be compelled to re-aflign his fecurities. Blackft. Com-
book ii. cap. to.

The civil lawyers diftinguifh 26 different kinds of tacit
mortgages.

MORTIER, a badge or enfign of dignity, borne by
the chancellors and great prefidents of the parliaments of
Paris. That borne by the chancellor was a piece of cloth
of gold, lined and turned up with ermin; that of the
firft prefident was a piece of velvet edged with a gold
tae that of the other prefidents was only a piece of gold
ace.

They formerly bore it on their head, but afterwards in
their hands ; except in grand ceremonies, as at the entry of
e king, Hence the denomination, prefidents a morticr. See

AP.

Monrtier Bank, in Geography, a fifhing bank near the
coaft of Newfoundland. N. lat. 47° 5’. W. long. 54° 48°

MORTIFICATION, in Surgery, the death of a part
of the body. This fubje& has been fo fully treated of in
another volume of the prefent work, that it only feeng
neceflary here to make a reference to the article GAN-
GRENE.

Dd Mortiri-

MOR

MortiricaTion, in Religion, any fevere penance obferved’
on any religious account. How ancient and how univerfal
the praétice of it has been, and for what reafons obferved, fee
Fast.

MORTIMER, Jonn Hamitton, in Biography, was
born at Ealt-Bourne in Suffex, and very early in life exhi-
bited a decided tafte and talent for painting. He was therefore
placed by his parents with Hudfon, but did not {tay long with
him, nor with Pine, to whom he afterwards went to acquire the
rudiments of art. He felt that he had talents, and probably
chofe to take his own courfe in the direétion of them. He
accordingly went to draw from the antique in the gallery
which the duke of Richmond munificently opened to artifts
in Privy Gardens, and afterwards was admitted a member of
the academy in St.Martin’s-lane. By his ftudies in thefe
fchools he acquired a confiderable degree of knowledge of
the human figure, but never enjoyed a fecling of the grand
ftyle.

Tine endowed with the faculty of invention, did not
allow it to lie unproduétive in his mind, but compofed a great
variety of defigns; which unfortunately he executed with
too much facility, and was too eafily fatisfied with his la-
bours, to carry them very far in the road to perfection. At
the age of 22 he bore away the prize given by the Society
for the Encouragement of Arts, &c. and gained great and
merited applaufe for his performance, which, confidering his
youth, was at that time ar uncommon one. The fubject was
St. Paul preaching to the Britons, and it is now the altar-
piece of ‘the church at High-Wycombe. His favourite fub-
jects were of the grotefque or horrible kind ; incantations,
moniters, or reprefentations of banditti and foldiers in violent
aGtions. The attempts at real chara¢ter which he made (and
of which he has left us etchings) from fome of Shak{peare’s
mott celebrated heroes, are weak and untrue; they leave us
nothing to regret in his not having indu'ged himfelf in more
of the like kind, except for the freedom with which they
are executed. hey were very highly extolled in his time,
but the improvement in art and talte which the country has
fince experienced has given us more accurate ideas of art,
and more jult difcrimination between ch raéter and cari-
cature.

He fometimes was ftimulated to paint portraits, but was
by no means fuccefsful. He had no eye to colour, and had
too much vivacity of imagination, or rather, perhaps, too
little fteadinefs of mind in the purfuit to dwell fuffici-
ently long on matter fo uninterefling as portraiture, when
compared with the zeal and enthufiafm excited by hiltorical
painting.

He poffeffed great perfonal aétivity, and was fond of ath-
letic exercifes, but unfortunately devoted too much time to
habits of excefs in pleafurable indulgences, which brought
on premature decline and death in the 39th year of his
age, in 1779.

The charaéter which Mortimer left behind him, except-
ing the weaknefs of allowing the heat of youthful paffions
to overcome and miflead him for a time, was highly eftimable.
He was generous and friendly, lively, engaging, and intel-
leGtual. Having once become aware of the folly of vicious
indulgence, he determined to adopt a more correé courfe of
life, but unfortunately his good refolutions were excited too
late, and the heavy hand of death fell on him before he or
his friends were benefitted by them ; as far at leaft as relates
to the art he profefled.

MORTINSPERG, in Geography, atown of Auttria ;
Yo miles S.8.W. of Zwetl.

MORTIS, Caufa Donatio. See Donation.

MORTISE, or Morrice, in Carpentry and Joinery, an

MOR

exeavation receffed within the furface of a piece of timber;
to receive the proje&tion on the end of another piece, in order
to fix the two pieces together at a given angle. ‘The tides
of the mortife are generally four planes at right angles to
each other, and to the furface whence the excavation is made.
See CARPENTRY and JOINERY. ©

The word is origivally French, mortoi/e, which fignifies
the fame ; and which Borel farther derives from mordere, to
bite. é :

MORTLAKE, in Geography, a village and parifh in the
wettern divifion of the hundred of Brixton, in the county of
Surrey, England, is fituated on the fouthern bank of the
river Thames, at the diftance of feven miles S.W. from Lon-
don. The manor here at the time of the conquelt, and from
that period till the reign of Henry VIII., was the property
of the archbifhop of Canterbury, who occafionally refided
at the manor-houfe. Archbifhop Anfelm celebrated the
feaft of Whitfuntide in that manfion in the year togg; and
archbifhops Peckham and Reynolds died there ; the former
A.D. 1292, and the latter in 1327. After the alienation
of the manor, by archbifhop Cranmer, the king gave it to
his newly ere€ted dean and chapter of Worcetter ; at which
time the manor-houfe was deftroyed, and the manorial refi-
dence removed to Wimbledon.

This village is remarkable in the tuftory of Englih ma-
nufaéture, as the feat of the firft maoufaCtory of fine tapeliry
eftablifhed in the Britifh dominions. The buildings of this
manufactory, which owed its origin to the patriotic exertions
of fir Francis Crane, formerly occupied the {cite of Queen’s-
head -court. They are now wholly demolifhed, but the
houfe, built for the refidence of Mr. Francis Cleyne, the
chief defigner employed in the work, {till continues ftanding
on the oppolite fide of the road. A manufactory of delf,
begun about feventy years ago by Mr. William Saunders,
is now carried on by Wagitaffand Coy. ‘There is, befides,
in this village a {mall manufactory of white ttone-ware, the
property of Mr. Jofeph Kifhire. The alms-houfes here
were firlt founded and endowed in 1628 by John Juxon,
efq. and his family, but the endowments were fubfequently
much augmented by Mrs. Elizabeth Heneage. The per-
fons maintained in thefe houfes are poor widows, each of
whom receives 2s. 6d. per week ; and clothes at ftated pe-
riods. . A charity-fchool, which owes its foundation to a
bequett by lady Capel, is now in a very flourifhing condition ;
the funds having been fo much increafed of late by various
donations, as to enable the truitees to clothe and educate in
it 12 boys and 12 girls. -

Mortlake church appears, from a record ftill extant, to
have been originally ereéted about the year 1348, but no
portion of that building now remains, except the outward
door of the belfry. The other parts were rebuilt in 1543 ;
and the fouth aifle again, even fo late as the year 1725.
This church is conftruéted of flint and ftone chequered, and
has a fquare embattled tower of {milar workmanfhip at the
weft end, The interior is adorned with a very handfome
front, which exhibits fome rich tracery work ; and bears
among other decorations the arms of archbifhop Bourchier,
who beftowed it on the church in the time of Henry VI.
Here are likewife, as well as in the church-yard, a number
of neat monuments, fome of them in honour of diftinguifhed
public characters. Among thefe is one for Dr. Dee, who
was remarkable in the reign of queen Elizabeth for his skill
in the occult f{ciences; and of whom, as well as of his fon,
fome account will be found ina preceding volume. (See
Dee.) Another monumental memorial commemorates
John Partridge, a celebrated phyfician and alftrologer,
who lived in the feyenteenth century; a third for fir John

4 Barnard,

MOR

Barnard, alderman of London, within the fame period,
together with the late fir Brook Watfon, are chiefly worthy
of mention. The living here was at one time a reétory
in the peculiar jurifdiction of the archbifhop of Canter-
bury, but itis now a perpetual curacy, witha referved fa-
lary of 40/. per annum, paid out of the great tithes by the
leffee under the dean and chapter of Worcetter, who have
the nomination of the curate. - Mr. Parkes, curate here dur-
ing the protector/hip of Cromwell, was one of the minifters
appointed to aflilt the committee for difplacing igaorant and
infufficient minifters and fchool-maiters. An ancient houfe
here is faid to have been for fome time the refidence of that
nfurper. ,

The parifh of Mortlake contains about 1400 acres, of
which nearly 650 are inclofed in Richmond park. Upwards
of 100 acres are walte lands. Of the remainder, 230 acres
conftitute garden ground, including 31 acres cropped with
afparagus, and rowith lavender. ‘The cultivation of the for-
mer of thefe plants has much decreafed here within the la(t 20
years. At the extremity of the parifh, towards Richmond, is
a farm confifting of about 80 acres, which has been long in
the’occupation of his majefty, and is faid to be one of the beft
cultivated fpots in England. The foil here confifts moftly
of fand and gravel, but on fome {pots near the fide of the
river there is a confiderable mixture of clay. On a {mall
hill within the park ftands an elegant edifice called the Stone
lodge, which was begun 5y George I. after a defign by the
earl of Pembroke, but left in an unfinifhed ftate ull .com-
pleted by the princefs Amelia, when: fhe became ranger of
the park. This ladge was given, in 1803, to lord vifcotint
Sidmouth, in whofe poffeffion it ftill continues. In this
parifh is the pleafant hamlet of Eaft Sheen, which commands
fome very beautiful views, from its pofition on an eminence
elofe to the Thames. Some highly poetical paffages in
Maurice’s Poem of “ Richmond,” are allufive to the {cenery,
hiftory, &c. of Mortlake, Sheen, and the vicinity.

Mortlake, according to the parliamentary returns of 1801,
contains 341 houfes, and 1748 inhabitants. The Environs
of London, by the Rev. Daniel Lyfons, 4 vols. gto. 1811.
Manning and Ray’s Hiftory and Antiquities of Surrey,
folio. :

MORTLICH, or Murrutecu, a village of Scotland,
in the county of Bamff, on a fmall river which runs into the
Spey ; once the fee of a bifhop, founded by Malcolm II.
in the year toro in commemoration of a great victory ob-
tained by him over the Danes; the fee, after continuing
127 years, was removed to Aberdeen by king David I, ; 12
miles S.S.W. of Fochabers.

MORTMAIN, in Law, the alienation of lands and te-
nements to any guild, corporation, or fraternity, fole or
aggregate, ecclefialtical or temporal, and their fucceflors ;
as bifhops, parfons, vicars, &c. which may not be done
without the king’s licence, and that of the lord of the
manor ; or that of the king alone, if it be immediately
holden of him. (Stat. 7 & 8 W. III. cap. 37.) And by
ftat. g Geo. IL. cap. 36. no manors, lands, or money to
be laid out in lands, are to be given for charitable ufes, un-
lefs by deed executed twelve months before the death of the
donor.

The word literally denotes dead-hund ; being a compound
of mort, dead, and main, hand. Accordingly Hottoman
defines mortmain to be the poffleffion of thofe who are, as it
were, immortal, becaufe they never ceale to have heirs ; fo
that the eftate never reverts to its firlt lord: main, hand,
being ufed for poffeffion ; and mort, dead, by antiphrafis,
for immortal. Others affign the reafon of the name thus:
that the fervices and other profits due for fuch lands, fhould

MOR

not, without fuch licence, come into a dead-hand (mainmort }
i.e. into a hand as it were dead, that is, fo dedicated :o God,
or pious ufes, as to be different from other lands, tenements,
or hereditaments, and never to revert to the donor, or any
temporal or common ufe.

Purchafes in mortmain were ufually made by ecclefiaftica!
bodies, the members of which (being profeffed) were rec.
koned dead perfons in law ; and, therefore, the land holden
by them might, with great propriety, be faid to be held in
mortu manu. See AMORTIZATION.

In order to underftand the rife and progrefs of the ftatute
of mortmain, it is neceflary to obferve, that by the common
law, any man might difpofe of his lands to any other private
man, at his own difcretion, efpecially when the feodal re-
{traints of alienation were worn away. Yet in confequence
of thefe, it was always, and is ftill, neceffary (F. N. B. 121.)
for corporations to have a licence in mortmain from the
crown, to enable them to purchafe lands; and fuch licences
of mortmain feem to have been neceflary among the Saxons,
above fixty years before the Norman conquett. But, befides
this general licence from the king, as lord paramount of the
kingdom, it was alfo requilite, whenever there was a
mefne, or intermediate lord between the King and the
alienor, to obtain his licence alfo, upon the fame feodal
principles, for the alienation of the {pecific land. And if
no fuch licence was obtained, the king, or other lord, might
refpectively enter on the lands fo aliened in mortmain as a
forfeiture.

However, fuch were the influence and ingenuity of the
clergy, that, notwith{tanding this fundamental principle, the
largeft, and moit confiderable donations of religiors houfes
happened within lefs than two centuries after the conquett :
and they formed contrivances for evading the neceflity of
obtaining licenfes. In procefs of time it was obferved, that
the feodal fervices, ordained for the defence of the kingdom,
were every day vifibly withdrawn; that the circulation of
landed property from man to man began to ftagnate ; and
that the lords were curtailed of the fruits of their feignories,
their efcheats, wardfhips, reliefs, and the like: and, there-
fore, in order to prevent this, it was ordained by the fecond
of king Henry III’s. greatcharters, A. D. 1217, cap. 43.
ed. Oxon. and afterwards by that printed in our common
ftatute books, that all fuch attempts fhould be void, and
the land forfeited to the lord of the fee. (Mag. Char.
g Hen. III. cap. 36.) This was afterwards fucceeded by
the ftatute de religiofis, 7 Edw. I. which provided that no
perfon, religious or other whatfoever, fhould buy or feil,
or receive under pretence of a gift, or term of years, or
any other title whatfoever, nor fhould by any aé& or in-
genuity appropriate to himfelf, any lands or tenements in
mortmain ; upon pain that the immediate lord of the fee,
or, on his default for one year, the lords paramount, and,
in default of all of them, the king might enter thereon as a
forfeiture.

Farther, the ftatute of Wettminfter the fecond, 13 Edw. I.
cap. 32, enat¢ted, that in cafes now known under the name
of common recoveries, a jury should try the true right of the
demaudants or plaintiffs to the land; and if a religious houfe
or corporation be found to have it, they fhould ttill recover
feifin; otherwife it fhould be forfeited to the immediate lord
of the fee, or elfe to the next lord, and finally to the king,
upon the immediate or other lord’s default. And to pre-
vent any future evafion, when the ftatute of quia emptores,
18 Edw. I. abelifhed all fubinfeudations, and gave liberty
for all men to alienate their lands to be holden of the next
immediate lord, a provifo was inferted, cap. 3. that this
fhould not extend to authorize any kind of alienation ig

Dd2 mortmain,

MOR

mortmain. And when afterwards the method of obtaining
the king’s licence, by writ of ad quod damnum, was marked
out by 27 Edw. I. flat. 2, it was farther provided by
34 Edw. I. flat. 3, that no fuch licence fhould be effectual,
without the confent of the mefne, or intermediate lords. It
was afterwards enaéted by 15 Ric. II. cap. 5, that lands
which had been putchafed to ufes, (another method of eva-
fion, to which ecclefiaftical ingenuity recurred,) fhould be
amortifed by licence from the crown, or elfe be fold to pri-
vate perfons; and that, for the future, ufes fhould be fub-
fe& to the ftatutes of mortmain, and forfeitable like the
bitiag themfelves; and large tracts of land adjoining to
churches, and confecrated by the name of church-yards,
were declared to be within the compals of the ftatutes of
mortmain. * And civil or lay corporations, as well as eccle-
fraltical, are alfo declared to be within the mifchief, and the
remedy provided hy thofe falutary laws. Mor2over it was
declared, by 23 Hen, VIII. cap. ro, that all grants of
lands to fuperttitious ufes, fuch as obits, chanteries, &c. if
granted for any longer term than twenty years, fhould be
void. However, during all this time, it was in the power
of the crown, by granting a licence of mortmain, to remit
the forfeiture, fo far as related to its own rights; and to
enable any {piritual or other corporation to purchafe and
hold any lands or tenements in perpetuity : which preroga-
tive is declared and confirmed by 18 Edw. III. ttat. 3.
cap. 3. And it was farther provided, by 7 & 8 W. III.
cap. 37, that the crown, for the future, at its own «ifcre-
tion, may grant licences to alien or take in mortmain, of
whomfoever the tenements may be holden. :

The ftatutes of mortmain were fufpended for twenty
years by 1 & 2 P. & M. cap. 8, and during that time,
any lands or tenements were allowed to be granted to any
fpiritual corporation, without any licence whatfoever. And,
for the augmentation of poor livings, it was enatted by
17 Car. II. cap. 3, that appropriators may annex the great
tithes to the vicarages, and that all benefices under roo/.
per annum may be augmented by the purchafe of lands, with-
out licence of mortmain in either cafe; and the like provi-
fion hath been fince made in favour of the governors of queen
Anne’s bounty, 2 & 3 Anne, cap. 11. It hath alfo been
held, that, notwithftanding the ftatute 23 Hen. VIII., a
man may give lands for the maintenance ofa {chool, an hof-
pital, or any other charitable ufes. But as ut was appre-
hended from recent experience, that perfons on their death-
beds might make large and inyprovident difpofitions, even
for thefe good purpofes, and defeat the political ends of the
{tatutes of mortmain; itis therefore ena&ted, by 9 Geo. II.
cap. 36, that no lands or tenements, or money to be ‘laid
out thereon, fhall be given for, or charged with any char-
table wfes whatfoever, unlefs by deed indented, executed in
the prefence of two witnefies, twelve calendar months before
the death of the donor, and enrolled in the court of chancery
within fx months after its execution, (except ftocks in the
public funds, which may be transferred within fix months
previous to the donor’s death,) and unlefs fuch gift be made
to take place immediately, and be without power of revoca-
tion; and that all other gifts fhall be void. The two uni-
verfities, their colleges, and the fcholars upon the foundation
of the colleges at Eton, Winchelter, and Wetiminiter, are
excepted out of this aé&. It h ith been determined, that if
a man devifeth his land to truftees, “to be turned into

money, and that money laid out ina charity,’’ it is not yood
within the lalt cited a&; for it is an intereft arifing out of
land. Soa devife of a “ mortgage,”’ or of a * term for
years,” to a churity, is not good; for the words of the

flatute are, that the lands fhall not be * conveyed or fettled,

MOR

for any eftate or intereft whatfoever, or any ways charged
or incumbered, in truft or for the benefit of any charitable
ufe.”’ So alfo, ** money given to be laid out in lands,’’ is
exprefsly within the aét ; Bat money given generally is not ;
and if money be given to be laid out * in lands or other-
wile,’ to a charitable ufe, it hath been determined that fuch
devife is good, by reafon of the words ‘¢ or otherwile.”’
By 43 Geo. III. c. 108. perfons may give, by deed en-
rolled in fuch manner, and within fuch time as is direéted in
England by 27 Hen. VIII., or bequeath by will or tefta-
ment, duly executed at leaft three calendar months before
their death, to any perfon or perfons, or body politic or
corporate, and their heirs and fucceffors, land, not exceeding
five acres, or chattels, not exceeding in value 5oo/., for or
towards the erecting, repairing, purchaling, or providing
any church or chapel, where the liturgy and rites of che faid
church are or fhall be ufed or obferved, or any man-
fion-houfe for the refidence of any minilter of the faid united
church, officiating, or to officiate in any fuch church or
chapel, &c. &c. Blackit. Com. book it. chap. 18. See
Mr. Highmore’s Hilt. of Mortmain.

MORTO, or Morte Jfland, called alfo St. Clard, in
Geography, an ifland in the Atlantic, near the coalt of Peru,
about 2 miles in length, and 5 leagues N.N.E. from the
river Tumbaz.

MORTON, Ricuarp, in Biography, an eminent phy-
fician, was born in the county of Suffolk; and, after taking
the degree of bachelor of arts in the univerfity of Oxford,
was for fome time chaplain in the family of Foley, in Wor-
cefterfhire. Having, however, adopted the principles of the
non-conformifts, he was under the neceflity, from the in-
tolerance of the times, in the reign of Charles 11., to aban-
don the profeffion of theology, and adopted that of medi-
cine. He accordingly was admitted to the degree of doétor
in this faculty in 1670, having in that year accompanied the
prince of Orange to Oxford, as phyfician to his perfon.
He afterwards fettled in London, became a fellow of the
College of Phyficians, and obtained a large fhare of city
practice. He died at his hovfe in Surrey, in 1698. The
works of Dr. Morton have claimed a contiderable fhare of
reputation, and bear teftimony to fome acutene{s of obferva-
tion and attivity of practice. They abounded, however,
with the errors of the humoral patho'ogy, which was pre-
valent in that age; and fan@tion a method of treatment in
acute difeafes, which his more able contemporary, Syden-
ham, difcountenanced, and which fubfequent experience has
generally difcarded. His firft publication was entitled
“ Phthiliologia, feu Exercitationes de Phthifi,” 8vo, 1689,
and was tranflated into Englifh in 1694. It contains an a!-
tempt to arrange the varieties of confumption; but the dif>
tinétions, both in the claffification and the indications of cure,
are complicated and obfeure. His ‘“ Pyretologia, feu Ex-
ercitationes de Morbis univerfalibus acutis,’’ confilting of
two volumes, oftavo, was publifhed at an interval of three
years; the firft volume in 1691, and the fecond in 1694,
It was in this work that his humoral doctrines of fermenta-
tion and the agitatioas of the animal {pirits were particularly
dwelt upon; and the practice to which they led him was an
unufual extenfion of the cordial and ftimulant treatment of
all fevers, and a more general introduction of the Peruvian
bark, by which he probably contributed to prolong the
reign of that prejudicial fy{tem of practice, in {pite of the
authority of Sydenham in. favour of the cool treatment,
Tlis works have been printed collectively at Amtterdam,
Geneva, Leyden, Venice, and Lyons. Eloy Dict. Hitt.
de la Med.

Morton, Joun, an Englifh prelate and flatefman, was

6 a nauve

——

MOR

‘a native of Dorchefter, and became fo eminent for his fill
in jurifprudence, as to become one of the privy-counfellors
to cenry VI. and Edward 1V. He attained to the higheft
rank in the church, being firft bifhop of Ely, from whence
he was tranflated to Canterbury, In the reign of Henry VII.
he was appoimted chancellor of England; and fo great was
the friendfhip of his fovereign for Morton, that he obtained
for him a cardinalfhip. He died in the year 1500.

Morton, James, Larl of, regent of Scotland, was born
at Dalkeith in 1530, and educated under the famous
Buchanan at Paris. He returned to Scotland in 1554, and
greatly promoted the reformation; but being acculed of a
concern in the murder of lord Darnley, he fled to England.
He was afterwards made chancellor of Scotland, and, in
1574, fucceeded the earl of Mar as regent ; which office he
refigned in 1579. He was condemned for high treafon in
1581, and, what is remarkable, was beheaded by a machine,
tne model of which he had feen in England. It was called
the Maiden, and refembled the guillotine, fince fo r« ch and
fo infamoufly ufed in France. Morton was the firlt and laft
who fuffered by it in Scotland. Robertfon’s Hift. of Scot-
land.

Morton, Tuomas, an eminent bifhep of the church of
England, was born at York in the year 1564. Having ob-
tained the rudiments of a good education at his native place,
and at Halifax, he was fent, in 1582, to St. John’s college,
in the univerfity of Cambridge. In the ufual courfe he took
his degrees of B.A. and M.A.; and in 1592 he offered him-
felf as a candidate for a fellowfhip of his college, and proved
fuccefsful againit feveral competitors, folely on the ground
of his fuperior merit. About the fame time he was chofen
logical le€turer to the univerfity. While the plague raged
at York, he preached and acminiftered fpiritual comfort to
the wretched people. He himfelf carried with him medi-
cines, and provifions, in large quantities, for their relief;
not fuffering a fervant to attend him, choofing alone to run
the rif of fuch a dangerous intercourfe. In 1603 he at-
tended lord Eure, ambaffad r to the emperor of Germany,
as chaplain; and upon his return, he became domettic chap-
lain to the earl of Rutland; and in 1606, proceeded do€tor
of divinity at Cambridge. About this time he was ap-

ointed chaplain in ordinary to James L., and was prefented
by his majefty with the deanery of Gloucefter, which he
foon exchanged for the deanery of Winchefter. In 1616
he was raifed to the epilcopal bench, by being nominated to
the bifhopric of Chefter, whence he was tranflated to Lich-
field and Coventry in 1618, and in 4632 to the rich fee of
Durham, in which he conduéted himfelf with great modera-
tion and equity, till he was involved in the rnin of the church
of England daring the civil wars. His perfonal fufferings
at this time were very great: he was attacked by the mob,
on account of his being a bifhop; his property was confif-
cated, and he himfelf thrown into prifon. He died, at the
great age of g5, in the year 1659. He was author of fe-
veral books in praétical divinity. But he is chiefly
known, as having by the advice, or rather the command, of
Charles I. drawn up the declaration, known under,the title
of “ The Book of Sports,” the object of which was the
authorizing the prattice of certain recreations on Sundays,
after the hours of divine fervice. One of the moft remark-
able circumftances that occurred during the bifhop’s con-
tinuance in the fee of Lichfield, was his dete&ting the boy of
Bilfton, in Staffordthire, who pretended to be poffefled with
a devil, and by this means was made the inftrument of the
forgeries of the Jefuits and priefts, in propagating their fu-
perititions, of which an account is given in many of.-our

MOR

hiftories, and in the Biographia Britannica. See alfo Nealls
Hift. of the Puntans.

Morton Bay, in Geography, a bay on the north.weft
coatt of the ifland of Nevis, near the Narrows, or channel
between that ifland and St. Chriftopher’s ; 2 miles N. of
Charleftown.

MORTORP, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Smaland ; 10 miles W.S.W. of Calmar.

MORTRE'E, a town of France, in the department of
the Orne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of Ar-
gentan; 7 miles S.S.E. of Argentan. The place contains
975, and the canton 7425 inhabitants, on a territory of 185
kilometres, in 15 communes,

MORTUARY is a gift left by a man at his death to his
parifh church, for a recompence of perfonal tithes and of-
ferings, not duly paid in his life-time.

Mortuary is alfo the fee paid to an incumbent, for carrying
a corpfe out of his parifh to be buried in another.

A mortuary is not properly and originally due to an in-
cumbent from any but thofe of his own parifh; but, by cuf—
tom, in fome places. of the kingdom, it is paid to the parfons
of other parifhes, as the corpfe paffes through them.

Mortuaries feem originally to have been, like lay heriots,
only a voluntary bequeft to the church, and the mortuary
was anciently brought to the church with the corpfe, when
it came to be buried, and called a corfe prefent : but fo early
as the time of Hen. IIL., it was rivetted into an efta=
blifhed cuftom ; infomuch that the bequefts of heriots and
mortuaries were held to be neceffary. ingredients in every
teftament of chattels ; infomuch that the lord’ mult have the
beft goods left him as an heriot, and the church the fecond’
beft as a mortuary. But this cuftom was different iu dif-
ferent places.

Mortuaries are taken away, under certain conditions
and limitations, in Wales, Berwick, and Chefter, by
2t Hen VIII. cap. 6. fet. 6. 12 Anne,, ftat.°2.. cap. 6.
28 Geo. II. cap. 6&

It is enaéted by 21 Hen. VIII. cap. 6. that all mor-
tuaries or corfe prefents to parfons of any parifh fhall he
taken in the following manner, unlefs where by cultom lefs
or none at all is due: viz. for every perfon who does not
leave goods to the value of ten marks, nothing ; for every
perfon who leaves goods to the value of ten marks, and un—
der 30/., 35. 4d.; if above 3c/. and under 4c/., 6s. 8d.; if
above 4o/., of what value foever they be, 10s, and no
more. And no mortuary fhall, throughout the kingdom,
be paid fox the death of any feme-covert ; nor fer uny child ;
nor for any one of full age that is not a houfe-keeper ; nor
for any way-faring man; but fuch way-farirs man’s mor-
tuary fhall be paid in the parifh to which he belongs.
And upon this flatute flands the law of mortuaries to thia
day.

MORTUGA RA, in Geography, a town of Brafil, in
the government of Para; zo miles S.W. of Para:

MORTUUM Capur. See Capurt.

MORTY, ia Geography, an ifland in the North Pacific
ocean, about 60 miles in length from north to fouth, and
from 10 to 25 in breadth; feparated from the nosth-ealt
part of the ifland of Gilolo by a channe! about 25 miles
wide, called the «¢ Strait of Morty ;” belonging to the
fultan of Ternate. N. lat. 2° ys’. E. long. 128° 23’.

MORVL'E, a town of Guzerat; go miles N.E. of
Noanagur.

MORVEN, a diflri€ of Scotland, in. the county of
Argyle, extending in length about 20 miles along the found:

of

MOR

of Mull, and ro at its greateft breadth. This is the country
of Fingal and his heroes.

MORUGO, a {mall river of Surinam, which runs into
the fea, north of Effequibo.

MORVIEDRO, or Murviepro, a town of Spain, in
the province of Valencia, fuppofed to be ereéted on the
ruins of the ancient Saguntum, founded about 200 years
before the Trojan war by a colony of Grecians, and de-
ftroyed by Hannibal, is a long and narrow town, a league
from the fea, at the foot of a mountain of black marble
veined with white. The name of Murviedro is faid to be
derived from ‘ Muri veteres,”’ or ** Muros viejos,’”” from its
fuppofed fcite. This town is furrounded by lofty walls,
and flanked by fmall round towers. Its enclofure has
feveral gates, defended by fquare towers. ‘The ftreets are
narrow, crooked, and deep, and the honfes exhibit a bad
appearance. The fuburbs are extenfive, more agreeable
and airy than the town, and perfeétly level. The inhabit-
ants amount to about sooo. It has one parifh church,
three chapels of eafe, two convents of monks, a convent of
nuns, and a corregidor. Its commerce partly confifts in
brandy, which is exported to the north of Europe and to
America: but its more certain refource is the produ@tion
of the neighbouring lands in oil, wine,. wheat, barley, hemp,
and carobs. It abounds with veftiges of antiquity, which
remind the paffing obferver of its original inhabitants, of
its vidtors the Carthaginians, and of its pofleffors the Ro-
mans. Several Celtiberian and Roman infcriptions are
feen; but of the numerous ftatues that ornamented the
temples and other public edifices of Saguntum, one only re-
mains, of white marble without a head, anda fragment of
another. The traces of the walls of its circus are full dif-
cernible: but its mofaic pavement is deftroyed. A greater
portion of the theatre remains than of any other Roman
monument ; 13 miles N.N.E. of Valencia. N. lat. 39° 38".
W. long. o° 22'!.—A river of the fame name runs into the
fea, a little below the town.

MORVILLE, a {mall ifland in the Englifh channel, near
the coalt of France. N. lat. 48°50’. W. long: 3 28).

MORUM, in Surgery, an excrefcence on the furface of
the fkin, fo called from its fuppofed refemblance to a mul-
berry.

7 (ORUMGANI, in Geography, a fea-port on the W.
coaft of Madagafcar. S. lat. 15°

MORUNDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Media, placed by Ptolemy between Larraffa and Tigrana.
—Alfe, a town of Afia, in Atropaténe, fituated on the
northern part of the lake Spauta.—Alfo, a town of India,
on this fide of the Ganges, inhabited by the people called
by Ptolemy Aun.

MORUNG, in Geography, a country of Afia, dependent
on Thibet, either as tributary or feudatory, fituated on the
banks of the Cofa, N. of Bengal, and S.W. of Bootan.

MORUNGA. See Mouruncen.

MORUP, atown of Sweden, in the province of Hal-
land ; 25 miles N.N.W. of Helmttad.

MORUS, in Botany, the Mulberry, one of thofe an-
cient and univerfal names, whofe etymology can only be

guefled. The tree is called POptchy the fruit Ops by the
Greeks; whence the Latin Morus for the former, and
Morum for the latter, have evidently originated, Lexico-

graphers have {uppofed thefe words to have originated,
either from jcvpor, dark, alluding to the colour of the
fruit, which every body knows became fo in confequence of
the adventures of Pyrumus and Thifbe ; or, by antiphratis,

from pavpor, foolifh, the Mulberry being efleemed the qwi/e/?

MOR

of trees, as never putting forth its buds till all the cold
weather is certainly paft. Pity that its wifdom is not
communicable !— Linn. Gen. 487. Schreb. 634. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 4. 368. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 3. Ait. Hort.
Kew. ed. 1. v: 3. 342 Juff.yo2. Tourn. t. 362. La-
marck Illuftr. t. 762. Gzertn. t. 126.—Clais and order, °
Pfonoeng Tetrandria. Nat. Ord. Scabride, Linn. Urtice,
Jul.

Gen.Ch. Male, Ca/. Perianth in four deep, ovate, con-
cave fegments. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments four, awl-
fhaped, fpreading, longer than the calyx, one of them ac-
companying each of its fegments ; anthers fimple. :

Female, on the fame or a diltinét plant, Cal, Perianth
of four roundifh, obtufe, permanent leaves, the two op-
polite ones lying over the others. Cor. none. Pf. Ger-
men fuperior, heart-fhaped; ftyles two, awl-fhaped, long,
reflexed, rough; ftigmas fimple. Peric. none, except the
enlarged, juicy, coloured leaves of the calyx, affuming the
appearance of a berry. Seed folitary, ovate, compreffed,
acute.

Obf, The fecond f{pecies of Linnzus, MV. nigra, is fome-
times perfectly dioecious ; very frequently it is partially fo,
the ftamens being in greater perfection in mott of the flowers
of one tree, the piftils in thofe of another.

Eff.Ch. Male, Calyx in four deep fegments. Corolla
none.
Female, Calyx of four leaves. Corolla none. Styles

two. Sved folitary, inveited with the pulpy calyx.

1. M. alba. White Mulberry-tree. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1398.
Ger. em. 1507. Loureir. Cochinch. 555.—Leaves ob-
liquely ovate, fomewhat heart-fhaped, nearly fmooth —
Native of China. Cultivated in that country, as well as in
the warmer parts of Europe, for the fake of its leaves as
the food of filk worms. (See Sitx.) The ree is rather of
humble growth, copioufly and irregularly branched. Leaves
alternate, on longith, fender, {mooth /fa/ts, obliquely ovate,
in fome degree heart-fhaped, acute, two inches long, rather
bluntly ferrated, fometimes quite {mooth on both fides, but
more frequently roughifh with minute points, without hairs
or briftles, furnifhed with three principal ribs, and many
veins hairy at their origin, bright green, deciduous. Sti-
pulas lanceolate, varying in breadth, tawny, membranous, de-
ciduous. Flowers green, in fhort, roundifh, {mooth, ftalked
fpikes or heads, which are alternate, feveral near each other,
about the bafe of the young branches. Jruit of a pearly
white, fweetifh, infipid, elteemed unwkolefome.— Willde-
now fays it varies occafionally to a reddifh, red, or black
colour.—The /eaves on young fhoots, from a tree that has
been much cut, fometimes become deeply finuated or lobed.

2. M. tatarica. artarian Mulberry. Linn. Sp. Pl.
1399. Willd. n.2. Pall. Rofs. v. 1. p. 2. 9. t. 52.—
Leaves elliptic-ovate, obtufe; flightly heart-fhaped and equal
at the bafe; equally ferrated, {mooth.—Native of inundated
meadows on the banks of the Wolgaand the Don. Pallas.
Gerber’s {pecimen in the Linnmwan herbarium was gathered
at Afoph, where Pallas fays it is a garden plant. Willde-
now, with great propriety, places this next after the JZ.
alba, to which it is moft nearly related, differing in its more
elliptical, obtufe, and evenly ferrated /eaves, which are quite
{mooth. Gerber fays the fruit is black. Pallas {peaks of
it as reddifh, or pale, of no good flavour, though it is
eaten raw, as well as dried, or made into a fweetmeat. A
wine is alfo prepared from it, and a very well-flavoured
fpirit. This {pecies is reported to be molt efteemed for
filk worms in China.

3. M. nigra. Common Mulberry-tree, Linn, Sp. Pl.

1398.

MORUS.

1398. Woody. Med. Bot. 352. t. r29. (Morus; Camer.
Epit. 179. Ger. em. 1507.) — Leaves broad-heart-fhaped,
unequally ferrated, fomewhat lobed, rough.—Native of
Pertia, and, as it is faid, of the fea-coaft of Italy. Cul-
tivated throughout Europe for the fake of ite fruit. Silk
worms alfo will eat the leaves, though thofe of the firft or
fecond fpecies are preferred by perfons who rear thefe va-
luable infects for profit. This is a larger ¢ree than either
of the former, and readily diftinguifhed by its broader,
rougher, more coarfely and unequally ferrated /eaves ; longer
{pikes of flowers; and larger, dark purple, highly agree-
able and wholefome fruit. The bark of the root, which has
a fingular lilac tinge when dried, is acrid, bitter, and
cathartic, though containing fome mucilage. It is recom-
mended as a vermifuge, in dofes of half a drachm in
powder.

4. M. rubra. Red American Mulberry-tree. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 1399. Michaux Boreal-Amer. v. 2.179. (Morifolia
virginienfis arbor, loti arboris inftar ramofa, foliis ampliffi-
mis; Pluk. Phyt. t. 246. f. 4.)—Leaves ovate, taper-
pointed ; finely ferrated; heart-fhaped at the bafe ; downy
beneath ; fometimes deeply lobed. Spikes long and cylin-

drical. Native of North America, from Canada to Flo-
rida. Cultivated here, according to Parkinfon's Paradifus

596, early inthe 17th century. He fays it grows quickly
with us to a large tree, and that the fruit is long, red, and
pleafantly tafted. The taper-pointed eaves, downy be-
neath, diftinguifh this fpecies, as well as its long, flender,
fomewhat interrupted /pikes.— M1. canadenfis, Lamarck Dié.
v. 4. 380, feems but a variety of this.

5. M. indica. Indian Mulberry-tree. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1399.
Rumpb. Amboin. v. 7.8. t. 5. (Tinda Parua; Rheede
Hort. Mal. v. 1.87. t. 48, not 49.) —Leaves ovate, taper-
pointed, coarlely ferrated, roughifh, naked ; flightly heart-
fhaped at the bafe; often lobed.—Native of the Eaft In-
dies, and of the ifle of Bourbon. Willdenow fays it is
often met with in gardens, aud called a variety of MV. alba.
From that fpecies however it may always be -diltinguifhed
by its rougher ard long-pointed /eaves ; and from the rubra
(whofe aves are nearly as much pointed), by their want
of all downinefs on both fides, as well as by the fhorter and
thicker /pikes. The fruit is reddifh. Both the figures
above cited are bad. ‘hat of Rumphius is rather the betft.
He fays the fruit is delicately flavoured, black when ripe ;
and that the Chinefe feed their filk worms.with the eaves.

Loureiro mentions the fame of the inhabitants of Cochin- /

china, who replant the tree every year, that the foliage may
be tender. ;

6. M. latifolia.
Lamarck Di@.v. 4. 381.

Broad-leaved Bourbon Mulberry-tree.
Willd. n. 6—Leaves broad-

heart-fhaped, pointed, undivided, coarfely ferrated ; rough -

above, veiny beneath —Native of the ifle of Bourbon.
Poiret in Lamarck defcribes the ‘eaves as three inches
broad, three and a half or four long; their under fide
remarkably reticulated, and marked with as many little
pores, or depreflions, as there are rough points on the upper
furface.

7. M. auffralis. Southern Mulberry-tree. Lamarck
Di&. v. 4. 380. Willd. n. 7.— Leaves oval, long-
pointed, naked, roughifh, ferrated, on long footitalks.
Fruit fhort, with long permanent ftyles.’’—Cultivated in
the ifle of Bourbon. [t 1s not eafy to conceive a clear idea
of the charaéterillic marks of this fpecies, by the informa-
tion in the above work, but we fufpeé that it may be a va-
riety of M. indica, fome {pecimens of which in our poffef-
fion, from the ifland here mentioned, anfwer to the defcrip-
tion in feveral refpects. .

8. M. mauritiana. Laurel-leaved Mulbetry-tree. Jacq:
Coll. v. 3. 206. v. 4. 224. t. 22. f. 1. Ic. Rar. t. 607. La-
murck Dict. v. 4. 381. (M.ampalis ; ibid. 380.)—Leaves
elliptic-oblong, entire, rough on both fides.— Native of Ma-
dagafcar'and the Mauritius. A large and ftrong tree. The
branches are rough with {mall irregular tubercles. Leaves
numerous, fcattered, three or four inches in length, and one
or one and a half in breadth, elliptic-oblong, more or lefs
obtufe, perfectly entire, rough with minute points on both
fides, reticulated with innumerable veins. Footflalks thick,
not an inch long, rough with {mall tubercles. “Spikes fhort,
cylindrical, msillaty, folitary, drooping, on fhort, thick,
rough ftalks. J ruit green, {weet with fome acidity, one
and a half or two inches long. The French call this tree
La Rappe, or the rafp tree, of Madagafcar. We have a
{pecimen from Lamarck, which proves his plant the fame
with that of Jacquin. It is a moft diftinét fpecies, and
ought to have been named Jaurifolia or citrifolia. The
leaves feem calculated to ferve as a fine file, or rafp, like
fome of the fig kind. See Ficus.

g. M. tindoria. Dyer’s Mulberry-tree, or Fuftick-wood.
Linn. Syft. Nat. ed. 10. v. 2. 1266. Mant. 495. Mill. Di@.
ed. §. n. 5. (M. laGelcens,. foliis oblongis acutis, paginis
exterioribus produétioribus, ligno citrino ; Browne Jam-
339. M. fruétu viridi, ligno ulphureo tin&orio ; Sloane
Jam. v. 2. 3. t. 158. f. 1. Tatai-iba; Pis. Brafil. 163.
Marcgr. Bralil. 119.)—Leaves oblong, pointed, finely fer-
rated, rough ; heart-fhaped and unequal at the bafe. Spines
none ?—Native of Jamaica and other Weft Indian iflands, but
particularly abundantabout Campeachy on the main land, from
whence the wood is exported, in great quantities, as an article
of trade, and is well known, by the name of Fuftick, as a
yellow dye. Sloane defcribes the tree as having a large and
ilraight trunk, fixty feet or more in height, with long and
large roots, wiofe bark is very yellow. Bark of the trunk
light brown, with yellow clefts. Wood very firm and folid,
of a very fine yellow. Branches {preading. Leaves alter-
nate, on fhortifh ftalks, rough, dark green, pointed, larger
towards the foot{talk ; Browne defcribes them as unequal
at the bafe, and Pifo, like Marcgrave, fays they are finely
ferrated. This lait charaéter does not appear in their figures,
nor in Sloane’s. The latter defcribes the /pikes as whitith
and fhort, abundant at the ends of the branches, and the
fruit as large as a nutmeg, round, formed like other mul-
berries, but greenifh both within and without, with brown
@eds. When ripe it is pleafant, though lufcioufly fweet.
Miller has borrowed much from Sloane’s account. He
raifed feveral plants from feed in the itove at Chelfea, but
they appear not to have furvived long, being very tender,
though of quick growth. It is to be regretted that there
is no good figure, nor {cientific defcription, of this valuable
tree. We have net even feen a {pecimen.

10. M, Xanthoxylon. Spinous Mulberry-tree, or Baftard
Fuftick. Linn. Syft. Nat. ed. ro. v. 2. 1266. Mant. 495.
Jacq. Amer. 247. Mill. Dia. ed. 8. n. 8. (M. tinétoria‘
Linn. Sp. Pl. 1399. Xanthoxylum aculeatum, carpini foliis,
americanum, cortice cinereo; Pluk. Phyt. t. 239. f. 3.)—
Leaves ovate-oblong, pointed, ferrated, nearly fmooth.
Spines axillary.—Native of the Weit Indies. Miller had it
from Jamaica and the Bahama iflands. Jacquin obferved it
in the vatt woods near Carthagena. The former induced
Linnzus to diftinguih this from his M. tingoria, though
the fpecimen in his herbarium is what he originally defcribed
for that {pecies, and fubfequently marked Xanthoxy/on. The
kaves of this are {mooth beneath, {lightly rough to the touch
on the upper fide ; their form ovate-oblong, pointed, unequal
at the bafe; the margin rather ftrongly ferrated. Spines

axillary,

MORUS.

axillary, folitary, {carcely the lencth of the footfalks, which
4s about half an inch. Miller fays there are two {pines to
each leaf, which on the older branches extend to the length
of two inches. He obferves that this ¢ree does not grow to
fo great a fize as the laft. The wood is fold for the fame
ufe, but Linnzus mentions that its quality is inferior to that
of the real JZ. tinforia. Plumier's Jcones, t. 204, quoted
for this by Jacquin, ts a rude refemblance of it, but the
{pines are reprefented under the fvotfalks, not axillary.—
Thefe two plants are well worthy the notice of fome Welt
Indian botani!t. Swartz has nothing on the fubjeét.

Morus, in Gardening, comprehends plants of the deci-
duous tree kind, of which the fpecies cultivated are; the
common mulberry-tree (M. nigra) ; the white mulberry-
tree (M. alba) ; the paper mulberry-tree (M. papyrifera) ;
the red mulberry-tree (M. rubra); the Indian mulberry
(M. indica) ; and the dyer's mulberry or fuftick-wood
(M. tinctoria).

The firft is the fort ufually cultivated as a fruit-tree in the
garden.

And there is a variety with palmate or elegantly cut leaves
and a {maller fruit.

In fpeaking of the fecond kind, Miller obferves that there
are two or three varieties of it, which differin the fhape of
their leaves, and in the fize and colour of the fruit ; but as
it is of no other ufe bet for the leaves, the ftrongeit {hooting
and the largeft-leaved {hould be preferred. :

This fort is commonly cultivated for its leaves to feed filk-
worms in France, Iraly, &c.; and in Spain, according to
Mr. Townfend, they prefer the white mulberry in Valencia,
and the black in Granada. But the Perfians genetally make
ule of the latter, and Mr. Miller was affured by a gentleman
who had made trial of both forts of leaves, that the worms
fed with the latter produced much the beit filk ; but that the
leaves of the black fhould never be given to the worms after
they have eaten for fome time of the white, left they fhould
burit. And fir George Staunton ftates, that the tender
leaves growing on the young fhoots of the black fort are
{uppofed in China to be the moft fucculent or juicy.

Method of Culture.—All the forts are capable of being
increafed by feeds, layers, cuttings, grafting, and inoculat-
ing or budding. But the feed method is chtefly practifed
for thofe which are not intended as fruit-trees, as they are
very liable to vary in that way. It fhouid be fown in the
early {pring, as about March, on a bed of fine earth, in’a
warm afpect, or upon a moderate hot-bed protected with
giaffes, in drills to the depth of a quarter of an inch. Water
fhould be given flightly in dry weather, and in the heat of
the day thade ; covering it in eold nights. When the plants
appear, they fhould be well guarded from froit in the early
{pring, and be kept clean during the fummer, and properly
fhaded and watered, protecting them the firft autumn and
winter, removing them in the following March into nurlery
rows two feet apart, and one diftant, to continue a few
years, when they may be fet out where they are to grow.
They fhould not be removed either from the feed-bed or
nurfery-rows, till perfeétly ftrong.

In cafes where they are intended for feeding filk-worms,
they fhould be kept in a low fhrubby ftate of growth.

They appear, from fir George Staunton’s account, to
fucceed belt in China, on beds about a foot high in moilt
loamy foils.

Where they are raifed for fruit, great care fhould be taken
that the layers or cuttings be not only taken from old fruit-
bearing trees, but that the branches made ufe of be alfo
fruit-bearing.

The layers may be made from {tools formed for the pur-

pofe, or by raifing up large boxes, bafkets, or pots of
earth, fo as to lay the branches in them in the autumn, by
the flit method, heading them down to two eyes each.
When they have taken root in the ancumn following, they
pe be remoyed into the nurfery and managed as the feed-
ngs. 4
The cuttings fhould be made from the former year's fhoots
of fuch trees and branches as bear well, and have fine fruit,
not being fhortened, but planted their whole length, leaving
two or three buds above the ground. They fhould be planted
in March on light rich earth, prefling the mould well about
them, in order that it may be kept from getting tco dry and
parched.

As foon as they have become well rooted in the following
{pring they may be removed into the nurfery, being regularly
trained to ftems by means of {takes fixed to each of them,
to which the principal foots fhoutd be trained, removing
moit of the relt, except {nch as are neceffary to detain the
fap for the fupport of the ftem-

And they may be trained to ftandards, half ftandards, and
dwarf ftandards. See Pruniye and TRainine.

After itanding thiee or four years in the nurfery, they will
be ready to plant out finel'y.

But little fun fhould be admitted at the firft planting of
the cuttings, but aiterwards as much as poffible, provided
the earth about them be prevented from becoming dry, by
mofs or other means. The cuttings alfo {ucceed well whea
planted in a hot-bed ; and in all cafes when covered by hand-
glaffes. It is, hkewafe, the practice with fome to plant them
in Oétober.

Grafting and budding, or inoculating, are certain me-
thods of continuing the proper kinds, and fhould be prac-
tifed in the ufual manner upon the feedling ftocks of any of
the {pecies. See Grarrine and Buppixe.

It is fuggefted by Mr. Forfyth, that ‘as the fruit is pro-
duced on the young wood, only fuch branches as cr< {fs others,
and fuch as are decayed, or broken by accident, fhould be
cut out, applying at the fame time the compofition. When,
however, the heads become tao full of wood, it will be ne-
ceflary to thin them, as the fruit is larger and better flavoured
where the heads are kept thin of wood.”’ And the plant-
ing of thefe trees, when for fruit, in grafs orchards and
pleafure-grounds is advifed, as * the finelt of the fruit, when
ripe, frequently drops, which, if it fall on dug or ploughed
ground, will be foiled and rendered unfit for ufe, as the earth
will adhere fo to the fruit as to render the cleaning of it
impra¢ticable ; but if planted on lawns, or in grafs orchards,
the fruit can be picked up without receiving any injury.
Another reafon for planting thefe on lawns, or in orchards,
is, that when full grown, they are too large for a kitchen-
garden. The foilin which they thrive beit is a rich, light,
and deep earth.”

“« He has tried the efficacy of his compofition on feveral
of thefe trees in a very decayed hollow ilate of the trunk,
cutting out all the dead wood and cankered parts of fome,
and heading down others that were itunted and fickiy,
After thefe operations they put forth vigorous branches,
and bore excelient crops of fruit, more than double the fize
of that which they produced in their former {tate.””

And « thofe who have any old decayed mulberry-trees are
advifed to treat them in the fame maaner; but thofe which
are very much decayed fhould be headed down; this will
throw them into a healthy bearing ftate, and in two or three
years they will produce plenty of fine fruit.’?

And as old trees of this fort bear better and have finer
ia than the young ones, it is of importance to reltore
them,

Both

MOS

Both the fifth and fixth forts are tender, requiring the pro-
tetion of the bark ftove. :

The firit is raifed for the fruit, bur the others chiefly for
the purpofe of variety and ornament. The third is ufed for
having the bark made into paper in fome countries.

MORXI, the Indian name of a pettilential diftemper,
very common in Malabar, and in fome other parts of the
Eatt Indies, frequently carrying off great numbers of
people.

MORZEGORSKOI, in Geography, a town of Ruffia,
in the government of Archangel, on the W. fide of the
Dwina ; 100 miles S.E. of Archangel.

MORZOVETZ, an ifland of Ruffia, in the {traits be-
tween the Frozen and White fea. N. lat. 66° 40’. E.
long. 45° 38’.

MOSA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Gaul, near the
«© Meufe.””

MOSABAD, in aan a4 a town of Hindooftan, in
Agimere; 13 miles S.E. of Roopnagur.

MOSAIC, Mosaic Work, or, as fome choofe to call it,
Mufaic, an aflemblage of little pieces of glafs, marble, hells,
precious ftones, woods, or the like, of various colours, cut
{quare, and cemented on a ground of {tucco, &c. imitat-
ing the natural colours and degradations of painting. In
this fenfe, mofaic work includes marquetry, or inlaid work,
yeneering, &c. ;

The critics are divided as to the origin and reafon of the
name: fome derive it from mofaicum, a corruption of mu/fai-
cum, as that is of mufivum, as it was called among the Ro-
mans. Scaliger derives it from the Greek y#sx, and ima-
gines the name was given to this fort of work, as being very
fine andingenious. Nebricenfis is of opinion it was fo called,
becaufe ex i/lis pi@uris ornabantur mufea.

But, in its more proper and reftrained fenfe, mofaic
only takes in works of ftone, metals, and glafs; thofe of
wood being diftinguifhed by the name of marquetry, or
inlaying.

Others diftinguifh otherwife between mofaic and mar-
quetry. In that properly called mofaic, they fay the feveral
ftones are all of the fame colour ; and the changes and dimi-
nutions of colours and fhades are made by applying different
ftones, one on arother, but all of the fame colour. Mar-
quetry, on the contrary, confilts of ftones of different co-
lours ; and by thele the feveral colours, fhades, degradations,
&c. are exprefled. :

Mofaic feems to have taken its origin from paving: the
fine effe& and ufe of pavements comipofed of pieces of mar-
ble of different colours, fo well joined together, as that,
when dried, they might be polifhed, and the whole make a
very beautiful and folid body, which, continually trodden
upon, and wafhed with water, was not at all damaged, gave
the painter the hint, who foon carried the art to a much
greater perfe¢tion, fo as to reprefent foliages, mafques, and
other grotefque pieces of various colours, on a ground of
black or white marble. In fine, obferving the good effect
which this kind of work had in pavements, and finding that
it refifted water, they proceeded to line walls with it, and
to take various figures by it, for the ornament of their
temples and public buildings. But nature not producing
variety of colours enough for them in marbles, to paint all
kinds of obje&s, they bethought of counterfeiting them
with glafs and metal colours; which fucceeded fo well with
them, that having given all manner of tents to an infinite
number of little pieces of thefe two matters, to counterfeit
{tones of various colours, in order to get more colours, the
workmen arranged them with fo much art, that their mofaic
feemed almoft to vie with painting ; this way of reprefent-

Vox. XXIV.

MOS

ing objeéts having this advantage, that it refills the injuries
of the air as well as marble itfelf; and éven erows more
beautiful with time, which effaces all other kinds of
painting.

But the moderns ‘have gone yet farther; and, fetting

alide glafs and metals, as too mean materials, have in-
troduced, along with the fineft marbles, the richetft of
precious ftones, as lapis lazuli, agat, cornelians, emeralds,
turquoifes, &c.
- Of thefe three kinds of mcfaic work, that of coloured
glafs and metals is now little in ufe; though of a furprifing
luftre and durablenefs: of the other two, that of marbles
alone is in common ufe ; the mofaic in precious ftones being
fo very dear, that few workmen who apply themfelves to it,
make little elfe but petty works, as ornaments for altar-
pieces, tables for rich cabinets, &c. Though out of thefe
muft be excepted that fumptuous chapel of the dukes of
Tufcany, which will be a noble monument of the magni-
ficence and piety of thofe princes, as well as of the patience
and addrefs of the workmen employed in it.

We fhall, however, enter into fome detail of the manner
of working in thefe three kinds of mofaic; to which we
fhall add a fourth much newer, yet equally ingenious
with any of the reft, made with a kind of gypfum or talc,
found in the ftone quarries about Paris.

Mosaic Work of Gla/s. This kind they begin with little
pieces of glafs, which they provide of as many different
colours as poffible. To this end, the glaffman’s furnaces
being difpofed, and their pots or crucibles full of the matter
of which glafs is made, or rather of glafs already made,
they put what metalline colour or dye they think fit in each
crucible, always beginning with the weakeft, and augment-
ing the ftrength of the colours from crucible to crucible,
till they come to the deepett dye, as in mixing of colours on
a pallet to paint in oil. When the glafs has had fufficient
codon, and ali the colours are in their perfection, they take
out the glafs hot, as it is, laying it on a fmooth marble,
flatting it down with another marble, and then cut it into
flices of equal bignefs, and about the thicknefs of an inch
and a half. They then, with an inftrument which the
Italians call bocca dicane, make {ome pieces fquare, and
others of different figures and fizes, as occafion requires ;
thefe they difpofe orderly in cafes ; as in painting in frefco,
it is ufual to range all the different teints in fhells, according
to their colour. If it be defired to have gold, either in the
ground of the painting, or inthe ornaments, or the draperies,
they take fome of the pieces of the glafs, formed and cut in
the manner juft mentioned: thefe they moiiten on one fide
with gum water, and afterwards lay them over with gold-
leaf. They then put this piece, or feveral pieces at a time,
on a fire-fhovel, which they place in the mouth of the fur-
nace, after having firft covered them with another hollow
piece of glafs. Here they continue till fuch time as they
become red-hot ; after which the fhovel is drawn out, all
at once, and the gold becomes fo firmly bound to the glafs,
that it will never afterwards leave it.

Now, to apply thefe feveral pieces, and out of them to
form a picture, they firft make a cartoon, or defign ; this
they transfer on the ground or platter, by calking, as in
painting in frefco.

As this plafter is to be laid thick on the wall, it will
continue frefh and foft a confiderable time, fo that there

-may be enough prepared at once to ferve three or four days.

This plafter is compofed of lime made of hard ftone, with
brick-duit ground very fine, gum tragacanth, and whites
of eggs: when it is thus prepared, and laid on the wall,
and the defign finifhed of what is to be reprefented ; with

Ee plyers

MOS

plyers they take out the little pieces of glaffes, ranging
them one after another, and ftill keeping ftri€ly to the
light, fhadow, and different teints and colours reprefented
in the defign; preffing or flattening them down with a
ruler, which ferves both to fink them within the ground,
and to render the furface even.

Thus, in a long time, and with an infinite deal cf trouble,
they finifh the work; which is ftill the more beautiful, as
the pieces of glafs are more uniform, and ranged at more
equal heights. Some of thefe are executed with fo much
juftnefs, that they appear as fmooth as a table of marble,
and as finifhed and maiterly as a painting in frefco; with
this advantage, that they have a fine luitre, and will hoid
almoit for ever.

The fineft works of this kind, that have defcended to us,
and thofe from which the moderns have retrieved the art,
almoft loft, are thofe of the church of St. Agnes, formerly
the temple of Bacchus, at Rome; befides fome at Pifa,
Florence, and other cities of Italy. The moft efteemed
among the works of the moderns are thofe of Jofeph Pine,
and the chevalier Lanfranc, in the church of St. Peter at
Rome. There are fome very good ones hkewife at Venice.

Mosaic Work of Marble, and Precious Stones. Thefe
two kinds bear fo near a relation to each other as to the
manner of working, that, to avoid repetition, we fhall give
them beth under one; obferving, by the way, wherein the
one differs from the other, either in the fawing or ranging
of the ftones.

Mofaic of Marble is ufed in large works, as in pavements
of churches, bafilics, and palaces; and in the incruftation
and vencering of the walls of the fame edifices. As to
that of ftones, efpecially precious ftones, it is only ufed in
{mall works, as before obferved.

The ground of mofaic works, wholly marble, is ordi-
narily a mafs of marble, either white or black. On this
ground the defign is cut with a chiffel, having been firit
calked. When it is dug of a fufficient depth, #. e. an inch
or more, it is filled up with marble of a proper colour, firft
contoured, or fafhioned to the defign, and reduced to the
thicknefs of the cavities, with various inftruments. To
make the pieces thus inferted into the cavities hold, whofe
feveral colours are to imitate thofe of the defign, they ufe a
{tueco, compofed of lime and marble duft; or a maitic,
which each workman prepares differently : after which, the
work is half polifhed with a foft kind of ftone.

The figures thus marked out, the painter or fculptor
himfelf draws with a pencil, the colours of the figures, not
determined by the ground, and in the fame manner makes
ftrokes or hatchings, in the places where fhadows are to be;
and when he has engraved, with a chiffel, all the ftrokes
thus drawn, he fills them up with a black maitic, compofed
chiefly of Burgundy pitch, poured on hot; taking off,
afterwards, what is fuperfluous, with a piece of foft ftone
or brick, which, with water and beaten cement, takes away
the mattic, polifhes the marble, and renders the whole fo
even, that one would imagine it only confilted of a fingle
piece; it is this kind of mofaic we fee in the pompous
church of the invalids at Paris, and the fine chapel of Ver-
failles ; and with which fome entire apartments of that palace
are 1° crufted.

For Mofaie Work of Precious Stones, there are required
other and more delicate inflruments than thofe ufed in marble;
as wheels, drills, tin-plates, &c. ufed by lapidaries, and
earvers in ftone. Asnone but the richeft marbles and {tones
enter this work, to make them go the farther, they are fawn
into the thinneft leaves imaginable, fearcely exceeding half a
line in thicknefe: the block to be fawed is fattened firmly

st

.mofaic, the ground is the moft important part.

MOS

with cords on the bench, only raifed a little on a piece of
wood one or two inches high. Two iron pins, which are
on one fide the block, and which ferve to fatten it, ferve
alfo to dire&t the faw. The pieces to be fawed are put
into a vice contrived for the purpofe : in which ftate, with
a kind of faw or bow made of a fine brafs wire, bent on a
piece of {pringy wood, together with emery moittened with
water, the leaf is gradually fafhioned by following the
ftrokes of the defign made on the paper, and then glued to
the piece. ;

When there are picces enough fafhioned to form an entire
flower, or fome other part of the defign, they are applied.
The ground, that fuftains this mofaic, is ufually of ftone.
The matter, with which the ftones are joined together, is a
ftucco, or mattic, laid very thin on the leaves as they are
fafhioned; and the leaves in this ftate are applied with
plyers. If any contour, or fide of a leaf, be not either
rounded enough, or fquared enough, to fit the place where
it is to be ufed, when it is too large, it is brought down
with a brafs file or rafp ; and when too {mall, is managed
with a dril!, and other lapidary inftruments.

Manner of making Mofaic Work of Cop um.—This is a
kind of coarfe talc, or fhining tranfparent Itone, found in the
quarries of Montmartre, near Paris, among the ftones thence
dug to make the platter of Paris. It is different from the
plaiter ; but retains the name which the Romans gave the
platter, viz. gyp/um.

Of this ftone, calcined in a kiln, beaten in a mortar, and
paffed through a fieve, they make a kind of artificial marbles,
Imitating precious ftones ; and of thefe they compofe a
kind of mofaic work which comes little fhort either of the
durablenefs or vivacity of the natural ftones: and which has
this advantage, that it admits of continued pieces, or paint-
ings, of entire compartiments, without any joining vifible.

Some make the ground of plafter of Paris, others of frees
ftone: if the former, it is fpread in a wooden frame, of the
length and breadth of the intended work, and about an inch
and a half thick. This frame is fo contrived, as that the
tenons being only joined to the mortifes by fingle pins, they
may be taken afunder, and the frame be difmounted when
the plafter is dry ; this frame they cover on one fide by a
{trong linen cloth, nailed all round ; and being placed hori-
zontally, with the linen at bottom, it is filled with platter,
pafied through a wide fieve: the plafter being half dry,
the frame is fet perpendicular, and left till it be quite dry,
and then taken out, by difmounting the frame. In this
Now, to
prepare the fifted gypfum to be applied on this ground,
they diffolve and boil it in the belt Englifh glue; -and,
after mixing with it the colour it is to bear, the whole :s
worked up together into the ordinary confiftence of plafter 5
and then taken and {pread on the groud, five or fix inches
thick. It muft be obferved, that if the work be fuch, as
that mouldings are required, they are formed with gouges,
and other in{truments.

It is on this plafter thus coloured like marble, or precious
ftone, and which is to ferve as a ground to a work either of
lapis lazuli, agat, alabaiter, or the like, that the defign to
be reprefented is drawn; having been firlt pounced, or
calked. ‘Lo hollow or imprefs the defign, they ufe the
fame inftruments with the {culptors; the ground, whereon
they are to work, not being much lefs hard than marble it-
felf. The cavities, thus made in the ground, are filled up
with the fame gypfum boiled in glue, only differently co-
loured; and thus are the feveral colours of the original re-
prefented. ‘To have the neceffary colours and teints at
hand, they temper quantities of the gypfum with the feveral

colours,

MOS

colours, in little pots, When the defign is thus filled, and
rendered vilible, by half-polifhing it with brick, or foft
ftone, they go over it again, cutting fuch places as are either
to be weaker, or more ftrengly fhadowed, and filling them
with gypfum ; which is repeated till all the colours, added
one — another, reprefent the original to the life. The
work being finithed, is fcoured with foft {tone, fand, and
water; then with pumice-{tone ; and, laftly, polifhed with
‘a wooden rubber, and fine emery: then a lultre is given it,
by {mearing it over with oil, and rubbing ita long time with
the palm of the hand; which gives it a glofs nothing inferior
to that of natural marble.

If it be only required to make a variegated table, or other
work of feveral colours, without mofaic figures, the procefs
is fomewhat different. To this end, they only prepare {e-
parately, in large bowls, as many different colours as nature
fhews in the marble to be imitated ; and, after incorporating
them with the gypfum and glue-water, they take a trowel
full of each, and difpofe them in a trough, without any
order; then, without mingling them, and only by cutting
or crofling the gypfum of each trowel once or twice with
each of the rel. they give them that beautiful confufion,
for which natural marbles are fo much valued: of thefe they
then make their tables, or lay a mould, according to the
work to be done.

As to Mofaic Work of Wood, more properly called mar-
guetry, or inlaid work, the ancients were well acquainted
with it, and ufed it for the adorning of their beds, tables,
and other moveables: employing, for this purpofe, ivory,
befides the richeft woods.

There are, befides thefe, two other branches of mofaic
work ; the one called damufke:ning, or dama/k work, con-
fifting in an aflemblage of gold or filver threads, of which
= fometimes formed flat works, and fometimes baflo re-

ievos. -

The other is called /bell-work ; confifting of fhells, arti-
ficial congelations, petrifications, &c. ufed in grottos.

MOSALA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
lapmark of Tornea; 18 miles N.E. of Kimi.

MOSALSK, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Kaluga; 48 miles W. of Kaluga. N. lat. 54° 20! E. long.

* 34".

SHISSAMA, the name of a particular kind of cotton,
which appears to be the fame with the capoc or mapu. Ac-
cording to Savary, this cotton covers the whole ftem and
the branches of the tree. l

MOSBACH, in Geography, a town of Bavaria, in the
Upper Palatinate; 20 miles E. of Amberg.—Alfo, a town
of the duchy of Baden, containing three churches, and fome

manufactures of cloth, falt, &c.; 18 miles E. of Heidel-’

berg, —Alfo, atown of the duchy of Wurzburg; 5 miles
N. of Schweinfurt.

MOSBRUNN, a town of Auftria; 8 miles S. of
Vienna.

MOSBURG, a town of the duchy of Carinthia ; 6 miles
N.W. of Clagenfurt—Alfo, a town of Bavaria, called alfo
Majperg ; 24 miles N.E. of Munich. N. lat. 48° 23’. E.
long, 11° 55’.

MOSCHARIA, in Botany, from mofchus, mufk, in al-
lufion to its mufky fcent. Forfk. dEgypt-Arab. 158.
Juff. 419. An herbaceous plant, found flowering in the
middle of April, in the deferts about Alexandria. Forfkall
deferibes it thus. ‘¢ Root perennial. Stems feveral, annual,
{preading, but fomewhat ereét, {quare, a {pan long. Leaves
oppolite, crofling each other, feflile, two inches long, linear,
obtufe, villous, toothed at the end. F/owers axillary, from
the very bottom of the ftem, folitary, feflile, the fize of a

MOS

{malf pea. Calyx globofe, villous, five-toothed at the fum-
mit, late, permanent: The place of the corolla is fupplied
by a pellucid membrane, enclofing the organs of fruéti-
fication, like a bag, and neceflary to be cut open before
they can be inveftigated. Filaments none. Anthers four,
two-lobed, {urrounding the top of the ftigma, combined,
Germens four, obovate. Style thread-fhaped. Stigma fimple.
Seeds four, naked, fmooth. This paradoxical plant is placed
by Juffieu amongit thofe which he could reduce to no certain
order, but with an indication of its being poffibly allied to
the Labiate, or Didynamia Gymnofpermia. ‘The learned Mr.
Correa de Serra has fuggefted to us, that it is probably a
monitrous variety of the Linnzan Teucrium. Iva, more pro-
perly referred by Schreber to Ajuga. (See Willd. Sp. PI.
Vv. 3. 11. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grae. Sibth.’ v. 1. 389.) + Mr.
Correa’s conjefture ftrikes us with conviétion, though we
recollect no fimilar metamorphofis in any other genus, pars
ticularly with regard to the ftamens.

MOSCHATELLINA, Moj/chatella of Cordus, Hitt.
172, fo called by that author from its mufky f{cent, and
humble ftature. See Apoxa.

MOSCHEL, or Ozer-Moscuet, in Geography, a town
of France, in the department of Mont Tonnerre, and chief
place of a canton, in the diftri& of Kaiferflautern ; 32 miles
N.N.E. of Deux Ponts. The place contains 670, and the
canton 8191 inhabitants, in 24 communes. N. lat. 49° 46’.
E. long. 7° 43'. :

MOSCHELAPHUS, in Natural Hiffory, a name given
by fome-writers to a creature of a mixed nature, produced
by the copulation of a ftag with a cow. Wagner tells us,
that thefe creatures are fometimes feen in the mountainous
parts of Swifferland; as are alfo the hippotauri, generated
between a bull and a mare; but neither of thefe ever propa-
gate their fpecies. See BucepHacus.

MOSCHI, in Ancient Geography, a people who inhabited
a territory north of the Euphrates, between that river and the
Colchide, and the coats fouth-eait- of the Euxine fea, ac-
cording to Strabo. Pliny fays that Phrixus built among
the Mofchi the rich temple of Leucothza, and eftablifhed
there an oracle. This temple was piliaged by the fon of
Mithridates. This people alfo occupied a part of mount
Caucafus, where the river Phafis took its rife.

MOSCHIFERUM Anmat, or Mofchus mofchiferus
of Linneus, mu/k, in Natural Hiffory, the name of the crea-
ture which affords us the perfume called mufk. See Mos-
CHUS.

MOSCHION, in Biography. Several ancient phyficians
of this name are mentioned by Galen, Pliny, Soranus, and
Plutarch ; fome of whom were authors. But the only one,
whofe writings have been preferved, was a phylician of the
Methodic feét, of an uncertain age, but who probably lived
about .the eighth century. His work is extant both ia
Greek and Latin; but it is fuppofed that the former edition
is a tranflation from the Latin. It was firft printed at Bafle
in 1538, in the “ Libri Gyneciorum” of Spachius, with
the title of “ De Mulieribus affectibus Liber unus ;"* and
has been fubfequently republifhed by Gafp. Wolff, with
Gefner’s Scholiay 1538; and by J. O. Dewes, Vienna,
1793, with notes. ‘The work is of little value, fhewing a
very imperfe& acquamtance with the fubjeét of which it
treats. Eloy Diét. Hilt. Gen. Biog.

MOSCHO, or Mosuo, in Geography, a town of Africa,
in the kingdom of Dongola, on the left bank of the Nile;
100 miles N.W. of Dongola. N. lat. 20° 26’. E. long.

39° §2".
MOSCHOPULUS, EMANUEL, in Biography, a Greek
grammarian who flourifhed in the r4th century, was a na-
Ee 2 tive

MOS

tive of the ifland of Crete, and wrote a treatife on grammar,
firft printed in 1545. His nephew, Emanuel, was a con-
fiderable mathematician and antiquary. He compoied a
Greek Lexicon in 1545. Moreri.

MOSCHUS, a celebrated Greek paftoral poet, was a
native of Syracufe. It is not afcertained at what period he
lived. Some authors make him a pupil of Bron (fee his
article); but Suidas and fome others fpeak of him as the
friend of Ariftarchus, who flourifhed about 160 years before
the birth of Chrift. The tendernefs with which he {peaks
of Bion, in his beautiful elegy on that poet, is mentioned as
a proof of his perfonal acquaintance with him. In the time
of the latter Grecians, all the ancient Idylliums were col-
leG&ed, and attributed to Theocritus; but the claims of
Mofchus and Bion have been admitted with refpe& to a few
little pieces. Mofchus is a poet that poflefles great elegance
of ftyle, and more delicacy and ingenuity in his conceptions
than ufual among Bucolic poets. His piece entitled “ Run-
away Love,” in particular, deferves a high rank among fen-
timental pieces. His works, at leaft {uch as are utually
attributed to him, are commonly printed in conjunction with
thofe of Bion.

Moscuus, in Natural Hiffory, the mufk, a genus of the
order Pecora, and clafs Mammalia. ‘The generic character
is this: without horns; eight lower fore-teeth; the upper
tufks are folitary, and projeGting. Gmelin enumerates fix
fpecies, but Dr. Shaw has mentioned feven, adding to thofe
of Gmelin, the mofchus delicatulus, or Leverian mufk. The
mufk is one of thofe quadrupeds, of which the true form and
natural hiftory continued in great obfcurity, long after the
introduétion and general ufe of the celebrated perfume which
it produces. It feems to have been unknown to the ancients,
but is mentioned in the eighth century by the Arabians,
who ufed the drug in their medical praétice. At that
period, and long after, the animal was by fome confidered
as a kind of goat, by others as a {pecies of deer, or antelope,
and of courfe was fuppefed to be a horned animal. About
the clofe of the 17th century, a pretty accurate defcription
of its figure and habits was given.

Species.

Moscuirervs, or Thibet Mufk, has a follicle near the
navel; the tailis fhort. The fize and general appearance of
this animal refemble, in fome degree, thofe of the {mall roe-
buck. It meafures about forty inches in length, and
twenty-feven in height from the top of the fhoulders to the
bottom of the fore-feet, thirty-three inches from the top of the
haunches to the bottom of the hind-feet. The upper jaw is
confiderably longer than the lower, and is furnifhed on each
fide with a curved tufk about two inches long, and confe-
quently expofed to view, when the mouth is clofed, Thefes
tufks are thought to refemble a pair of crooked knives: their
fubitance is aie ofivory. ‘The ears are long and narrow,
of a pale yellowith caft in the infide, and deep brown on the
outfide., The general colour of the whole body is a kind of
deep iron grey ; the tips of the hairs being of a ferruginous
cait, the remainder is blackifh, growing much paler, or
whitifh, towards the roots; each hair is fomewhat waved or
undulated throughout its whole length, and is of a ftrong
and elaltic nature, growing rather upright on the animal,
and very thick. The female is {maller than the male, and
wants the tufks. Thefe animals inhabit the Alpine moun-
tains of Afia, Tonquin, and Siberia; they are alfo found
about the lake Baikal, and near the rivers Jenefea and Ar-
gun, ‘Their favourite haunts are the tops of mountains co-
vered with pines, where they delight to wander in places the
molt difficult of accefs, In their habits and manners they

MOS

refemble the chamois, and other mountain goats, {pringing
with great celerity, and, when purfued, taking refuge
among the higheft and molt inacceffible fummits. They are
hunted for the fake of their perfume, which 1s contained in
a receptacle about the fize of a {mall egg, hanging from the
middle of the abdomen, and is peculiar to the male animal.
This receptacle is found filled with a foft, unétuous,
brownifh fubftance, of the moft powerful and penetratin
{mell, which is the perfume, in its natural ftate, fo well
known. As foon as the animal is flain, the hunters cut off
the receptacle or mufk-bag, and tie it up ready for fale.
The perfume is found in animals at all feafons of the year,
but not in thofe that are young: the quantity is about a
quarter of an ounce. The celebrated traveller, Tavernier,
fays he purchafed, in one of his eaftern journies, no lefs than
7673 mufk-bags. The penetrating nature of the mufk-
perfume is generally known: its colour is brown, with an
unétuous and granulated appearance. At a diftance, the
{cent is agreeable ; but when brought too clofe, and in large
quantities, it produces alarming effects. It has been known
to force the blood from the nofe, eyes, and ears, of thofe
who have imprudently or accidentally inhaled its vapours. —

Inpicus. The body of this fpecies is tawny above, and
whitifh beneath, with fpurious hoofs, and a fomewhat
lengthened tail. This is called the Indian mufk, as bein
found in the Eaft Indies. It has been defcribed by Briffon,
and is larger than the Thibet mufk. Its head is very like
that of the horfe; the ears are ere&t and oblong, and the
legs flender.

Pyemus, or Guinea Mufk, has the body above brown-
tawny, beneath white, and without fpurious hoofs. It m-
habits India and Java, is very fmall, as its fpecific name
imports, not being more than nine or ten inches long from
the nofe to the tail. It is a mott elegant little animal, of a
bright bay colour, but beneath and on the infides of the
thighs it is white. Its fhape, as well as its colour, is beau-
tiful, and the legs are fo flender as not to exceed the dia-
meter of a fwan’s quill; the head, eyes, and ears, are rather
large, and the afpe&t is mild. The natives of Java catch
great numbers in fnares, and carry them to markets in cages
for fale; and fome years fince, they were purchafed at as
low a rate as two-pence or three-pence each. It obtained
the name of Guinea mufk from the opinion of Briffon and
others, that it was a native of that country, which, it has~
been fince afcertained, is not the cafe. The legs of the
pigmy mufk have been frequently capped at the upper
joint with gold or filver, and in that ftate ufed as tobacco-
{toppers.

There is a variety of this. fpecies thus defcribed: body
rufty, mixed with black; neck and throat with perpendi-
cular itripes.

Memimna. Body above cinereous-yellow, beneath white;
fides {potted with white, and with fpurious or falfe hoofs.
It is a native of the Indian iflands, but is chiefly found in
Ceylon and Java. It has been fometimes confounded with
the M. pygmeus. It is readily diltinguifhed by its remark-
able colour and fpots, and was raifed into a diftin® {pecies
by Mr, Pennant.

JAvAnicus, or Java Mufk, is, as its name imports, a
native of the ifland of Java, and is the fize of a rabbit. The
fpecific charaéter is, body above ferruginous, beneath lon-
gitudinally white ; tail longifh, hairy, white beneath at the
tip; the nofe and ears are naked; the neck is grey, mixed
with brown hairs; beneath white, with two grey {pots al-
molt conneéted ; under the throat there are two long diver-
gent hairs; the crown is longitudinally blackifh.

AmenicAnus, or Brazilian Mufk. Body tawny-brown ;

mouth

MOS

mouth black ; throat white. This fpecies is found in Bra-
fil and Guinea ; is nearly as large as a roe-buck, with ears
four inches long; it is timid, active, and fwift; the hair is
foft and fhort ; the head and neck on the upper part brown,
and under it is white; the hind-legs are longer than thofe in
front. It can, like a goat, ftand with ali the four legs to-
gether on the point of a rock. The animals of this {pecies
are often feen {wimming in rivers, and may then be ealily
taken. The Indians hunt them, and their flefh is efteemed
very delicate.

A variety of this {pecies is tawny-brown, fpotted above
with white.

De icarutus, or Leverian Mufk, is ferruginous-brown,
and {potted above with white. In the Leverian Mufeum it
was called the ¢ {mall {potted mufk.”’ Dr. Shaw fays, that
the animal fo named appears to be nearly allied to one figured
by Seba, who affures us it is a native of Surinam, and de-
feribes it as of a ferruginous colour, thickly {potted with
white, except on the head, breaft, and belly, and that it is
in all probability the fame. In fize it fearcely exceeds the
pigmy mufk, if the f{pecimen referred to be of its full
growth, of which there are doubts entertained, from the fine-
nefs and clofenefs of its hair.

MOSCKKA, or Moska, in Geography. Sec Muscxa.

MOSCOS, the name of a tribe in the kingdom of New
Granada, faid to have been fo called by the Spaniards, who,
finding them more numerous than the other tribes, transferred
the appellation from the fies, which abound in the country.
Their conquerors found them governed by two eleétive
princes, one of whom, denominated the Zipa,’’ refided at
Bogota, while the “ Zaqui’? was eftablifhed at Tunja.
Others more juttly infer, that the appellation of Mofcos was
a_mere play of words upon the native name of Mui/cas.
Next to the Peruvians, they were the mott civilized people.
They wore a clofe tunic of cotton, with a fquare cloak of
the fame fabric. On the head was a cap of the fkins of ani-
mals, decorated with plumes of varieus colours; and over
the forehead hung a crefcent of the gold or filver which
abounded in their country, the points being turned epwards.
Their arms were adorned with bracelets, formed of ftone or
bone; the nofe-ring was of gold; and on gala-days, the
face and body were painted with “ achiote,”’ or roucou,
which yields a vermilion tint, and with the juice of the
“‘ jagua,’’ which produces a deep black. The women ufed
a fquare cloak, called * chircate,’’ faitened with a girdle;
and over the fhoulders a fmall mantle, called ¢ liquira,’’ fixed
on the breaft with a large pin of gold. ‘The men wore their
hair long, and divided in what is called the Nazarene form ;
while that of the women was loofe, and darkened by art ;
the greateft affront being to cut off their hair. Both fexes
were handfome, and of good difpofitions. Their weapons
were flings, fwords of hard wood, and light darts. ‘ They
believed in a great author ef nature; and adored the fun,
s¢ Zuhi,’’? and the moon, ‘ Chia,’’ as his reprefentatives.
Their immortality was material, according to the cultomary
Opinion among favages ; and they buried the dead with orna-
ments of gold, and the preciovs emeralds of their country.
They were in conftant warfare with the Muzos and Colinas,
but were feared and refpected by all. The Mufco language,
called ‘ Chibaha,’’ was general throughout the kingdom ;
but it is now adulterated, and nearly lof, though moft of
the converted tribes of the kingdom of New Granada belong
to this nation, and are generally of generous difpofitions,
bold, faithful, and robuit, though inclined to ebriety.
Eftalla, cited by Pinkerton in his ‘* Geography,” vol. iti.
For the account given of thefe people by Dr. Robertfon

MOS

(Hift of America, vol. ii.), we fhall refer to the article
Bocora.

MOSCOW, called by the Ruffians Mo/fkva, a city of
Roflia, the capital of a government, is fituated on a river of
the fame name. The approach to this city is announced at
the diftance of fix miles, by {pires over-topping an eminence,
at the extremity of the broad ayenue cut through a
foreft; and upon proceeding two or three miles farther,
a fuperb profpeé& of this vaft city burfts upon the fight
of the traveller. It ftretches in the form of a crefcent
to a prodigious extent ; while innumerable churches, towers,
gilded {pires and domes, white, red, and green buildings,
glittering in the fun, form a {plendid appearance ; ftrongly
contralted, however, by an intermixture of wooden hovels.
The neighbouring country is undulating ; and the foreft,
abounding with plantations of oaks, beech, mountain-ath,
poplars, pines, and firs, reaches within a mile of the ram-
parts, and is fucceeded by a range of open pattures. In
entering the city, or rather the fuburbs, the river Mokkva is.
crofled on a long kind of raft-floating, faftened to each
bank, which the Ruflians call a “living-bridge,”” becaufe it
bends under the carriage. Before we give an account of
the city itfelf, we fhall detail fome particulars refpecting its
origin, concerning which antiquaries have differed. ‘The
following account is received as the moft probable. Mofcow
owes its foundation to George, fon of Vladimir, or Wolodi-
mer Monomaka, who reigned, fays Chantreau, in 1147,
but who afcended the throne of Ruffia, as Coxe fays, in
1154. Being infulted by Stephen Kutchko, prince of
Sufdal, he confifcated his domains, of which the lands, now
occupied by this city, formed a part, and laid the founda-
tion of anew town, which he called Mofkva, from the river
of that name. But under his fucceffors, the town fell into
fuch decay, that in the year 1295, when the empire was di,
vided, and Daniel, fon of Alexander Newtki, received as
his fhare the duchy of Mofcow, and fixed his refidence at
this place, he was under a neceflity of rebuilding it, and
may therefore be confidered as its new founder. ‘The fpot,
now occupied by the Kremlin, was at that time a morals,
overfpread with wood, containing a {mall ifland, with a
fingle hut. On this part Daniel conitructed numerous
buildings, confifting chiefly of churches and monafteries, and
enclofed it with wooden fortifications. Here he firft aflumed
the title of duke of Mofcow; and when he fucceeded his
brother, Andrew Alexandrovitch, in the great duchy of
Vladimir, he continued his refidence at Mofcow, which be-
came the capital of the Ruffian dominions. The new metro-
polis was confiderably enlarged by his fon Ivan; and in
1367, his grandfon Demetrius Ivanovitch Donfki fur-
rounded the Kremlin with a brick wall. Notwithftanding
thefe fortifications, the town was taken, in 1382, by Ta-
merlane. This defultory conqueror foon evacuated it, and
it again came into the poffeffion of the Ruffians, but was
frequently occupied by the Tartars, who, in the 14th and
15th centuries, over-ran Ruffia, and even maintained a gar-
rifon in Mofcow, until they were finally expelled by Ivan
Vaflilievitch. To him Mofcow has been indebted for its
principal {plendour, and under him it became the moft con-
fiderable city of the Ruffian empire.

Mofcow continued to be the metropolis of Ruffia till the
beginning of the laft century ; when, to the great diflatif-
faction of the nobility, but with great advantage to the {tate,
the feat of empire was transferred to Peterfburgh. Not-
withitanding the predilection which Peter conceived for Pe-
terfburgh, Mofcow is fill the molt populous city of the
Ruffian empire. Here the chief nobles, who do not belong

to

Moscow. ,

to the court, refide ; and here they gratify their tate fora
ruder and more expenfive magnificence in the ancient ftyle
of feudal grandeur, without being eclipfed, as at Peterf-
burgh, by the fupericr fplendour of the imperial eftablifh-
ment., This is the largeft city in Europe: the circumfer-
ence within the rampart, which enclofes the fuburbs, being

g verits, or 26 miles ; but being built in a very unconnect-
ed and ftraggling manner, its populatidn does not in any de-
pre correfpond to its extent. Some Ruffian authors have,

y an exaggerated ftatement, eftimated the number of in-
habitants at 5o0,00c. According to Bufching, who refided
fome years in Ruffia, Mofcow, in 1770, contained 708
brick-houfes, and 11,840 habitations of wood ; 85,731
males, and 67,059 females ; in all, only 152,790 fouls, a
computation which much diminifhes the true number. Ac-
cording to an account publifhed in the journal of St. Peterf-
burgh, for 1781, the diftri€& of Motcow contained, in the
beginning of 1788, 2178 hearths ; end the number of in-
habitants included 137,698 males, and 134,918 females ; in
all, 272,616 fouls. At the end of the fame year, the po-
pulation of the diftri& was found to be 140,143 males, and
1375392 females; in all, 277,535 fouls. The accuracy of
this computation has been contirmed by the account received
by an Englifh gentleman from the lieutenant of the pelice,
who informed him that Mofcow contained within the ram-
parts 250,000 fouls, and in the adjacent villages 50,000.
Dr. Clarke, in his “* Travels,”’ citing Mr. Heber’s MS.
journal, obferves, that the population of Mofcow has been
greatly exaggerated ; and that the intendant of police reckon-
ed it at only 250,000 fixed inhabitants, and 30,000 retainers
and fervants of the nobles, who only refide in it during winter.
Richter obferves, that the population of Mofcaw differs ac-
cording to the feafon of the year. In winter, when the
nobility and their retainers flock to the metropolis, the
inhabitants exceed 300,000; but in fummer, when they re-
tire to the country, they do not amount to 200,000. The
births, deaths, and marriages at Mofcow in the year 1799,
appear, from a table publifhed in the firlt volume of Mr.
Tooke’s “ Hiftory of the Ruffian Empire,” ta be as
follows : ‘

Births. Deaths. Marriages.
Males. Females. Males. Females. Couples.
275394 22,235 13,238 12,131 13,151

The fame writer ftates, that the government of ‘Mofcow,
which was the moft-populous when he publifhed his valuable
work, including the metropolis, contained upwards of
1,139,000 perfons.

Mr. Coxe informs us, that of all the cities that ever
claimed his attention, he never obferved any one fo irregu-
lar, fo uncommon, fo extraordinary, and fo contra{ted, as
Mofcow. The ftreets, he fays, are in general exceedingly
long and broad, ; fome are paved; others, particularly in
the fuburbs, are formed with trunks of trees, or boarded
with planks, like the floor of a room; wretched hovels are
blended with large palaces ; cottages of one ftory ftand next
to the moft {tately manfions. Many brick {tructures are co-
vered with wooden tops; fome of the timber houfes are
painted, others have iron doors and roofs. Churches in
every quarter are very numerous, built in the oriental {tyle
of archite&ture, fome with domes of copper, others of tin,
gilt or painted green, and many roofed with wood. Ina
word, fome parts of this valt city have the appearance of a
fequellered defert : other quarters, of a populous town ; fome
of a contemptible village ; others ofa great capital. Upon
the whole, this city exhibits a motley mixture of difcordant

architeCture. Dr. Clarke fays, that «¢ Mofcow is in every
thing extraordinary ; as well in difappointing expectation as
in furpaffing it ; in caufing wonder and derifion, pleafure and
regret. Numerous fpires, glittering with gold, amidit bur-
nifhed domes and painted palaces, appear in the mid{t of an
open plain for feveral verfts before you reach the gate of the
city. Having paffed, you look about, and wonder what is
become of the city, or where you are ; and are ready to afk,
once more, how far is it to Mofcow ? They will tell you,
© This is Mofcow !’ and you behold nothing but a wide and
feattered fuburb, huts; gardens, pigtties, brick walls,
churches, dunghills, palaces, timber-yards, warehoufes, and
arefufe, as it were, of materials fufficient to ftock an em-
pire with miferable towns and miferable villages. One might
imagine all the ftates of Europe and A fia had fent a building,
by way of reprefentative, to Mofcow ; and under this im-
preffion, the eye is prefented with deputies from all coun-
tries, holding congrefs ; timber-huts from regions beyond
the arétic; plattered palaces from Sweden and Denmark,
not white-wafhed fince their arrival; painted walls from the
Tyrol ; mofques from Conftantinople ; Tartar temples from
Bucharia ; pagodas, pavilions, and virandas from China ;
cabarets from Spain; dungeons, prifons, and public offices
from France; archite&ural ruins from Rome; terraces
and treliffes from Naples; and warehoufes from Wap-
ping. Having heard accounts of immenfe population, you
wander through deferted ftreets. Pafling fuddenly towards
the quarter where the fhops are fituated, you might walk
upon the heads of thoufands. The daily throng is there fo
immenfe, that, unable to force a paflage through it, or affign
any motive that might convene fuch a multitude, you afk the
caufe ; and are told, that it is alwaysthe fame. Nor is the
coftume lefs various than the afpe& of the buildings ; Greeks,
Turks, Tartars, Coffacks, Chinefe, Mufcovites, Englifh,
French, Italians, Poles, Germans, all parade in the habits
of their refpeGtive countries.”

Mofcow 1s diftributed into the five following divifions, vz.
Kremlin, Khitaigorod, Bielgorod, Semlainogorod, and
Sloboda, or fuburbs.

1. The Kremlin was probably thus denominated by the
Tartars, when in pofleffion of Mofcow, from the word
“ krem,” or ‘*krim,’? which fignifies a fortrefs. It ftands
in the central and higheit part cf the city, near the conflux
of the Mofkva and Negliva, which wath two of its fides;
it is of a triangular form, and about two miles in circum-
ference ; and it is furrounded by high walls of ftone and
brick, conftru&ted in r49r.
iteeples ; and though it contains the molt irregular edifices,
none of them are of wood, nor of mean appearance. A
plan was propofed to the late emprefs for uniting the whole
Kremlin into one magnificent palace, which would, when
executed, have exceeded every thing of the kind in ancient
or modern days. A model of the propofed alteration was
completed, and is preferved at Mofcow ; but the expence,
even in that country of cheap labour, would have amounted
to three millions fterling, and we therefore need not wonder
that the defign will proceed no farther than the preparation
of the model.

2. The Khitaigorod, denoting, by a Tartar derivation, the
« middle town,"’ is fituated between the Kremlin and Biel-
gorod. It is enclofed on one fide by that wall of the Krem-
lin which runs from the Mofkva to the Neéglina, and on the
other by a brick wall of lower height. ‘This divifion of
Mofcow is much larger than the Kremlin, and contains the
univerfity, the printing-houfe, and many other public build-
ings, together with the fhops of the tradefmen. ‘The edi-

fices

It is filled with domes and’

MOSCOW.

fices are moftly ftuccoed or white-wafheds and it has the
only {treet in Mofcow in which the houfes ftand contiguous
to each other, without any intervals,

3. The Bielgorod, or White-town, nearly encircles the
two preceding divilions, and is fuppofed to have derived its
name from a white wall with which it was formerly enclofed,
of which fome remains full exitt.

4. Semlainogorod environs the three other quarters, and
takes its denomination from a circular rampart of earth, with
which it is encompafled. This and the latt divifion exhibit a
grotefque group of churches, convents, palaces, brick and
wooden houfes, and mean hevels, in no degree fuperior to
peafant’s cottages.

. The Sloboda, or fuburbs, form a vaft exterior circle
round the parts already defcribed, being invefted with alow
rampart and ditch. Thefe fuburbs contain, befides numerous
buildings of all denominations, corn-fields, open palture,
and fome {mall lakes, from which the Neglina originates.

The Mofkva flows through the city in a winding channel ;
but, the feafon of {pring excepted, it is only navigable for
rafts: it receives the Yaufa in the Semlainogorod, and: the
Neglina at the weitern extremity of the Kremlin; both
which rivulets are in fummer almoft dry. Beyond the
Yaufa, which is croffed bya raft bridge, is a palace, con-
flruéted for the late emprefs, when fhe had occafion to vilit
Mofeow. This palace is not a fingle ftru€ture, but in the
true ftyle of Afiatic grandeur, a vatt afiemblage of numerous
buildings, diftributed into feveral ftreets, and bearing the
appearance of a moderate town. Paul converted this palace
inte barracks for 2000 men. The gardens, which belonged
to the old palace, built by Elizabeth, near the {pot where
the prefent itru€ture was ereCting, are {till retained ; they
are of confiderable extent, and in fome parts of them were
laid out in a pleafing and natural manner ; but in general the
old ftyle of gardening prevailed, and prefented rows of
clipped yew-trees, long ftraight canals, and a profufion of
prepolterous ftatues. Under the aufpices of Catharine, all
thefe inftances of grotefque tafte were propofed to be re-
moved, and to give place to more natural ornaments, This
palace and gardens occupy the extremity of the fuburbs
within the compafs of the exterior rampart which encircles
the whole town.

The places of divine worfhip at Mofcow are very nu-
merous ; and exclufively of chapels, there are, according to
Mr. Coxe’s account, 484 public churches, of which 199
are of brick, and the others of wood; the former are com-
monly ftuccoed or white-wafhed, the latter painted of a red
colour. According to Heym, in 1793, Mofcow contained
22 convents, g cathedrals, and 326 churches. The church
of the Holy Trinity, fometimes called the church of Jeru-
falem, which ftands in the Khitaigorod, clofe to the gate,
leading into the Kremlin, has a kind of high fteeple, and
nine or ten domes; it was built in the reign of Ivan Vafli-
hevitch II. The moft ancient churches are generally fquare
buildings, with a cupola and four {mall domes; fome of
copper, or iron gilt, others of iron tinned, either plain or
painted green. ‘The cupolas or domes are for the moft part
ornamented with croffes entwined with thin chains or wires ;
each crofs (in the molt ancient churches) has two tran{verfe
bars; the upper horizontal, the lower inclining, which, ac-
cording to the opinion of many Ruffians, is fuppofed to be
the form of the real crofs ; under the lower bar frequently
occurs a crefcent, the origin of which we have ftated under
the article Crescent. The infide of the church generaliy
confilts of three parts; that called by the Greeks Meovaos,
pronaos, by the Ruffians trapeza; the body; and the fanc-
tuary or fhrine. In the body of the church are frequently

four {quare and maffive piers, which fupport the cupola;
thefe piers, as well as the walls and ceilings, are painted
with numerous reprefentations of our Saviour, the Virgin
Mary, and different faints, ‘Towards the extremity of the
body of the church is a flight of fteps leading to the fhrine ;
and between thefe fteps and the fhrine is ufually a platform,
upon which the officiating minifter {tands and performs part
of the fervice. The fhrine or fanétuary is feparated from
the body of the church by the ‘* Iconoftas,” or fkreen, which
is generally the part molt richly ornamented, and on which
the moft holy pictures are painted or hung. Before the
images of Jefus and the Virgin, and of fome others, candles
or lamps are ufually fufpended, and kept continually burn-
ing. In the centre are the folding, called the holy, royal,
or beautiful doors, which lead to the fhrine, within which is
the holy table, as Dr. King (on the Greek church) defcribes
it, ‘with four fmall columns to fupport a canopy over it ;
from which a ‘perifterion,’ or dove, is fufpended, as 2
fymbol of the Holy Ghoft; upon the holy table the crofs
is always laid, and the gofpel, and the pyxis, or box, in
which a part of the confecrated elements is preferved, for
vifiting the fick or other purpofes.”? Over the door of each
church is the portrait of the patron faint, to which the com-
mon people pay homage as they pafs, by taking off their
hats, crofling themfelves, and occafionally touching the
ground with their heads. In the Ruffian churches, bells
conftitute no inconfiderable part ef divine worfhip; for an
account of which, fee the article Bert. Some of thefe
bells are of a ftuperdous fize. The divifion of Mofcow,
called the Kremlin, abounds with churches, of which
the two moft remarkable, are St. Michael’s, and the Af-
fumption of the Virgin Mary; <he one being the place
where the fovereigns were formerly interred, and the other
that in which they were crowned. ‘Thefe edifices are both
in the fame ityle of archite€ture, and were probably con-
ftru€ted by Solario of Milan, who built the walls of the
Kremlin. In the cathedral of St. Michael are the tombs of
the Ruffian fovereigns, which are raifed fepulchres moftly
of brick, in the fhape of a coffin, and about two feet high.
On great feftivals all the fepulchres are covered with rich
palls of gold or filver brocade, ftudded with pearls or
jewels. From the tifme in which Mofcow became the im-
perial refidence to the clofe of the 16th century, all the
tzars have been interred in this cathedral, excepting Beris
Godunof, whofe remains are depoifited in the convent of the
Holy Trinity ; the tzar, under the name of Demetrius,
who was deitroyed in a tumult, and Vaflili Shuifki, who
died in captivity at Warfaw. The cathedral of the Affump-
tion of the Virgin Mary, appropriated to the coronation of
the Ruffian fovereigns, is the moft magnificent temple in
Mofcow. The fkreen is in many parts covered with plates
of folid filver and gold richly wrought. From the centre of
the roof hangs an enormous chandelier of mafly filver, weigh-
ing 2940lbs., made in England, and prefented, as Mr. Coxe
fays, by Morofof, prime minilter of Alexey Michaelovitch;
but, according to Storfch, it was a prefent from the Vene-
tians to Beris Godunof, and weighs 2800lbs. The facred
veflels and epifcopal veftments are extremely rich, but of
rude workmanfhip. Many of the painted figures, which
cover the infide walls, are of a coloffal fize; and were exe-
cuted towards the clofe of the 15th century. This church
alfo contains a head of the Virgin, fuppofed to have been
painted by St. Luke, and Bali celebrated in that coun-
try for the power of working-miracles. According to the
tradition of the church it was brought from Greece to Kiof,
transferred from thence to Volodimir, and afterwards to
Mofcow. It feems to have been a Grecian painting, and

was

n MOSCOW.

was probably anterior to the revival of the artin Italy. In
this cathedral are depofited the remains of the Ruffian pa-
triarchs, the firlt of whom was Job, before whofe time the
primate of the Ruffian church was fuffragan to the patriarch
of Conftantinople. Job, being metropolitan archbifhop of
Mofcow, was in 1588 inftalled in this cathedral patriarch of
Ruffia, by Jeremias, patriarch of Conftantinople. Phila-
retes and Nicon were diflinguifhed patriarchs, and died much
/ regretted at an advanced age in 1633. The laft of thefe
patriarchs, who are reckoned to have been 11, was Adrian,
at whofe demife, in 1699, Peter the Great refufed to nomm-
nate a fucceffor; and in 1721 the patriarchal dignity was
formally abolithed. In conneétion with this account of the
churches at Mofcow, we fhall here introduce a brief defcrip-
tion of fome cf the moft prominent ceremonies performed in
this city, at the time of Eafter. Dr. Clarke, who preiented
to the public a piture of the Ruffian manners, approaching
{o a carieature, and who, as we hope and believe, has in-
curred the charge of exaggeration in fome of his details,
furnifhes us with feveral inftances of the groffeit {uperttition,
ftill prevalent in Ruffia. All that has been faid or written
of the Roman Catholic bigetry,”’ fays this writer, “ affords
but a feeble idea of the fuperftition of the Greek church.
It is the greateft libel upon human reafon, the fevereft fcan-
dal upon univerfal piety, that has yet difgraced the annals
of mankind.”—* There are no people who obferve Lent
with more fcrupulous and exceflive rigour than the Ruffians.
Travelling the road from Peterfburgh to Mofcow, if at any
time, in poor cottages, where the peafants appeared ftarving,
T offered them a part of our dinner, they would fhudder at
the fight of it, and caft it to the dogs; dafhing out of their
children’s hands, as aa abomination, any food given to them;
and removing every particle that might be left entirely from
their fight. The fame privation takes place among the
higher ranks; but in proportion as this rigour has been ob-
ferved, fo much the more exceffive is the degree of gluttony
and relaxation, when the important intelligence that ¢ Chrift
is rifen,? has iflued from the month of the archbifhop.
During Falter they run into every kind of excefs, rolling
about drunk the whole week. When Eafter was proclaimed,
the inn where we lodged became a Pandemonium. Drink-
ing, dancing, and finging continued through the night and
the day. But in the midft of all thefe exceffes, quarrels
hardly ever took place. The wild, rude riot of a Roman
populace is full of humanity. Few difputes are heard; no
blows are given; no lives endangered, but by drinking. No
meetings take place of any kind, without repeating the ex-
preflions of peace and joy, ‘ Chriflos vofere/s!? ¢Chrilt is
rifen!' to which the an{wer is always the fame, ‘ Vo i/finey
woferefsl? * He is rifen indeed!’ On Eatter monday begins
the prefentation of the Pafchal eggs; lovers to their mif-
trefles, relatives to each other, fervants to their matters, all
bring ornamented eggs. Every offering at this feafon is
called a Pafchal egg. The meaneft pauper in the treet,
* preparing an egg, and repeating the words ¢ Chriftos vof-
cre{s,’ may demand a falute even of the emprefs. All
bufinefs is laid afide; the upper ranks are engaged in vifiting,
balls, dinners, fuppers, mafquerades ; while boors fill the
air with their fongs, or roll drunk about the ftreets. Servants
appear in new and taudry liveries; and carriages in the moft
fumptuous parade.” During thefe ealtern fellivities, the
pomp of Mofcow was difplayed in motley proceffions on the
public promenades. Thefe proceffions are made in carriages
and on horfeback ; and the carriages furpafs, in number at
leafl, any exhibition of the kind in Europe. On particular
days, they exceed zo00, and have generally fix, but never
fewer than four horfes to each. Yet nothing can be more

if

mean than the appearance of thefe equipages, when fepas
rately examined, whether we lock at the aukwardnefs of
the driver, the dirt of the harnefs, or the clumfinefs of the
vehicle. During Eafler week, the Ruflians indulge their
predilection for finging, and the numberlefs bells of Mofcow
are tolled inceflanily ; the cathedral bell {ends a hollow
murmur over the city, like the tones of a vail organ, or the

one of diftant thunder. The diameter of the bell is 16 *
eet. ’ ;
At Mofcow carriages are fo common, that almoft every

perfon makes ufe of them. The equipages of the nobility

with complete fets of horfes, are frequently driving about

the ftreets of Mofcow. The city is of fo large a compafs, that

hackney carriages are {tationed in the itreets for conveying

paflengers to the different quarters. “ Thefe vehicles are

without tops, have mofily four wheels, and are furnifhed
either with a long bench, or one, two, or three feparate

feats, like arm-chairs, placed fide-ways: their fares are fo

reafonable, that fervanis cccafionally ufe them upon errands

to diftant parts of the city. ‘The coachman generally drives |
at the rate of eight or nine miles an hour. Notwithitanding

the number of coaches with fix horfes, that traverfe the

flreets of Mofcow, their accompaniments are ridiculoufly -
mean. Whenacoach is procured with fix horfes of dif-

ferent colours, the coachman and poftilion are dreffed like

peafants, with high cylindrical hats ; the coachman with a

long beard and fheep-fkin robe, fits on the box; the pofti-

lion in a coarfe drugget garb, and mounted on the off-horfe,

according to the cuftom of the country. Behind the car-

riage is an enormous fack of hay, which, while the mafter

is paying his vifits, or regaling himfelf at dinner, is oc~

cafionally given to the horfes.

« Nothing,” fays Mr. Coxe, “ can exceed the hofpi-
tality of the Ruffians. We never paid a morning vifit to
any nobleman without being detained to dinner; we alfo
conftantly received general invitations.” The principal per-
fons of diftinction keep open tables, and are highly obliged
by the vifitors who refort to them without ceremony.
Mnufic during dinner generally makes a part of the enter-
tainment at the tables of the nobility. Mott of the Ruffian
nobles have gardeners of our nation; and they are thus
provided for their entertainments with pines, peaches, apri-
cots, grapes, pears, cherries, and fuch fruits'as can rarely
in this country be obtained without the affiftance of hot-
houfes. According to Richter, in his Sketch of Mofcow,
pines are reared in great abundance in the hot-houfes about
this city, and may be purchafed for a ruble a-piece. In
the country-houfe of prince Gallitzin, grapes have been
feen nearly ripe in the open air. The Ruffian nobles are
faid to difplay a great degree of grandeur and magnificence
intheir houfes, domettics, and mode of living. ‘The wealth
of the nobles is enormous. Some of them have 70 and
even 100,000 peafants: and their fortunes are eitimated by
the number of their peafants, who pay them, upon an
average, 10 rubles annually, in fpecie. ‘They exact labour,
not merely from the males, but from women, and children
from the age of ro and upwards. ‘'Tithes are moreover
demanded of linen, poultry, eggs, butter, pigs, fheep, lambs,
and of every produét of the land, or of dometftic manual
labour. Should a peafant by any misfortune be unable to
furnifh the tribute expeéted by hs lord, he mutt beg, bor-
row, or fleal to make up the deficiency. ‘The only pro-
perty a Ruffian nobleman allows his peafant to poflefs, is
the food he cannot, or will not, eat himfelf; the bark of
trees, chaff, or other refufe; quafs, water, and fith-oil.
Traverfing the provinces fouth of Mofcow, where the foil is

fingularly fertile and productive, the labourers are, never-
thelefs,

MOSCOW.

it fays Dy. Clarke, deftitute of the common necef-
faries of life; the lord claims all the produce. Mr. He-
ber differs in his ftatement of the condition of peafants from
Dr. Cjarke; obferving, that with regard to their comforts
or means of fubfiftence, they are not deficient. Their
houfes are well adapted to the habits of the people; their
lothing is warm and fubftantial, and they appear to be
fisiciently fed: but their political fituation is very fervile
and diftreffing. They are liable to be levied as foldiers at
the pleafure of their lords; for if a matter is difpleafed
with his flave, he may fend him to the army whenever he
thinks proper, and take a receipt from government. The
wealth of the nobles is no where more confpicuoufly dif-
played than at their weekly balls. Every perfon who is

a plebeian is excluded by the laws of the fociety, and.

though nobles only are admitted, the company occafionally
confifts of 2000 perfons. The dreffes are the molt fump-
tuous that can be imagined ; the favourite ornaments of the
ladies are cameos, which they wear upon their arms, in
girdles round their waifts, or upon their bofoms, The
drapery is difpofed after the Grecian coftume, and their
hair is bound up round the head. The mode of drefs in
London and Paris are generally blended together by the
ladies of Mofcow ; and in jultice to their charms, it muft
be confeffed, that no country in the world can boaft fuperior
beauty. The men on thefe occafions appear either in uni-
form or in coats of very rich embroidery, but neither men
nor women evince the flighteft degree of animation in the
exercife of dancing. Dr. Clarke will not allow to the
Rufiians the unqualified praife of hofpitality. The difhes
and the wines, he fays, correfpond in gradation with the
rank and condition of the guefts. Thole who fit near the
matter of the houfe are fuffered to have no conneCtion with
the fare or the tenants at the lower endof the table. The
chofen difhes at a Ruffian table are carefully placed at the
upper end, and are handed down to thofe guetits who are
ftationed near the owner of the manfion, according to the
order in which they fit; afterwards, if any thing remain,
it is taken gradually to the reft; fo that perfons at the
bottom of the table are often compelled to remain fatisfied
with an empty difh. ‘The wine alfo degenerates in quality,
until at laft it is deteriorated into fimple quafs. The
number of attendants in waiting is prodigious. In the
houfe of the young count Orlof 500 fervants wait at
table; many of them fumptuoufly clothed and many others
inrags. ~ {

The palace inhabited by the ancient tzars ftands at the
extremity of the Kremlin; part of it is old, and remains in
the fame {tate in which it was, when it was built under
Ivan Vaffilievitch I. Additions have been made to it at
various periods in different ftyles of architecture, fo that it
is a motley incongruous pile of building. This palace was
the birth-place of Peter the Great in 1672. Inthe Krem-
lin there are two convents, one a nunnery founded in 1393,
and the other a monaltery.for men. ‘lhe nuns, who are

-prohibited the ufe of meat, live chiefly upon fith, eggs, and

vegetables. The Ruffian archives are depofited in a {trong
brick building containing feveral vaulted apartments with
iron floors, in the Khitaigorod. They were arranged by
Mr. Muller in chronological order, and are enclofed in
feparate cabinets with glafs doors. The MSS. relating to
foreign kingdoms are alfo placed in feparate divifions under
the titles of the countries to which they belong. The
archives contain alfo 13 volumes of letters, journals, notes.
and other MSS. of Peter the Great, written with his own
nand. The univerfity is alfo fituated in the Khitaigorod.
It was founded, at the inflance of count Shuvalof, by the

Vou. XXIV.

emprefs Elizabeth, for 600 ftudents, who are clothed,
boarded, and educated at the expence of the crown. To
the univerfity belong a printing office, a library, and an ap-
paratus of philofophical inftruments, Befides the univerfity,
there are two gymnafia or feminaries for the education of
youth, endowed alfo by Elizabeth.

Mofcow is the centre of the inland commerce of Ruffia,
and conne&s the trade between Europe and Siberia. The
navigation to this city is formed folely by the Morfkva,
which, falling into the Occa near Kolomna, communicates
by means of that river .with the Volga. But as the
Mofkva is navigable only in the f{pring, on the melting of
the {now, the principal merchandize is conveyed on fledges
in the winter. The whole retail commerce of the city is
carried on in the Khitaigorod ; where, according to a cuf
tom prevalent in Ruffia, as well as in molt kingdoms of
the Eaft, the fhops and warehoufes are colle&ted in one {pot.
The place is like a kind of colleétion of booths for a fair;
the dwellings of thofe, to whom thefe fhops belong, are
fituated at a diftance, in another quarter of the town.
Every trade has its feparate department. Furs and fkins
form the molt confiderable article of commerce in Mofcow,
and the fhops vending thofe commodities occupy feveral
ftreets,

Among the curiofities of Mofcow we may mention the
market for the fale of houfes. It is held in a large open
{pace, in one of the fuburbs, and exhibits « ready-made
houfes,’’ {cattered on the ground. The houfe, when fele@ed,
is fometimes paid for on the fpot, and removed by the pur-
chafer ; or the vendor contra&s to tranfport and ere& it
upon the place where it is defigned to ftand. In Mofcow
they have an admirable police for preventing riots, or ftop-
ping the concourfe of people in cafe of fires, which are
yery frequent in thofe parts, where the houfes are moftly
of wood, and the ftreets laid with timber. At the entrance
of each ftreet is a “ chevaux de frife” gate, one end turn-
ing upon a pivot, and the other rolling upon a wheel; near
it is a centry box, in which a man is occafionally ftationed.
In times of riot or fire the centinel. fhuts the gate, and thus
immediately ftops all paflage. The Ruffians amufe them-
felves very much with playing at the game of chefs.

Among the public inftitutions, the moft remarkable is
the Foundling hofpital, endowed by the emprefs in 1764,
and fupported by voluntary contributions, legacies, and
other charitable gifts. Benefactors have certain privileges
granted to them by the emprefs, and a certain degree of
rank proportioned to the extent of their liberality. The hof-
pital is fituated on a gentle afcent near the river Mofkva;
and is capable of receiving 8000 children, who are admitted
at the porter’s lodge without recommendation. In the hof-
pital is a theatre, of which the decorations are the work of
the foundlings; they conftruéted the ftage, painted the
{cenes, and made the drefles.

The monaftery, called ‘* Troitfkoi Klofter,”’ or the mo-
naftery of the Holy Trinity, is diftinguifhed in the Annals
of Ruffia as the afylum for the Ruffian fovereigns in cafes of
infurrection ; and is more particularly known to foreigners on
account of the refuge which it afforded to Peter the Great,
when he put an end to the adminiftration of his fifter Sophia.
This monattery is about 40 miles from Mofcow. Ata little
diftance this monaftery bears the appearance of a {mall town,
and like many other conyents in this country is furrounded
with high brick walls, ftrengthened with battlements and
towers, The parapet is roofed with wood, and the walls
and towers are provided with embrafures for mufkets and
cannon; the whole is furrounded by a deep ditch, This

place has withftood feveral fieges, and particularly boas
1S al

MOS

all the efforts of Ladiflaus, prince of Poland, who attacked
it at the head of a large army. Befides the habitation for
monks, the walls enclofe an imperial palace, and nine large
churches conftru@ed by different fovereigns, which are
fplendid, and very rich in gold and filver ornaments, and
coftly veltments. The library of the convent contains a
curious colleGtion of books.

An eminence, called Sparrow-hill, and fituated about four
or five miles from Mofcow, commands the beft view of the
city ; and from thence the land about it may be perceived to
be low and {wampy, abounding with pools of ftagnant water,
and of courfe unhealthy. The climate is alfo dangerous from
fudden tranfitions. The rapidity of vegetation is here very
ftriking. In and about Mofcow the rivers freeze about
the middle or latter end of November, and break up in
March or the beginning of April. The birch trees come
out in May, and fhed their leaves in September. Fahren-
heit’s thermometer ftood at 68° on May 2oth, and at 44°
April 16th, and between thefe periods at intermediate
degrees. At London on the fame days it ftood at 61° and
55°. The French army under the command of Bonaparte,
emperor of France, took poffeffion of Mofcow, after feveral
engagements with the Ruffians, September 14, 1812; but the
place was previoufly fet on fire by order of the governor,
and fo much defolated, that it afforded no fatisfaftory ac-
commodation for the emperor and his troops. After en-
hancing the diftrefs of the city and its vicinity, the French
were under a neceflity of abandoning the city, and mak-
ing their retreat homewards. Hiftory {carcely records an
event, that has been in every view fo deftru€tive to human
life and to the pofleffions of individuals as the projet, fug-
gefted by ambition, of invading and conquering Ruffia ;
but if the termination be aufpicious, it may prove the fal-
vation of Europe, the harbinger of peace, the extenfion of
Britifh commerce, and the profperity of Britifh manu-
facture. N. lat. 55° 45' 45". E.long, 37° 21’.

MOSE, or Villa del Mofe, atown on the bank of the
river Tahafco, in the bottom of Campeachy gulf, from
which great quantities of cocoa are fhipped for Spain.

Moss, an ifland in the Eaft Indian fed, about 30 miles in
circumference. S. lat.6° 20’. E. long. 132° 2’.

MOSECHE, a province of Angola, on the N. bank of
the Coanza.

MOSELLE, a river of France, which rifes in the moun-
tains of the Vofges, joins the Rhine at Coblentz, and gives
name to a department.

Mosette, one of the ten departments of the N.E.
region of France, formed of the territory of Meffin, of
French Luxembourg, and part of German Lorraine, and
fituated in N. lat. 19° 15’. It is bounded on the N. by the
department of the Forefts, on the N.E. by that of the
Sarthe, on the E. by the departments of Mont ‘Tonnerre
and the Sarthe, on the S.E. by the department of the
Lower Rhine, and on the S. and W. by that of the Meufe.
It is 45 French leagues in length, 17 in breadth, and
contains 65524 kiliometres, or 328 fquare leagues, and
353,788 inhabitants ; and is divided into 4 diltriéts, 30
cantons, and 934 communes. The four circles are Briey,
including 48,552 inhabitants ; Thionville, 98,456; Metz,
120,810; and Sarreguemines, 85,970. Its contributions
in the 11th year of the French era were 3,018,085 francs,
and its expences 329,834 francs, 96 cents. According to
Haflenfratz it ig divided into g circles and 76 cantons, and
ite population is 328,368. The capital is Metz, This de-
partment is fertile in grain, wine, fruits, and paftures. It
has alfo mines of iron and coal,

I

MOS
a

MOSENTA, a town of Perfia, in Chufiftan; 36 miles
S.W. of Sutter.

MOSERADA, a town of Italy, in the Trevifan; 6
miles N.N.E. of Trevigio.

MOSES, in Scripture Biography, the fon of Amram and -
Jochebed, was born in Egypt in the year 1571 before
Chrift. Pharoah, ‘the king of that country, perceiving
that the Hebrews were becoming a very formidable nation,
promulgated an order, under the fevereft penalties, that every
male child born of Hebrew parents fhould be caft into the
Nile. By the operation of this crvel edict, the king hoped
to extirpate, by degrees, the whole Ifraelitifh nation: parents
were even enjoined to become the executioners of their own
children, or at leaft to give fuch notice of their birth as to
enable the officers of the king to perform the favage act.
The reafon of this decree, according to Jofephus, was the
prediction of an Egyptian prophet, that a Hebrew child
was about to be born who would hereafter diminifh the
power of Egypt, and increafe that of the Ifraelites.
Though there is no authority for this in the facred fcrip-
tures, which will be our chief refource in this article, yet
it does not appear at all improbable, that the king’s mind
was impreffed with fome fuch notion when he iffued his com-
mands. At the birth of Mofes, it is faid that the natural
reluctance of his parents to obey fuch a decree, was in-
creafed by the fuperior lovelinefs of the child; thoughi
mothers, probably, always fee beauty in their new-born in-
fants, which, for obvious reafons, is a very wife provifion
of Providence, and they ventured to keep him in conceal-
ment during the {pace of three months. At length, the
extreme danger of a difcovery which would have proved
fatal to themfelves as well as the infant, reduced them to
the cruel neceflity of expofing him. His mother took a
{mall ark, made of the ligneous part of the papyrus, and
having befmeared it with bitumen, to render it water-tight,
placed the infant in it, and fet it down among the rufhes,
on the marfhy brink of the river. Anxious, however, about
his fate, fhe placed her daughter Miriam, at a certain dif
tance, to watch the circumitances that fhould occur. Soon
after this, the daughter of Pharoah, coming to the river
with her female attendants in order to bathe, difcovered the
ark, and fent ore of them for it. She determined to fave
the life of the child, and to adopt him as her own; at this
moment Miriam approach:d the princefs, and made an offer
to bring an Hebrew nurfe to fuckle the child, which fhe
ordered her to do. She accordingly brought the infant’s
mother, who with unfpeakable joy received the child, and
fhe was ftri@tly enjoined to treat him as her own, under the
promife of being amply rewarded for her fervices. About
three years afterwards, the princefs adopted’ him for her
own, called his name Mofes, and caufed him to be diligently
inftru@ted in all the learning of the Egyptians. But his
father and mother, to whom, as we have feen, he had been
reftored, were at great pains to inflruét him in the hiftory
and religion of his country. It is highly probable that the
manner in which his life had been faved led them to hope he
was intended for fome great work, and hence they would be
doubly careful of his education; and when arrived at years
of diferetion they, probably, by relating to him the fecret
of his birth and of the attending circumftances, infpired
him with a fimilar notion.

Many things are related by Jofephus and other hiftorians
concerning the early periods of the life of Mofes, and though
fome perfons confider them as entirely fabulous, yet we
think it right to mention one or two, and the more fo, as
we are difpofed to pay a confiderable deference to the hif-
tory of Jofephus, and are not willing to fuppofe him capable

‘ of

MOSES.

of introducing fats that were not authenticated by the bett
proofs that he was capable of obtaining. Unlefs we go
thus far, we muift lofe much that Chriflians value as import-
ant, which he has tranfmitted in his Hiftory and Antiquities.
In the Aéts of the Apoftles, chap, vii. 20, we are’ told
that Mofes was “ exceedingly fair,” or, as the original may
be rendered, “ beautiful through or in refpeét to God,'’ that
is, perhaps, through the divine blefling. Jofephus relates,
that when Mofes was only three years old, that is, when he
was {pecially introduced to Pharoah’s daughter as her
adopted fon, no one who faw him could avoid being ftruck
with the fingular beauty of his countenance, and he adds,
people about their common bufinefs. would leave it to gaze
at him. Philo fays, that at his birth he hada more elegant
and beautiful appearance than denoted an ordinary perfon.
According to Jofephus and Eufebius, Mofes atted as a
leader in the wars, diftinguifhed himfelf, and obtained many
fignal vitories. When he was about forty years of age he
left the court of Pharoah, and went to vilit his countrymen
the Hebrews, who groaned under the ill-ufage and oppreffion
of their unfeeling mafters. He is faid ‘to have looked on
their burthens ;””? that is, he made himfelf perfonally ac-
quainted with their condition and treatment, endeavouring
to devife fome means of relieving them from the intolerable
opprefiions to which they were fubje¢t. While he was thus
occupied he perceived an Egyptian fmiting an Hebrew;
looking about and feeing no one near, he ran to the defence
of the latter, and having killed the Egyptian in the ftruggle,
he buried him in the fand. In confequence of this aét,
which we know not how to juftify, he was obliged to fly
into the land of Midian, in Arabia, there to feek that fafety
which he was aware he could not expect in Kgypt. Here
he married Zipporah, daughter of the prieft of Jethro, by
whom he had two fons. At this period he was employed
by his father-in-law in attending upon his flocks. As he
was following this bufinefs upon mount Horeb, he had an
extraordinary vifion, which occafioned his return into the land
of Egypt. In this vifion he faw, or thought he faw, a
buth in flames, but which was not confumed, and from the
midft of the flames a voice proceeded, announcing the pre-
fence of Almighty God, and commanding the fhepherd to
and deliver his brethren from the ftate of bondage in
which they had been fo long involved. Mofes was defirous
of excufing himfelf from this high and very important office,
till he was affured, by miraculous figns, that he fhould be
accompanied in his miffion by the divine power. Upon his
return to Egypt, he, with his brother Aaron, went to the
court of Pharoah, and told him that God commanded him
to let the Hebrews depart, and go three days’ journey into
the defert, for the purpofe of celebrating a fettival in his
honour, without giving offence to the Egyptians by making
them the: witneffes of their peculiar rites and ceremonies.
The monarch was deaf to their intreaties, and fo far from
regarding the meflage delivered by Mofes and Aaron as
one fent from a fuperior power, declared that he acknow-
ledged no fuch power, and in contempt of them, he ordered
the labours of the Ifraelites to be increafed, inftead of al-
lowing them any relaxation of which they made a demand.
In the anguifh of their hearts, under an additional load of
mifery, the Hebrews now attributed their fufferings to
Mofes and Aaron, who had attempted to free them from
their bondage. The want of fuccefs which had attended
his firlt application to the king of Egypt, would have pre-
vented Mofes from appearing again before him, had not
God encouraged him by frefh aflurances of his determination
to refcue the Lraclites with a triumphant arm, and invetted
him with a miraculous power over Pharoah, to be exercifed

in fuch difplays of divine judgment on that proud monarch
and his people, as fhould force him to difmifs them. Thus
encouraged, Mofes prefented himfelf again before Pharoah,
and confirmed his former meflage by a miracle; which was
followed, at different periods, by vine others, as may be
feen in the books of Exodus, infli€ting the moft dreadful
calamities upon the Egyptians, as punifhments for their
continued oppreffion of the children of Ifrael. The tenth
and laft miracle, or plague brought upon the Egyptians, was
the death of all the firft-born in the land, who were all cut
off in one night. This dreadful calamity feems to have fub-
dued the heart of Phareah, and he confented to allow the
people of Ifrael to depart from his kingdom, The Egyp-
tians likewife were impatient to hurry them out of their
country, dreading that a further detention of them would
bring on themfelves entire deftru@tion; and to haften them,
they freely parted with their moft valuable things, which the
text fays the Ifraelites withed to borrow. Dr. Geddes and
others obferve, that the word does not neceflarily mean to
borrow, and we are difpofed to believe that the Ifraelites
confented to receive what the Egyptians gladly preffed upon
them, with che view of haftening their departure.

As foon as Mofes had returned to Gothen among his
people, he made fignals for colleéting the whole body of the
Ifraelites at a place of rendezvous, whence he began his
march at their head before the break of day. They con-
fifted of fix hundred thoufand men, befides women and chil-
dren, and a multitude of ftrangers, who were probably pro-
felytes of the gate, or perfons who had renounced idolatry,
though they were not yet circumcifed, and all their flocks
and herds. They proceeded on till they reached the borders
of the Red fea; in the mean time Pharoah had fuddenly
raifed an immenfe army, purfued them and overtook them
in this pofition, The Ifraelites were now hemmed in by the
fea, impaflable mountains, and Pharoah’s army: there was
no way of efcape left, and they, reduced to the utmoft dif-
trefs, began to reproach Mofes for leading them out of
Egypt to perifh under the fwords of their enemies. Mofes
comforted them with the affurance that this would be the
laft time of their feeing the Egyptians; and he had no
fooner difmiffed them, than God commanded him to dire&
their march towards the fea, promifing that upon his ftretch-
ing out his rod over it, the waters would divide, and make
way for the Ifraelites to go through on dry land, while
Pharoah and his mighty hotts, venturing to purfue them,
fhould perifh in the returning waves. ‘The events having
corre{ponded with this promife, Mofes inftituted a feftival of
feven days continuance, in commemoration of the fignal de-
liverance which the Lfraelites had experienced, and the
total overthrow of Pharoah and his army. For the occafion
he compofed a hymn to be fung alternately by the men and
women, celebrating the greatnefs of God’s power difplayed
in thefe wonderful events, and his amazing mercy towards
his people. Mofes now entered upon the arduous tafk of
conducting his people towards the promifed land. For an
account of their march we muift-refer to the feriptures: it
will be fufficient to obferve, that the a@liGions which they en-
dured in the courfe of their journey, were intended to train
them to a fitnefs for the divine bleflings; to corre@ them of
that fondnefs for fuperitition and idolatry to which they were
ftrangely prone; to prepare them for a peculiar fyftem of
legiflation which was to be formed and eftablifhed among
them, and which was calculated to preferve them from the
corruptions of the reft of the world; and to maintain the
behet in one living and true God, before they were to enter
on the promifed inheritance.

They arrived at the foot of mount Sinai on the third day

Ff 2 of

MOSES.

of the ninth month after their departure from Egypt. Mo-
fes having afcended feveral times into the mount, received
the law from the hand of God, that is, in a miraculous
manner, in the midft of thunders and lightnings, and con-
cluded the famous covenant between the Almighty and the
children of Ifrael. When he defcended from Sinai, he
found that the people had falen into the idolatrous worfhip
of a golden calf. Mofes, fhocked at fuch an inftance of
ingratitude towards the Almighty, and agitated at the
alarming confequences that might follow from fuch a dere-
liGtion of principle, let fall the tables of the law which he
was carrying in his hand, and caufed all thofe to be put to
death who would perfift in the idolatrous worfhip. After
this he again afcended into the mountain, and obtained new
tables of ftone on which the law was infcribed. On the
defcent of Mofes his face fhone with fuch brightnefs, ‘that
the Ifraelites did not dare to look upon him till he had
covered himfelf with a veil.

The next aét of Mofes was to call an aflembly of the
people, in which he announced God’s renewal of his cove-
nant with them; enjoined the flrit obfervance of the fab-
bath; declared the command which he had received to erect
a tabernacle of the molt coftly materials; and invited them
to liberality in their voluntary offerings for the completion
of this undertaking. On this occalion there appears to
have been a generous emulation in all the people to contri-
bute their moft valuable effets and ornaments towards the
work. ‘The tabernacle was finifhed in fix months, when it
was confecrated by Mofes, who anointed Aaron as the high
prieft, and his fons as affiltants in the worfhip, and thus
commenced, in the year B. C. 1490, that pompous worhhip
of the Deity which was adapted to the then exilting ftate of
the Ifraelites, who were incapable of being affected with a
purer and more fpiritual one. ‘his tabernacle ferved the
Ifraelites inftead of a temple till the time of Solomon.

After 'the camp had remained almoft a year in the neigh-
bourhood of mount Sinai, the Ifraelites recommenced their
marches through the wildernefs, under the immediate direc-
tion of the moft high God, who governed them immediately
by means of his fervant Mofes, whom now he had chofen to
be the interpreter of his will and the promulgator of his
commands among the people, but he required all the honours
belonging to their king to be paid to himfelf. He affumed
to dweil in the tabernacle, which was always in the midft of
the camp, and he denounced punifhments againft the tranf-
greffors of his laws. “This was properly the period of the
theocracy, taken in its full extent; for God was not only
confidered as the true and only proper obje& of religious
worthip, but as the fovereign to whom the honours of fu-
preme majé(ty were paid. In their long journies through
the wildernefs, every meafure both of the leader and of the
people was done by the direGtion of the Almighty, who re-
warded their fidelity and obedience by a feries of miracles,
victories, and fucceffes. After Mofes had regulated every
thing regarding the civil adminiftration, and the marching
of the troops, he led the Ifraelites to the confines of Canaan,
to the foot of mount Nebo. It was from this mountain he
was to take a view of the promifed land which it was not
permitted him to enter. Being apprized that he was to die
on the mountain, he diligently employed his few remaining
days in fettling the affairs of the public in the belt order in
his power. His firlt care was to have Jofhua confirmed his
fucceflor, in the moft folemn manner, who, being filled with
the fpirit of Mofes, undertook nothing without confulting
his Maker. Mofes alfo appointed the limits of the land
which they were to conquer, and the diftribution of it by
lot according to God’s command, and enjoined feveral other

regulations relative to civil and ecclefiaflical matters. He
next aflemb’ed the people around him, and recapitulated to
them, in a long and pathetic’ difcourfe, all that had taken
place fince their departure from Egypt to that time. In a
fubfequent affembly he caufed the whole nation to ratify the

covenant which their fathers had made with God in mount ~

Horeb, and concluded with calling heaven and earth to
witnefs the truth of what they had heard from him, the
reafonablenefs of thofe laws which God had given them,
and the certainty of the bleffings or curfes which would fol-=
low the obfervance or the breach of them. To imptefs
ftrongly on their minds what he had delivered, he compofed
a pfalm, in which the fubftance of his addreffes is exprefled
in elegant and lively language, and it has been regarded as
an inimitable piece of ancient poetry. Having caufed it to
be read before all the people, he,delivered it to Jofhua to be
afterwards learned by them and all their potterity. The lait
tranfaétion of Mofes with the Ifraelites, was to fummon
them again to receive his farewell and prophetic bleffing

upon the people in general, and upon each tribe in particu-—

lar. As foon as he had delivered his laft bleffing, he went
up alone to mount Nebo, and from Pifgah, its higheft emi-
nence, had a profpeé of all thofe regions which God pro-
mifed to the polterity of Abraham. Immediately after-
wards Mofes died, at the age of 120, in the year B.C.
1451, when his mental faculties were in perfeét order, and
neither his eye-fight nor his natural vigour was in the leaft
impaired. ,

That Mofes was an eminently great man will be readily
admitted by thofe even who difpute his claims to fupernatu-
ral communications with the Deity. We cannot, however,
give up our belief in his miracles without materially affeGting
the credibility of the whole hiftory, and of the other faéts
dependent upon it: and we fee fufficient evidence to induce
us to take the account as it ftands in the fcriptures, which,
though not without difficulties, is not wholly irreconcileable
with the di€tates of reafon and found fenfe. (See MiRACLE.)
The zeal of Mofes for the honour of the one living and true
God, forms too confpicuous a feature in his character to be’
overlooked: it is indeed the principle which lies at the found-
ation, and conftitutes the central point of all his inftitu-
tions. The writings that bear his name, whether confidered
as hiftorical documents, or as furnifhing a fyftem of legifla-
tion, are highly interefting and important. In the former
point of view they fupply us with the earlieft records of the
world from the creation to the birth of Abraham; and a
particular hiftory of the Hebrew nation, the defeendants of
Abraham, carried on in a regular feries, till the death of
Moles, a period all together equal to more than two thou-
fand five hundred years. With refpe& to the fyftem of
legiflation which thefe writings contain, as far as it is of a
moral nature, it is unquellionably pure and excellent: its
political and judicial regulations are wife and equitable, and
the ritual part of it was adapted to eftablifh and fecure the
worthip of the one true God. Dr. Geddes, {peaking of the
great excellence of thefe writings, in point of compofition
only, fays, “ I know not if it would be too much to affirm,
that whether they be confidered as a compendium of hiltory,
or as a digeft of laws, or as a fyftem of theology, or as
models of good writing, they are in fome refpects unequalled,
in none overmatched, by the beft productions of ancient
times.” :

There feems little reafon to doubt that the five firft
books of the Old Teflament, commonly known by the
name of the Pentateuch, were written by Mofes, excepting
the laft chapter of Deuteronomy, which 1s generally thought
to have been added by Ezra. Some few have refufed to

give

\

—

MOS

e him the credit of them, and have founded their opinion
on this, that he always fpeaks of himfelf inthe third pverfon.
But this manner of writing is not peculiar to Mofes; it oc-
curs in feveral of onr beft hiftorians, fuch as Xenophon,
Cezfar, and Jofephus. Dr. Geddes thinks that the firlt ap-
pearance of the Pentateuch, in its prefent form,’ was under
the reign of Solomon, when he imagines the books were
compiled from the journal of Mofes, and other ancient
documents. Befides the Pentateuch, fome authors have at-
tributed to Mofes the book of Job, and eleven of the
Pfalms, from the goth to the roodth both inclufive. As
authorities to this article we refer to the Pentateuch; to the
Antiquities of Jofephus ;!to Geddes's Tranflation and Criti-
cal Notes; and to Prieftley’s Notes on the Bible, vol.i.

Moses, CuoreNeEnsis, in Biography, a celebrated Arme-
nian archbifhop, who flourfhed about the year 462. He
was efteemed one of the moft learned men of his nation,
having ftudied Greek at Athens, from which language he
made many verfions into the Armenian : his principal work
is «* A Hiftory of Armenia,” from the deluge to the mid-
dle of the fifth century, written in his native tongue. This
was publifhed with a Latin verfion, in 1736, by the fons of
the famous William Whifton. It is thought to be a valu-
able piece of hiftory, though mixed with no {mall portion of
fable ; it contains many national records, not to be met
with elfewhere. We have, by the fame author, ‘* An
Abridgment of Geography,”? publifhed at Amfterdam in
1668: and fome “* Sacred Canticles,” to be fung in the
Armenian language on the anniverfary of Chrift’s prefenta-
tion at the temple.

Moses, J. Gortrriep, organift of Auerbach, in Voigt-
land, a profeffor of fingular abilities, both as a player
and compofer. In 1781 he publifhed at Leipfig odes
and fongs ; in 1783 a fecond party and in 1785 he pub-
lifhed at Drefden, Gin lbandbuch fur Drael Dpicier ; the firlt
part confifting of preludes and fantafias, the fecond of trios,
and the third of fugues. Thefe compofitions manifeft in-
vention, fcience, and a complete knowledge of the genius
and treatment of the organ.

Moses, in Sea Language, is a very flat broad boat, ufed
by merchant fhips, amongft the Caribbee iflands, to bring
hogtheads of fazar off from the fea-beach to the fhipping,
which are anchored in the roads.

Moses Point, in Geozraphy, a cape on the E: coaft of
Newfoundland ; 5 miles S.W. of Cape Bonavitta.

MOSHABBEHITES, or AsstmiLators, in Ecclefiafi-
eal Hiffory, a fe& of Mahometans, who, mifinterpreting fome
expreffions of the koran, allowed a refemblance between
God and his creatures, {uppofing him to be a figure com-
pofed of parts, or members, either fpiritual or corporeal,
and capable of local motion, of afcent and defcent, &c.

MOSHAK, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the
province of Yemen; 20 miles N.W. of Doran,

MOSHEIM, Jouy-Lawrence-von, in Biography, a
learned German writer, to whom we have been indebted for
many curiows and interefting faéts in the courfe of our bio-
graphical articles, was born at Lubec in 1694. He was
defcended from a noble family, a circumftance that feemed
to open to his ambition a fair path to civil promotion,
but his zeal for the interefts of religion, his infatiable
thirft after knowledge, and, more efpecially, his predomi-
nant inclination for facred literature, induced him to confe-
crate his talents to the fervice of the church. In his youth
he had been much attached to poetry and the belles lettres,
but as he advanced in life he declined all attention to the
Mufes for objeéts which he deemed of fuperior worth. The
fame of his acquirements was foon fpread over Germany,
and the univerfities of that country were anxious to load

MOS

him with literary honours. He. received invitations te fe.
veral profeflorfhips, accepted one from the king of Den-
mark, and became profeffor at the univerfity of Copen-
hagen. From this city he removed to the univerfity of
Helmftadt, where he was placed in the divinit chair, and
was honoured with the character of ecclefiattical counfellor
to the court. By George II. of England, M. Mofheim
was appointed chancellor to the univerfey of Gottingen,
where he died in 1755, in the fixty-firft year of his age.
He publifhed a Latin tranflation of Dr. Cudworth’s “f

tellectual Syftem,”’ with notes: and in the year in which he
died he gave the public his ‘ Ecclefiaftical Hiftory,"’ which
was a confiderable enlargement, with great improvements,
of a {maller work in two volumes 12mo. entitled « Ele-
ments of Chriftian Hiftory.”” This latter work was in-
tended almoft wholly for young ftudents, as acompendium
of their leétures : it became very popular, and gave occa-
fion to the Ecclefiaflical Hiftory, publifhed in the Latin
language, entitled « Inftitutiones Hiftorie Ecclefialtice.”?
It has been tranflated into Englifh by Dr. Maclaine, with
judicious and valuable notes, and improved by ufeful chro-
nological tables. Its Englith title is «An Ecclefiaftical
Hiftory, Ancient and Modern, from the Birth of Chrift to
the Beginning of the prefent Century.”? The other works
of Mofheim are, “‘ De Rebus Chriftianorum ante Conftanti-
num, &c. .” ‘ Hiftoria Mich. Serveti:? « Differtationes
Sacre :”’ befides thefe he publifhed various illuftrations of
the facred writings, and a collection of fermons, which
are highly fpoken of by thofe who are familiar with the
language in which they are written. In eftimating his ge-
neral chara¢ter his biographer fays, “In depth of judg-
ment, in extent of learning, in the powers of a noble and
mafculine eloquence, in purity of tafte, and in the labo-
rious application to all the various branches of erudition and
philofophy, he had certainly vety few fuperiors.””

MOSHELLY, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 28 mi
S.E. of Kifhenagur. g'the* : ae

MOSHO. See Moscuo.

MOSINA, atown of South America, in the govern-
ment of Caraccas ; 15 miles S.W. of Cumana.

MOSKOE, or Moskenes, an ifland in the N. fea, rear
the coaft of Norway ; S.W. of Marlitrom. N. lat. 67° 4’,

MOSKOVSKATA, a government of Ruffia, about 100
miles long, and g2 broad, the capital of which is Mofkva,
or Mofcow. N. lat. 54° 50! to 56’ 40’. E. long. 35° to
35°. See Moscow.

MOSKVA, ariver of Ruffia, which rifes near Ruza,
pafles by Mofcow, and runs into the Oka, near Kolomna.
See Moscow.

MOSLY, atowa of Poland, in the palatinate of Belcz;
8 miles S. of Belez.

MOSON, Madensifelle, in Biography, an opera-dancer in
England during the feaions of 1786 and 1787 ; who, though
a neat and pleaiing performer in general, chiefly diltinguifhed
herfelf by the arch and prudifh manner in which fhe danced
the pas ruffe.

MOSONGO, in Geograpay, a province of Africa, in the
kingdom of Anziko, E. ot Pombo.

MOSPONY, a town of the ifland of Ceylon; 24 miles
E. of Candi.

MOSQUE, or Mosk, among the Mahometans, is a tem-
ple fet apart for the exercifes of their religion.

The word comes from the Turkith mefgid, or me/chit,
which properly fignifies a temple built of wood, fuch as
the Turks firft ufed. Hence the Spaniards derive their
mecheta, and the Italians mo/cheta, and the French and
Englith mo/gue and mofg. Borel derives the word from the
Greek jorxo:, calf, becaufe of the frequent mention of a

cow

MOS

cow inthe Alcoran: but others, with the greateft appear-
ance of reafon, derive it from the Arabic ma/giad, a place
of worthip.

There are royal mofques founded by the emperors, as the
Solimania, and Velidea, at Conftantinople ; and private
mofques founded by mufties, viziers, baflas, &c. The
mofque of San&a Sophia is now a magnificent edifice.
That at Cordova in Spain was formerly much celebrated.

Mofques are built like large halls, with if_les, galleries, and
domes ; and are adorned on the infide with compartiments,
and pieces of Arabefque work. On one fide is always
found a pool with feveral cocks ; and on the top is placed a
crefcent.

The women are not allowed to enter the mofques, but ftay
in the porches without.

Moft of the mofques have a kind of hofpital belenging to
them, in which travellers of any religion are entertained
during three days.

The Turks have converted moft of the Chriftian churches
into mofques.

MOSQUITO Bank, or Mosquitos, in Geography, a
clufter of fmall iflands, near the coaft of Honduras, which
gives name to the tract of country called Mosquito Shore ;
which fee. N. lat. 14° 30'. W-.long. 82° ro’.

Mosquito Bay, a bay at the S.E. extremity of the ifland
of St. ‘Chriftopher.

Mosquito Cove, a bay on the coaft of Greenland. N.
lat.'64° 55’. W. long. 52° 57'.—Alfo, a bay on the Ww.
coait of the ifland of Antigua. N. lat. 17° 12’. W. long.
61° 35'.—Alfo, a bay on the N. coaft of the ifland of Ja-
maica. N. lat. 18° 28’. W.long. 78° 5’.

Mosauito J/land, one of the {maller Virgin iflands, near
the 'N. coaft of Virgin Gorda. N. lat. 18° 25’. W. long.
63° 15’.

Mosauito Jflands, {mall iflands on the coaft of Main.
N. lat. 43° 55’. W. long. 69° 10!.

Mosquito Key, a fmall ifland on the Spanifh Main. N.
lat. 14° 25'. W. long. 82° 25!.

Mosauiro Keys, a-clufter of iflets and rocks in the
Spanifh Main. N. lat. 12° 47'. W. long. 82°45.

Mosaqurto Point, a cape at the entrance of Port Royal
bay in Jamaica.—Alfo, a cape on the coaft of Guiana, at
the entrance of the river Eflequibo.

Mosquito Shore, or Mo/quito, a tra&t of country in
North America, bounded on the N. and E. by the fea,
on the S. by Nicaragua, and on the W. by Honduras.
The Spaniards have claimed it as part of Honduras, though
they have here no fettlements. Having murdered mott of the
inhabitants when they firft invaded this part of Mexico,
thofe who fled into the mountains have retained an invincible
hatred of them; aud hence they have been ready to join
with any Europeans, and particularly with the Englifh, who
touch upon their coatt, againft the Spaniards. As the Mof-
quito Indians are excellent mark{men, they are employed by
the Englith to ftrike the Manati, and many of them fail
in Englith veffels to Jamaica. When the duke of Albe-
marle was governor of this ifland, thefe Indians put them-
felves under the proteétion of the crown of England, and
their king received a commiffion from this crown. Since
that period, when their king dies, the next male heir goes
to Jamaica to ‘receive his commiflion, and before this ce-
remony he is not acknowledged by his countrymen. Some
time ago offers were made by England for fettling colonies
on the Mofquito fhore. The Englith evacuated this coun-
try in the years 1787 and 1738, after having had pofleflion
of it for about eighty years. Since the Englith have left it
and the Spaniards have recovered it, the king of the Mof-
quito fhore is abfolute ; for retaining their averfion to the

MOS

Spaniards, they will not allow the king of Spain to %e
their mafter, though they were fatisfied with confidering
the king of England in this relation.

Moseuito Jndtans, Indians of North America, who in-
habit a territory about N. lat. 46°. W. long. 94°

MOSQUITOS, atown of the ifland of Cuba; 27 miles
W. of Havanna.

MOSS, in Botany. See Musct.

Moss-Berry. See Wuort_e-Berry.

Moss, Heath. See CORALLOIDES.

Moss-Tree. See Liverwort.

Moss, Upright fr. See Lycoropium.

Moss, Wall. See Bryum.

Moss, in Agriculture, a well-known vegetable fubftance
or plant, that frequently {preads over the furface of old
grafs-lands in fome diftricts.

This plant or vegetable is moft apt to fix itfelf upon the
furface of old grafs lands of the meadow and patture kinds,
in which it produces much injury by drawing away the
nourifhment of the grafs plants, and of courfe leffening in
a high degree the grafly herbage. It affeéts fuch as are of
the clayey moift defcription, in cold expofed fituations, the
moft frequently, choaking the grafs by fpreading clofely
over it. And it is obferved by a late pra¢tical writer, that
“various means have been propofed by writers on huf-
bandry, for the removal of this moft deftruGive vegetable.
But as it requires a confiderable proportion of {fuperficial
moifture to promote its growth and extenfion on the foils
which it infeGts, it is probable, that the application of fuch
fubftances as have a teridency to abforb, and take up the
fuperabundant degree of wetnefs by which it is fupported,
mutt be of great utility and advantage. In this view lime
has been applied evenly over the furface, in fuch cafes, with
much benefit. He has, however, experienced fuperior
advantage, by covering mofly grafs-lands with a thin even
coat of attenuated calcareous matter, in union with a fandy
material, fuch as is feraped up from roads,-when formed
into a compoft with about one-fourth part of well rotted
farm-yard dung ; as by this application a new, and more
vigorous defcription of graffes is brought up, which foon
overpowers the mofs plants, and thus wholly deftroys them.
For the fame purpofe, and at the fame time promoting the
improvement of the lands, as well as bringing the herbage
into a finer ftate, the penning or folding of fheep has been
advifed by Mr. Kent. This method may probably be had
recourfe to with the molt fuccefs either in the clofe of the
fummer feafon, or early in the {pring months ; the latter is,
however, to be preferred, as from the grafs immediately
covering the furface, more effect may be produced in fmo-
thering and deftroying the mofly vegetation. In this prac-
tice, advantage is obtained in different ways, as by the
effet which the treading has in opening and removing the
clofe netted texture of the mofs, and that of the urine and.
dung in promoting the more {trong growth of the grafs
plants. Harrowing with fhort, fharp-tined, light harrows, ’
is likewife a practice that may be found ufeful in fome cafes,
efpecially previous to the application of fuch fubftances or
compotts as have been juft mentioned, as by fuch means the
matted nature of the mofs is broken down, and rendered
more open and fit for admitting the manure to the roots of
the grafs plants, and exerting its full influence in promoting
their vigorous growth, and at the fame time the fpreading
of the mofs in fome meafure prevented. After fuch har-
rowings have been performed, fome have recommended it
as an advantageous practice to fow grafs feeds and efpe-
cially white clover over the furface. Different forts of
implements have been contrived for dreffing the fwards of
grafs-lands when in this condition; fuch as the above and

different

MOS

different forts of fcarifiers and fward-cutters; but it may
be very conveniently performed by a {ward-dreffer lately in-
vented by Mr. Amos, and reprefented in his Minutes on
Agriculture and Planting. is is a tool which fhould be
in the hands of all farmers where grafs hufbandry is much
practifed. See Swarn-Drefer.

But all old grafs-lands, when much overrun with mofs,
fhould be broken up for the purpofe of tillage, in order
to their being laid down again to grafs after a proper
courfe of crops; as it is probably impoffible to render them
good grafs-lands again in any other method. In many
fituations this is a mode of proceeding which would produce
great improvement.

Moss, a term frequently made ufe of alfo to fignify a
particular fort of earthy or boggy material, found in fome
low fituations in different parts of the kingdom, but par-
ticularly in the more northern diftri€ts, being formed by
the decay of different vegetable and other fubftances. This
earthy material is of different natures in different fituations,
as wood mofs, black peat mofs, flow mofs, or red bog, &c.
The firft, which is principally compofed of ligneous fub-
ftances, is probably the belt for manure ; and the black peat,
which is chiefly compofed of heath, decayed fphagnum,
and the roots of the eriophora, is the next in the goodnefs of
its properties. The third, which is chiefly derived from the
{phagnum in a more frefh itate, is the leaft ufeful. Moffes
are of very different depths, textures,‘and qualities, but all
of them are greatly impregnated and loaded with water,
holding it like a f{ponge ; fome have the depth of not more
than three or four feet, while others have as many yards.
They require much draining and confolidating to bring them
inte cultivation. See Mossy Laad and Peat Mo/s.

In the Survey of Perthfhire, it is ftated that, ‘‘in every
flat, and on fome flopes of the higher hills, there are moffes
of various dimenfions, of various depths, and of various
degrees of firmnefs, according to the time that has elapfed
fince the mofs began to acquire folidity. In the High-
lands, moffes are fo frequent, that it would be tedious to
enumerate them. Their formation is uniformly owing to
the fame caufe—fallen trees, the deciduous parts of heath,
and of {trong aquatic plants. ‘The largeft tra& of mofs,
in a valley, any where in this county, and perhaps in Bri-
tain, is in Monteath, which has given its name to a whole
ftewartry. It is alfo called Mofs-Flanders, from its flat
appearance, and is moft commonly known by that name.
This whole tra&t of mofs, from the bridge of Gartmore to
the bridge of Drip, may be computed at 10,000 acres.’?
As it has been frequently found that “a ttratum of mofs is
buried feveral feet below the furface of foils, of the rich
kind, with a variety of timber lying in ic, the mode of its
origin feems evident.

“ If the foil below Mofs-Flanders and the other mofs in
Strathearn, have been formed by the agitation of the fea,
which is very probable ; whenever the waters retired, fucha
luxuriant foil could not long remain unproduétive. It mutt
have been fown» without delay, by the hand of nature,
with the feeds of the plants growing around it. Of thefe,
the oaks and other foreft trees, being the moft vigorous,
would, in a few years, overtop and choak the reft. Time
itfelf, and the violence of the winds, are fufficient to over-
turn any trees: and when trees are felled on flat land,
where their leaves have been accumulating for ages, the
leaves and branches dam the water ; aquatic grafles grow ;
the place becomes a morafs; and every morafs compofed
of fuch fubltances, by acquiring folidity, becomes a mofs.
Thefe are the outhines of the moft probable opinion of the
manner in which Mofs-Flanders was generated. The roots

MOS

of oaks are found at this day, fitting in the very manner
they grew, and adhering firmly to the clay and trunks of
an immenfe fize lying near the roots, at the depth of fifteen
feet below the furface of this mofs.’?

Moss on Trees, in Rural Economy, a diftemper caufed by
the mofs plant fixing itfelf upon them, which is highly pre-
judicial to the growth and increafe of thofe both of the
timber and fruit forts, and which much damages the fruit
of the latter kind.

Fhe beft remedy is the feraping it off from the body and
large branches, by means of a kind of wooden knife that
does not hurt the bark, or with a piece of rough hair-cloth,
after foaking rain. But the moft effeGtual cure is, the taking
away the caufe. This is to be done by draining off all the
fuperfluous moifture from about the roots of the trees, and
which may be greatly guarded againft in the firft planting
of the trees, by not fetting them too deep in the ground.

In cafes where trees ftand thick in a cold moift ground,
they are always covered with mofs; and the beft way to
remedy the fault is to thinthem. When the young branches
of trees are covered with a long and fhaggy mofs it utterly
ruins them ; and there is no way to prevent it, but that of
rubbing it off, or cutting the branches away near the trunk,
and even to take off the head of the tree, if neceflary, when,
if the caufe be removed by thinning the plantation or drain-
ing the land, the young fhoots continue clear afterwards.

This difeafe arifes in confequence of the mofs plant efta-
blifhing itfelf upon the trees which are in an unhealthy {tate
of growth, or which have been planted too clofely toge-
ther, by which proper circulation of air and drynefs are
prevented. Of courfe, the trees are not merely injured by
the plants eftablifhing themfelves upon them, and hindering
their growth, but probably alfo by the large proportion of
moifture that is attra€ted and the dampnefs induced in confe-
quence of it.

With the view of preventing and removing this affection,
Mr. Forfyth advifes the wafhing the trees with a mixture of
freth cow-dung, urine, and foap-fuds, in order that the eftablifh-
ment of the mofs plants may be prevented, and the bark
be kept in a fine healthy condition. Where this difeafe pro-
ceeds from the unhealthy ftate of the trees in confequence of
the unfriendly nature of the foil, Mr. Nichol thinks they
fhould be removed as foon as poffible, as this is the only cer-
tain way of guarding againft their deftruétion.

Moss, in Commerce. Some kinds of mofles are ufed in
medicine, in perfuming, &c.; among others, the Jfea-mafi
called coralline, and the mofs of cedar and fir, which enter
the compoiition of Cyprus powder.

The mofs of common trees, as oak, afh, poplar, &c.
is ufed for caulking of veffels: it is alfo ufed by bird-
merchants, to prepare cages for certain kinds of birds to
hatch in.

The foft marfh and bog moffes ferve the poor in many
places for ftuffing their beds ; and in the bufinels of tranf-
porting plants from other countries, nothing is of fo great
ufe as the {talks and leaves of thefe little vegetables ; the
fucculent plants coming over in great beauty and vigour,
when rolled up in dry mofs; and the trees and fhrubs,
by having their roots covered with fuch as is fomewhat
moift.

The great quality of the moffes, which makes them fo
ferviceable in this cafe, is, that they do not heat and ferment
on being moiftened, as hay and ftraw would.

Several fpecies of the moffes and algz have been applied to
medicinal ufe. Thus, feveral of the mofles are great and
valuable medicines, ufed as deticcatives and aftringents : that
the common cup-mofs is one of the greatelt remedies in the

convulfive

MOS

convulfive coughs of children, called the chin-cough, is
known to every one; and Dr. Mead has ennobled the grey
ground-lichen, by publifhing its virtues in one of the molt
terrible of all difeafes, the Fe of a mad-dog. The com-
mon green liverworts are known medicines in diforders of
the breaft, as are alfo all the {pecies of polytricha. The
feeds of our lycopodium are given with fuccefs in nephritic
cafes ; and the Indians give one of their fpecies in many
diflempers, and, as they fay, with great benefit. The com-
mon white ground coralloides ferves the rein-deer of Lap-
land for food, when all other herbage is loft ; and the con-
ferve ferve for food to many of the fifh both of the fea and
rivers, and to feveral water-fowl. And thefe, as well as the
land moffes, afford fhelter and habitation to many infects,
and their young. Many of the fpecies of coralloides and
lichenoides are found of great ufe in that profitable branch
of commerce, the art of dyeing ; and doubtlefs many others
have alfo the fame qualities, though not yet difcovered ; and
we may be guided in fearches of this kind by obferving that
many of them tinge the papers between which they are dried
with very beautiful and lafting-colours.

Moss, Si/Z, in Natural Hiffory, a name given by count
Marfigli to a fpecies of fea-mofs, or coralline, of a very
remarkable finenefs and foftnefs, much more refembling filk
than any other of the marine produGtions. _ It is wholly com-
pofed of a fort cf tuft of fine hairs or filaments, and is of
a blueifh-green colour, and almoft tranfparent. It grows on
recks, ftones, fhells, or any thing elfe that lies in its way,
and is found ufually at fmall depths ; it is not fo tough and
flexible as many other of the fea-plants, but is eafily rubbed
to powder between the fingers. When examined. by the
microfcope, the fingle filaments do not appear of the fame
equable furface and uniform texture; but they are feen to
be jointed and made up, as it were, of a great number of
pieces faftened end by end to one another, in the manner of
the beads of a lady's necklace. It is of a fine blueifh-green,
and perfe@ly tran{parent before the microfcope,and refembles
a ftring of gems, fuch as the aqua marina, or fome other like
ftone.

Moss is alfo a name given in many parts of England to
the ground called the bog, fen, marfh, or morafs in other
places. ;

Moss-Troopers, a rebellious fort of people in the North
of England, that lived by robbery and rapine, not unlike
the tories of Ireland, the buccaneers in Jamaica, or ban-
ditti in Italy : the counties of Northumberland and Cum-
berland were charged with a yearly fum, and a command
of men, to be appointed by the jultices of peace, to ap-
prehend and fupprefs them. Stat. 4 Jac. I, cap. 1.
13 & 14Car. II. cap. 22. 30 Car. II. cap. 2. See 6 Geo. II.
cap. 37.

Moss, Rosert, in Biography, a learned Englifh di-
vine of the eftablifhed church, was born at Gillingham, in
Norfolk, in the year 1666. He received his claffical .edu-
cation at the free {chool of Norwich, and in 1682 he was
entered of Bennet college, Cambridge, where he took his
degrees, and was elected into a vacant Norfolk fellowfhip in
that houfe. When he commenced preacher his fermons
made great impreffion, and he had full audiences whenever
he was called to perform the duties of the pulpit. He
offered himfelf as candidate for the office of public orator,
and alfo for the mafterfhip of his college, but was unfuc-
cefsful in both inftances; it was, however, univerfally ac-
knowledged that he loft no credit by thefe competitions.
In 1698, he was appointed preacher to the Society of
Grays-Inn, London, an office which he held through life.
In the following year he was appointed preacher-aflittant at

MOS

the church ef St. James, Weftminfter, and was afterwards
nominated chaplain in ordinary to king William III. : he
continued to hold the fame ftation under queen Anne, and
being one of the chaplains in waiting when her majeity
vifited the univerfity of Cambridge in 1705, he had the
degree of doGtor of divinity conferred upon him in the
queen’s prefence. Soon after this an unfuccfsful attempt
was made to eje&t him from his fellowfhip, on account of
non-refidence. In the year 1712, Dr. Mofs was nominated
to the deanery of Ely, which led him to refign his fellow-
fhip of his own accord. Upon the acceflion of George I.
Dr. Mofs was fworn, a third time, chaplain in ordinary,
which place he retained till 1718,jwhen he was difmiffed, on
account of the part which he took in the Bangorian con-
troverfy. He died in 1729, in the fixty-third year of his
age. He was author of a Colleétion of Sermons, publifhed
after his death, to which is prefixed a character of the
author, which fays, “He was of fo open and generous a
difpofition, and fuch a ftranger to all artificial difguife,
that he affirmed, and you believed him; he promifed, and
you trufted him; you knew him, and you loved him.”
Biog. Brit. vol. vii.

Moss, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the province
of Aggerhuus, on the E. fide of Chriftiania bay ; 28 miles
S. of Chriftiania——Alfo, a river of Norway, which runs
into the fea near the town of Mofs.

MOSSA, a town.of Germany, in the county of Goritz ;
five miles S.W. of Goritz.—Alfo, a town of France, in
the department of the Sefia; 23 miles N.N.W.of Ver-
celli.

MOSSALE, a town of the duchy of Parma; 19 miles
S. of Parma.

MOSSAR, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Wilna; 28 miles S.E. of Breflaw.

MOSSAW, a town of Bengal; feven miles N.E. of
Rajemal. ;

MOSSEL Bay, a bay on the S.E. coaft of Africa.
The outermoft point.of the bay, called Cape Saint Blaize, lies
in S. lat. 34° 10’. E. long. 22° 18'. The variation of the
compafs im 1797, was 27° 54! W. The time of high wa-
ter at full and change about three o’clock, and the rife and
fall of the tides fix or feven feet. During the fummer
months, when the winds blow between E. and S., or dire&tl
into the bay, a heavy {well breaks upon the beach, which
makes it dangerous, and frequently impraéticable, for boats
to land; but thefe winds are never fo violent nor fo latting
as at the Cape; and {hips may ride at anchor in perfect
fecurity about three quarters of a mile from the landing-
place. The S.W. winds, that frequently blow with great
violence from April to September, bring into the bay a moft
tremendous fea, fetting round Cape Saint Blaize. Att this
feafon of the year it would be highly imprudent for fhips
to enter into Moffel bay. A rill of water glides over the
fandy beach, where is the belt landing, ee is eafily con-
veyed into cafks in the boats, by means of a hofe. To the
S.E. of this landing-place is another {mall cove tolerably
fheltered, and deep enough to admit veffels of ten or twelve
feet draught of water. At either of thefe coves, piers for
landing and fhipping of goods might conveniently be con-
{tructed, and at a {mall expence, as materials may be pro~
cured upon the fpot. Boats, however, may land at every
part of the bay; and the adjacent country would eafily
afford fupplies for about 500 men. The months of the
rivers that fall into the bay are generally blocked up with
fand ; they abound with various kinds of fifh; and at the
rocky parts of the coalt mufcles and excellent oylters are
plentiful.

Mossah

MOS

Mosset Bay gives name to a divifion of the diftri& of
Zwellendam, adjoining to it; and it is fometimes called
<< Droogeveldt,’”? or dry country, extending from the Gau-
ritz river to the Great Brakka river that falls into Moflel
bay. The furface is hilly and compofed of a me fandy
foil, which, when the rains are favourable, is fufficiently
fertile in corn. The only natural product in the vegetable
kingdom, that is ufeful as an article of commerce, is the
aloe ; but the heathy plants along the fouthern are more
favourable for fheep than in the other parts of this divifion.
Befides the fifheries mentioned under the preceding article, the
aloe and barilla might employ the Hottentots to advantage.
As the former grows in every part of the diftrict that fur-
rounds the bay, that from the afhes of which the latter
is procured is equally abundant in the plain through which
the Olifant river flows at no great diltance from the bay.
Here alfo the cultivation of grain and pulfe might be greatly
extended. Barrow’s Africa, vol. ii.

MOSSELPATTY, a town of the ifland of Ceylon;
65 miles N.W. of Trincomalee.

MOSSENIGA, a town of European Turkey, in the
Morea; 20 miles E. of Navarn.

MOSSEQUEJOS, a people and country of Africa, on
the coaft of Zanguebar, on the banks of the Quilamanca,
about 100 miles from the Indian fea.

MOSSES, in Botany. See Muscr, and Frince of
Moffes.

ossEs, Sea. Thefe marine fubftances are very beautiful
when viewed by the naked eye ; but when examined with
the microfcope, they afford a very pleafing variety of ftruc-
ture and conformation.

The common kinds afford a great variety of colouring,
the different parts of the fame fubftance often appearing,
fome brown, fome yellow, fome red, and fome grey. On
drying, thefe colours become lefs elegant ; but on putting
the dried fubftance again to foak in water, they are in fome
degree recovered, and the variations are ufually found to
be owing to the joints and knots in the ftalks, which inter-
rupt the courfe of the general colour, and are often them-
felves cither black, or of a dark and deep brown. See
CorALLine.

MOSSIMPOUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Bahar ; 23 miles S.E. of Hajypour.

MOSSING of Fruit-Trees, in Gardening. See Moss on
Trefs.

“MOSSO, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment cf the Sefia; two miles N. of Bialla.

MOSSULA, or Morsoura, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Congo, at the mouth of the Onzo. S. lat.
8° ro’.

MOSSUMBO, a town of Congo; 20 miles S. of
Banza.

MOSSY Lanp, a common name given to boggy peaty

rounds in many parts of the kingdom, Thefe forts of
fand confift of a turfy fubftance, below which is a black,
moift, {pongy earth, which refts on a clay or marly bot-
tom. The dark coloured under {trata of moffes, after being
dug up with fpades, fomewhat in the form of bricks, and
dried, is what is called peat, and which is ufed as fuel in
feyeral diftrids.

The moft certain and fhorteft method for the improve-
ment of mofs land, if the ground be defigned only for

fs, and its fituation be fech as admits of it, is this;
rft drain- the mofs, and if there be heath upon it, burn
that off, and make the furface even. Then make a dam at
the loweft part and a fluice, and work the water upon it
through the winter. The mud which comes with the land-

VoL, XXIV.

MOS

flood will bring a fine {ward upon it in two or three years,
and be afterwards a yearly manure; fo that it will bear
annual cutting, and, befides, be good patture for cattle,
after the fward is become ftrong enough to bear them. But
Mr. Greme found that the improvement of mofs land may be
endangered by draining it too much; for his crops were
beft where the furface of the water in the furrounding ditches
was not above three feet lower than the level of the mofs
which compofed it.

It may be obferved, that the nature and origin of the
foil of moffes has been lately much inquired into and ex-
amined by different writers. In the fecond volume of Com-
munications to the Board of Agriculture, Mr. Headrick
ftates, that ** Dr. Anderfon, in a late treatife, advances an
opinion which appears to him fomewhat paradoxical. He
afferts, that mofs is a vegetable, or congeries of vegetables,
which are groqwing, or living below ; while he diftinguifhes the
top, where we frequently fee vegetables actually growing,
by the epithet of dead mofs. Thus, according to him,
there are two fpecies of mofs, viz. quick mo/z, from which
peats are dug, on which no vegetables are ever known to
grow, and in which no animals are ever known to exift ;
that this, before it is cut out of its natural fituation, is
compofed of a congeries of growing, or living plants.
2. Dead mofs, which frequently covers the former at the
furface, on which heath and fog and coarfe graffes are feen
in a growing ftate, while infe&s and other animals fre-
quently neftle in it.” He conceives ‘* the idea to have been
fuggefted to the doctor by the vulgar dialect of fome parts
of the country where deep mofs, fit for making peats, is
often diftinguifhed by the appellation of guick mofs But,
he apprehends, that this term, in the vulgar diale& of
Scotland, no where indicates life in the fenfe affixed to it
by the doétor, and he knows of no term ufed among the
vulgar that afcribes life to vegetables of any kind, By the
term guick, when applied to mofles, he fuppofes they mean
only to exprefs their miring property, juft as quick fands
mean fands in which a paflenger is in danger of finking.
Dead mofs, he conceives to be fynonimous with firm mofs ;
thofe parts of peat-bogs which are covered with herbage
being the only parts on which a paflenger can walk when
the mofs is wet, as his feet are fupported by the matted
roots of plants.’’ And that ‘ whatever may be the ftri&
meaning of thefe terms in common language, the do¢tor
mutt admit that, according to his hypothefis, this vegetable,
during the whole period of its growth, is excluded from
the influence of fun and air. No vegetable he ever heard
of forms ligneous fibres, or acquires inflammability, with-
out contaét of air and of the fun’s rays during the period of
its growth, Now, how comes it that a vegetable growing’
in fuch extraordinary circumftances, acquires the very high
degree of inflammability afcribed to it by the doétor ?
Inflammability it cannot acquire from the aétion of the
fun’s rays, becaufe it is foaked in water, and frequently
covered with a thick coat of what the door calls dead mo
However ingenious, therefore, the hypothefis may be, this
obftacle to its admiffion feems to him infurmountable.’?
And further, ‘ what feems decifive of the utter deadnefs, and
partial diffolution of that {pecies of mofs to which the doGtor
imputes life and vegetation, is, that fuch mofs emits light
when kicked and toffed about ina very dark night, This
is well known to thofe who live contiguous ta peat-bogs,
and is the caufe of frequent terrors, which are afcribed to
Will-of-the-wifp, &c. It is really owing to the flow inflam-
mation of the ligneous or carbonic fibres, of which the
mofs is chiefly compofed, in confequence of contact with
atmofpheric air in a moij{t flate. No plant, as far as he

Gg knows,

MOSSY

knows, is capable of fpontaneous inflammation while it con-
tinues in a growing or living fate; and moft plants require
all their mucilages, and other foluble parts, to be extraéted
by long foaking in water, before they are capable of exhi-
biting this phenomenon. If a piece of wood be well dried and
feafoned, it cannot afterwards be rotted except very flowly ;
-but if it be funk in a green ftate, among moift earth, its folu-
ble parts are extraéted in the courfe of a few years. Its
ligneous fibres become foft, and may be feparated in every
direGion ; each fpecies of wood breaking in a way peculiar
to itfelf, both laterally and perpendicularly, fimilar to the
eryftallization of falts. If this wood be fuddenly expofed
to the air, in a dark place, while moift, it will fhine with
great brilliancy ; if it be dried, it will be found much more
inflammable than frefh wood of the fame {pecies, which has
been feafoned ; as it confifts almof wholly of carbon. ‘The
property of fhining in the dark is common alfo to leaves of
trees, and toall vegetables, whofe carbonic fibres have been
laid open in confequence of long foaking in moifture when
they are firft expofed to the a¢tion of atmofpheric oxygen.
By frequent repetition of foaking, and expofure to the air,
fuch bodies become entirely calcined, and they leave an un-
inflammable earth, fuch as is produced by burning them in
a common fire. No living vegetable, however, and no
vegetable whofe folution is not pretty far advanced, is ever
feen to undergo this fpontaneous inflammation; but mofs
adapted for making peats certainly undergoes this procefs,
and therefore fuch mofs, inftead of being alive, muft be dead§
This may help us to explain a faét, which is ably illuftrated
by Dr. Anderfon, that mofs, if frequently turned up to
the air, and kept uniformly in a moilt ftate, though not
abfolutely foaked, is gradually changed into a fertile foil.
None of the fucculent, or nutritious vegetables, are known
to grow upon other vegetables, unlefs the putrefaction of
the latter be pretty far advanced. Frequent: turning of

mofs, in the given circumftances, expofes it to flow inflam- —

mation or putrefaétion ; both of thefe procefles being of the
fame nature, which may alfo help to account for fome facts
which feem to have puzzled Dr. Anderfon, as appears from
his treatife; that oak, which is never found to rot when
funk in moift clay, or moifture of any kind, fhould be found
reduced almoft to a pulp in mofs; but the doctor may ob-
ferve that the oak found in mofs was never feafoned ; it fell
where it grew, .and was inclofed by mofs with all its natural
juices, while a vaft quantity of additional juices, retained
in the mofs, foon invefted it on every part. The trees in
this fituation were in time robbed of all mucilage and folu-
ble parts, which became food for the mofs plants that in-
vefted them ; of courfe nothing at laft remained but the
carbon, or ligneous fibres, faturated with the mofs juices.
Though the cohefion of thefe fibres be deftroyed, they are
infoluble in water, and do not eafily rot in it; in other
words, they do not readily decompofe water.” But * an-
other difficulty ftill occurs to the do&tor. How come thefe
ligneous fibres to retain their inflammability, or even to have
it confiderably increafed? A few faéts will be afterwards
ftated which may help to account for this; at prefent it is
only neceffary to obferve, that wood will refain its infam-
inability a very long time, if buried green in any moilt fub-
flance, which effectually excludes it' from the aétion of the
atmofpheric air, provided it does not petrify, or change into
ftone. Its foluble parts may be extraéted and diffufed
through the water 5 but they rather impede than increafe
the inflammable power of the wood. ‘The ligneous fibres,
hiowever, remain, and are not rotted except by the joint
aétion of air and moifture. It has often been obferved, that
the part of a flake fixed in the ground, which fooneft rots,

“and entire.

LAND.

is a’ring from the furface downwards, which is between the

wet and the dry ; that is, the part which is expofed to the
joint action of the earth’s moifture and of atmofpheric air.
Now trees that are buried deep in the mofs are foaked in
perpetual moifture, but are excluded from the action of
air; they cannot, therefore, be ‘faid to rot, though their
parts fhould be foftened, and their foluble mucilages be ex-
tracted and diffolved in the water; but any one who exa-

mines the large trees found at the bottom of moffes, muft

be convinced that they had undergone a partial rotting be-
fore they were completely covered by the mols. "The up-
per part of thefe trees is uniformly flat, or eat out into
hollows, while the under part retains its natural rotundity.
This fhews that after thefe trees had fallen, the under part

was immediately invefted or funk in mofs, while the upper ,

part continued a long time between the wet and the dry,
before the mofs grew up and excluded the ation of the
air. If then the ligneous fibres of wood funk into mofs
remain undecompofed, their being foftened and reduced to
a pulpy {tate by long maceration in water, affords no reafon
why they fhould lofe their inflammabikty, but rather that
this quality fhould be increafed. Inflammability can only
be loit in confequence of the carbon contained in a body
having combined with oxygen; a combination which, in
this fituation, cannot take place ; nor does there feem fuffi-
cient reafon to conclude, that the plants, of which mofs is
compofed, grow in a different manner from other plants, or
that they require a high degree of inflammability without
the a€tion of the fun and air; a fuppofition which is con-
trary to univerfal experience. But, without entering into
any controverfy upon the fubje&t, he may be allowed to ftate
his Own opinion, with the reafons on which it is founded.
Far from laying claim to infallibility, the reader is requefted
to withhold his affent, unlefs the fatis adduced may feem to
him convincing.” ‘
It is firit ftated, that « there is one opinion in which he
cordially agrees with Dr. Anderfon, that mofs grows or
receives a gradual accumulation from vegetation, The only
point in which he differs with him is, refpeéting the place
where this vegetative accumulation is made: the doétor fays
it takes place below, while he apprehends it takes place
at the furface.”” But ‘with regard to the general fa&,
that mofs grows, many proofs are adduced by Dr. Ander-

fon and other writers ; and he will only fuperadd two which’

appear fatisfaétory. In a mofs belonging to Robert Ful-
ton, efq. of Hartfield, near Paifley, the people in cafting
peats came upon a cauley formed of broad ftones upon
mofs; this caufey had been very fubitantially finifhed with
{tones brought from a diltance in the Roman manner, and
was probably conftruéted by them while they occupied a
fortified camp at Paifley. Though it had been originally
laid upon mofs, a new covering of mofs had grown over it,
to the depth of feveral feet. There isa mofs at Swindridge
Muir, from which peats had been dug at fome very remote
period ; the old pits from which the peats had been taken,
are grown up to the level of the furrounding mofs ; but on
leading uv a main drain which paffed through feveral of
thefe holes, they were found to be filled with mofs of a
more foft and {pongy texture than the old mofs, which never
had been dug. Indeed, the new mofs no where coalefced
with the old, the fides of the pits remaining perpendicular
The new mofs could not have been accumulated
from any thing blown into the pits by the wind, as the
whole furface of the furrounding moffes*were covered with
heath and coarfe herbage; it mutt, therefore, have been
caufed by a new vegetation of mofs in the holes from which
the peats had been taken.” And it is fuggelted, that

« were

en

MOSSY

«* were a naked rock fuddenly thrown up from the fea, or
from the bowels of the earth, the firft plants.which nature
would place upon it would be the various {pecies of lichens,
and fuch as can fubfift wholly upon what they imbibe from
the. air, without needing a foil in which to pufh their roots.
Thefe plants ferve the double purpofe of clothing the rock,
and thus preventing the fine particles that are diflolved by
air and moifture from being wafhed away, and, from their
growth and diffolution, of accumulating vegetable foil for
the fultenance of more fucculent plants. The rock is thus
gradually made to acquire fuch a depth of foil, that it be-
comes able to fuftain, not only grafles and fhrubs, but may
become a receptacle for 'the oak itfelf. But, if we fuppofe
this rock to be fo fituated, that moifture canrot eafily ran
~ off from its furface, a great variety of the mofs plants will
begin to grow upon it. * As thefe accumulate, the moifture
will rife along with them; for they retain it like a fponge,
and obftruét its paflage from the rock. Thus, as long as
the mofs plants can accumulate moifture, they will continue:
to grow, until the rock comes to be covered with a deep
mofs.’’ And “the fame effet will be produced upon a
bottom of gravel or lime-ftone, which does not eafily admit
the moilture to pafs through it. Upon a bottom of alu-
minous or pyritical fchiftus, none but the moft hardy plants,
fuch as thofe which compofe mofs, can exilt; and {uch plants
will, therefore, accumulate upon fuch a foil if not checked,
even though it fhould have a confiderable declivity.”” . It is
added, that upon flat clay land, and in hollows that had been
formerly covered with wood, we uniformly find mofles'which
have grown in confequence of the wood having been felled,
~ or allowed to fall down. This is owing to the water having
been obftru&ted by the trees, after they had been ftrewed
upon the ground, and which, confequently, canfed the pro-
dution of aquatic plants.. But fuch trees as we find in the
bottom of moffes, being fteeped in water, throw out a
confiderable portion of the tanning principle: this is of
fuch a nature, that no other but the hardy mofs plants can
grow in a foil affected by it 5 fuch plants, therefore, rapidly
grow in fuch fituations, and accumulate as long as they can
caufe the moifture to rife as they rife. In the bottom of
“mofies that had been originally caufed by the fall of woods,
we find all thoie graffes and plants which commonly grow
in) woods in a itate of prefervation; we alfo find the leaves
and other exuvie of the trees, which having been dropped
during acourfe of ages, feem not only to have increafed
the dampne({s of the foil, but by their aftringent juices to
have predifpofed the foil for the growth of mofs plants ;
thus, the mofs feems to have advanced:a confiderable way
before the trees fell, and by the moiiture which it retained,
it feems to have chilled their roots, and rendered it eafy for
the winds to overthrow them.”

And it is noticed fasther, that * mofles in flat Gtuations
are generally higheit in the centre, that being the point
where the water finds moit obftruétion to its running off.
“The limit to the farther accumulation of ‘thefe moffes is the
point to which the water can be drawn up as the mofs in-
creafes, and they have been known to grow until the column
of water, fultained in the mofs; has burft its barriers, and
conveyed the moifs that retained it over the neighbouring
fields. Many examples of this might be fpecified, but he
will only mention that of the Solway mofs, the faés rela-
tive to which are well known to the public. T'o this caufe
alfo mofs-hags are to be imputed, or thofe dangerous chafms
which frequently occur in deep moffes ; thefe are produced
by a part of the mofs fhifting its pofition from the column
of water futtained in) it acquiring greater preffure than the
lateral refittance. Thus mofs may be’ confidered as a frefh-

LAND.

water {ponge,, which grows as long as it can draw up: and
fuftain water to nourifh it.’ From thefe facts it is con-
cluded, that «the predifpofing caufes of the growth of
mofs appear to be an extreme degree of dampnefs, or of
altringency in the foil, which render it an unfit receptacle
for any other but the mofs plants. He uniformly proceeds
upon the fuppofition thac the fperm, the feeds, or the
fuckers of the mofs ‘plants are at hand, where a foil is thus
predif{pofed for their production; for it would be abfurd to
fuppofe, that thefe plants would begin to grow even in the
mott favourable fituations, if there were neither feeds nor roots
from which they were to fpring. We are told, that in
America and feveral other countries, peat-bogs are unknown:
this he would account for in two ways; either the mofs
plants are there, but never accumulate into a bog from want
of a proper receptacle : or fuppofing fituations favourable
for their accumulation, there are neither feeds nor plants of
mofies to occupy thefe fituations. We know not all the
caufes which induced the Supreme Being to diverfify the
produétions of different climates; but we know that they
are exceedingly diverfified, and that this operates as a pow-
erful motive upon remote nations to cultivate a friendly
intercourfe with each other.’ - f

The writer adds, that «¢ the mofs plants grow at the fur-
face with their roots and ftems immerfed in moifture; but
their leaves andibranches are expofed to the air; and the
fun’s rays. Thofe meffes which difcover no vegetation upon
their furface, are either arrived at the utmoft height at
which they can fuftain water, and have hence become dry,
and are frequently blown about by the winds, or there are
large {paces perpetually wafhed by the rains which fall,
which are hence converted into water-courfes. In fuch

‘ruts every new accumulation of mofs is wafhed away, if

what was formerly accumulated be not alfo carried off to a
confiderable depth. In flat places, where the moifture does
not readily get off, the genuine mofs plants may be feen
growing fomewhat fimilar to the green vegetation which
arifes in pure water, when expofed to the fun’s rays. When
a mofs is interfeGted by numerons water-courfes, it appeara
to be divided into iflands, on which heath and coarfe grafies,
with Jichens and other mofs plants, are growing. When a
mofs has grown fo high that it no longer retains a fuflicieicy
of water to caufe its further accumulation, the upper part,
being between the wet and the dry, is partially rotted er de- |
compofed into vegetable earth ; hence the upper itratum of
mofs isnever fo inflammable as the parts below, having already,
in fome degree, fuffered the flow inflammation which cen-
verts itvinto foil. And farther, “ the mofs plants feem
almoit wholly compofed of carbonic fibres, and are fo hardy
that they continue to grow above, while their items and
roots are mouldering below. He has traced many of them
to a confiderable depth. ‘Thus the yellow, or white fog;
of which there are feveral varieties, is commonly frefh and
vigorous’at the furface; about a foot lower, it may exhibit
marks of decompofition, though its organization remains
entire. It may be frequently traced. almoft,to,the bottom
of a deep mofs, though its organization becomes conitantly
lefs-diftin@, until it 1s entireiy lot. In the fame way he
has been able to trace the heath plant almoft to the bottom
of a peat mofs; below it becomes foft, and is frequently
bruifed by the incumbent preffure, but its organization is
feldom deftroyed.”” And “ the plants which compofe mofs
are’ doubtlefs exceedingly various. Botanifts have enume-
rated’ more than 300 fpecies of them, of the cryptagamia
clafs }) but it is probable that many fpecies of thefe plants
are invifible to the naked eye; and that there are many
others, whofe form and organization it is difficult to afcer-
Gg 3 tain.’*

MOSSY

tain.” But it is conceived, that ‘“ while the mofs plants
are growing at the furface, they are not rotting below : they
are only fteeped, or macerated in water, which extra¢ts their
foluble ingredients, and reduces them to a foft and pulpy flate,
in the fame way as was mentioned refpe€ting wood. As
the water cannot get off, except by evaporation, in the
lower parts, it is never changed, but the fame water muft
continue for ever in the place which it occupies. Were it
otherwife, that is, were the water frequently fhifted, the
mofs would gradually rot, and moulder into earth: hence
the effeét of watering mofles, which, by accumulating vege-
table mould, caufes the mofs to throw up {weet herbage.”’
Dr. Anderfon thinks, * that moffes could never accumu-
late to their prefent extent, by growing above, while they
are rotting below: he thinks, that even an acre of the belt
grafs could never accumulate hay fufficient. to cover the
furface on which it grew, to fuch a depth as many moffes
have attained, by the refiduum left after it was rotted.
But it is well known, that by the rotting of hay, and other
fucculent vegetables, by far the greateit part of their fub-
ftance is conveyed away in thofe gafes which are emitted
during the procefs, and there 1s nothing finally left but a
light earth, together with fome falts that are formed in the
produ. In mofs no fuch rotting procefs takes place, for
we never find that any of thofe gafes emitted by rotting
vegetables are emitted by mofs; on the contrary, mofs will
preferve fucculent vegetable, and eyen animal fubftances.
{t is faid, that in the Ards mofs, in Airfhire, bodies of per-
fons have been found by the people who were cafting peats,
which have remained in a perfect ftate of prefervation ever
fince the perfecution of the covenanters by Charles II.
The covenanters frequently held their conventicles, or field-
preachings, on the borders of this mofs: when furprifed
by the king’s troops, they fled into the centre of the mofs,
where cavalry could not purfue them. As thefe meetings
were generally held in the night, it appears that fome of
thefe people had dropped into holes, where they could not
afterwards be found. It is, therefore, evident that mofs,
fo far from being itfelf in a ftate of putrefaction, is a ftyptic,
whofe juices are capable of preferving even thofe bodies
which are naturally moft liable to putrefaGtion; the two
cafes are, therefore, altogether diffimilar, and the argument
inconclufive. But if we were to fuppole the grafs, like the
mofs plants, growing as thick as it could ftand, and every
feafon macerated, but not rotted, in water which fills up
every interftice, it is apprehended it would foon accumulate,
upon the foil that produced it, to a much greater depth
than any now in exiltence; it may be further obferved, that
fcarcely one-half of the denfeit mofs is filled with vegetable
matter. When peats are firft cut out, they are nearly
double the fize they retain after they are dried ; and when
they are fqueezed while wet, by a prefs, they go into a
much {maller form.”

‘The next queftion is, * how it comes that water only
macerates the mofs plants, that is, extraéts their foluble in-
gredients, and deftroys the adhefion of their parts, without
rotting them, as happens with fucculent plants? He appre-
hends this muft be partly imputed to the hardy nature of
the mofs plants ; for, being chiefly compofed of ligneous or
carbonic fibres, the water does not readily act upon them, or,
more properly, is not cafily decompofed by them. Thofe
plants are eafieft rotted which abound molt in mucilages,
and parts that are foluble in water; even mucilaginous
plants do not eafily rot, if they be wholly immerfed in water,
and excluded from the aétion of the air, which is precifely
the fituation of peat mofs. But independent of this confi-
deration, we thall fee, that the water which refides in mofles

LAND.

is impregnated with a portion of the tanning principle, whic:
effeCtually prevents the rotting of the plants, in the proper
fenfe of that word. Mofs plants, therefore, are mace~
rated, or infufed like tea in water, but not rotted: the
organic texture may be deftroyed, and the foluble parts
diffufed in water, without fuffering any chemical change ;
as the fame water always refides in the mofs, unlefs it be
evaporated, there can be little or no lofs of vegetable fub-
ftance. As this maceration in water does not oxygenate
the plants, it fhould, it is conceived, render them more
inflammable than when in their organic {tate, as was fuggelted
refpecting wood.”

It is ftated, that “the trees and fhrubs he has found at
the bottom of mofles are the following, and they are, per-
haps, the only indigenous trees and fhrubs of this country.
Of trees, 1, the oak; 2, the elm; 3, the birch; 4, the
willow ; 5, the aller; 6, the fir. Of fhrubs, 1, the hazel ;
z, the dwarf-willow ; 3, the gall-plant; 4, the heath-plant <
this laft frequently continues to grow upon the mofs during
the whole period of its exiftence. The 2d and 3d fhrubs
alfo frequently continue growing upon moffes in the
wettern parts of Scotland: they are very hardy fhrubs,
and feem to prefer thofe fituations where their roots are im-
merfed in the tanning principle, and the plants themfelves
abound in this principle. The fhrubs which grow in mofles
are always partially decompofed, if they have not entirely
their organic form, when traced downwards to a certain
depth; but he has alfo obferved certain tubular roots,
reiembling large threads, which are evidently in a living
{tate from the top to the bottom. Thefe roots belong to
plants which are growing at the furface, and whick do not
feem to decay below, with the mafs of other plants. In
the commencement of many mofles, it would appear that
the falling of leaves and decayed branches, together with
the undergrowth of fhrubs and coarle grafles, had ob«
ftructed the water, and caufed the mofs plants to grow
and advance before the trees fell down. The mofs, by its
retention of moiiture, and by creeping up the ftems, feems
to have chilled the trees, and brought on their decay, before
they fell down: thus we frequently find a confiderable
depth of mofs below the trees, which are often broken over
a confiderable way above the root, and they generally he in
one direGtion, owing to the prevailing current of the winds
having firft bent and afterwards caufed them to fall in that
direGtion.
oak and elm trees were lying near the bottom, and above
them hazel and other fhrubs had grown, which, in their
turn, had been deltroyed and clofed round by mofs.’" And,
«* as a proof that mofs is compofed of a congeries of plants,
which had fucceflively grown and decayed, though they
had not rotted, we may obferve, that it is always compofed
of thin layers, or ftrata, piled above each other, and the
lower {trata much more compreffed than thofe above. This
may be diltinétly feen in many f{pecies of dried peat, and
may alfo be obferved in the face of a peat-bank, or wall,
from which peat had been cut. The mofs plants, therefore,
feem to be more analogous to wood, than to any other
{pecies of plants: they are parafitical, and can grow either
upon wood, or upon the wrecks and particles of their own
fubftance. But fo far from being in a ftate of putrefaction
below, they will not grow in any foil where the putrefactive
fermentation is excited.”

In what refpeéts the difference of mofs, it is flated, that
there are two {pecies or kinds, viz. black mofs, which ts of
a mahogany colour in its original flate, but foon becomes
black by expofure to the air ; and whitifh-yellow, or foygy
mofs, which is much lefs compact than the former, and

retains

Mr. Smith fhewed the writer mofles, where.

MOSSY

* retains a white or yellow colour after it is dried: the latter
does not feem in fuch a perfect {tate of maceration as the
former, as the fog of which it is compofed ftill retains its
organized form; and there does not feem to be fuch a
great variety of the mofs plants prefent in this fpecies of
peat as in the black. The predifpofing caufe of thefe
variations feems, in his opinion, to be either the foil or
fpecies of wood on which the mofs at firft commenced its
growth, or the climate in which it is fituated. Thus,
mofles growing on fir woods are generally of the foft and
fpongy kind, and the trees themfelves may be fplit into
flices, which are ufed, in many parts of the country, in
place of candles: moffes growing upon oaks, and other
aftringent trees, commonly produce a black and compact
fpecies of peat. Moffes in cold and elevated fituations, as
they grow very flowly, commonly produce a hard and
compact peat. In this refpe€t mofs refembles wood, which
is always hard and compaét, in proportion to the coldhefs of
the climate, or rather to the length of time it takes to grow;

mofs again, in low and warm fituations, as it grows rapidly, -

is commonly foft and porous. Thefe feveral caufes often
a&t feparately, and often co-operate ; and thus mofs, con-
fidered as a foil, is found to poffefs the fame varieties
of quality which diftinguifh other foils.’”? It is ftated in
conclufion, that * if thefe obfervations be well founded, it
would appear that mofs is not a plant which grows by a
law peculiar to itfelf, and in direé oppofition to the efta-
blifhed laws of vegetation in other cafes; but that it isa
congeries of vegetables, of various fpecies, which are adapted
to grow in foils and fituations where the more delicate fuccu-
lent plants cannot fubfift; that they are moltly of the parafiti-
cal kind, and grow either upon rocks and damp clays, where
they receive little from the foil, or they can grow upon
other plants, or even upon the particles that are formed
from their own diffolution; that the predifpofing caufes
of the growth of mofs, are dampnefs and attringency in the
foil; that while thefe plants are growing at the furface,
they are diffolving below, not indeed by a procefs at all
analogous to putrefa¢tion, but by the fimple diffufion of
their parts in water, where they remain without any chemical
change.”

An analyfis of the moffy material is afterwards given, but
for which we mult refer the reader to the paper itfelf.

It is concluded, however, ** froma review of the whole
of his analytical experiments; 1, that lime is the moft
powerful azent that can be employed for reducing moffes
into foil. 2. That quick-lime is much more powerful than
its carbonate in neutralizing the ftyptic juice of mofs, be-
caufe, being foluble in water, it infinuates itfelf through
every pore of the plants, and while one part combines with
the gallic acid, or ftyptic juice, the remainder unites with
the mofly matter itfelf, forming it into an infoluble alkaline
folution of mofs, or foil of great fertility. 3. That during
the aétion of lime and alkalies on mofles, gafes are generated.
From the 26th experiment it would feem, that thefe gafes
are not chemically combined with the mofs, but, like the
carbonic acid in yeatt, are feparable by preffure or agitation,
and hence part of them at leaft remains in an aétive ftate,
ready to promote the growth of plants. Indeed the fame
conclufion was inferred from examining the alkaline folution
of mofs, though in a much higher degree. 4. That it
appears that allcalies are much better calculaced than lime to
diffolve the mofs plants, and to generate gafes in them bene-
ficial to vegetation; but as they render the mofs very foluble,
and enlarge its volume, they produce no foil capable of fuf-
taining the plants. The fame obfervation is applicable, in
part, to putrefcent manures.” But, ‘5, the author has

LAND.

not afcertained the nature of the gafes generated in the
cafes mentioned above. 6. The reafons will appear why
moffes and other foils, in given circumftances, are more apt to
produce one {pecies of plants than others. 7. What is here
detailed concerning the aétion of lime and of alkalies upon
moffes, together with that of putrefcent manures, is alfo
applicable to the aétion of thefe fubftances upon other foils,
in fo far as they a€t upon vegetable matter.”? 8. The
writer concludes by fuggetting his ‘* admiration at the bene-
ficence of Providence, in having provided the mofs plants
for the fituations in which they grow: they afford an imme-
diate fupply of fuel; are the fource from which pit-coal de-
rives its origin, though trees, and all the plants which abound
in oils and carbon, alfo contribute to the fupply of pit-coal.
Were the places now occupied by moffes divefted of ve-
getables, or ftored with vegetables of a different charaéter,
they would become noifome fens, which, by the emiffion cf
putrid gafes would {pread all around them peftilence and
death. Moffes emit no noxious gafes ; but rather, by grow-
ing at the furface, where the plants are aéted upon by the
fun’s rays, they perpetually throw out oxygen, and thus
contribute to the falubrity of the atmofphere. The only defe&
with which they are chargeable is, forming magazines of
moifture, which by its exhalation generates cold, and fpreads
rheumatifm and intermitting fevers among all the animals
within its reach. The perpetual evaporation of this moifture
not only tends to chill the mofs, but it defcends, in hoar froft
and mildews, upon all the lands that are lower in point of
fituation. Thefe laft-mentioned difadvantages are more than
amply compenfated by the confideration that mofs is not only
an inexhauitible magazine of manure for other foils, but
may be converted into a moft fertile foil itfelf.””_ And « af-
ter it is fo converted, none of the defects already ftated are
any longer applicable to it.”

In confidering the methods moft adapted to the improve-
ment of mofly lands, in different cafes and under different
circumftances, feveral things are neceflary to be regarded
as they are met with in different fituations and conditions,
in different places.

In cafes where the mofly land is of confiderable extent,
and of the more deep kinds, different modes have been in prac-
tice for bringing them intoa iftate of cultivation. Some
have attempted to remove the whole of the moffy fubitance by
means of water, and a proper machine for the purpofe, while
others have had recourfe to lime in large proportions with clay
or fand, and other fimilar matters. Mr. Headrick has, how-
ever, remarked, that ‘‘moffes were confidered folely ap-
plicable to the ufes of fuel, until the late lord Kaims fet on
foot a project for floating away an extenfive mofs on his
eftate near Stirling. The projeét has been followed to a
much greater extent by his fon, who has conftruéted a bucket
wheel, of great power, for raifing water out of the Teath,
to float the mofs: the water is raifed fomewhat higher than
the top of the mofs, paffes fome hundred yards in hooped
wooden pipes eighteen inches diameter under ground, and
then emerges upon a raifed embankment of earth, by which
it is conveyed to the mofs. It is itated by the author of the
Report of Perthfhire, that the expence of this machine and
embankment was 1000/., but the people on the {pot informed
Mr. Headrick that it colt 1500/. When the water arrives at
the higheft part of the mofs, it is conveyed in a rut perpe-
tually defcending along the whole line of the uncleared mofs ;
at every part of this line, the people are employed in throw-
ing the mofs into the ftream with {pades. hofe at the part
where the water firft enters the mofs, keep the ftream upon
the furface, and they lift and throw into it all the mofs within
their reach, until they uncover the clay below; they then

cut

MOSSY LAND.

cut out a new water-courfe, and throw into it the embank-
ment of mofs which fuftained the water before ; thofe lowes
down operate in the fame way, only they preferve the cur-
rent of water on a lower level than thofe above them ;-thofe
at the lowelt part keep the water running upon the clay,
and fhift its courfe occafionally, fo as to have it running along
the bank, or face, of uncleared mofs ; thus, at every point

- along the water-courfe, people may be employed in heaving
in pieces of mofs by the fpade, and they conftantly fhift the
polition of the ftream, in proportion as the mofs is cleared
away.’’ On this itis obferved, that <« the writer learnt that
it required the labour of a man nearly a whole year to clear
one Scotch acre of mofs, and reduce it into a condition to
receive a crop. This labour cannot be eftimated at lefs than
25/.; to which, when the price of feed, compound interelt
upon the original ereGtion of the machine and embankment,
&c. is added, the expence of this mode of cultivation cannot
appeac trifling.”

And further, that « the foil, after the mofs is carried away,
being a rich carfe clay, mixed in many places with fea-
fhells, is fir formed into ridges by the {pade, and commonly
yields a few good crops: laying it up in drills, ducing the
firlt winter, by the {pade, is found powerfully to increate its
fertility. When it begins to lofe its fertility, it. receives.a
good doie of lime, and is afterwards manured with peat<afhes,
and fuch putrefcent manuresas are accumulated on the {pot.”’
The writer adds, ‘he has heard that the farmers upon
the banks of the Forth raifed, at firkt, a great clamour againit
the improver for wafhing his mofs into the river, as, when
it was met by the tide, it was thrown out, and covered up
their grafs-lands upon the banks ; but he was told, that they
afterwards became very earnelt to collect what he had thrown
away; for the mofs being wafhed and floated in this
manner, is robbed of its ftyptic juice, and difpofed to pu-
trefaction ; it of courfe makes excellent manure for carfe
lands, more efpecially if made into compoft with lime and
ftable dung.’ Mr. Headrick conceives that ‘¢ the whole
of the plain, extending from Borroltownefs to Gartmore,
has once been covered by the fea; and the foil is compofed
of clay wafhed down by the Forth from the mountains of
micaceous fchiftus, where that river derives its origin. ‘This
wafhed clay has gradually filled up, and towards the ferry
is perpetually filling up, the bed of the fea: the carfe clay
is here and there interfected by fand and gravel, and other
friable foils (called there dry-field land), which haye been
wafhed down by the various itreams that run into the Forth,
and partake of the quality of the mountains from which they
have been wafhed; but the mere filling up of the bed of the
fea would never caufe dry land to rife above its furface,
and would only raife the water to a higher level.”’” When
the plain of the Forth is examined from its origin to its ter-
mination, or indeed any part cf the ifland that is near the
fea, it is fufficiently evident “that the fea has retreated into a
lower level, by at leaft forty feet, than it formerly occupied ;
and that too, fince the folid land was placed in its prefent
pofition; which accounts for the mud formexly depolited in
this arm of the fea now appearing, folid land." However,
«« what chiefly deferves the attention of thofe who have an
interelt in this land ig, that many parts of this carfe clay
are filled with oyfters and other fea-fhells, as he has obferved
them in many ditches, and frequently upon the furface, In
fome parts where a deep rut is cut by arivulet, a deep bed
of fhells may be feen, which, taken in mafs, 18 as rich in
calcareous matter as the generality of lime-{tone, and may be
regarded as the material from which a future rock of lime-
ftone is to be confolidated. It is eafy to feleét thefe thells
from the mud, when they would be much richer than any

lime-ftone.”” And as lime is. effentially neceffary for this »
fpecies of foil, and in many places difficult to be procured, -
on account of the diftance from which it mutt be carried,
and the badnefs of the roads, it would be very eafy to fup-
ply its place, by burning the fhells which here and there
abound. Digging them would be much lefs expenfive than
quarrying lime-itone, and a flight heat would reduce them into
very pure lime.’ Upon this principle it 1s conceived, ‘* that
it would be more profitable to fearch for thefe fhells, burn
them into lime. by means of peats, and employ them in the
cultivation of the mofles themfelves, inftead of being at the
expence of floatingthemavay. Befdes thefe dead thells lef
by:the fea, as the Forth and Teath abound in frefh water
mufcles ; thefe might eafily be bruifed by a {tone rolling on
its edge, and being mixed with mols or earth afford an am-
ple fupply not only of calcareous, but alfo of putrefcent
manure. They ought to be completely rotted before they

. are applied, and blended with a large proportion of earth.’’

And where clay marle could be procured, it would make an
excellent drefling for the mofs land after it is thrown into
pafture. But “the moffes there have one advantage which
feldom occurs, and which may have been the inducement to
adopt this method. The foil, when got at, as excellent,
being a rich carfe clay, in many parts refting upon, oF
mixed with’ fea-flells. In moft other places the bottom of
mofles is either a folid reck, ora whitifh granite, or p)riti-
cal gravel, or pyritical and aluminous clay.”” Which, after
removing the mofs from fuch places, are worfe than before,
as the bottom either does not admit of culture, or requires
an expence far beyond its value in performing it. >

In the Survey of Perthfhire, it is flated, that this fort of
land, when of ¢ {mall extent, where there is a mixture of other
earth, and the fall confiderable, is generally pared and
burnt, with profit; but-if there be little or no fall, it
may be planted with potatoes in lazy beds for a firlt crop,
and the furrows left open for drains. With the firft or fe-
cond white crop, the feed of common graffes, which is al-
ways to be met with in meadow land, ought to be fown ;
which will yield a heavy crop of hay for fome years, and af-
terwardsa plentiful fpring of ftrong coarfe pafture, confilting
moftly of the aquatic plants.”” And, that “ where there is
plenty of brufh-wood, deep moifes, with a good fall, are
moit frequently drained and drawn in ridges like other land.
The drains may be made with faggots, put in either longi-
tudinally and floping, having the flope of the truncheon al-
ways in the direction of the fall; or they may be laid tranf-
verfely, in the fhape of a St. Andrew’s crofs, and the land
afterwards pared, burnt, and levelled.’’ In thefe cafes, ‘ the
{pade for paring ought to be fimilar to that ufed in Scotland
for cafting turf, provincially the /laughter-/pade ; only a little
more {ceoped in the iron, and rounder in the fore part, hav-
ing a perpendicular knife, ftanding up at one fide of the iron
fole, to cut the fod, as the Highlanders have to the /ugged-

Jpade, which they frequently employ in calling peats in

tough moffes.”’

It is alfo {tated, that a practice fimilar to this of improv. *
ing mofs land, has been tn ufe in Ayrhhire, which is faid to be
borrowed originally from the practice in Ireland. The prin-
cipal difference is, that the mofs is directed to be delued or
dug up with fpades, and the manure to be chicfly lime, This
is obferved to be a method that is found by experience to be
effectual. John Smith, efq. of Swinridge Muir, near Reith,
in the above county, has.been very fuccefsful in conducting
this mode. In this method ‘the firlt thing to be done is to
mark and cut proper mafter-drains, eight feet in width by
four anda half in depth, declining to two and a half at the
bottom: which drains colt in Ayrfhire at the rate of one

fhilling

“MOSSY

fhilling per yard. In fome inftances it will be found nece!-
fary to cut thefe drains much deeper, and confequently at
greater expence ; and the drains are almoft in every cafe fo
conducted, as to divide the’ field into regular inclofures, as
well as to carry off the fuperfluous water. Then the ridges
are marked off régularly, and in breadth fix or feven yards ;
feven yards are preferable ; which ridges are formed with
the fpade in the following. manner: in the centre of each
ridge, a {pace of about twenty inches is allowed to remain
untouched ; and on each fide of that a furrow is opened,
which is turned inward fo as completely to cover that f{pace,
wJike what is called the fering of a gathered ridge. Thus
*“~ begun, the work is continued by cutting with the fpade, in
breadth about twelve inches, and in length as may fuit, till
the whole be turned over, to appearance as witha plough,
reaching back to the furrow that bounds the ridge. ‘That
furrow isa {pace about two feet, which is cut out and caft
on the fides of the ridges. The depth of this divifion-furrow
ought to be regulated by cizcumftances, fo as not to lay the
ridge at firlt too dry by being raifed in the crown, and at the
fame time fo as to bleed ‘the mofs and condu& the water to
the main drains. Thenext operation is to top-drefs the ridges
with lime, the quicker the better, at the rate of from four to
eight chaldrons to the acre; five or fix chaldrons being the
ordinary quaitity. He has even feen confiderably more ap-
plied with effe&. The field thus prepared is ready to re-

ceive the feed, which is fown in the feafon, whether dry or-

wet isa matter of indifference, and harrowed in with a {mall
harrow, drawn by two men. Four men, with eale, will
harrow at leaft five or fix acres a-day ; two and two by turns,
drawing the harrow and breaking and dividing the mould
with fpades. But he would recommend planting potatoes,
as preferable for a firft crop, becaufe cats for the firft year
frequently mifgive. The potatoes are planted in what is
ealled the lazy-bed way. The method is fimple, and at-
tended with little expence; and the mofs is prepared for
them in every refpeét and limed as before direGted, fora firlt
crop of oats. The beds are marked off acrofs the ridges,
in breadth from five to fix feet, with intermediate alleys of
about two feet as afurrow. The beds are covered over with
athin ftratum of dung. The fets of potatoes are laid on
the dung and covered from the intermediate furrows ; which
is followed with another covering, in all about four or five
inches.”’

The planting of potatoes at firft is not only confidered as
the moit certain crop, but the moft fuccefsful method at
once of reclaiming the mofs, not owing perhaps fo much to
the influence of the dung in aiding the fermentation already
begun in the mofs, by means of thelime, as to the effeét of
the potatoe crop in over-fhadowing the ground, and caufing
a ftagnation of air, which prevents the exhalation of moif-
ture, and thereby accelerates the putrefaction and decom-
pofition of the mofs; and alfo to the effeét produced by the
roots in dividing the mofs, feparating its particles, and ren-
dering ‘it into’ mould. This practice is now followed in
general, wherever dung can be-commanded ; and the pro-
duce is between forty and fifty bolls from the acre. When
the potatoe crop is removed, the ridges are again put into
proper form; which is done, not by throwing the manured
furface into the trenches between the beds, but by making

- two or more cuts with a fpade into the fides of the beds,
which are pufhed in oppolite direétions to clofe the lips of
the trenches which have been made.

But “ if potatoes are not planted as a firft crop, the field
is prepared for a fecond crop of oats, by cutting the furrows
acrofs the ridge‘and turhing them over, and by cleaning out
the divifion-furrows ‘To prepare for a third crop, the fame

. 16

LAND.

operation is performed. The mof proper feafon to preparé
the mofs for a firft crop is early in the preceding fummer,
In which cafe, the lime, aided by the heat, the liarvelt rains,
and the winter’s froft, has a powerful effe& in promoting the
procefs of putrefaGtion: confequently a mou!d is formed to
receive the feed the enfuing fpring. Although mention is
made of the preceding fummer aé the proper fea(ou to pre-
pare for a firit crop, the common practice is to prepare for
it in the courfe of the preceding winter ; and to prepare for
the crop of the fecond year as foon as convenient after the
removal of the former \crop.

It is fuggefted, that “the firft year’s crop is fometimes
good, but very uncertain, becaufe the lime has not had
time to exert its influence. The fecond year’s crop will
run from five to ten bolls the acre. A firft crop after pota-
toes is feldom lefs than ten bolls; fometimes confiderably
more from the acre. Early oats, the fmall Dutch or Polith
oats, are fown as preferable. The grain produced is equal
to any in the country. In general, four or five, or even fix
fucceffive crops of oats are taken without any additional
manure, and without any apparent ligns of the foil being
exhaufted. On the contrary, the mofs is now converted
into a dark brown mould; and what alone renders it lefs
produétive of corn crops, is its running into {weet luxuriant
graffes, the foft meadow grafs, the dairy and white clover.
Along withthe fourth, fifth, or fixth crop of oats, grafs
feeds are fown, which in common produce an abundant crop
of hay, and afterwards afford excellent pafture.

The mofs is now confidered to be in a permanent ftate of
improvement; and if its own fodder be converted into ma-
nure, and applied to its own ule, together with the occa-
fional aid of lime, it will be for ever produétive in potatoes
and corn crops. In fupport of this opinion, a field of his
has been in crop fince the year 1783. When it began to
run into grafs, it was completely delved over, a frefh quaa-
tity of mofs turned up, top-drefled anew with lime, and
planted with potatoes in drills, and haad-hoed. After the
potatoes, a crop of barley was taken, and followed by fuc-
ceflive crops of oats; the lait to be barley alfo with grafs-
feeds. The fame rotation to be continued by way of ex-
periment.” .

Itis ftated by Mr. Headrick, that ‘‘ the expence of delv-
ing a mofs for the firft time, where the furface is tolerably
{mooth, is 24d. per fall, or 1/. 13s. 4d. per Scotch acre; but
where inequalities occur, which muit be removed into hol-
lows, by wheel-barrows running upon boards, the firft ex-
pence is greater, according to circumftances. The fecond
delving, where potatoes have not intervened, cofts from
i/. to 1/. 6s. per Scotch acre, the divifion-furrows being at
the fame time cleaned out. The third delving and cea
of the divifion-furrows coft 1/. per acre; but the mofs is
now fo friable, that it may be wrought with the greatelt
eafe and rapidity. At the above rates, an ordinary work-
man will earn 1s. 6d. per day ; and: an able and experienced
one, from that to 2s. 6d. per day. They ufe a ftrong {pade
edged with fteel, and have always a grit-itone near them, for
fharpening the fpade. In the evenings they repair its edge
upon a grind-itone, and when the iteel is worn away, they
lay. it again with new fteel. Sometimes the mofs is fo foft,
that they walk upon boards while they are turning it over.”’
And it is added, that “* Mr. Smith has found by long ex-
perience, that it is improper to make the ridges too high or
too narrow ; when they are made too high, they throw the
water off from their fides, without admitting it to penetrate
their fubftance; the top of courfe gets too dry; when too
narrow, there is a lofs of furface from too many divifion-
furrows ; the breadth already mentioned is found to be the

beit;

MOSSY LAND.

beit; and when the improvement 1s completed, the ridges
appear like fegments of wide circles, with a clean well de-
fined divifion-furrow between each of them. The moifture
is thus caufed flowly to filtrate through the mofs, rendered
friable by lime, until it reaches the divifion-furrows and is
difcharged. As the mofs fubfides for fome time, and clofes
in towards the furrows, it is generally neceflary to clean
thefe out before winter, and at the time the crop is fown
until the mofs acquires folidity.”’ And further, that *¢fome
moffes may be ploughed, the fecond year, to within two
bouts, or four flices, of the divifion-furrows; and every
operation performed by the force of horfes, except turning
over with the fpade the narrow ftripes next to the divifion-
furrows. In other moffes it requires three years before this
can be done ; and it feldom happens but every mofs may be
wrought wholly by the plough; after it has been wrought
four years by the fpade. When mofs is wrought by the
{pade, it feems to be of no confequence whether it be
wrought wet or dry; but when it is wrought by the plough,
opportunities muft be watched, as horfes cannot walk upon
it, for fome years during wet weather.”

With refpec to “the quality of the potatoes thus pro-
duced upon moffes, the writer does not fcruple to pronounce
it moft excellent. Potatoes have been tried with dung alone,
but they were always watery, and frequently hollow or rot-
ten in the heart; thofe raifed upon moffes that have been
well limed, are frequently fo dry and farinaceous, that it is
difficult to boil them without reducing them to powder ;
and they are often obliged to lift them with fpoons; they
come clean out of the ground, keep remarkably well in
heaps covered over with mofs in the field, and are remark-
ably well flavoured.” Befides, “no fuch difeafe as the curl
was ever known among mofs potatoes;’’ and that if the
opinion be true, that ‘the curl is caufed by overloading the
fets with too much earth, or from the earth becoming too
hard around them, no fuch thing can take place in mofs ;
but to whatever caufe the curl may be owing, it is certainly
propagated by difeafed feed ; it would, therefore, appear ad-
vantageous to transfer the potatoes raifed upon mofs as a
feed for folid land. They have remarkably good {pecies of
potatoe in this diftri€, which was brought from Virginia to
Largs, about eight years ago; and whether it be owing to
the beneficial nature of a mofly foil, or to its own intrinfic
merits, this potatoe has long been fo much diftinguifhed by
the good quality and large quantity of its produce, that it
has fererfeded the ufe of every other fpecies. There feems
to be no occafion for mofs jmprovers to change their feed.
Some perfons in this diftri@, who have but {mall patches of
mofs, have kept them conftantly in potatoes, more than ten
years, without changing the feed, and that without any fen-
fiblé diminution either in the quantity or quality of the
crop.”

tt would feem from Mr. Headrick's paper, that in this
fort of improvement much is owing to the great zeal and
perfeverance of Mr. Smith. And that “ over all that
county, the farmers and proprietors are bufy in reclaiming
mofs. In Renfrew, Lanark, and Dumfriesthire, this
practice has made confiderable progrefs. Major Majori-
banks and Mr. Pitlow have got workmen from Aechink
and have commenced mofs improvements, upon a very exten-
five fcale, in the neighbourhood of Bathgate. The culture
of mofs has become, in many cafes, a diftinét f{pecies of
farming, to which individuals apply, to the negleét of every
other purfuit.”’ And “ what may affift the inexperienced
to form fome idea of the value put upon mofs by thofe who
ire acquainted with it, is, that a young man, fon of a
farmer on the eftate of Swinridge Muir, has taken 20 acres

14

of mofs from William Patrick, efq. of T'rehorn, writer te
the fignet in Edinburgh for four crops, at 25s. per acre of
yearly rent. All that was done by the proprietor was to
dig the mafter drains, which alfo ferve the purpofe of fences;
in other refpeéts the mofs was delivered in its wild and un-_
fubdued ftate, the tenant being at all the expence of work-
ing and manures, and obliging himfelf to lime, at the rate
of to Ayrfhire chaldrons per acre. The mofs was in crop
in 1797, for the firlt time. The writer was feveral times
upon it, and remarked, that where the lime had been early
enough applied, which was the cafe with the greateft part
of it, the crop (oats) was uncommonly good; even the
worft was much better than fome contiguous land which
had been torn from Muir, and limed. On a fmall corner,
which had got no lime, nothing grew. The proprietor
imfelf expected no fuch rent, had it not been voluntarily
offered by the tenant. The folid land there, which has
been long in cultivation, does not average 20s. of rent, as
the fituation is not very acceffible.”” And further, that
« two {mall patches of cultivated mofs, contiguous to the
town of Reith, were lately fet at the rate, the one of 1o/.
per acre, per annum, for two crops of potatoes; the other
let for 7/. per acre for two crops of oats, to be fown down
with grafs feeds. The firft of thefe patches had been con-
ftantly in potatoes ever fince it was reduced to cultivation,
and the occupants were to furnifh what dung they chofe for
their crops, at their own expence. The fecond patch, of
more than three acres, had been conftantly either in pota-
toes, or oats, from the time of its firft fubjugation, and
would have given much more, had potatoes been permitted ;
but it was thought advifable. to bring it into grafs. It muft
be admitted, that land immediately contiguous to a town,
fetches a rent for conveniency, as well as for what it a€tually
produces ; at the fame time it muft be obferved, that the
bett folid land, to which thefe patches of mofs belonged,
and fome of which had been long in pafture, brought only
arent of from 3/. to 6/. for two years’ crops, the whole
being let in parcels by public auétion.”

However, on minute examination, Mr. Headrick found
in this diftriét confiderable variations in the pra@tice of mofs
improvers, induced by different circumftances. Thofe who
have large traéts of mofs, and who are remote from markets,
cannot afford to have fo great a proportion in potatoes, as
thofe who. have only a {mall patch. They go over as much
land as they can with lime, not having dung for the whole.
They take crops of oats until the land gets foul, and then
leave it to gather grafs as it can. Such land never being
cleaned, abounds in weeds among the natural pafture.
Others, who have a {mall patch of mofs, from four to fix
acres, have always a part of it in potatoes, with dung oc-
cafionally ; another part in barley or oats, and another in
cut grafs. Many of thefe farmers never apply the plough
to their mofles; for, though this may be done with fafety,
they fay they have at leaft a third more crop with the {pade
than with the plough. After the mofs is completely re-
duced, it is turned over with great eafe, and they apply
themfelves to this work at intervals, cither when the weather
is fo wet, or other circumftances occur, that they cannot
work with their horfes. As no plant yet tried contributes
more to the improvement of mofs than the potatoe, and as
it alfo affords an opportunity of cleaning the land, thofe
portions of mofs on which it has been frequently repeated,
are clean and fertile.’ Ina word, fome of the beft land
which he faw in this diftri&t was mofs of an unknown
depth.

In concluding the account of this interefting fort of im-
provement, the writer thinks, that it would be an im.

provement

MOS

provement to roll mofs occafionally during the progrefs of
its cultivation. Dr. Anderfon propofes to do this by a
horfe running upon planks, but he does not feem to advert
that it would require more men to fhift thefe planks, than
would be fufficient to draw the roller in the way field-artil-
lery are drawn.”? And that, “ after a mofs is laid down into
pafture, it would contribute much to its fertility to lay it all
over with a good dofe of earth, tirrings of quarries, fand,
or clay pulverized by lime, and then to roll it; this could
be done in dry weather, when there is no danger of poach-
ing, or breaking the fward.’”” It is added, that ‘cattle of
every kind fhould be kept from mofles, at firft, during win-
ter. This rule is alfo applicable to clay foils of every kind.
Perhaps the belt ftock for pafturing on improved moffes
would be fheep ; but thefe have been banifhed from the im-
proved mofs diftriéts, on account of the injury they do to
young planting and hedges.” It is further remarked, that
“he faw feveral moffes which were bliftery, and naked of
herbage, after they were thrown into pafture, on account of
{prings iffuing from the out-crop of rocks that terminated
below them. Thefe may be cured by bored drains, and by
no ether method.”’ J

The fame writer ftates, that ‘* hedges thrive remarkably
well upon mofs land, where a bank is thrown up, and lime
is previoufly wrought and mixed among the mofs in the
thorn-bed ; but in that diftriét, with few exceptions, they
plant hedges, and then abandon them to their fate : being
feldom or never weeded, the grafs and other plants foon
overtop the hedge, and it never becomes a fence.” It is
fuppofed that in extenfive moffes, fences may be made
out of the mofs itfelf. Suppofe, in place of one matter-
drain, to divide two fields, two drains were made, with an
interval of ten or twelve feet betwixt them, and all that was
taken out of each drain built up upon the furface of this
interval ; it would form a rampart, which no animal would
attempt to pafs. As the cultivation of the mofs went on,
its furface would fink, and then it would be neceffary to
deepen the mafter-drains, {till throwing what was taken out
of them upon the top of the rampart. As noanimal could
fee beyond this rampart, it never would attempt to crofs,”
or get over it.

And in this diftri@, «they have alfo roads running through
the moffes, generally along the fide of a mafter-drain, and
cut off from the contiguous field by a {mall rut on the other
fide. Thefe are generally too narrow, but they ferve the
purpofe of conveying lime, &c. in dry weather, and of
taking away the crop. Were the cultivation of an extenfive
flow mofs attempted, he fees no other praéticable plan but
making very broad roads, drained to a great depthon each fide,
and laid with {tone in the centre. This might interfeét an exten-
five range of fields on each fide, fecured by the ramparts he has
mentioned, and ferve to convey lime, dung, &c, and take away
the crop. At firft it would be neceffary to carry the corn-crop
to the road upon hand-barrows ; unlefs it were ftacked upon
the field, and taken away during froft. Potatoes, except
fuch a portion as may be wanted fr immediate ufe, are beft
preferved upon the field, in heaps, covered with mofs, and
can be removed during froft. After land of this kind is fuf-
ficiently limed, and wrought during a number of years, it
collapfes fo$much, and becomes fo folid, that it can endure
cartage almoft at any time of the year.’’

Mossy Soil, that fort of foil which is principally con-
flituted of peaty matters. See Sor.

MOST, or Brrex, in Geography, a town of Bohemia,
in the circle of Saatz, on the Bila, containing three cloif-
ters; 12 miles N. of Saatz. N. lat. 50°30! E. long.
1 ae of,

4
Vor. XXIV.

MOS

MOSTAGAN, a town of Algiers ; 50 miles E.N.E. of
Oran. See MustyGanni.

MOSTAR, a fea-port town of European Turkey, im
Dalmatia, on the Narent ; the harbour of which was con-
ftru€ted by the Romans ; 60 miles N. of Ragufa. N. lat.
44°. E. long. 18° o’.

MOSTIL, an ifland of Ruffia, in the Penzinfkoe fea.
N. lat. 60° 21’. E. long. 155° rq’.

MOSTOLOS, a town of Spain, in New Cattile ; eight
miles W.S.W. of Madrid.

MOSTRA, Ital. in Mu/fic, isa charaéter or fign, placed
at the end of the ftaff of five tones, equivalent to an index,
or character, to point out the notes which begin the next

a

line. Its form is the following :

MOSTY, in Geography, atown of Lithuania, in the pa-
latinate of Novogrodek ; 40 miles W. of Novogredek.

MOSUL, a large and handfome city of Afiatic Tur-
key, fuppofed to be the ancient Nineveh, in the province of
Diarbekir, fituated ina plain on the W. bank of the Ti-
gris, which is here deep and rapid, and crofled by a bridge
of boats ; furrounded with walls and ditches, and defended
bya caftle. This city contains good buildings, exclufively
of the hummums, mofques, and minarets, which are all
built of hewn ftone. The air is healthy in fpring, hot in
fummer, feverifh in autumn, and unpleafantly cold in win-
ter. The town is very populous, comprehending men of
all religions ; but the Curds form a majority of the inhabit-
ants. The bazar is large and well fupplied ; and moft of
the articles, except clothing, are had at a moderate price.
Here are various manufa¢tories, in fome of which they ex-
cel the Europeans. Their faddles, and trappings for horfes,
in particular, are very elegant. ‘They alfo make carpets
of filk, with flowers wrought in them, which feem to vie
with the beft of our manufactures. They are alfo very
dextrous in making edgings and trimmings of various kinds,
both for men and women ; their manufaétories in iron and
copper too are very numerous. The town is furrounded by
a ftrong and high wall, built with hewn-ftone. The {pace
within the wall-is not entirely occupied with houfes, many
splaces being covered with ruins, which extend toa great
diftance on the banks of the river, and which prove that
this place has formerly been much more extenfive and popu-
lous than it isat prefent. Merchandife from India is brought
hither by way of Baffora, and European goods by the way of
Aleppo. N, lat. 36° 20!. E. long. 42° 8’. Jackfon's
Journey from India.

MOSUNDAH, a tewn of Bengal; 18 miles N.N.E.
of Calcutta.

MOSYNECUM, Es, in Metallurgy, a name given by
the ancients to a white metal made of copper, in great
efteem among them.

Ariftotle tells us, thatit was extremely bright, and of a
perfe& fine white colour; and adds that it was made of
copper by melting it with an admixture of a peculiar kind of
earth. Strabo alfo mentions this ; and Theopompus tells us,
that it was made of copper and an earth, and that it looked
fo like filver, that it was called p/eudo-argyron.

Virgil mentions it under the name of aurichalcum album,
and feems to give it great praifes. Weare not able at pre-
fent to fay what it was they ufed in making it. We know
feveral things that will render copper white, as arfenic, and
the like ; but none of thefe can well be fuppofed to be the
thing. For arfenic, and all the things we ufe to make our
factitious metal, debafe the copper, and render it brittle ;
whereas, by the accounts of Strabo, and others, their

Hh white

MOT ’

white metal feems to have been better for all ufes than the
copper itfelf. As to their telling us that it was a fort of
earth which they ufed on this occafion, very little regard is
to be paid to the terms; for they had an inaccuracy in fpeak-.
ing that leaves us much in the dark, in many other things
befides this. They call the ca/aminaris ftone, whichis an ore
of zinc, by the name of Cadmian earth, in their defcription
of the manner of making brafs,

It has feemed abfurd to fome to call this white metal auri-
chalcum album, becaufe they fuppofed the word aurichalcum
to fignify gold-coloured copper ; but this isan error. The
aurichalcum is but a falfe fpelling of orichalcum.

MOSZEISK, in Geography, a town of Auftrian Poland,
in Galicia ; 15 miles KE. of Lemberg.

MOSZLICKZKO, a town of Auftrian Poland, in Ga-
licia ;_ $2 miles W. of Lemberg. ;

MOSZNO, atownof Ruffian Poland, inthe palatinate
of Kiev; $5 miles S.S.E. of Kiev.

MOSZOW, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Braclaw; 7o miles E. of Braclaw.

MOT, or Mop, in the Pheenician Co/mogony, denoted
either a flime, or rather an aqueous mixture, which was the
feminal principle of all the creatures, and the generation of
the univerfe. alii

MOTA, La, in Geography, a town of Spain, in New
Caftile ; 35 miles S. of Huete.—Alfo, a town of Spain, in
the province of Leon ; 20 miles W.S.W. of Valladolid.

MOTACILLA, the wagtail, and the. warbler, in Or-
nithology, a genus of birds of the order Pafferes. Though
differing confiderably in their manners, thefe birds are ranked
by Gmelin under one genus, of which he enumerates nearly
two hundred fpecies. ‘The generic chara¢ter is: bill fubu-
late, ftraight ; the mandibles nearly equal ; noftrils fuboval ;
tongue lacerate at the end.

Of the wazgtails, it is obferved that their movements are
extremely alert, and that their tails are perpendicularly long,
which they perpetually jerk up and down. Their progref-
five motion is by running rather than fpringing. They
rarely perch ontrees. Their flight is waving, and accom-
panied with a tittering found, and their food confifts of flies
and other fmall infects, in purfuit of which they. will often
foliow the hufbandman with his plough, and the movements
of flocks of fheep. The warblers are compofed of a great
variety of birds, differing in many ftriking particularities of
habit as well as in fize. They are found in almoft all parts
of the world, perch on trees, move by leaping, and rarely
utter any founds during their flight. They are more nu-
merous than any genus of birds, and abound principally
in the warm latitudes of the globe, where infects, their
food, are found in never-failing fupplies.

Species.

* Luscina, the Nightingale, of which three varieties are
given: the {pecific character of the firlt is, rufous-ath ;
beneath’ white-ath ; tail-feathers rufous brown; bracelets
cinereous. In the fecond the body is fomething larger ;
and in the third the body is entirely white. ‘The nightin-
gale is fomewhat larger than a hedge-fparrow, which is
known to every one, and on the upper part of its body
it-is of a rufty brown. It inhabits, in its feveral va-
rieties, Europe, Afia, and Africa, and is, of all birds, moft
famed for its fong, which is we apprehend, in this country
at leaft, more‘on.account of the time in which it is heard,
than in refpe&t to the exquifitenefs of its notes. It vifits
England in the beginning of May, fometimes fooner, if
the weather be mild and favourable, and leaves it in au-
tumn: it frequents thick hedges; evades the light as much

MAO, T

as poffible; fings late in the evening, and particularly
during the time that the hen is hatching ; breeds three or
four times in the year, and lays four or five eggs, which are
of a greenifh-brown colour: it feeds on the larve of in-
fe&s. It is charaéterized by Gmelin as having a brown
bill; head and back pale moufe colour, with olive {pots ;
tail red-moufe colour; legs and quill-feathers brown-afh,
the latter chefnut on the outer edge. It is common in fe-
veral parts of our own ifland, but is rarely heard in the
northern parts of it, or even as far as Yorkfhire, nor indeed
fo far weft as Cornwall or Devonfhire. It is not at all un-
common on the hills of Hampftead and Highgate, though
we fufpe& not often heard fo near the metropolis on the
other fides of it. The males are faid to arrive about a week
before the females. Their winter refidence has not been af-
certained with any degree of precifion ; but is fuppofed to
be in Afia, in various parts of which they are found, and
are very highly prized, on account of their powers of me-
lody. This is faid to be particularly the cafe in Japan and
Aleppo. In the latter place they are kept tame, and even
hired out to give vivacity and harmony to almoft every felti-
yal and entertainment. In Perfia the nightingale fings in
great perfeGtion, and it is mentioned by a traveller in that
country as the ‘¢ {weet harbinger of the light: the conftant
cheerer of the groves of Perfia, charming, with its war-
bling ftrains, the heavielt foul into a pleafing extacy.” An-
other author defcribes the nightingale as beginning its fong
with a flow and timid voice, and, by degrees, opening his
found and {welling it, till it burfts with loud and vivid
flafhes ; and he adds, ‘‘it flows with fmooth volubility ; it
faints and murmurs ; it fhakes with rapid and violent arti-
culations. The foft breathings of love and joy are poured
from the inmoft foul, and every heart melts with delicious
languor ; paufes occafionally occur, to prevent fatiety, and
give dignity and elevation; the mild filence of evening
heightens the general effet, and no rival interrupts the
happy and interefting fcene.’? Nightingales build in low
and clofe bufhes. The female fuitains the undivided fatigue
of incubation, while the male at a diltance enlivens her with
his fine ftrains. They are never feen in flocks, even of a very
{mall number. If caught they may even here be induced to
fing in confinement ; and will continue their fong feveral
months in the year.

Caiwris ; Hang-neft Warbler; fo denominated from its
building a hanging neft. It is the fize of a robin, and is
found chiefly in the ifland of Jamaica. Its fpecific cha-
raéter is; above greenifh-brown, beneath tawny; has an
ocular line, and one beneath black. The bill is blackifh:
lateral tail and quill-feathers within rufous; temples orange ;
wing-coverts edged with yellowifh; legs blackith.

PaLtmMAruM; Palm Warbler. Brown, beneath dirty yel-
lowifh-white ; belly yellowifh; rump olive; two outmoft
tail-feathers with a white band near the tip. It inhabits
the ifland of St. Domingo; is about five inches long;
feeds on feeds and fruits, has a fine note, and builds among
palm trees, whence it derives its fpecific name.

Bonartensits; White-chinned Warbler. Black ; throat
and flanks ferruginous ; face, chin, middle of the belly, and
outmoft tail-feathers white. It inhabits Bonaria: the bill
is blackifh ; the hind claw large. ’

BaNANivoraA ; Banana Warbler. Black-grey, benéath
yellowifh ; arm-pits yellowifh ; vent varied with yellow and
grey ; chin cinereous; tip of the tail-feathers, {pot on the
wings and eye-brows white ; ‘lores black, It inhabits St.
Domingo, is about three inches and a half long, feeds on
feeds, infects, and fruits, particularly on bananas.

VeRMivorA ; Worm-eating Warbler. Olive colour ;

head,

MOTACILLA.

head, throat, and breaft tawny; ocular band and arch
over the eyes black ; over the eyes a yellowifh line, vent
cinereous. It is found in Pennfylvania, and is of the fize
of a common hedge-{parrow of this country: the bill is
black, beneath flefh-colour; and the legs are of the fame
colour.

Mapacascarensis; Madagafcar Warbler. The name
indicates the abode of the fpecies: it is more than fix
inches long ; of an olive brown ; head rufous; chin white ;
breaft reddifh ; belly brown-rufous. Bill and legs brown.

* Moputants; Hedge-Sparrow, or Hedge-Warbler.
Above grey-brown; wing-coverts tipt with white; breaft
blueifh-afh. The bill is blackifh ; cheeks {triped with white ;
feathers of the back and wing-coverts edged with chefnut ;
wings and tail dufky; rump greenifh-brown; chin and breaft
cinereous; belly whitifh; vent yellowifh; legs flefh-co-
loured. It is nearly fix inches in length. It inhabits this
country and various other parts of Europe, and is one of
the few of the warbler tribe that remains with us the whole
year. It has a pleafing and plaintive fong, which it be-
gins with the year, if the weather is mild; breeds early,
making in the month of March a neft compofed of green-
mofs and wool, and lined with hair, which is placed in fome
low bufh, or evergreen fhrub, and fometimes in faggot-
piles, or in mere bundles of pea-fticks. The female lays
four or five blue eggs. For want of infe&ts and worms,
which in feyere weather are rarely to be met with, the hedge-
fparrow will pick up crumbs of bread, and feems to prefer
fituations near the habitations of man. The cuckoo fre-
quently makes choice of this bird’s neft for the purpofe of
depofiting its egg.

Juncorum; Ruth Warbler. Brown, beneath paler; tail
fomewhat forked. It inhabits Virginia and Carolina, and is
lefs than the laft.

Aguatica; Aquatic Warbler. Above pale rufous,
{potted with brown; throat and breaft reddifh, belly and
rump whitifh. Itinhabits Italy, andis migratory. It has
a {pot above the outer corner of the eye, and band at the
bafe of the wing white ; its tail-feathers are pointed.

Scua@:nogpanus; Reed Warbler. Teftaceous-brown, be-
neath pale teftaceous; head {potted. It is found in marfhy
places, and in woods in many parts of Europe; it is very
tame, and fings through the whole winter. The bill is
blackith ; quill-feathers brown, edged with rufous; tail is
brown, and the legs are whitifh.

Camperstris. Brown; head greenifh-afh; tail the co-
Jour of the body ; belly whitifh. This is called the fim-
ple warbler. It inhabits Jamaica; is the fize of a hedge-
fparrow. The bill is black ; the neck is greenifh-afh; body
beneath brownifh-white, legs brown.

Macroura; Green-tailed Warbler. Brown, beneath
whitifh-yellow, {potted with black; eye-brows white ; tail
wedged and long. It is found at the Cape of Good Hope,
and is fix inches long.

Loneicaupa ;_ Long-tailed Warbler. Olive ; crown
reddifh ; quill-feathers olive-brown ; tail-feathers long, nar-
row, the middle ones longer. It inhabits China, is tame,
and has a fine note.

Curucca; Babbling Warbler. Above brown, beneath
whitifh ; tail-feathers brown, the outmoft white on the
thinner edge. 1t builds in hedges, and lays from three to
five eggs. The bill of this fpecies is blackifh; crown and
ftreak bauegth the eyes cinereous; wing-coverts on the:in-
ner edge white, outer edge rufous-grey ; tail-feathers edged
with grey ; legs brown.

PassERINA; Paflerine Warbler. Cinereous,
grey-white ; eye-brows whitifh, wings and tail black.

beneath
It

inhabits France and Italy ; has a fimple note, and lays four
whitifh eggs {potted with green.

* Hirporais; Leffer Petty-chaps. Greenifh-afh, be-
neath yellowifh; belly whitith ; limbs brown, eye-brows
whitifh. It is found in England and other parts of Europe;
is larger than a linnet, builds under beams, or in a low
fhrub ; eggs white, with {mall red fpots. The upper man-
dible is bhek, the lower blueifh ; infide of the mouth red ;
above and beneath the eyes there is a yellowifh line; the
quill and tail-feathers are of a moufe colour, edged with
greenifh, the fhafts black; lower wing-coverts yellow ;
belly filvery. It has often been confounded with the yellow
wren and wood-wren. It is the firft of the many warblers
that vilits us in the {pring, being heard early in April, and
fometimes fooner than this. Its fong confifts of ped two
notes, which feems to exprefs chip, chop. It is buly and
reftlefs, always ative among the trees and bufhes, in fearch
of infe&ts. The neft is oval, with a {mall hole near the top,
compofed externally of dry leaves and coarfe dry grafs,
and lined with feathers. For the molt part, it is placed on
or near the ground, frequently on the bank of a ditch, or
in a tuft of grafs or low bufh. The eggs are five or fix,
white, {peckled with purplifh-red at the larger end only,
with a few fpecks on the fides. Its note is heard long
after the yellow-wren 1s filent ; and it remains with us not

~unfrequently till the latter end of October.

* Sytvatica; Wood-wren. Above olive-green; throat
and cheeks yellow; belly and vent of a fine filvery hue ;
tail-feathers brown, and, excepting the firft, they are green
on the outer webs, and white on the inner. ‘The bill is of
a horn colour ; irides hazle ; brea{t pale yellow; a yellow
line through the eye; tail fomewhat forked, and brown ;
the under part of the fhoulder is of a bright yellow; the
legs are of ahorn colour. It inhabits England ; frequents
woods, and fearches about trees for infeéts. It is very like
the yellow-wren, and has not been much noticed as a dif-
tinét f{pecies, though it is not at all uncommon. Itis partial
to oak and beech-woods, where it may be obferved by
the fingularity of its note, expreffive of the word twee
drawn out to fome length, and repeated five or fix times in
fucceffion, delivered in a hurried manner, and accompanied
with the fhaking of the wings. It makes an oval neft,
with a fmall hole near the top, is conftruéted of dry grafs,
a few dead leaves, and a little mofs, and is lined with finer
grafs and hair. It lays fix eggs, which are white, and
{prinkled with purplifh {pots.

* Horrensis; Petty-chaps, or greater Petty-chaps.
Grey-brown above, white beneath; eye-brows whitifh ;
quill-feathers brown-afh, edged with grey, the outmoft on
the outer web, and near the tip of the inner, whitifh: the
billis blackifh ; lateral tail-feathers edged with grey-brown;
the legs are alfo brown. Gmelin fays it is found in France
and Italy, chiefly in gardens, whence it derives its {pecific
name; but other naturalifts tell us, it is to be met with in
the fummer, in fome of the fouthern counties of England,
and even as far north as Lancafhire. It frequents thick
hedges, in which it builds its neft of goofe-grafs, and other
fibrous plants, covering it on the outfide with green mofs.
It lays four eggs, of a dirty white blotched with brown.
The fong of this [pecies is little inferior to that of the
nightingale ; fome of its notes are not much unlike the
black-bird’s whiltle ; but in a more hurried cadence. It
frequently fings after {un-fet.

Rura; Rufous Warbler. It is rufous.grey, beneath
white ; eye-brows white, Inhabits France and Germany, is
four inches long, and lays five greenifh white eggs, with

dufky fpots.
i Hha * SaLi-

MOTACILLA.

* Saticanta ; Sedge Warbler. Cinereous, beneath white;
eye-brows white. It is found in many parts of Europe in
fedgy places ; it fings in the night, and imitates the notes of
other birds; the eggs are whitifh varied with brown. It
comes to us in April, and leaves again in September. Its
notes partake of thofe of the fky-lark and {wallow, as well
as of the chatter of the houfe-fparrow: It builds among
reeds and rufhes, fometimes on the trunk of a low willow.
The fong ef this {pecies of warbler has fometimes been af-
cribed to the reed-bunting, a miftake which has originated
from the circumftance of both f{pecies breeding in the fame
places, and the reed-bunting being confpicuous on the upper
branches of a tree, while the warbler, concealed in the thickeft
part, is heard aloud. It has been remarked, that if it be
filent, a {tone thrown into the bufh will caufe it to fing im-
mediately, and that it will alfo fing during a moon-light
night.

ee Sytvia ; White Throat. Cinereous above, white be-
neath; firft tail-feathers longitudinally half white, the fecond
tipt with white ; bill black, white at the bafe; head brown-
ifh-afh ; back reddifh. The female has a {now-white breait
and belly, There isa variety which is thus deferibed ; red-
difh-afh above, and reddifh-white beneath, with the throat
white; the outmoft tail-feathers on the upper part of the
inner fide, and the whole of the outer fide white. It 1s very
common in the enclofed parts of our own country, and like-
wife in other parts of Europe. It arrives here about the
middle of April, and enlivens the hedges with its fong, when
it ere@ts its feathers on the crown of the head. It builds its
neft in fome low bufh, among nettles or other luxuriantly
growing plants. It feeds on infeéts and berries, and fre-
quents our gardens in the fummer, for the fake of cherries
and currants.

* SyLvIELLA; Leffler White Throat. Brown-afh, beneath
dirty-white ; two middle tail-feathers fhorter, fubulate. Is
common in the hedges of England; builds in low fhrubs ;
the eggs are white, fpotted with brown. It has a fhrill
whiftling note.

PicepuLa ; Epicurean Warbler. Brownifh, beneath
white ; breaft {potted withcinereous. It is found in feveral
countries of Europe, and its flefh is reckoned very deli-
cious.

Nazvia ; Fig-eater. Reddifh-brown, varied with yel-
lowifh and cinereous, beneath white ; breaft yellowith,
{potted with black ; quill and tail-feathers blackifh, edged
with white. It is found in Italy, and feeds on grapes. ‘The
bill is of a chefnut colour; the legs are reddifh, and the
claws black.

Paraconica; Patagonian Warbler, This fpecies, which
takes its name from the country in which it is found, is
cinereous ; chin, throat, eye-brows, and outmoft tail-feathers
white ; wings varied with brownifh, the coverts with a
brownifh band; quill-feathers edged with brown. It feeds
on fea-worms and fhell-fifh. The bill is black ; the body is
ftreaked-with white ; the legs are black, and the hind claw
very long.

* ProvincrALis; Dartford Warbler. Chefnut, beneath
ferruginous, middle of the belly, edge of the quill-feathers,
{purious wings, and outer fide of the outmoft tail-feathers
white ; eye-brows red. It inhabits Europe, and is about
five inches long. The bill is black ; irides fcarlet ; tail black,
as long as the body ; legs yellow.

Agricana ; African Warbler. Black; the feathers
edged with rufous-grey, beneath whitifh rufous ; crown ru-
fous {potted with blackifh ; each fide the chin a longitu-
dinal black ftreak ; quill with four middle tail-feathers
brown, edged with rufous colour, It is found at the Cape

of Good Hope. Bill horn colour ; tail flightly wedged ;
egs grey-brown.

Nov#xoracensis; New York Warbler. Varied with
cinereous brown, beneath yellowifh, ftreaked with black,
eye-brows white. This, asits name imports, inhabits New
York ;. it is likewife found in Louifiana. Its bill is black,
and legs of a pale chefnut.

Umsria ; Umbrofe Warbler. Found alfo in Louifiana.
Grey-brown, beneath white, with a few black fpots, back
with dufky f{pots; rump yellowifh; wing-coverts, tail-
feathers, and upper coverts black, edged with white. The
bill is black, greater quill-feathers and legs blackifh.

Fravicotis ; Yellow-throated Warbler. Grey, beneath
white ; throat pale yellow; front, eye-brows, and fides of
the neck black ; wings with a double white band. This is
an American {pecies, and may be found in Carolina. The
tail-feathers are black, the lateral ones white on the inner
fide ; bill black with a yellow fpot on each fide the bafe ;
legs brown. ,

Tricuias; Orange-thighed Warbler. — Olive, beneath
white ; head with a tranfverfe white bar; thighs and vent
orange. This is found in Louifiana.

Ruricaupa ; Rufous-tailed Warbler. Brown, beneath
white ; back inclining to the rufous; edge of the quill-
feathers, wing-coverts, and tail rufous ; chin white fpotted
with black, breaft pale brown. It inhabits Cayenne.

Fuscrcocxis ; Yellow-bellied Warbler. Greenifh-brown ;
breaft and belly yellow; tail greenifh ; wing-coverts and
quill-feathers brown, edged with pale rufous. This is
found likewife in Cayenne, and is of the fize of a humming-
bird. r

Czrutescens; Blue-grey Warbler. Itis, as its name
points out, of a blue-grey colour, beneath whitifh; chin
black ; wing-coverts and quill-feathers brown ; the former
with a white f{pot, the latter edged with blue-grey. It is
found in the ifland of St. Domingo.

Americana ; Blue-grey Warbler. Throat and breaft
yellow; belly and tips of the wing-coverts white, tail pale at
the tip. Is found in many parts of the American continent.

Pensitis; Penfile Warbler. Grey, yellow beneath ;
belly and eye-brows white; lores {potted with yellow ;
wing-coverts with alternate white and black bands. Nearly
five inches long. Inhabits St. Domingo, and feme of the
Welt India iflands, where it feeds chiefly on infe&s and
fruits ; and has a very delicate fong, which is continued
throughout the year. ‘The fagacity difplayed by this
bird,” fays Mr. Bingley, “ in building and placing its nett,
is truly remarkable. She does not fix it at the forkin
of the branches, as is ufual with moft other birds, but fu
pends it to binders hanging from the netting, which fhe
forms from tree to tree, efpecially thofe which fall from
branches that hang over the rivers and deep ravines. The
net confifts of dry blades of grafs, the ribs of leaves, and
exceedingly {mall roots, interwoven with the greateft art; it
is faftened on, or rather it is worked into, the pendent
{trings. It is in faé&t a {mall bed rolled into a ball, fo thick
and compaéted as to exclude the rain ; and it rocks in the
wind without receiving any harm. But the elements are
not the only enemies again{t which this bird has to fruggle ;
with wonderful fagacity it provides for the protection of its
neft from other accidents. ‘The opening is not made on the
top or fide of the neft, but at the bottom: nor is the
entrance dire&. After the bird has made its way into the
veftibule, it muft pafs over a kind of partition, and through
another aperture, before it afcends into the abode of its fa-
mily. This lodgment is round and foft, being lined with a

{peeies

MOTACILLA.

fpecies of lichen, which grows on the trees, or with the filky
down of plants.” ;

Asa ; White-water Wagtail. Breaft black; two la-
teral tail-feathers obliquely half white; bill, hind head,
rape, throat, and legs black; front, orbits, fides of the
neck, and belly white ; body cinereous above ; greater quill-
feathers blackifh ; fecondary, and wing-coverts dufky, and
edged with grey; middle tail-feathers black, and edged
with grey. Female with the crown brown; length feven
inches andahalf. This {pecies inhabits almoft every where;
is a very aétive bird, and continually in motion, running
after flies. In this country, as the weather becomes fe-
vere, it is apt to haunt marfhes that are fubjeé to the flow
of the tide. Early in fpring they return to their ufual
fummer fituation; aud from the number which are fome-
times feen together at this time attending fheep-folds and
newly ploughed fields, we may prefume that they are gre-
garious in their flights. In the breeding feafon they feem to
prefer pleafure-grounds that are conftantly mowed, on which
they run unincumbered, and where the infects have not fuf
ficient cover to evade their fight. The neft is found in va-
rious places, fometimes on the ground, in a heap of ftones,
the hole of a wall, or on the top of a pollard tree. Itis
compofed of mofs, dried grafs, and fibres, put together
with wool, and lined with feathers or hair. The eggs are
four or five, white, and {potted all over with light brown
and afh-colour ; weighing about forty grains, and much re-
fembling that of the cuckoo, which bird frequently makes
choice of the wagtail’s neft, in which to depofit her egg.
It fings very prettily early in fpring, and frequently gives
the alarm on the appearance of a hawk, which it purfues
in company with the {wallows. The young birds have no
black on the throat till the returning f{pring, the old ones
lofe it in winter. In this ftate they have been erroneoufly
deferibed as a variety.

Maperaspatensis; Pied Wagtail. Black, beneath
white ; oblique band on the wings and lateral tail-feathers
white. It inhabits Madras. The female is cinereous in the
parts where the male is black.

Crxerza; Cinereous Wagtail. Grey-afh, beneath white ;
breaft in the male with a band ; tail black, the two outmoft
feathers moftly white. It is found in many parts of Eufope,
and frequents watery places.

Inpica ; Indian Wagtail. Greenifh-grey, beneath yel-
low ; breaft with two curved confluent bands; middle tail-
feathers greenifh-grey ; the reft blackifh-brown, except the
outmoft and vent, which are white.

Virinis ; Green Wagtail. Greenifh; head, wings, and
tail cinereous ; edges of the wings, tail, and belly white.
It is found in Ceylon, and is about four inches long.

Tcnutscuensis; Tchutfchi Wagtail. Olive-brown, be-
neath white {potted with a ferruginous tint ; there is a {pot
between the bill and eyes, two bands on the wing-coverts,
and the greater part of the outmoft tail-feathers white. It
takes its name from the fhores of Tchutfchi, where it is
found.

Arra; African Wagtail. Yellowifh-brown, beneath yel-
low ; lower tail-coverts white; bill, eye-brows, wings, tail,
and legs black. It inhabits the Cape, and is lefs than the
M. alba already defcribed.

Firreota; Yellow-headed Wagtail. Yellow; crefcent
on the nape blackifh; back blueifh-afh; two lateral tail-
feathers half white.

Frava; Yellow Wagtail. Breaft and belly yellow; two
lateral tail-feathers obliquely half white. There is a variety
of this fpecies; grey-afh, beneath and eye-brows yellow ;
quill and tail-feathers black ; wings witha white band. It

inhabits Europe and Afia. Vifits this country in April, and
departs in September. It frequents arable land, pecially
in the more champaign parts, and fometimes uncultivated
grounds interfperfed with furze. It is alfo partial to bean-

elds; and breeds in all fuch fituations, being more negli-
gent of water than the white or grey wagtail. The neft is
always placed on the ground, compofed of dried ftalks and
fibres, and lined with hair. The eggs are four or five ; not
very unlike thofe of the fedge warbler. Its note is more
fhrill than that of the white, and lefs fo than that of the
grey wagtail.

Tipuia ; Green Indian Wagtail.
lowifh ; wings black, with two white bands.
Bengal.

Stvensis; China Wagtail. Green, beneath flefh colour;
{pot on the ears and ftripe from the eyes to the nape pale ;
the tail is pointed. It is found in China; is fix inches
long ; the bill and legs are black.

SINGALENSIS ; Cingalefe Wagtail. This fpecies is of a
changeable green ; throat orange ; breaft and belly yellow;
it inhabits Ceylon, is four inches long, and the bill is
brown.

Zeytonica ; Ceylon Wagtail. Green, beneath yellow ;
crown, nape, and wings black ; the latter with a bifid white
band. It is likewife found in Ceylon; of the fame fize as
the laft, with a blue grey-bill.

Ourvacea ; Olive Wagtail. Olive, breaft and belly
white. 1t inhabits Ceylon; it lifts its tail into an acute
angle; the bill whitifh, covered at the bafe with yellowifh
feathers.

CaryoruyLuus ; Pink-coloured Wagtail. Is, as its name
denotes, of a pale pink ; bill and legs reddifh. It inhabits
Ceylon; is very {mall ; wings and tail growing dufky.

ALBICAPILUA ; White-crowned Wagtail. [t is black,
beneath whitifh:; chin, {pot on the crown, and eyes white.
Found in China, and is full feven inches long.

Grisea; Grifly Wagtail. Grey-ath; crown, bill,
throat, and breaft black; ocular ftreak, tip of the quill-
feathers, belly and vent white. Quill-feathers edged with
grey ; legs cinereous.

Macurata; Spotted Wheat-ear. This, as its name
indicates, is {potted with black, above brown, beneath
whitifh; orbits pale ochre; rump brown; tail black with
a white bafe ; outmott tail-feathers without, and at the tip
white. It inhabits France, and is the fize of a lark.

Massixiensis; Provence Wheat-ear: Rufous, beneath
reddifh-white {potted with blackifh; crown and neck above
brownifh-rufous; under the eyes a pale yellow {pot ; tail-
feathers black, the middle ones edged with rufous; four
next each fide white, outmoft all white. It inhabits Pro-
vence, as its trivial name imports.

Pireata; Black-headed Wheat-ear. Head, middle
tail-feathers, and tips of the lateral ones black ; eye-brows,
front, chin, rump, tail and belly white. It is found io
fome parts of Africa and China; is about fix inches long,
and the bill is black.

AvRANTIA; Orange-breafted Wheat-ear. Brown; be-
neath orange ; throat whitifh; varied beneath with black ;
greater wing and tail-coverts white; tail-feathers brown,
the lateral ones tipt with white. It inhabits the Cape of
Good Hope.

Horrentrorra; Cape Wheat-ear. Tawny brown;
rump with a yellowifh band; chin and lower part of the
belly whitifh, upper tawny; upper tail-coverts yellowifh,
lower white; tail white at the bafe, black in the middle,
and whitifh at the tip. It inhabits the Cape.

Leucorruoa ; Rufous Wheat-ear. Reddifh-brown, be

2 neat

Green, beneath yel-
It is found in

MOTACILLA.

neath whitifh-yellow; rump, bafe of the tail, and coverts

white. It inhabits Senegal, and is feven inches long.
' Srapaziva; Rouoffet Wheat-ear. Ferruginous; wings
brown; area of the eyes and tail black; outmoft tail-
feathers white at the fide. There is a variety of this {pe-
cies that is pale-rufous, beneath whitifh; bands acrofs the
eyes black; two middle tail-feathers black, the lateral ones
white on each fide, and fringed with black towards the tip.
It inhabits Europe. Bill and legs black.

* OENANTHE; Wheat-ear. Is diftinguifhed by its hoary
back ; its front, line above the eyes, rump and bafe of the
tail white ; threugh the eyes a black band. ‘The diftribu-
tion of thefe colours varies, however, fo as to produce four
or five varieties. The bird is met with as far north as
Greenland, and as far eaft as India, It vifits England an-
nually in the beginning of March, and leaves us in Sep-
tember. It chiefly frequents heaths, warrens, and the
edges of hills, feeds on infects, particularly earth-worms ;
grows prodigioufly fat, and breeds in rabbit-burrows, or
under a ftone. The eggs are from five to eight in number,
of a light blue, with a deep blue circle at the large end:
the young are hatched in the middle of May. In fome
parts of England thefe birds are very plentiful. About
Eaftbourne, in Suffex, they are taken in fnares made of
horfe-hair, placed beneath a long turf; being very timid,
the motion of acloud, or the appearance of a hawk, will
drive them for fhelter into thefe traps. The numbers an-
nually enfnared in the neighbourhood of Eaftbourne, are
faid to amount to 1840 dozen, and they are ufually
fold at fixpence a dozen: the fmaller are eaten in the
country, the larger are fele&ted for the London market,
and when potted by the poulterers are by many as much
efteemed as the ortolan on the continent.

* Ruspretra ; Whin-chat. Blackifh; eye-brows white ;
wings with two fpots; chin and brealt yellowifh. This
fpecies is found in various parts of Europe. It lays five
eggs, which are whitifh, {potted with black.

Frrvina ; Sultry Whin-chat. Brown, the feathers edged
with rufous; beneath pale ochre; wings with two white
{pots ; tail blackifh. It inhabits Senegal ; its bill and legs
are black. ’

Montanetia; Siberian Whin-chat. Pale teftaceous,
{potted with brown, beneath pale ochre; crown black-
brown; eye-lids and chin ochre or white; ears with a black
{pot ; wings brown; tail afhy. It inhabits Siberia.

Maena; Dark Warbler. Brown; crownand back paler
black, beneath reddifh ; chin whitifh ; quill and tail-feathers
half rufous, the outmoft white on the outer webs. It is
feven inches and a half in length.

Puivierensis; Philippine Warbler. Violet black, be-
neath reddifh-white ; wings with three white fpots; head
reddifh-white ; neck dirty red; petoral band blueifh; out-
moft tail-feathers reddifh-white. This, as its name imports,
inhabits the Philippine iflands.

CorRoMANDELICA ; Coromandel Warbler. Black ; leffer
wing-coverts with a yellow fpot, the reft with a white one,
and edged with yellow; rump and belly pale rufous; wings
and tail black. It is the fize of a titmoufe.

Perspicittata; Spectacle Warbler. Black; wing-
coverts with a white fpot; tail even; orbits naked, yel-
lowifh, wrinkled. It is found near the river Plata, and is
the fize of a goldfinch, The irides are yellow; pupil
blue; tail when extended forming an equilateral triangle.

* Runicona ; Stone-chat or Moor Titling, Grey, be-
neath pale rufous; throat with a white band; lores black.
[t inhabits hedges and dry moors in Europe and Siberia;
is a reftlefe, ngity bird, and builds under a ftone, or in fome

3

low fhrub; lays five or fix blucifh-green eggs, with pale
rufous fpots. ‘The female is varied with blackifh and
reddifh.

* ArricaPiLtA ; Black-cap. Brick colour above, cine-
reous beneath; cap dufky-black ; bill brown; crown black,
in the female chefnut ; body greenifh-afh above, grey be-
neath, gradually growing white; temples grey; quill and
tail-feathers brown-afh, edged with greenifh-afh, the middle
ones very fhort, legs lead colour. OF this {pecies there are
at leaft three or four varieties. Length full fix inches.
Inhabits Europe. It is a migrative bird, viliting us early
in the fpring and retiring in September. It frequents
woods and thick hedges, and feems very partial to orchards
and gardens, where it delights us with its charming melo-
dious fong, which is very little inferior to that of the
nightingale, except in variety of notes. It makes a nelt
in fome low bufh or fhrub, compofed of dried ftalks, gene-
rally of goofe-grafs, put together with a little wool, and
fometimes a little green mofs-on the outfide, and lined with
fibrous roots, on which are frequently placed a few long
hairs. The eggs are four or five, of a pale reddifh-brown,
mottled with a deeper colour, and fometimes fprinkled with
a few afh-coloured fpots. On the firft arrival of this bird,
it feeds greedily on ivy berries, but forfakes that food as
foon as the vernal fun has roufed the infeé& tribe.

There are three varieties of this fpecies, befides the one
already defcribed. 1. Varied with black and white.
2. Above blackifh; fides grey; chin white. 3. Greenifh-
brown; cap blackifh; neck above cinereous; eye-brows
white ; wings and tail blackith.

MeEtanocerHata; Black-headed Warbler. Greenifh-
afh, beneath grey; crown black; eyes with a red band,
It inhabits Sardinia.

Moscuita. This fpecies is of a lead-colour; cap pale
rufous. This is likewife found in Sardinia. It frequently
hatches the cuckoo’s eggs, which are laid in its neft.

PENNSYLVANICA ; Bloody-fide Warbler. Cap yellow ;
flanks bloody-red. Itis found in Pennfylvania; the fize of
the M. hippolais.

RusicaPitta ; Rec-cap Warbler. Olive, beneath yel-
low; throat and breaft longitudinal rufous {pots ; crown
rufous ; wing-coverts, quill and tail-feathers brown, edged
with olive. Inhabits the ifland of Martinico. The bill is
brown; two middle tail-feathers yellowifh on the inner
webs; legs grey.

CurysorTera ; Golden-winged Warbler. Black cine-
reous, beneath white; cap and {pot on the wings pale yel-
low; chin black. This is an American bird, and found in
Pennfylvania in the {pring and the autumn.

CurysocerHALA ; Orange-headed Warbler. Chefnut,
beneath yellowifh ; head and neck orange; band above and
beneath the eyes brown; wing-coverts white and black,
tail-feathers black, edged with a yellowifh fringe. It is
found in Guiana.

Cristata; Crefted Warbler. Above brownith-green,
beneath greenifh-grey ; cre(t on the head blackifh-brown,
edged with white. Inhabits Guiana.

Mutricotor; Rufous and Black Warbler. Black ;
bill and legs brown ; breaft, fides of the neck, tips of the
greater wing-coverts, and half the tail rufous; belly and
vent white. It is found in Cayenne.

JEqurinocrTiALis ; Equinoétial Warbler. Greenifh-brown,
beneath pale ochre ; chin and breaft yellowifh; wings, tail
and legs brown. Inhabits Cayenne.

ProronoraArius; Prothonotary Warbler. Yellow ;
rump cinereous; vent white; wings and tail varied with

cinereout

MOTACILLA,

cinereous and blackifh. Found in Louifiana. The legs of

is fpecies are black.
in ewerr eye Half-collared Warbler. Beneath pale-
afh; crown yellowifh-olive; behind the eyes a cinereous
ftreak ; wing-coverts and quill-feathers brown ; tail-feathers
cinereous, pointed, the Jateral ones white on the inner webs.
This is found in Louifiana.

Futva ; Orange-bellied Warbler. Olive-brown, beneath
yellow ; quill and tail-feathers brown, edged with yellow,
the primary edged with pale grey. Inhabits alfo Loui-
RY Olive-brown Warbler. Olive-brown ; varied
with whitifh and grey; limbs brown; two outmolt tail-
feathers within near the tip white. Inhabits Louifiana.

Pincuis; Graffet Warbler. Grey-olive, a little fpotted
with black; throat mixed reddifh and ath; brealt and belly
white ; {pot on the head and rump yellow; quill and tail-
feathers edged with grey. Inhabits Louifiana. :

Cana; Grey-throated Warbler. Cinereous; quill-fea-
thers edged with whitifh; tail-feathers black, the outmoft
nearly white. Found in Louifiana.

Coronata; Gold-crowned Warbler. Spotted with
black ; cap, flanks, and rump yellow. Found in Pennfyl-
vania only a few days in the fpring.

SENEGALENSIS; Senegal Warbler. Brown; quill-fea-
thers rufous on the inuer webs; tail-feathers black tipt
with white. Inhabits Senegal. Middle tail-feathers nearly
black.

Leucometa. Black, beneath white; crown whitifh ;
feathers of the cheeks and chin black bordered with whitith ;
tump white; wing-coverts, quill and middle tail-feathers
blackifh-brown, the lateral ones white with dufky tips. It
inhabits rocky precipices near the Wolga; feeds on worms
and wags its tail; lays ten eggs under ftones, or in the
chinks of rocks, :

Hirunpinacea; Swallow Warbler. Black with a
glofs of fteel-blue; throat, breaft and vent crimfon ; belly

white with a longitudinal black band. Found in New ,

Holland.
ErytuHroGaster ; Chefnut-bellied Warbler, Black be-

neath, belly, rump and tail chefnut; cap pale afh; quill-
feathers with a white fpot; bracelets black. Is found in
the fummer in the gravelly hollows of the Caucafian tor-
rents, and migrates foutherly in the autumn. This is a
very reftlefs bird, continually wagging its tail, and is about
feven inches long. 7

Maura; Moor Warbler. Dufky black, beneath white,
rump and fides of the neck white; throat bright ferrugi-
nous; wings with an oblique yellowifh-white blotch; tail-
feathers black, the lateral ones from the bafe half white.
A variety of this fpecies is above rufous brown, beneath
rufous white. It inhabits Siberia.

Supercitiosa ; Yellow-browed Warbler. Above green-
ifh, beneath pale; crown with a pale ftreak; eye-brows
yellow. It inhabits Ruffia. f

FerruGinea; Gilt-throat Warbler. Above cinereous,
beneath whitifh; neck ferruginous. Found alfo in Ruffia,

Cyanura; Blue-tailed Warbler. Above yellow-ath,
beneath yellowifh-white ; throat and eye-brows yellowifh-
white; rump blueifh; vent white; tail-feathers blueifh-
brown, the outer webs pale blue. It inhabits Siberia.

Avrorea; Daurian Warbler. Beneath tawny ; crown
and neck above hoary ; front whitifh, throat dufky black ;
back and wings black; the latter with a triangular fpot ;
tail-feathers tawny; the two middle ones black, Is found
in many parts of Siberia as far as China. '

Srriara; Black-poll Warbler. Streaked with black ;

above cinereous, beneath white; crown black ; cheeks
fnow-white. Found at New York.

Incana; Grey-poil Warbler. Head, fides of the neck,
and upper tail-coverts grey ; quill and tail-feathers black,
edged with grey ; throat orange; chin and brealt yellow ;
belly whitifh-afh. Found at New York.

Fravirrons; Yellow-fronted Warbler. Blueifh-grey,
beneath white: crown, front, greater wing-coverts, and
lower of the leffer ones yellow; ocular band black, edged
with white; chin and throat black. Inhabits Pennfyl-
vania.

Bracksurnia. This is a New York bird. Crown
black, with a yellow line in tke middle; ocular band and
lefler wing-coverts black; greater, vent, and lateral tail-
feathers white ; the middle ones dufky-black ; fides of the
neck, chin, and middle of the belly yellow.

Mirrata; Mitred Warbler. Olive, beneath and front
yellow; hind head and collar black. A variety of this
{pecies is, body above greenith-grey. Inhabits North
America. The bill is black, and the legs brown.

CucuLtata; Hooded Warbler. Greenifh, beneath
yellow ; front and cheeks black ; tail wedged. Suppofed
to be another variety of the Mitrata.

Lirrorea; Shore Warbler. Above dufky-green, be-
neath pale ochre; quill and tail-feathers blackifh. Found
upon the fhores of the Cafpian fea, and feeds on worms.

Lonerrostris; Long-billed Warbler. Cinereous, be-
neath dufky-black ; bill long. Inhabits the mountains near
the Cafpian fea.

Ocuroura. Head cinereous; neck above and fore part
of the back dufky-black ; throat and breatt fhining black ;
belly yellow. Inhabits among the mountains of Perfia.

Oxscura; Obfcure Warbler. Upper feathers of the
body cinereous at the bafe, bay in the middle, and blackith
at the tips; beneath cinereous; quill and tail-feathers, the
outer edges bay. Found among the Perfian Alps.

Sunamirica ; Perfian Warbler. Reddifh-afh; chin and
throat black ; breaft and belly pale rufous ; the feathers tipt
with white ; vent {nowy ; middle tail-feathets brown, lateral
ones tawny. Inhabits rocky mountains of Perfia.

Murina; Murine Warbler. Moufe colour; head,
neck, and tail black; ocular ftreak, belly, and edge of
the outmott tail-feathers white. Size of a fparrow. Middle
of the belly black.

Sprnicaupa ; Thorn-tailed Warbler. Chefnut, beneath
white ; crown fpotted with yellow; face and eye-brows
yellow; wing-coverts rufous, varied with brown 3 the
greater and quill-feathers brown; tail wedged, the feathers
daggered. Found in Terra del Fuego.

AGELLANICA. Yellow-brown, waved with black, and
tinged with red; beneath yellow-ath, with blackifh lines ;
tail fhort, wedged, yellowifh-brown, tinged with red, and
ftreaked with black. This alfo inhabits Terra del Fuego.

Cirrina. Yellow, above ftreaked with black ; cheeks,
throat, and breaft white; tail tipt with yellow. Inhabits
New Zealand.

Avrara; Gilt-headed Warbler. » Yellow ; upper part
of the head and rump orange; throat deep blue; wings and
tail brown. This is an Indian fpecies.

Lonerres ; Long-legged Warbler. Pale green, beneath
cinereous ; beneath the eyes a white arch; front, temples,
cheeks and fides of the neck cinereous; vent greenifh.
Inhabits New Zealand. Bill black ; irides blueifh-afh, and
legs flefh-colour.

Minima ; Leaft Warbler. Not more than three inches
long ; pale brown, beneath whitith ; bill and very hort tad

yellowifh, Inhabits New Holland.
VARIA ;

MOTACILLA.

Varia; White-polled Warbler. Spotted with black
and white; wings with two white bars. Found in feveral
of the Weft Indian iflands, particularly St. Domingo and
Jamaica; and in the fummer, in Pennfylvania, New York,
and other parts of the American continent,

Capensis; Cape Warbler: Brown, beneath whitifh ;
pectoral band brown ; eye-brows white ; lateral tail-feathers
obliquely white. Inhabits, as its name denotes, the Cape
of Good Hope.

IcrEROCEPHALA; Quebec Warbler. Black, beneath
whitifh; cap pale yellow; ocular band black; wings with
two yellow bars. Inhabits divers parts of North Ame-
rica.

Dommica. Notwithftanding its fpecific name, it takes
the trivial name of Jamaica warbler, being common to that
and to the ifland of Dominica. Cinereous, beneath white ;
before the eyes a pale yellow fpot, behind them a white, and
beneath them a black one.

Cixcra; Belted Warbler. Pale-afh, beneath white ;
crown and band on the belly pale yellow; brealt {potted
with brown. Inhabits Canada.

Mapacascariensis ; White-eyed Warbler. Greenifh,
beneath whitifh; chin and vent yellow; eye-lids white.
Found in the ifles of France and Madagafcar.

Borsonica. This is common to the iflands of Bourbon
and Madagafcar. Grey-brown, beneath dull yellowifh-
grey; quill and tail-feathers brown, edged with a much
lighter brown. :

Mavritrana; Maurice Warbler. Blue-grey, beneath
white; quill and tail-feathers black, edged with white.
Inhabits the ifle of France. Bill blackifh; legs blueifh.

Lrvrpa; Madagafcar Warbler. Blue-grey ; vent white ;
bill and legs lead-colour ; quill-feathers blackifh, edged with
white ; tail-feathers black, the two outmoft white. Found
in Madagafcar, as its trivial name imports.

FLAvescens ; Citron-bellied Warbler. Brown, beneath
yellowith; temples whitith; equal tail and quill-feathers
edged with rufous brown. Found in Senegal. Bill and
legs dufky.

Ruricastra; Rufous-bellied Warbler. Olive brown,
beneath yellowifh-rafous; quill and tail-feathers brown.
This, like the laft, is an inhabitant of Senegal, and has been
thought to be a variety of the Flavefcens.

Unpata. Black, the feathers edged with rufous;
beneath white; rump rufous; tail wedged; quill and
tail-feathers brown, edged with rufous white. It inhabits
Senegal.

Fuscata; Dufky Warbler. Brown, beneath grey ; tail
long, equal. Inhabits Senegal ; is fix inches long ; the bill
is black, and legs yellow.

SuprLava; Flaxen Warbler. Rufous-brown, beneath
grey; rump pale; fides of the body pale rufous; tail
wedged. Inhabits Senegal.

AvrocaPiLLa ; Golden-crowned Warbler. Olive, be-
neath white; crown golden; eye-brows, black; breait
{potted with black. ‘This is reckoned a North American
fpecies, but in winter it migrates foutherly ; eggs white;
{potted with brown.

Perecuta; Red-headed Warbler. Olive, beneath yel-
low, dotted with red; cap red. Found in Pennfylvania.

ALBICOLLIS; St. Domingo Warbler. Olive, beneath
yellowith ; throat and br: aft dull pale ochre, ftreaked with
red; quill and tail-feathers brown, edged with greenifh-
yellow, lateral ones within yellowifh. In this fpecies, found
in St. Domingo, the bill is of a horn colour ; temples yel-
lowith ; legs grey-brown. Inthe female, the neck above is
of a greemfh-ath.

Lupovicrana ; Louifiana Warbler. Olive; throat and
breaft yellow, fpotted with red; belly pale ochre; two
bands on the wings, and two outmoft tail-feathers within,
near the tip white. This inhabits Louifiana and St. Do-
mingo.

CuyLoroteuca; Green and White Warbler. Olive,
beneath pale ochre; head cinereous, varied with olive ;
greater wing-coverts and tail-feathers brown, edged with
yellowifh-green. Inhabits St. Domingo. Bill horn-colour ;
tail flightly forked, the lateral feathers varied with yellow:
legs grey-brown.

AvrIcoLiis; Orange-throated Warbler. Olive, be-
neath orange; belly yellowifh; vent whitifh; greater wing-
coverts and middle tail-feathers cinereous, the lateral ones
ee white, without at the tip black. It inhabits Ca-
nada.

Macutosa; Yellow-rumped Warbler. Olive, fpott
with black ; head and seekers cinereous ; belly ra
and two bands on the wings white; rump yellow; breaft
yellow, {potted with black. Inhabits Pennfylvania.

Fuscescens; Brown-throated Warbler. Brownith, be-
neath varied with blackifh and rufous-grey ; bill, chin, and
ocular band brown. Found in Jamaica. :

Ticrina; Spotted Yellow Warbler. Brown, the fea-
thers edged with olive; beneath and rump yellow; lower
part of the belly yellowifh-white; behind the eyes a rufous
blotch ; quill and tail-feathers edged with olive. There isa
variety of this fpecies, which is characterized as of paler
colour, beneath whitifh; breaft fpotted with brown; wing-
coverts without white. The firft of thefe inhabits Canada
and the fecond St. Domingo. - ‘

Pinus; Pine Warbler. Olive, beneath yellow; lores
black ; wings blue, with two white bands. This fpecies in-
habits Carolina in the fummer months. The female is wholly
brown. - .

Virens; Green Warbler. Green-olive, beneath white ;
cheeks, fides of the neck, and breaft yellow; neck be-
neath white; wings with two white bands. It is found in
Pennfylvania.

Dumetorum; White-breafted Warbler. A fhy-brown :
head blueifh; chin and breaft white, Inhabits Germany
and Ruffia. _ .

Nicrirostris; Black-jawed Warbler. Olive-brown;
lores and chin rufous-yellow ; breait rufous, fpotted with
blackifh; belly white; wing-coverts tipt with reddifh-
white ; quill-feathers edged with yellowifh ; tail-feathers
pointed, the outmoft white. ;

Lurescens; Buff-faced Warbler. Rufty-brown, be-
neath reddifh-white ; front and chin buff; ears with a red
{pot ; breaft {potted with black. This is about fix inches
in length; the bill is of a dufky black, and the legs
brownihh.

Boreauis; Ruity-headed Warbler. Green, beneath
yellow ; chin and temples ferruginous; tail rounded; the
lateral feathers tipt with white, Found in Kamtfchatka, as
is alfo the next, from whence it takes its {pecific and trivial
names.

PON EHA TIONED, poe beneath paler; middle of
the belly white; front, cheeks, and chin pale f i
The bill is long and flender. . a ie

Awarcua. This alfo inhabits Kamtfchatka. Brown;
chin and breatt white, {potted with black; middle of the
belly and lores white; primary quill-feathers edged with
white ; tail-feathers orange at the bafe.

Canescens; Van Diemen’s Warbler. Hoary brown,
beneath white; head black; front ftreaked with whites
breaft and vent ftreaked with black ; {pot on the wings and

* edge

MOTACILLA.

edge of the tail-feathers at the bafe tawny- Inhabits New
Holland.

JEquinoctiaLis; Equino&tial Warbler. Brown telfta-
ceous, beneath white; rump pale; tail-feathers with ob-
folete bands. Inhabits Nativity ifland,

Niericottis; Black-necked Warbler. Sub-crefted ;
above pale grey, beneath flefh.colour; cap, neck above,
quill and tail-feathers black. Inhabits India. Its bill and
legs are yellow.

PrumBeaA. Lead colour; beneath cinereous; quill and
tail-feathers dufy. ‘This isa very {mall bird. ,

CamBAleNsis; Cambay Warbler. Blackifh-brown, be-
neath fine black ; top of the belly and vent rufous; wing-
ceverts white. Found in India.

Guzurata; Guzurat Warbler. Greenifh, beneath
white; crown chefnut: quill-feathers and tail brown.
Found in India. Bill and legs brown; quill and tail-
feathers edged with green.

Asratica; Afiatic Warbler. Brown, beneath yel-
lowifh; head and neck black; lores and chin white; tail
long. A variety of this f{pecies is brown; front, eye-
brows, and body beneath white; lateral tail-feathers half

white. This is of the fize of the nightingale, and inhabits
Guzerat. The bill is blackifh, with a few {mall briftles at
the bafe.

Caprata; Luzonian Warbler. Black; rump, vent,
and fpot on the wing-coverts white. It takes its trivial
name from Luzonia, where it is found. The bill is blackith ;
legs brown. Female without the fpot on the wings. A
variety is thus defcribed: head, neck, and body above
black; beneath whitifh-rufous; wings with a white band.
Inhabits China. Bill and legs red.

* Pua@nicurus; Red-ftart. Of this there are three
varieties: 1. Throat black; belly and tail rufous; head
and back hoary; white front. 2. Breaft fpotted with
rufous. 3. Body cinereous.

This fpecies makes its appearance in f{pring, along with
the other fummer birds. It commonly alights upon old
towers and uninhabited houfes, choofing always the higheft
and moft inacceffible pinnacles. It is found, too, in the
moft impenetrable receffes of dark woods, where it indulges,
undifturbed, its folitary habits, and utters its plaintive
notes.

The red-ftart neftles in the holes of thofe old walls which
it frequents, or in the hollow of a rotten tree, and fome-
times in the cliff of arock. The young ones are excluded
in the month of May: they are five or fix in number.
While the female is employed in hatching and rearing them,
the male is commonly ftationed, as a centinel, upon a point
of the rock, or upon the top of the wall, whence he utters
his uninterrupted fong; a pledge to the mother, that no
danger is approaching her family. It is only when taken
young, that the red-ftart will acquire any familiarity with
man ; for, though this bird be frequently a near neighbour
of the human race, he ftill preferves his native wildnefs and
timidity. He acquires neither the confidence and intimacy
that diftinguifh the red-breaft, the gaiety of the lark, nor
the vivacity of the nightingale. His difpofition is melan-
choly, and his manners wild. If taken when old, he refufes
all food, preferring death to captivity ; or if he furvive his
freedom, rie obftinate filence and fullen grief plainly indi-
eate how deeply he is penetrated with the mifery of his con-
dition.

Titnys.
the two middle ones black, with a pale rufous web.
habits Italy.

Grprattariensis; Grey Red-ftart,

Vox. XXIV.

Quill-feathers blackifh; tail-feathers rufous,
It in-

Hoary; front,

temple, and chin black; hind-head and lower part of the
belly white ; rump and tail orange ; two middle tail-feathers
brown. Inhabits Gibraltar,

Erytuaca; Red-tail Warbler, - Back and quill-feathers
cinereous ; belly and tail-feathers rufous. Inhabits Europe ;
is fomething lefs than the red-ftart; feeds on worms, and
wags its tail: its eggs are white, varied with prey. The
male has a fort of horfe-fhoe mark on the throat, and {pot
between the bill and eyes brown.

GulAnensis; Guiana Red-tail.
wings and long tail rufous. Inhabits Guiana.
this {pecies is pale, and the legs flefh-colour.

Artrata; Black Red-tail. Black; crown plumbeous ;
quill-feathers black, the fecondaries white on the outer
edge; tail-feathers rufous, the two middle ones dufky-black.
The feathers of the back edged with dark brown.

Guira ; Guira Warbler. Green, beneath pale yellow;
cheeks and chin black, furrounded with a pale yellow line.
It inhabits Brafil, and is the fize of a goldfinch.

Suncica ; Blue-throated Warbler. Breaft ferruginous,
with a blue band; tail-feathers brown, towards the tip fer-
ruginous. A variety of this has a filvery {pot on its breait.
It inhabits Europe and Siberia; fings very {weetly, and
does not migrate. The female has a white chin, with a
pat blue band, and another black one terminated by

acky

Sratis; Blue Warbler. Above blue, beneath red,
belly white. Inhabits North America; migrates. The
female has its fecondary quill-feathers tipt with white.

Furicata; Sooty Warbler. Violet-black ; vent chef.
nut ; wing-coverts with a white {fpot. Inhabits the Phi-
lippine ifles. Bill and legs brown.

Cayana; Cayenne Warbler. Blue; frontlet, fhoul-
ders, wings, and tail black. There are two varieties:
1. Head blue; chin black. 2. Head entirely blue. They
all are found in Guiana.

CyANocEPHALA; Blue-headed Warbler. Green; head
and upper wing-coverts blue; chin hoary; quill-feathers
brown, edged with green. Found in Cayenne. Its bill is
brown and legs grey.

Livgata ; Blue-ftriped Warbler. Beneath and {pot on
the crown blue ; front, ftripe over the eyes, and fides of the
neck of a fhining blue, band on the breaft and belly white.
This is a Cayenne {pecies.

Cyanes; Superb Warbler. Black-blue, beneath white ;
feathers of the head long, lax, turgid ; front, cheeks, and
lunule on the neck of a fine blue. A variety is defcribed
as. blackifh-grey ; head, chin, and neck above blue ; wing-
coverts brown; quill and tail-feathers black. The firft is
found in New Holland ; the fecondin Manilla. The female
is fomewhat different, being brown above, white beneath,
and blue round the eyes.

Vetta ; Red-bellied Warbler. Of this {pecies there are
four varieties. 1. Blue; bellyandrumptawny. 2. Front
and rump golden; body beneath blueifh. 3. Lower part
of the back and belly rufous. 4. Back blackith-brown ;
brealt and belly fcarlet. Inhabits Guiana, Surinam, and
Cayenne.

Canavensis; Black-throated Warbler. Above blue,
beneath white; throat, quill and tail-feathers black. Is
found, in the fummer months, in Pennfylvania.

Czruiea; Czrulean Warbler. Above blue, beneath
white ; wings and tail black. A variety of this fpecies has
its head black ; quill and fix middle tail-feathers black, the
re{t white. It inhabits Pennfylvanias builds a cylindrical
neft, open at the top, and pofited in the forked branch of a
tree,

Grey, beneath white ;
The bill of

li CYANA.

*

Cyana. This fpecies is of a fine blue, beneath it is
fnowy ; from the bill to the wings there is a flreak of
black. :

* ArunpINAcEA; Reed Wren. Above olive-brown,
beneath whitifh ; lores. and orbits whitifh-brown ; band in
the middle of the wings beneath tawny-yellow ; tail brown,
flichtly wedged. This fpecies is found in the reedy places
in England ; is feven and a half inches long; builds its neft
near the ground, with three or tour reeds for its fupporters ;
and lays four whitifh eggs, {potted with olive.

SipittA; Sybil Warbler. Blackifh, beneath white;
breaft rufous; wings with a white fpot. Inhabits Mada-
gafcar, and fings very finely.

Seerata. Greeuifh-brown; beneath and rump rufous-
grey; two middle tail-feathers blackish, lateral ones obliquely
half tawny-brown. A variety has the chin white, and
breaft rufons. _Inhabits the Cape of Good Hope.

RusecoLa ; Robin-red-brealt. Grey; throat and breaft
ferruginous. ‘The little birds of this name, on account of
their near approaches to our dwellings, and their familiarity
with man, are, perhaps, the beft known of all the feathered
race, except fuch as are kept in domeftication. ‘They are
capable of enduring the moft fevere winters in this ifland ;
but, at the approach of fuch inclement feafons, they leave
the woods, where they refide in {ummer, and are willing to
acknowledge a kind of dependence upon man.

It is remarkable, that a bird which remains in North
Britain all the year round fhould migrate from France
during the winter months. Such, however, is the cafe:
in Trance the red-breaft frequents the hedges and dwelling-
houfes, for a fhort time, in autumn and {pring ; but regu-
larly, in the dead of winter, when the hard frott commences,
difappears. In his fpring vifit he makes but a fhort ttay,
haltening, as he then is, to enter the foreft, that he may there,
zmidit the {preading leaves, enjoy folitude and love.

The red-brealt builds its neft at the foot of fome thick
fhrub, or upon a tuft of grafs, able to fupport it. The
materials of which it is compofed are oak-leaves, mofs, and
a bed of feathers within. Sometimes, after the edifice is
finifhed, the bird covers it entirely over with leaves, allowing
only a {mall paffage to remain fufficient to admit its- body.

During the feafon of neftling and incubation, the male
makes the grove refound with his foft and melodious lays.
His warbling is foothing and tender, animated occafionally
with notes of a louder tone, and fometimes, too, graced
with thofe touching and engaging accents, that feem to
exprefs the ardour of his love. In the {weet focicty of his
fernale, he feems to be wholly abforbed: at the interference
of other company, he becomes fretful and enraged; for no
ftranger is permitted to intermeddle with his joy: even
thofe of his own fpecies he purfues with rage, till he banifhes
them from the diftriét he has chofen for himfelf. His love
exhibits a ftrange mixture of jealoufy and attachment.

There js no bird more aétive, none fatished with a fmaller
portion of reft, than this bird: he is the firft that appears
in the woods at the break of day, and the laft that retires
thither in the evening to enjoy repofe. There are two
varieties. 1. Chin white ; wing-coverts varied with white,
black, and rufous ; quill and tail feathers black, edged with
rufons. 2. Entirely white. The Rubecola fpecies is {fpread
over the whole of Europe, from Norway and Sweden to the
Mediterranean.

Trootopytrs; Wren, Grey; eye-brows white; wings
waved with black and cinereous. Inhabits Europe and
Afia. The ancients gave this bird the name of troglodyte,
from a fancied refemblance between its manners and thole of
a race of men who were faid to inhabit dens and caves of

15

MOTACILLA.

the earth. There is fome difference among naturalifts in
claffing and diftinguifhing the tribe of wrens ; a circumftance
that might be expected in fubjeéts fo minute, and fo flightly
difcriminated by nature. The common wren is known from
its refidence. It frequents farm-houfes and country villages,
where it is feen hopping about, full of life and viyacity,
even in the mid{t of winter, exprefling, towards evening, its
happinefs in cheerful and well-toned notes. It appears
upon the top of heaps of fire-wood, or by the fides of old
walls, whence it difappears in a moment, by making its way
into fome fmall hole. It remains not, however, long con-
cealed ; but returns to make qnick and inconftant move-
ments with its little tail, always raifed in an almoit perpen-
dicular direétion

The flights of the wren are very fhort and expeditious,
When flying, it moves its wings with fuch rapidity, that
they become invifible. Its length is about three inches
and a half, and its breadth, when the wings are extended,
five. The whole plumage is tranfverfely barred with un-
dulating lines of brown and black ; on the belly and lower
parts it inclines to grey. :

This bird, flender as it is in form, is almoft the only one
that remains with us during the moft fevere winter ; and it
is the only one of the whole feathered creation which con-
tinues its warbling in a feafon in which the univerfal filence
of the woods and groves is interrupted only by the croaking
of ravens. During a fall of {now it is itill better heard ;
for then it enters the court-yards, the door of the ftable, or
dairy, fecking, among the garbage, for the dead bodies of
infects, or their larve.

PLATENSIS.
neath white ; quill and tail-feathers barred. Inhabits Buenos
sAyres.

Lupovistana. Rufous-brown ; eye-brows, cheeks, and
body beneath yellowifh ; quill and tail-feathers barred with
black and rufous. In this fpecies there is over the eyes a
band reaching to the fides of the neck ; the cheeks are waved
with brown.

Furva; Brown Wren. Brown, beneath paler; back,
wings and tail with blackifh bars. Inhabits Surinam. It
fings well ; the bill and legs are of a yellowifh-brown.

CarennuLA; Ruby-crowned Wren. Greenifh-afh;
crown with a ruby line; belly and wings beneath yellowith.
It inhabits North America. The female is without the
ruby vertical line, and varies in having a f{carlet lunule on the
nape.

Recu.us ; Golden-crefted Wren. Greenith ; fecondary
quill-feathers yellow on the outer edge, and white in the
middle ; crown orange; bill black ; creft orange, (of the
female yellow,) each fide edged with black ; body yellowifh-
green above, reddifh-white beneath; wing-coverts dark-
brown, with two tranfverfe white bars ; legs yellow. Inha-
bits every quarter of the globe. This is the fmalleft Britith
bird, its weight feldom exceeding eighty grains, and its
length three inches and three quarters. It migrates from
the Shetland iflands in winter, but continues in the Orkneys
the whole year. Its fong is like that of the common wren,
but its voice is weaker. It builds a neit nearly of a round
form, with a hole in the fide, and lays from fix to eight
eggs. It ereéts or-depreffes the creft at pleafure. Though
not uncommon, it often efcapes obfervation from the fmall-
nefs of its fize. It has alfo been remarked, that the female,
from fome caufe which has not yet been difcovered, is fre-
quently deltroyed during the time of incubation ; and the
neft, with the eggs, left to decay.

Evata. Crefted, greenish, beneath whitifh-afh; hind-

head

Above varied with rufous and black, be-

ee

MOT

head and vent pale yellow; wing-coverts at the edge, and
lateral tail feathers at the tip, white: Inhabits Cayenne.

Trocuitus; Yellow Wren. Dutky green above, yel-
lowifh-white beneath ; wings and tail brown, and edged with

reen; eye-brows yellow. Four inches and a half long.
Fahabits Eurepe and America. Frequents wooded and in-
clofed fituations, efpecially where willows abound. Vifits
us early in April, and foon begins its ufual fong, which is
fhort, with little variety. Makes an oval neft, with a {mall
opening near the top, compofed of mofs and dried grafs, and
lined with feathers, either in the hollow of a ditch, or ina
low bufh, clofe to the ground. The eggs are fix or feven,
white, and {potted with light rutt colour. Has often been
confounded with the lefler petty-chaps, and the wood-wren.

* Sytvicota; Wood-wren. Greenifh, beneath yellow-
ith ; eye-brows yellow ; belly and vent fnowy. Is found in
many parts of Europe, and in this country, particularly in
the oak-woods of Carmarthen. It builds on the ground a
roundifh neft, with the entrance near the top; eggs white,
{prinkled with ferruginous fpots.

ZEstiva ; Yellow-poled Warbler. Olive-green, beneath
yellow, and breait with reddifh {pots ; lateral tail-feathers
within yellow. A variety has its body above brown. It
inhabits Guiana, but in the fummer migrates to Canada.
Bill and legs black ; irides blue.

Carotinensis ; Carolina Yellow-poll. Olive-green, be-
neath yellowifh ; quill and tail-feathers brown, the lateral
ones edged with yellow. Found in Hudfon’s Bay.

Surorta; ‘Taylor-warbler, or Vaylor-bird. Entirely
yellow, and very fmall, {carcely exceeding three, inches in
length. Inhabits India. Its nett is compofed of two leaves,
the one generally dead, which it fixes at the end of fome
branch, to the fide of a living one, by fewing both together
with little filaments, (its bill ferving as a needle,) in the
manner of a pouch or purfe, and open at the top. Some-
times, inftead of a dead and a living leaf, two living ones are
fewed together, and, when thus connected, feem rather the
work of human art than of an uninftructed animal. After
the operation of fewing is finifhed, the cavity is lined with
feathers, and foft vegetable down. The neit and birds are
together fo very light, that the leaves of the exterior ard
more flender twigs of the trees are chofen for the purpofe ;
and, thus fituated, the brood is completely f{ecured from the
depredations of every invader.

Carrra; Caffrarian Warbler. Olive; chin and tail
ferruginous ; eye-brows white. Is found at the Cape of
Good Hope.

Gutaris. Above ferruginous, beneath white ; crown
and rump cinereous; area of the wings and lateral tail-fea-
thers yellow, tipt with brown, the middle ones entirely
brown.

Fravicaupa ; Yellow-tailed Warbler. Olive, beneath
white ; crown and rump cinereous ; area of the wings and
Jateral tail-feathers yellow, tipt with brown, the middle ones
entirely brown. Inhabits America, and migrates.

Tscnecantscuta. Above blackifh, beneath ferrugi-
nous ; head dark brown; nape-whitifh; collar and oblong
{pot on the wings white; back black. Inhabits Siberia.

Mevanopa. Blueifh-afh, beneath yellow; lores and
throat black ; eye-brows and three lateral tail-feathers each
fide white ; the ontmoft black on the exterior edge. There
is in this fpecies a white line from the gape through the
neck ; and the tail is even.

Hupsonica. Ruifty-brown, beneath whitifh ; neck be-
neath with dufky ftripes; outmoft tail-feather white, fe-
cond white edged with black, third white on the difk, It
is about fix inches long, and inhabits Hudfon’s Bay.

MOT

*Boaruta ; Grey Wagtail. Cinereous, yellow beneath ;
firt tail-feathers entirely, fecond, on the inner fide, white ;
bill and legs brown ; chin and throat black ; wing-coverts
brown, and edged with ath; quill-feathers brown, the fe-
condaries white at the bafe ; middle tail-feathers black, and
edged with greenifh. This elegant fpecies inhabits Europe,
vifits us about the latter end of September, and departs in
April. It is much in motion, conttantly flirts the tail, fel-
dom perches, frequents waters, makes its neit on the
ground, and fonietimes on the banks of rivulets, and lays
ek fix toeight eggs, of a dirty white, marked with yellow
pots.

There is a variety ; olive-brown, beneath yellow ; lower
part of the neck grey, firft tail-feathers entirely, fecond and
third on the inner fide and tip white. This {pecies is found
in Jaya, and is feven inches long.

MOTALA, in Geography, a river of Sweden, in Ealt
Gothland, which runs from the Wetter lake to the Baltic;
22 miles EF. of Nordkioping.

MOTALAZITES. See Moarauazirtes.

MOTAMOCULO, in Geography, a town on the W.
coalt of Madagafcar; 18 miles S.E. from Cape St. André.

MOTCHANG, a town of Corea; 18 miles S.W. of
Yang-tchen.

MOTCHIAMA, an ifland of Africa, in the kingdom of
Angola, formed by the river Coanza; about four or five
miles long, and one broad, producing variety of roots and
herbs, and breeding plenty of cattle. On this ifland were
formerly fettled five or fix Portuguefe families, who carried
on a confiderable trade in flaves.

MO-TCHOU, atown of Corea; 30 miles W. of Leng-
Kouang.

MOTE, a town of the county of Tyrol; 9 miles S.
of Tyrol.

More, Mota, frequently occurs, in our ancient cuftoms,
for a meeting, court, or plea.

Of motes, by the Saxons alfo called gemotes, confidered in
the fenfe of aflemblies, or courts, there were diyers kinds ; as
wittenagemole, folkegemote, fchiregemote, hundred gemote, burge-
mote, wardegemote, haligemote, fwainegemote, &c. See each un-
der its proper article.

Morr, Mota, was alfo ufed for a fortrefs or caitle ; as
mota de Windfor, &c.

Mere alfo denoted a ftanding water to keep fifhin ; and
fometimes a large ditch encompafling a caltle, or dwelling-
houfe.

MOTECAZE', in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Guzerat ; 46 miles S. of Jupagur.

MOTECTIO, Styro. See Sryxe.

MOTECTUS is defined by Tin@or in his « Diffinito-
rum Terminorum Mufice,’—* Cantus mediocris cui verba
cujufvis materia fed frequentius divine fupponuntur.’?

MOTELLI, in old Mufcal Writers, feems of the fame
import as /Mofetto ; perhaps it was the diminutive of mo-
tetto.

MOTERANA, in Geography, atown of Naples, in the
province of Otranto ; fix miles S.W. of Lecca.

MOTET, Fr., Motetto, Ital. formerly fignified a ftudied
compolition, enriched with all the beauties of the art ; fuch
were the motets of Baflani, regarded at the end of the 17th
and beginning of the 18th century, at which time they were
in the higheit favour in all concerts where there was good
finging. See Bassani.

At prefent the name of motet is given to every compofi-
tion fet to Latin words ; fuch as hymns, pfalms, or any {mall
portion of fcripture in the Romifh church. As mot, in
French, implies a phrafe, or fhort fentence, fo mofet implies

Lae a verfe

AMVOlS

a verfe or fhort period taken from the facred writings, a8
the text of what we fhould call an anthem, and the Germans
a facred cantata. Thougha cantata, in Italy and elfewhere,
generally implies a vocal compofition for a fingle voice, yet
there are motets and cantatas in the fervice of the Romifh
church, from one to eight parts. As the verfe or fentence
is ufually fhort, the too frequent repetition of the words is
objected to in the conttruéiion of motets, (See CANTATA.)
In the Lutheran church, what the Roman Catholics call
motets, and the churchof England anthems, are called can-
taten. :
MOTH, in Zoology, an infe& of the winged kind, which
is very deftructive to different forts of crops of the garden
kind, and other defcriptions. See Papiz1o and PHALENA.
Morn, Fal/e, an infeét which proceeds from a imall cater-
pillar, the body of which is fmooth and whitifh. It has fix-
teen legs, does not lodge in the grains of corn, but contrives
to faften feveral of them together with a web which it {pins,
and with which it makes itfelf a dweiling-place. The
fheath in which the caterpillar of the falfe moth ufually
abides, is generally in the middle of the little heap of grains
which it has collef&ted for its food, and which diftinguifhes
it from the caterpillar of the true moth: it can quit this
fheath at any time, to eat the grains around it, one after
another. It generally attacks feveral grains at once,
and always without order, eating fometimes of one and
fometimes of another; fo that feveral are gnawed, when
not one is wholly confumed. When thefe infe&s are
very numerous ina granary, all the grains upon the fur-
face of the corn are linked together by a web, fo as
to form a cru{t, which is fometimes three inches thick.
This caterpillar turns into chryfalis, or aurelia, in a grain
which it has hollowed, or in the fheath of its web, and iflues
thence in the month of June, in the form of a butterfly.
Whena heap of corn is ftirred, in which there are many ca-
terpillars of the f{pecies of this falfe moth, thofe infects
crawl up the walls; but they foon return to the heap,
and by the next day, cover it all over with a new web.
In the ftate of moth it is grey, has fix legs, and they
are frequently feen in vaft numbers, fluttering about the
eaves of the windows of granaries, in the {pring and
fummer, when the weather is very hot. The females lay
their eggs upon the heaps of wheat, and thefe eggs
produce the caterpillars, or corn-worms, as fome call them,
which feed on the grain, and envelope it with their filky
web, fo as to form over the whole furface a cruft that is
fometimes three or four inches thick. This entirely {poils
the corn within that depth, befides communicating a bad
fmell to the reft. Thefe worms, or rather caterpillars, for
they have fixteen legs, are {mooth, whitifh, and feldom ex-
ceed a quarter, or, at moft, a third part of an inch, when
at their full growth. Breaking of their webs avails but little,
for they are woven again by the next day: for which reafon
fome have been of opinion that it is beft to let them enjoy un-
difturbed’the furface of the corn of whichthey have taken
poffeffion. But it fhould be confidered, that three inches are
a fixth part, and four inches upwards ofa fifth, of any
quantity of corn {pread eighteen inches deep, which is the
medium thicknefs at which it is laid; and that, independent
of the bad {mell with which the reft is tainted, this is a very
confiderable objet, though it extend no farther. When this

cruft is broken, moft of the grains which compofe it are
found either to be gnawed in their infide, or full of live
worms, or of aurelia, according to the feafon; or the empty
Sieaths of the caterpillars, if the aurelie have been pert
formed into moths, are only feen.

Some have afferted that “ ftrewing the corn with pow-

MOT

dered lime, fo as to form a fort of cruft over it, will preferve
it from the ravages of thefe infects: but from an idea that
the furface would be fpoiled, M. Duhamel did not try this
expedient. - From various obfervations and reflections, he
was led to fufpe& that this infect, as it delights in none but
very warm places, would not be able to livt in the cold air
of his ventilating granaries.”’ After colle€ting the various
wormy coats and webs formed by thefe infeéts, with their
ova, he put them into one of his granaries, which contained.
feventy-five cubic feet, and was ventilated from time to time
during all the winter. ‘Towards the end of May, when the
vent-holes at the top of the granary were opened, a prodi-

ious number of moths flew out, which fhewed that they
did not like their fituation, On being fhut, and remaining
in this ftate fome time, afterwards, when emptied, all the
moths and worms were dead, and there remained only a thin
cruft, not above the twelfth part of an inch thick on the top
of thecorn, which had fo far loft the bad fmell it had when
put into the granary, that it fold for the current market-
price. But not fatisfied with this method, he tried the effect
of the flove upon another parcel of wheat known to be full
of thefe worms. A heat from 45 to so degrees of Reaw-
mur’s thermometer (from 115° to 124° of Fahrenheit’s) killed
them all. This corn was then laid up in a commen granary,
where it remained two years without being attacked by any
of thefe moths, and even in the third but very few of them
appeared. It is therefore concluded that by either of thefe
methods, this iufeét may be deftroyed without injuring the
grain in any great degree, :

Morn, Field, Tinea campeftris, in Natural Hiffory, the
name given by M. de Reaumur toa fpecies of infect, which
in all re{pects refembles the moth fo deltruétive of clothes
except in its food; as that feeds upon woollen, and makes its
neit or covering of that fubftance; this eats the leaves of
trees, and in the fame. manner makes itfelf a covering from
the fibres and integuments of them.

Their changes are the fame with thofe of the common moth,
and performed in the fame manner; they only fecm to differ
in having a more moilft food.

Pi Reaumur firft obferved thefe on the leaves of the
afh.
This creature for a great part of its life wants no covering,
but, like the afcarides, making its way through the upper in-
tegument of the leaf, it feeds on the parenchyma and juices;
at length, when it has eat away all the fubftance of the leaf, it
bites out a piece from each integument of it, over and under
its body, and faftens the edges all round with threads of its
own {pinning ; thus making a complete cafe or covering,
enabling it to bear the open air. This done, it marches
from its place to find another leaf fit to fupply it with more
nourifhment : thus it changes place feveral times during its
life, and as often changes its covering, which requires but a
very little time to make anew.

‘Thefe are {mall animals of this genus ; but there are others
which are confiderably larger, and which make their cover-
ings of various matters and of different ftruCture ; they are
ufually very rough and rugged, and feem made of any matter
that oe to be in the way; fome {pecies ufually make
them of pieces of {traw and particles of chaff, others of {mall
twigs of bufhes, others of the dry leaves of the oak, broom,
and other plants.

All thefe animals might have been deferibed as the depend.
ents on the beetle and fly kinds; but as they have this re-
markable quality of feeding in the fame manner, and making
themfelves cafes of different materials in the manner of the
tinea, or clothes moth, while in the worm-flate, and in this
{tate they are much more obvious tothe eye than the flies,

bectles,

MOT

beetles, &c. produced of them, many of which are fo {mall as
to efcape obfervation ; this accurate author has chofen to
defcribe them together, and in this their imperfect (tate. He
adds an account of another fet of animals fomewhat allied
to them, which he therefore calls the p/eudo tinea, or falle
- moth, See Psrupo-tinea, and the preceding article.

Morn Jfullein. See MULLEIN.

Morn -Over, that fort of moth which is fo injurious to the
hop plant. See Hop and Orrer- Moth.

MOTHE-LE-VAYER, Francis pec, in Biography,
a learned French writer, born at Paris in 1588, was brought
up to the profeflion of the law, and long occupied the poft
of fubftitute to the procureur-gencral in the parliament of
Paris, which he inhetited from his father. He was, proba-
bly, never pleafed with his profeffion, and at length bis at-
tachment to letters induced him to quit the occupation, and
he became one of the mott confiderable fcholars of his time. In
1639 he was, on account of his works, admitted a member of
the French academy, and appointed to the office of precep-
tor to the duke of Anjou, afterwards duke of Orleans ;
hiftoriographer of France, and titular counfellor of fate.
He was tuppofed to have a {trong difpofition to fcepticifm,
and bore with calmnefs the imputations to which his opinions
expofed him: once, when walking in the gallery of the Louvre,
he overheard a perfon whifper to his friend, ‘¢ there goes a
man without religion ;”” to which he replied, ¢ I have reli-
gion enough, friend, to pardon your infult.”” He died in
1672, at the age of eighty-five. He is mentioned by Guy
Patin as a Stoic, who would neither praife nor be praifed,
and who followed his own fancies and caprices without any
regard to the opinions of the world. His drefs and ufual
demeanour fo diftinguifhed him from other men, that he was
taken, by itrangers, to be an altrologer. In the court he
lived like a philofopher, immerfed in books, fimple and re-
gular in his manner of living, and void of ambition and
avarice. He was agreat writer: one of his works was a
“ Treatife on the Virtue of Pagans,’? which was anfweréd
by Arnauld. Le Mothe’s bookfeller complaining that his
book did not fell, «I know a fecret,’? faid the author,
“to quicken the fale :”” he procured an order from govern-
ment for its fuppreffion, which was the means of felling the
whole edition. His works were colle&ted in two volumes
folio, and were afterwards printed in fifteen volumes 12mo.
This colleGtion does not include his ‘‘ Dialogue after the
Manner of the Ancients,’ in which he difplayed his
fcepticifm at large: nor his ‘*‘ Hexameron Rutftique.”
Moreri.

MOTHER, Marer, a female, who hath borne, and
ftands in the relation of parent to another.

Thus Eve is called our common mother; Cybele, among
the ancients, was the mother of the gods.

Moruer, Queen, fignifies the fame with what we other-
wife call queen dowager. Ae

We meet with emprefles on medals and infcriptions,
with the title of mother of the camp, mother of the fenate,
mother of the country ; mater fenatus, mater caflrorum, mater
patria, &e. } :

Moruer of Gad, is an attribute commonly given to the
bleffed Virgin. It had its origin from the Greeks, who firft
ealled her @:eroxo¢; in imitation of whom fome Latins be-

an to call her Delpera, Dei genitrix. The council of Ephe-
us firft gave a fanGtion to the appellation; but the fifth of
Conftantinople decreed, that the eee fhould always be
thuscalled. ‘This gave rife to terrible difputes : Anaitafius,
a prefbyter of Neltorius, patriarch of Conftantinople, firlt
aflerted, in a fermon, that the Virgin was by no means to

MOT

be called @rexes ; upon which words, a great tumult _arif-
ing, Neftorius took his prefbyter’s part, and taught the fame
doctrine.

Morner-Jongue is properly an original language, from
which others are formed,

Of mother-tongues, .Scaliger reckons ten in Europe;
viz. the Greek, Latin, Teutonic or German, Sclavonic,
Epirotic, Scythidn or European Tartar, Hungarian, Can-
tabrian, Irith, and Britifh.

Movuer- Churches, are thofe which have founded or ere&ted
others. See Panrisu.

In beneficiary matters they fay, it is not lawful for a
man to enjoy, at the fame time, both the mother and the
daughter: meaning, that the canon-law does not allow an
abbey, and the benefices depending thereon, to be held by
the fame perfon.

Morne, Fits of the. See HysTerta.

Moruer-Water, in Chemifiry, a name given to the folu«
tion of cryftalline falt, after no more cryftals wili form init
without more of the water being evaporated. It will be eafy
to conceive, that when the cryftallization of a falt has gone
on till the atcraction of the water for the falt is equal to the
attraction by which the cryftals are formed, that the procefs
muft top. ‘The affinity of cryftallization may be increafed,
and more cryftals may be formed, either by evaporating an
additional quantity of water, or by expofing the mother-
water to a lower temperature.

Mortuer of Nitre. See Nirre.

Moruer-Thyme, in Botany. See Tuyme.

Moruer-Wort. Cardiaca. See Leonurvs.

Mother-wort has been ufed as an ingredient in fome of the
compound waters, intended againft hyfteric complaints ; and
the country people frequently make an infufion of it in the
manner of tea, for the fame purpofe. It is alfo faid to be
good in flatulencies and colics, to give great relief in epileptic
cafes, and to deftroy worms. It promotes urine and the
menfes ; but its power this way is greatly inferior to that of
penny-royal.

The name cardiaca, improperly given to this plant, has
led many into an opinion of its being a cordial; but experi-
ence does not fhew any fuch thing.

Motuer of Vitriol. See Virion.

Moruer Carey’s chickens, a name given by the Englith
failors to birds which they fuppofe to be the forerunners of
a ftorm. See ProceLaria giganiea.

Mortuer Bank, in Geography, a bank in the Channel, be-
tween the Ifle of Wight and the coatt of Hampfhire, with
from three to eight fathom water. N. lat. 50° 41’. W.
long. 1°.

Stews Kill, a viver of the ftate of Delaware, in Kent
county, which runs into Delaware bay. N,. lat. 39° 5’.
W. long. 75° 30’.

Moruer and Daughters, three remarkable hills on the «
coaft of New Britain, in the Pacific ocean, fituated W. of
cape Pallifer.

MOTI, a town of Perfia, in the province of Segeftan;
60 miles N. of Zareng.—Alfo, a town of the ifland of
Sardinia; 27 miles E.S.E. of Saffari. N. lat. 40° 42’.
E. long. 9° 20!.

MOTIERS, a town of the Helvetian republic in the
principality of Neufchatel, the feat of a court of juftice ;
13 miles S.W. of Neufchatel.

MOTIKLEI, a gulf of Ruffia, in the fea of Ochotfkoi,
between cape Duginfkoi and the continent, about go miles
long, and from 12 to 16 broad, N. Jat. 59° 20! to 59° 36’.

E. long. 147° 34' to 149° 14/.
iis MOTIN,

MOT

MOTIN, a town of Mexico, in the province of Mecho-
‘acan, fituated at the foot of a mountain; 50 miles EUS.E.
of Colima.

MOTION, primarily fo called, or Local Motion, isa
continued and fucceffive change of place; or that flate of
a body, by which it correfponds {ucceffively to feveral differ-
ent places; or is prefent iucceflively ig different parts of
fpace. Or, motion may be concifely defined as the change
of reGtilinear diftance between two points.

In this fenfe the do@rine and Jaws of motion make the
fubject of mechanics, or ftatics. One of the ancient phi-
lofophers, when he was afked to give a defeription of motion,
is {aid to have walked acrofs the room, and to have replied,
you feeit, but what itis I cannot tell you.

The ancient philofophers confidered motion in a more ge-
neral and extenfive manner: they defined it, a paflage out of
_ one {tate into another ; and thus made fix kinds of motion,
viz. creation, generation, corruption, augmentation, diminution,
and dation, or local motion.

Some of the later fchoolmen reduce thefe fix kinds of
motion to four: the firlt is general, including any paflage
from one {tate to another ; under which kind come creation,

* produciion, and mutation. ‘The fecond is a paflage of fome-
thing already exiting from one {late to. avother ; and thus
generation is amotion. The third is a fucceflive paffage of
fomething already exifting from one term to another ; and
thus alicration and accretion are {pecies of motion. ‘The latt
is Jation, or local motion ; and thus w dking is motion.

But the luteft philofophers deny any other {pecies befide
Jocal motion ; and reduce all the forts above mentioned to this
one. So that we have here only to do with /ation, or local
motion; of which the reft are only fo many different deter-
minations or effects.

Phyfical writers, both ancient and modern, have ever been
perplexed about the nature and definition of /sca/ motion.
The Peripatetics define it by, 4@us entis in potentia, prout in
potentia, Arilt. 3. Phyf. cap. 2; but this notion feems too ab-
ftra@ and metaphyfical for our days, and is of no ufe in ex-
plaining the properties of motion.

The Epicureans explain motion, by the migration of a
body, or a part of a body from one place to another; on
which definition the later Epicureans refine, and call it, the
migration or paflage of abody from {pace to fpace; thus
fubitituting the word /pace, for that of place.

The Cattefians define motion, a paflage or removal of one
part of matter out of the neighbourhood of thofe parts im-
mediately contiguous to it, into the neighbourhood of others.
Which definition agrees, inteffect, with that of the Epicu-
reans: all the difference between them confifting in this ;
that what the one call Jody and place, the other call matier and
contiguous parts. J

Borelli, and other late writers after him, define motion,
more accurately and fully, the fucceffive paflage of a body
from one place to another, in a determinate time, by becom-
ing fucceffively contiguous to all the parts of the interme-
diate {pace.

Motion, then, is agreed to be the tranflation of a body
from place to place ; but authors differ much when they come
to explain in what this tranflation confits. And hence their
divifions of motion become exceedingly precarious. Ariflotle,
and the Peripatetics, divide all motion into natural and
wiolent s the firlt is that which has its principle, or moving
force, within the moving body. Such is that of a ftone
falling towards the centre of the earth. ‘The fecond is that
whofe principle is without, and againtt which the moving body

MOT ,

makes a refiftance. Such is that of a ftone thrown up-
wards. ; ,

The moderns generally divide motion into ab/olute and re-
lative. Abfolute motion is the change of abfolute place,

in any moving body; whofe celerity, therefore, will be
meafured by the quantity of abfolute {pace which the move-
able body runs through. Relative motion is a mutation
of the relative or vulgar place of the moving body ; and
has its celerity eftimated by the quantity of relative fpace
run through.

Others divide motion into proper, and improper, or foreign.
Proper motion is a removal out of one proper place into
another, which thus becomes proper, as being pofleffed by
this body alone, in exclufion of all others. Such is the mo-
tion of a wheel in aclock. Jmproper, extraneous, foreign,
or comgnon motion, is the paflage of a body out of one common
place into another common place. Such is that or a clock
when moving in a fhip, &c.

The reafon of all this diverfity feems to arife from the
not attending to the different meanings of the words, but
comprifing all in one definition and divifion ; which they
fhould rather have diftinguifhed into feveral parts.

Some, e. gr. in their definitions of motion, confider the
moving body, not as it regards the adjacent bodies, but as
it regards immovable and infinite fpace. Others, again,
confider the moving body, not as it regards infinite {pace,
but as it regards other bodies very remote.

And others, laftly, confider the moving body, not as it
regards remote bodies, but that furface only to which it is
contiguous.

But thefe various meanings being once fettled, the dif-
pute isterminated. For, as every thing that moves may be
confidered in thefe three feveral mafiners; there hence arife
three feveral kinds of motions ; of thefe, that which regards
the parts of infinite immovable fpace, without confideration
of the circumambient. bodies, may be called ad/olutely and
truly proper motion.

That which regards circumambient bodies very remote,
which may themfelves poflibly be removed, we call relatively
common motion. J

The lait, which regards the furfaces of the next conti-
guous bodies, inafmuch as it may want all both abfolute and
common motion, we call relatively proper motion.

Morion, Abfolutely and truly proper, then, is the applica-
tion of a body to different parts of infinite and immovable
{pace.

This alone is proper and ad/clute motion, being alweys
generated and changed by forces imprefled on the moving
body itfelf, and by thofe only ; and being that to whith the
real forces of all bodies to put others in motion by impulfe
are owing, and to which thofe motions are proporticned.
But this motion we cannot inveftigate or determine accu-
rately; nor can we diflinguifh, when two bodies are im-
pelled on each other, in which of the two (v. gr. that which
appears to move the more {wiftly, or the other, which ap-
pears to move more flowly, and perhaps even to be at reit)
the real motion, and, confequently, the real force whence
the impulfe arofe, is placed ; not being able to determine
whether the centre of gravity of the whole fyftem (which
is buta point in infinite tpace) 1s itfelf at reft, or in motion,

Movion, Relatively common, is a change of the fituation of
a body with refpect to the other remote circumambient
bodies : and this is the motion we {peak of, when we fay,
that men, cities, and the earth itfelf move round the fun.
This is alfo the motion we mean, when we eltimate the
quantity of motion, and the force any body has to impel

another,

MOTION.

another. For inftance, if a wooden {phere, filled with lead,
to make it the heavier, be dropped from the hand ; we are
accultomed to eftimate the quantity of mMtion, and the
force which the {phere has to impel another, by the celerity
of the {phere, and the weight of the inclt Jed lead ; and that
trply with regard to the force itfelf, and the effe& of it,
as it falls under our fenfes. But whether the real power or
motion be in the fphere which appears to firike, or in the
earth which appears to be {truck, that, as has been obferved
above, we cannot determine.

Morion, Relatively proper, is the fucceflive application of
a body tothe different parts of the contiguous bodies.

And this is the motion ufually underftood in phyfical
difputes about the natures of particular things; as when
we fay, that heat, found, Auidity, &c. confift in motion.
This muft be added, however, that by fucceflive application
of a body, its whole furface, taken together, muft be con-
ceived fucceflively applied to different parts of the contiguous
bodies.

From thele feveral deGnitions of motion arife as many de-
finitions of place: for when we {peak ef motion for ref)
truly and abfolutely proper ; then place is that part of infinite
and immovable {pace which the body fills.. When of motion
relatively common; then place is a part of any {pace or
moveable dimenfion. When of motion relatively prop (which
is really very improper) ; place is then the furface of the
next aqjacent bodies, or fenfible fpaces.

The definition of refk is pretry well agreed on; but
whether re!t be a mere privation of motion, or any thing
pofitive, is warmly difputed. Malebranche, and others,
maintain the former fide of the queftion ; Cartes, and others,
the latter. Thefe laft contend, that a body at reft has no
power to perfevere in that reft, nor to refift any bodies that
would deflroy it; and that motion may as well be called a
ceffation of reft, as reft of motion.

The main argument urged by the former is this: fuppofe.

a globe at relt, and fuppafe God ceafe to will its rett ;
what will be the confequence ? it will reft ftill, Let it be
in motion, and let God ceafe to will its motion; what will
be the confequence? it will ceafe to move ; that is, it will
be at reft: becaufe the power whereby a body in motion
perfeveres in that fate, is the pofitive will of God; that
whereby the quiefcent body perfeveres is. only his privative
will.

But this is a fetitio principit : for the force or conatus by
which bodies, whether moving or quiefcent, perfevere in
thofe ftates, is the mere inactivity of matter ; and, therefore,
were it poffible for God not to will any thing, a body
already in motion would move for ever; as a body at reit
would reft forever. To this inaétivity of matter it is owing,
that all badies refift according to their quantities of matter ;
and that any body ftriking another with any given velocity,
will move it in the fame proportion which its denfity, or
quantity of matter, has to the denfity, or quantity of matter,
of the other.

For want of a precife definition of the term motion,
many authors have fallen into confufian, fays Dr. Young,
(Courfe of Leures on Natural Philofophy, &c. vol. i.)
with refpe& to ab/olute and relative motion. The definition
of motion given, at the commencement of this article, as the
change of reCtilinear diftance between two points, appears to
be the definition of what is commonly called relative motion ;
but, on a ftri& examination, it will be found that what is
ufually called ab/olute motion is merely relative to fome {pace,
which is without motion, merely in eur imagination. The
fpace which we call quiefcent is, in general, the earth’s fur-
face, but aftronomy teaches us, that every point of the

earth’s furface is perpetually in motion. Moreover, when
we affert, that a body is abfolutely at reft, we only mean to
compare it with fome large fpace in which it is contained 5
for that any body exifts that is abfolutely at reft, in as ftriét
a fenfe as am abfolutely ftraight line may be conceived to
exilt, no one can pofitively iet and if fuch a quiefeent
body did exift, we have no criterion by which it could be
diftinguifhed. Suppofing a fhip to move at the rate of three
miles in an hour, and a perfon on board to walk, or to- be
drawn towards the ftern at the fame rate, he would be rela-
tively in motion, with refpeét to the fhip, yet we might very
properly confider him as abfolutely at reft; but he would,
on a more extended view, be at reft only in relation to the
earth’s furface ; for he would {till be revolving round the
axis of the earth, and with the earth round the fun, and with
the fun and the whole folar fyftem, he would be flowly
moving among the ftarry worlds which furround them.
Now, with refpect to any effects within the fhip, all the
fubfequent relations are of no confequence, and the change
of his retilinear diftance from the various parts of the
fhip is the whole that needs to be confidered in determining
thefe effe€ts. In the fame manner, if the fhip appear, by
comparifon with the water only, to be moving through it
with the velocity of three miles an hour, and the water
be moving at the fame time m a contrary dire¢tion at the
fame rate, in confequence of a tide or current, the fhip wili
be at reft with regard to the fhore, but the mutual ations
of the fhip and the water will be the fame as if the water were
afiually at reft, and the fhip in motion. It is not fufficient,
as our author proceeds, to obferve the increafe or decreafe
of diftance of a moving point from another fingle point only ;
we mutt compare its fucceffive fituations with many other
points furrounding it; and for this purpofe, thefe points
mutt be at reft among themfelves, in order to be confidered
as belonging to a quiefcent {pace or furface ; which may
be defined as a fpace or furface, of which all the poiuts
remain always at equal diftances from each other, without
any external influence. In this fenfe, we muft call the deck
of the fhip a quiefcent furface, whether the fhip be at anchor
or under fail; but we muft not confider a furface revolving
round a centre as a quiefcent furface ; for no fuch motion
can exift without the influence of a centripetal force, which
renders it improper for determining the affections. of a
moving body.

Motion has ever been efteemed a f{pecies of quantity ; and
its quantum, or greatnefs, which we otherwife call its mo-
mentum, is eitimated partly from the length of the line
whieh the moving body defcribes (as if a body pafs over a:
line of a hundred feet, the quantity of its motion is greater
than if it paffed over only ten feet), and partly from the
quantity of the matter moved together, or at the fame time ;
i. e. not from the bulk or extenfion of the body, but from
its mafs or weight ; the air, and other fubtile matters, with
which the pores are filled, not entering into the account :
as if a body of two cubic feet run over-a line of a hundred
feet, the quantity of its motion is greater than that of a
body of one cubic foot defcribing the fame line: for what-
ever motion one whole has, that is had in one-half of the
other ; and the motion of the whole is the fum of the
motion of all its parts. (See Force.) Hence it foliows,
that for two unequal bodies to have equal motions or mo~
mentums, the lines which they pafs over mult be in a reci-
procal proportion of their mafles or weights; i.e. if any
body have three times the quantity of matter that another
has, the line that it runs over mult be one-third of the line
run over by the other. If two bodies, then, fattened to

the two extremities of a. balance or lever, have their maflos
iB.

MOTION.

in reciprocal ratio of their diftances from the fixed point,
whence thefe are moved, they mutt defcribe lines in a reci-
procal ratio of thefe maifles.

For inftance, if the body A, (Plate XXXIV. Mechanics,

g. I.) have three times the ma{s or weight of B, and each
be faftened to the extremes of the lever A B, whofe ful-
crum or fixed point is C, in fuch manner as that the diftance
BC is thrice the diftance C A, the lever cannot incline
either way, but the {pace which the lefs body moves, B Eis
will be thrice the fpace A D, which the greater moves: fo
that their motions will be equal. Nor is there any reafon
why the body A, tending downwards, v. gr. with four de-
grees of motion, fhould raife the body B, rather than B,
tending downwards likewife, with the fame four degrees of
motion, fhould raife the body A: they will therefore be in
equilibrio. On which foundation depends the whole doGtrine
of mechanics.

Hence that great proverb of Archimedes, with any given
power, how {mall foever, to raife any weight given, how
great foever. For by increafing the diftance C B infinitely,
the power of the body B will be increafed infinitely.

It is allowed on all hands, that motion is no effential attri-
bute of matter: and hence arifes a difpute about its pro-
du@ion, and to what caufe its continuation is owing.

Morton, for the general Laws of, fee Laws of NATURE.

Motion, Quantity of, whether always the fame? The
Cartefians maintain, that the Creator at the beginning im-

refled a certain quantity of motion on bodies; and that
under fuch laws, as that no part of it fhould be loft, but the
fame portion of motion fhould be conftantly preferved in
matter: and hence they conclude, that if any moving body
ftrike on any other body, the former lofes no more of its
motion than it communicates to the latter.

This principle fir Ifaac Newton overturns in the following
words: “ From the various compofitions of two motions,
it is manifelt there is not always the fame quantity of mo-
tion in the world; for if two balls, joined together by a
flender wire, revolve with an uniform motion about their
common centre of gravity, and at the fame time that centre
be carried uniformly in a right line drawn in the plane of
their circular motion, the fum of the motions of the two
balls as often they are in a right line, drawn from their
common centre of gravity, will be greater than the fum of
their motions when they are in a line perpendicular to that
other. Whence it appears, that motion may be both gene-
rated and loft. But by reafon of the tenacity of fluid bo-
dies, and the fridtion of their parts, with the weaknefs of
the elaftic power in folid bodies, nature feems to incline
rauchrather to the deftruction than the produGtion of motion;
and in reality, motion becomes continually lefs and lefs.
For bodies which are either fo perfeétly hard, or fo foft,
as to have no elaftic power, will not rebound from each
other: their impenetrability will only ftop their motion.
And if two fuch bodies, equal to each other, be carried
with equal, but oppofite motions, fo as to meet ina void
fpace, by the laws of motion they muft ftop in the very
pace of concourfe, lofe all their motion, and be at reft for
ever; unlets they have an elaltic power to give them a new
motion. If they have elafticity enough to enable them to
rebound with 4, or 4, or 7, of the force wherewith they
meet, they will lofe 4, or 4, or 4, of their motion. And
this is confirmed by experiments: for if two equal pendu-
lums be let fall from equal heights, fo as to {trike full on
each other; if thofe pendulums be of lead, or foft clay,
they will lofe all, or almolt all their motion ; and if they be
of any elaltic matter, they will only retain fo much motion
as they receive from their elaflic power.” If it be afked,

ot

how it happens, that motion being thus continually loft,
fhould be continually renewed again: the fame author adds,
that it is renewed from fome a€tive principles, ‘ fuch as the
caufe of gravity, whereby the planets and comets preferve
their motions in their orbits, and all bodies acquire a great
degree of motion in falling ; and the caufe of fermentation,
whereby the heart and blood of animals preferve a perpe-
tual warmth and motion; the inner parts of the earth are
kept continually warmed; many bodies burn and fhine ; and
the fun himfelf burns and fhines, and with his light warms
and chears all things:’’ (as alfo from the caufe of elafticity,
by which bodies reftore themfelves inte their former figures,)
< for we find but little motion in the world, except what
plainly flows, either from thefe ative principles, or from
the command of the willer.”? The prefervation of the fame
quantity of motion in the univerfe, was a principle laid down
univerfally by Des Cartes; but has been found falfe, and
holds true only in the fame dire€tion, which is thus exprefied
by fir Ifaac Newton: ‘ the quaptity of motion, which is
colleGed by taking the fum of the motions directed towards
the fame parts, and the difference of thofe that are dire&ted
to contrary parts, fuffer no change from the a€tion of bodies
among themfelves.”” Newt. Princip. lib.i. See Conrisron.

Some philofophers, after Des Cartes, have fuppofed the
prefervation of the fame force or vis viva. See the articles
Force and Vis viva.

But this holds only in elaftic bodies, when there is a fhock ;
and hence thofe philofophers have been led to maintain, that
all bodies were elaftic, at leaft in their elements, and that
an inflexible body was impoffible, being repugnant to the
law of continuity. See ConTinuity.

Motion, 4s to the continuation of, or the caufe why a
body once in motion comes to perfevere in it: this has been
extremely controverted among phyfical writers: and yet it
follows very evidently, from one of the grand laws of na-
ture; viz. that all bodies perfevere in their prefent ftate,
whether of reft or motion, unlefs difturbed by fome foreign
powers. Motion, therefore, once begun, would be con-
tinued in infinitum, were it to meet with no interruption from
external caufes ; as the power of gravity, the refiftance of
the medium, &c. So that Ariftotle’s principle, every
thing in motion affects reft, is groundlefs. Nor has the
communication of motion, or the manner how a movin
body comes to affect another at reft, or how much of its
motion is communicated by the firft to the laft, been lefs
difputed. See the laws of it under the words CoLLision
and PERCUSSION.

Morion, we have obferved, is the fubje€&t of mechanics:
and mechanics is the bafis of all natural philofophy, which
hence becomes denominated mechanical.

In effe&, all the phenomena of nature, all the changes
that happen in the fyitem of bodies, are owing to motion ;
and are dire&ted according to its laws.

Hence, the modern philofophers have applied themfelves
with peculiar ardour to confider the do&rine of motion; to
inveftigate the properties, laws, &c. of it; by obfervation,
experiment, and the ufe of geometry. And to this we owe
the great adyantages of the modern philofophy above that
of the ancients; who were extremely regardle{s of motion;
netwithftanding that they feemed fo fenlible of its import-
ance, that they defined nature by the firlt principle of mo-
tion; and reft of the fub{tance in which it is.

Among all the ancients there is nothing extant on motion,
excepting fome things in Archimedes’s books, “ De /Equi-
ponderantibus.”’ ‘To Galileo.a great part of the do&trine of
motion is owing; he firft difcovered the general laws of
motion, and particularly of the defcent of heavy bodies,

both

MOTION.

doth at liberty and on inclined planes; the laws of the mo-
tion of projectiles; the vibrations of pendulums, and
ftretched chords, with the theory of refiftances, &c. which
were things of which the ancients had little notion.

His difciple, Torricelli, polifhed and improved the difco-
veries of his mafter; and added to them divers experim@nts
concerning the force of percuflion, and the equilibrium of
fluids. M. Huygens improved very confiderably on the
doétrine of the pendulum ; and both he and Borelli on the
force of percuffion. Laftly, Newton, Leibnitz, Varignon,
Mariette, &c. have brought the doctrine of motion {till
much nearer to perfection.

The general laws of motion were firft brought into a
fyftem, and analytically demonftrated together, by Dr.
Wallis, fir Chrittopher Wren, and M. Huygens, all much
about the fame time: the firlt in bodies not elaftic, and the
two laft in elaftic bodies. Liaitly, the whole dottrine of
motion, including all the difcoveries both of the ancients
and moderns on that head, was given by Dr. Wallis in his
«Mechanica, five de Motu,”’ publifhed in 1670. See Mr-
CHANICS,

Moron may be confidered either as eqguable, and uniform ;
or as accelerated, and retarded. LEquable motion, agaiu, may
be confidered either as fimple, or as compound; and compound
mo*ion either as re@ilinear, or as curvilinear.

’ And all thefe, again, may be confidered either with re-
gard to themfelves, or with regard to the manner of their
production, and communication, by percuffion, &c.

Moriox, Equable, is that in which the moving body pro-
ceeds with the fame unintermitting velocity.

The laws of eguable motion are as follow: the reader be-
ing only to obferve, by the way, that ma/s, or quantity of
matter, is exprefled by M; momentum, or the quantity of
motion or impetus, by I; time, or the duration of motion,
by T; velocity, or its {wiftnefs, by V5 and /pace, or the
line it defcribes, by S.

Thus, if the fpace be = s, and the time = ¢; the velo-

city will be exprefled by - And if the velocity = v, and

the mafs = m; the momentum will likewife be = um.

Morion, Laws of uniform or equable. 1. The velocities
V and w of two bodies, moving equably, are in a ratio com-
pounded of the direét ratio of the {paces S and s, and the
reciprocal ratio of the times T and ¢.

For Vaz and vy = =:
S
Therefore, V:v:: rT? = s

And V:v::S#:sT: confequently VsT = vSt.

This, and the following theorems, may be illuitrated in
numbers, thus: fuppofe a body A, whofe mafs is as 7,
that is 7 pounds, in the time of 3 feconds, paffes over a
{pace of 12 feet; and another body B, whofe mafs is as 5,
in the time of 8 feconds, pafles over a {pace of 16 feet: we
thall then have M—=7, T=3,.5S=12, m= 5, %= 8,
s= 16. And therefore V=4, v= 2. The cafe then
will ftand thus:

V. Sa ei Seisie PE.
Ai view 2) scitkea? MTG TG eGR ae 2.
Hence, if V = v, then will St = sT; therefore S : 5 ::
J :#. That is, if two bodies move equably, and with the
fame velocities, their {paces are as the times.

The corollaries may be illuftrated by numbers, in like
Vou. XXIV. :

manner as the theorems. Thus, fuppofe S = 12, T = 6,

s=8,4=4. Thenwill V= = Be a ns ea
Confequently V being = v
SP I pg

are Or cee Oren a

If T =#, Vs=wvS, andS:5:: Vi: v; i.e. the {paces
will be as the velocities.

If V =, and alfot = T, then will S = +s; and fo the
bodies, moving equably, will defcribe equal {paces in equal
times. t

2. The fpaces S and s, over which two bodies pafs, are
in a ratio compounded of the ratio of the times T and #, and
of the velocities V and wv,

Bor V2 sous
Therefore VsT = vS¢
And S$: s:: VT: of
In numbers, 12: 16:24 x 3:2x Si:32716. |

Hence, if S=s, VT = vt, fo that V:0::2:T.
That is, if two bodies, moving equably, deferibe equal
{paces, their velocities will be in a reciprocal ratio of their
times. In numbers, if we fuppofe S = 12, and s= 12.
BecaufeS= VT, ands =v; if V=2 and v= 3, T
= 6, and#¢= 4.

So that we have Vi u:: ¢:T
ors Sos a Os

Farther, if ¢= 'T, then will V =; and therefore
bodies, which move equably, defcribe equal {paces in equal
times, and have their velocities equal.

IfV:u:: T:#; then Vt=vT; and multiplying the
equal quantities VsT and vS#, by Ts, and dividing the
produdts by V# and wT, we fhall have sTT = Siz;
and S:s:: TT: ¢#, or the {paces as the fquares of the
times, ‘

3- The momenta, or quantities of motion, of two bodies,
moving equably, I and i, are in a ratio compounded of the
velocities V and v, and the maffes or quantities of matter
M and m.

For l= VM, and i= um; therefore T:i:: VM:vum;
that is, the ratio of I to iis compounded of the ratio of V
to v, and of M to m.

lf L=¢@, then will VM =m; and therefore V:@::
m:M. That is, if the momenta of two bodies, moving
equably, be equal; the velocities will be in a reciprocal
ratio of their maffes.

And therefore if M = m, V = v3; that is, if the mo-
menta and mafles of two moving bodies be equal, their velo-
cities are alfo equal.

4- The velocities V and w of two bodies, moving
equably, are in a ratio compounded of the dire& ratio of
their momenta I and i, and the reciprocal one of their maffes

M and m.

Since l:i:: VM: om
loum=iVM
Therefore V: 0 = Im:iM.

In numbers, 4: 2 :: 28 x 5:10x 7::4.x 132% Gaed sas

Hence, if V = v, then Im =#M; and therefore I s 7 =
M : m; that is, if: two bodies move equably, and with the
fame velocity, their momenta will be in the fame ratio with
their mafles. If M = m, I = i; and therefore if two bodies
that have the fame mafles move equably, and with equal
velocity, their momenta are equal. : ‘

5. In an equable motion, the maffes ef the bodies M
and m are in a ratio compounded of the dire& ratio of

Kk the

MOTION.

their momenta, andthe reciprocal ratio of their velocities
V and v.
For fince 1: i:: VM: um
lum=iVM

Therefore M:m=I1v0:iV
In numbers, 7:5 ::28X2:1OX 43:7 X55 X 1:57 5-
If M =™, then will Iv =7V;3 and therefore I: z=‘
V:v. That is, if two bodies, moving equably, have their
mafles equal, their momenta will be as their velocities.

In numbers, fuppofe l= 12, := 8, M=4, m=4;
8
then will V = oe ==). Ande), = —— x
4 4

Therefore Il: 7:: V: 2.
2s Ose sige a=
6. In an equable motion, the momenta I andzare in a
ratio compounded of the dire& ratios of the maffes M and
m, and the fpaces S and s, and the reciprocal ratio of the
times T and #

For becaufe V:uv:: St :sT
AndI :#:: VM: om

Therefore VI: v2:: VMSt:o0msT

AndIl:i::MSt:msT.

Hence, if I = i, then will MS¢=ms T; and therefore
M:m::51T:S#, S:s 2: mTsMt#, andT:t::MS:
ms; that is, if two bodies, moving equably, have their mo-
menta equal, 1. Their maffes are in a ratio compounded of
the direét ratios of the times, and the reciprocal one of their
{paces. 2. Their {paces are in a ratio compounded of the
dire& ratio of the times, and the reciprocal one of their
maffes. 3. Their times are in a ratio compounded of their
maffes, and their {paces.

- Farther, if M = m, then will sT = S¢#; and therefore
S:s=T:#; that is, if two bodies, moving equably, have
their momenta and their maffes equal, their {paces are as their
times.

Again, if T= +, then will S=s. The two moving
bodies, therefore, whofe maffes and momenta are equal, de-
{cribe equal {paces in equal times.

If befides I = 7, S = 5, then will mT = Mz; and there-
fore M:m:: T:¢; that is, if two moving bodies, whofe
momenta are equal, pafs over equal fpaces, their mafles are
proportionable to their times.

Farther, if T =?#, then will M=m; and therefore
bodies, whofe momenta are equal, and which, moving
equably, defcribe equal {paces in equal times, have their
maffes equal.

If befides L=i, [=¢#; then will MS = ms; and
therefore S:5::m:M; that is, the fpaces pafled over in
the fame time, by two moving bodies, whofe momenta are
equal, are in a reciprocal ratio of their maffes.

7. In anequable motion, the fpaces S and s are in a ratio
compounded of the direct ratios of the momenta IJ and 4,
and times T andt, and the reciprocal one of the maffes M
and m.

For becaufe I: i:: MSt:msT,

ImsT =iMSt
Wherefore S :6:: 1 Tm: itM.
In numbers, 12 : 16 :: 3x 28x 5:8x 10x
Pe MS Rae xl es 0a

738 3X 4 : 16.
Hence, if S=s, 1 m= itM; and therefore I; i::

tM:Tm M:m:IT sit, Titi: iM:Im. If two
bodies, therefore, move equably over equal fpaces, 1. Their
momenta will be ina ratio compounded of the direét ratio of
the maffes, and the reciprocal one of the times. 2. Their
majfles will be in a ratio compounded of the momenta, and
the times. 3. The times will be in a ratio compounded of
the direét ratio of che maffes, and the reciprocal one of the
momenta.

Tf befide S = s, M = m; then will 1T = it; and there-
fore 1:is:t:T. That is, bodies whofe maffes are equal,

‘have their momenta reciprocally proportionable to the times

in which they move over equal [paces. :

If befides S=s, T= +r; then willzM—=Im; andI:
z:: M : m; and therefore two bodies, moving equably, and
through equal {paces in equal times, have their momenta pro-
portionable to their maffes.

8. Two bodies, moving equably, have their mafles M
and m, in a ratio compounded of the direét ratios of the
momerta J and #, and the times T and ¢, and the reciprocal
one of the fpaces s and S. ;

For becaufe 1:i:: MS2:msT, ImsT =iMSze.
Wherefore M: m:: [Ts :itS.

In numbers, 7: 5 :: 3 x 28x 16:8 xX 10X 12::3X7
O02 SMDEHTIO | Sag EE Wyss ike

Hence, if M = m, then will ITs = 2#S; and therefore
Isa ee Se eT sy Ste 1 Pigsa and T stitial s.
That is, in two moving bodies, whofe mafles are equal;
1. The momenta are in a ratio compounded of the dire&
ratio of the fpaces, and the reciprocal one of the times.
2. The fpaces are in a ratio compounded of the momenta
and the times. 3. ‘The times are in a ratio compounded of
the direét ratio of the fpaces, and the reciprocal one of the
momenta. If befide M= m, T =7, thenwilliS = Is;
and therefore I :2:: S:s. That is, the momenta of two
bodies, whofe maffes are equal, are proportional to the {paces
pafled over in equal times.

g. In equable motions, the times T and ¢ are in a ratio
compounded of the direét ratios of the mafles M and m,
and the fpaces S and s, and the reciprocal one of the mo-
menta I and z.

For becaufe l:i::MSt:ms T, Ims T=iMSt#t.

“Wherefore T : ¢ 222M S: Tar:

Henee, if T = 4, iM S =I ms, and therefore I :i::
MS:ms, M:m::15:i8; andS:s::1m:iM. That
is, if two bodies, moving equably, deferibe equal {paces in
equal times; 1. Their momenta will be in a ratio com-
pounded of the mafles and the fpaces. . 2. Their maffes will
be in a ratio compounded of the direét ratio of the momenta,
and the reciprocal one of the fpaces. 3, The fpaces will be
in a ratio compounded of the dire&t ratio of the momenta,
and the reciprocal one of the mafles.

Motion, Accelerated, is that which continually receives
frefh acceffions of velocity. It is faid to be uniformly accele-
rated, when in equal times its acceffions of velocity aré
equal. "

Motion, Retarded, is that whofe velocity continually de-
creafes. It is faid to be uniformly retarded, when its de-
creale is continually proportional to the time.

Morton, Laws of, uniformly accelerated and retarded, It
is an axiom, that a body once at reft will never move, un-
lefs fome other body put it in motion: and when once in
motion, it will continue for ever to move with the fame ve-
locity, and in the fame direétion, unlefs it be forced from
its {tate by fome other caufe. This is evident from that
fundamental axiom in philofophy, that nothing happens
without a fufficient caufe. :

Tt follows, that a body, moved by one only impulfe, mutt

4 proceed

MOTION.

proceed in a right line. If then it be carried in a curve, it
mutt be aéted on by a double power ; one, whereby it would
proceed in a right line; another, whereby it is continually
drawn out of it.

If the action and re-aétion of two (unelaflic) bodies be
equal, there will no motion enfue; but the bodies, after
collifion, will remain at reft, by each other.

If a moving body be impelled in the dire@ion of its
motion, it will be accelerated; if by a refilting force, it
will be retarded. Heavy bodies defcend with an accelerated
motion.

ro. If a body move with an uniform accelerated velocity,
the {paces will be in a duplicate ratio of the times.

For, let the velocity acquired in the time ¢ be = v, then
will the velocity acquired in the time 2 ¢ = 2 v, in the time
3¢= 34, &c. and the {paces correfponding to thofe times,
t, 2t, 3¢, &c. willbe as wt, gut, gtv, &c. The {paces
therefore are as 1, 4, 9, &c. and the times as 1, 2; 3, &c.
that is, the {paces are in a duplicate ratio of the times.
Hence, in a motion uniformly accelerated, the times are in
a fubduplicate ratio of the fpaces.

11. The fpaces pafled over by a body uniformly accele-
rated, increafe, in equal times, according to the unequal
numbers I, 3, 55 7, &c.

For, if the times wherein a moving body, equably accele-
rated, proceeds, be as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. the {pace pafled
over in one moment will be as 1, in 2 moments as 4, in
as 9, in 4. as 16, in 5 as 25, &c. (Law io). If, therefore,
you fubtract the fpace pafled over in one moment, viz. 1,
from that paffed over in two moments, 4, there will remain
the {pace correfponding to the fecond moment, viz. 3. In
the fame manner may be found the {pace paffed over in the
third moment, 9 — 4 = 5. The {pace corre{ponding to
the fourth moment, 16 — 9 = 7; and fo of the reft. The
fpace of the firft moment, therefore, is as 1, that of the
fecond as 3, that of the third as 5, of the fourth as 7, of
the fifth as 9, &c. Therefore the {paces pafled over by a
body, eae with an uniformly accelerated motion in equal
times, increafe according to the unequal numbers, 1, 3, 5,
7. 9» &e.

12. The fpaces paffed over by a body equably accelerated
are in a dupiicate ratio of the velocities.

For, fuppofing the velocities to be V and v, the times T
and_#, and the ok S and s; then wil V:o:: T: 4.
Wherefore, fince S ; s:: T* ; # (Law 10.),S: 83: V?
70. 4
Wherefore, in a motion uniformly accelerated, the veloci-
ties are in a {ubduplicate ratio of the {paces.

13--Heavy bodies defcend with an uniformly accelerated
motion, in a medium void of refiltance, if the {paces be not
very great. For, fince heavy bodies defcend with an accele-
rated velocity, the power of gravity muft continually impel
them. But the power of gravity is found the fame at all
diftances from the earth where the experiment can be made.
Therefore heavy bodies muft be driven downwards in the
fame manner in equal times. If then, in the firft moment
of time, they be impelled with the velocity v, they will be
impelled with the fame velocity v in the fecond moment, and
with the fathe in the third, fourth, &c. moments. Now the
medium being fuppofed void of all refiftance (by Hypoth.)
they will {till retain the velocity they acquire; and by reafon
of their equal frefh acquifitions every minute, they will de-
{cend with a motion uniformly accelerated.

- Hence, the {paces of defcent are in a duplicate ratio of
their times, and alfo of their velocities, and the increafe ac-
cording to the uneven numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, Kc.

The times, and likewile the velocities, are in a fubdupli-

cate ratio of the fpaces. See the laws of accelerated mo,
tion, otherwife illu(trated and evinced under ACCELERATION,
and Laws of the Descent of bodies.

14, If a heavy body fall through a medium void of re-
fiftance, and from a height not very great; the {pace it
paffes over is the fubduple of that which it would pafs over
by an uniform motion in the fame time, with the velocity it
has acquired at the end of its fall.

For, let the right line A B (Plate XXXIV. Mechanics,
Jig. 2.) xeprefent the whole time of a heavy body’s defcent ;
and let this be divided into any number of equal parts; to
the abfciffles A P, AQ, AS, A B, draw the right lines
PM, QI, SH, BC, which may be as the velocities ac-
quired, in thofe times, in the defcent. Since then A P:
AQ:PM:QI, AP: AS::PM:SH, &c. (Euclh
VI. 2.) If then the altitude of the triangle A BC be con-
ceived to be divided into equal parts infinitely fmall; the
motion being uniform in a moment of time infinitely {mall ;
the little area Pp Mm = Pp x PM may be confidered as
the {pace pafled over in the little moment of time Pp.
Therefore the {pace paffed over in the time A B, will be as
the fum of all the little areas, i. e. as the triangle A BC.
But the {pace that would-be defcribed in the fame time A B
with the uniform velocity BC, being as the rectangle
ABCD, it will be to the other fpace as 2 to 1. (Eucl. I.

41)- °

Hence the fpace paffed over in half the time A B, with
the velocity BC, is equal to the {pace which the heavy body
paffies over froma flate of reft in the whole time A B.

Hence, alfo, the time wherein a heavy body falls from
any given altitude being given; it is eafy to determine the
{paces it paffes over in each part of that time. For the
method of doing,this, fee Laws of the Descent of bodies.
_ 15. If a body proceed with a motion uniformly retarded,
it will pafs over half the {pace which it would deferibe in
the fame time by an equable motion.

For, fuppofe the given time divided into any number of
equal parts; and draw the right lines BC, S H, QI, PM,
thereto, which are to be as the velocities correfponding to
the parts of time, BS, BQ, BP, BA; foas letting fall
the perpendiculars H E, I F, M G, the right lines C E,
CF, CG, CB, may be as the velocities loft in the times,
HE, F1, GM, A B; thatis, BS, BQ, BF, BA.
Sine CE: CF:: EH: FI, CG:CB:: GM: BA,
A BC will bea triangle (Eucl. III. 17). If B34, there-
fore, be a moment of time infinitely {mall, its motion will
be uniform ; and therefore the {pace defcribed by the moy-
ing body will be as the little area B&cC. The {pace,
therefore, defcribed in the time A B is as the triangle
ABC: wiz. as the {um of all the little areas BhcC. Now
the {pace defcribed by the body moving uniformly with the
velocity B.C in the time A B, is as the rectangle ABCD:
therefore the former is half of this. dEucl. I. 41.

_ 16. The fpaces defcribed by a motion uniformly retarded,
in equal times, decreafe according to the unequal numbers
7s 59 39 1-
_ For, fuppoling the moving body in the firft inftant of
time to pafs over feven feet ; [ fay, that in the fecond, if it
be equally retarded, it will pafs over 53 in the third, 33
and in the fourth, 1. For, let the equal parts of the axis of
the triangles BS, SQ, QP, PA, be asthe times; the
femi-ordinates B C, S H, QI, PM, as the velocities at
the beginning of any time’; the trapezia BS HC, S QIH,
QPMI, and the triangle P A M, as the {paces defcribed
in thofe times, Let then BC = 4, and BS=S Q=QP
=PA=r1. Theowill SH = 3, QI=2, PM=1,
(Law 13.) BSHC = (4+ 3)1:2 i, SQIH =
Rk 2 (3 +2)

MOTION.

(34 2)r:2=% QPMI=(24 thi:2=3PAM
Confequently the {paces defcribed in equal times are
S25 S5So Ss that is, asves 5s aan kee

For the caufe, (Sc. of the acceleration of motion, fee GRA-
vity, and ACCELERATION.

For the caufé, Sc. of the retardation, fee RestisTANCE, and
RETARDATION. z

The laws according to which motion is communicated by the
collifion and pereillien of bedies, are very different, as the
bodies are either elaffic or unelaffic, and as the direGtion
of the ftroke is either oblique or dire@. See CoLiision and
PERCUSSION.

Morton, Simple, is that produced by fome one power.

Morion, Compound, is that produced by feveral confpir-
ing powers. (See Comrounp, and ComposirIon of motion.)
Powers are {aid to con/pire, when the direétion of the one is
not oppofite to that of the other; as when the radius of a
circle is imagined to whirl round on its eentre, and a point
in the fame radius is at the fame time fuppofed impelled
itraight along it.

Ail curvilinear motion is compound ; as all /imple motion
is reCtilinear.

17- If a moving body ( Plate XXXIV. Mechanics, fiz-3-)
be acted on by a double power ; the one according to the di-
reGtion A B, the other according to A C ; with the motion
compounded of both it will defcribe the diagonal of a pa-
rallelogram A D ; whofe fides A Band A Cit would have
defcribed in the fame time with each of the refpedtive
powers apart. .

For, if the body A were only a&ed on by the force im-
prefled along A B ; in the firft inftant of time it would be
in fome point of the right line A B, as in H, and fo in the
line H L parallelto A C ; if it were only aéted on by the
power impreffed in the dire€tion A C, it would in the fame
inftant of time be in fome point of the lire A C, as in I,
and fo in the line I L parallel to A B. But fince the direc-
tions of the powers are not oppofite to each other, neither
ef them can impede the other ; and therefore the body in
the fame inftant of time will arrive both at the lines H L and
1 L; and will confequently be in the point L, where the
twomeect. In the fame manner it appears, that if K M and
M G be drawn parallel to A B and AC, the body in the
fecond inftant of time will be in M, and at length in D.
Q. E. D.

This important law of motion may be further illufrated
by fuppofing the fpace E F GH, (Plate XXXIV. Me-
chanics, fig. 4.) to be carried uniformly forward in the direc-
tion A B, and witha velocity reprefented by A B. Leta
motion in the direGtion A. D, and meafured by the right line
A.D, beimpreffed upon the body A in the fpace EF GH.
"Lo thofe who are in this fpace, the body A will appear to
move in the right line A D ; butits real or abfolute motion
will be in the diagonal A C of the parallelogram A BCD;
and it will defcribe A C in the fame time that the {pace by
its uniform motien, or any point of it, is carried over a
right line equal to A B, or that the body A, by its motion
acrofs the fpace, defcribes A D. For it is manifeft, that
the line A D, in confequence of the motion of the fpace,
is carried into the fituation BC, and the point D toC; fo
that the body A really moves in the diagonal AC. This
Jaw may alfo be confirmed by an experimentin the following
manner: let there be a wooden {quare A BC D, (fig. 5.) fo
contrived, as to have the part B EF C made to draw out or
puth into the {quare at pleafure. To this part let the pul-
ley Hbe joined, fo as to turn freely on an axis, which will
be at H when the picce is puthed in, and at A when it is
drawn cut. ‘I’o this part let the ends of a fraight wire £ be

7

=i
=" 5.

wv

fixed, fo as to move along with it, under the pulley; and .
let the ball G be made to flide eafily on the wire. A thread
mis fixed to this ball, and goes over the pulley to I: by this
thread the ball may be drawn up on the wire, parallel to the
fide A D, when the part B E F Cis pufhed as far as it will
go into the fquare. But if this part be drawn out, it will
carry the ball along with it, parallel to the bottom of the
{quare D C. By this means, the ball G may either be drawn
perpendicularly upward by pulling the thread m, or moved
horizontally along by pulling out the part BE F C, in equal
times, and through equal {paces ; each power ating equably
and feparately upon it. But if, when the ball is at C, the
upper end of the thread be tied to the pin I, in the corner
A of the fixed fquare, and the moveable part B EF C be
drawn out, the ball will then be a¢ted on by both the powers
together : for it will be drawn up by the thread towards the
top of the fquare, and, at the fame time, carned with its
wire # towards its right hand B C, moving all the while in
the diagonal line L ; and will be found at g when the fliding
part is drawn out as far as it was before ; which then wil
have caufed the thread to draw up the ball to the top of the
infide of the {quare, jut as high as it was before, when
drawn up fingly by the thread without moving the fliding
part.

The converfe of this law is, that the motion in the diago-
nal A C, (fig. 4.) may be refolved into the motions in the fides
of the paraliclograms A Band AD. For itis manifeft,
that if A K (jig. 6.) be taken equal to A D with an oppo-
fite dire€tion, andthe parallelogram A K BC be com-
pleted, the right line AB fhall be the diagonal of this
parallelogram; confequently, the motion A C, compound-
ed with the motion A K equal and oppofite to the mo-
tion A D, produces the motion AB; that is, if from the
motion A C, in the diagonal, you fubdu& the motien A D
in one of the fides, there will remain the motion A B in the’
other fide of the parallelogram A BCD.

This do@rine will receive farther illuitration by refolving
each of the motions A Band A D into two motions, one in
the direétion of the diagonal A C, and the other in the di-
reGtion perpendicular to it; that is, by refolving (Plate
XXXIV. Mechanics, fig. 7,) the motion A B into the mo-
tions: A M and AN, and motion A D into the motions A K
and A L. For the triangles A D K and BC M being
equal and fimilar, D K is equal to B M, or A LtoAN;
fo that the metions A Land AN, being equal and oppo-
fite, deftroy each other’s effect : andit being an obvious and
general principle, that the motion of a body in aright line is
no way affected by any two equal powers or motions that act
in dire€tions perpendicvlar to that line, and oppofite to each
other, it thus appears how the body A is determined to
move in the diagonal A C ; and becaufe A K isequalto MC,
it appears how the remaining motions A M and A K are ac-
cumulated in the direction A C, fo as to produce a motion
meafured by A C. It appears likewife, how abfolute mo-
tion is loft in the compofition of motion ; for the parts of
the motions A Band A D that are reprefented by A N and
A L, being equal and oppofite, deftroy each other's effet,
and the other parts A M and A K, only, remain in the di-
rection of the compounded motion A C; while, on the con-
trary, in the refolution of motion, the quantity of abfolute
motion isincreafed, the fum of the motions A Band A D,
or BC, being greater than the motion AC. But the fum
of the motions, eltimated in a given direétion, is no way af-
feéted by the compolition or refolution of motion, or indeed
by any aétions or ifluences of bodies upon each other, that
are equal and mutual, and have oppofite directions.

For fuppofe that (Plate XX XLV. Mechanics, fig. 8.) the

motions

MOTION.

motions are to be eftimated in the direction A P; let C P,
BR, D Q, be perpendicular to this dire€tion in the points
-P, R, and Q ; then the motions AC, A B, A D, reduced
to the direction A P, are to be eltimated by A P, A K,
and A Q refpedtively, the parts which are perpendicular to
AP having no effe&t in that direction. Let AP meet
BCinS; then becaufe R Pisto S P, as BC (or A D)
toC S, that is, as A Q to SP, it follows that A QO ts
equal to RP, and that AR + A Q is equalto A P;
that is, that the fum of the motions A B and A D, reduced
to any given direction A P, is equal to the compounded
motion A C reduced to the fame direétion. From which
it is obvious, that, in general, when any number of motions
are compounded together, or are refolved, the fum of their
motions continues invariably the fame, till fome foreign in-
fluence affects them.

_ From the above reafoning it is plain that fince about every
right line, as AD, (fg. 3.) a parallelogram, as A B C D,
may be conttruéted, by making two equal triangles A C D
and A BD, on one common bafe A D; every reéilinear
motion, when it may be of fervice for the demonttration, may
be confidered as a compound one. But as the proportion of
the fides A C and C D may be various, fo alfo may the right
line A D be defcribed by a motion compounded in various
ways ; and therefore the fame rectilinear motion may be re-
duced to various compound motions.

Hence, if a moveable body be drawn by three feveral
powers, according to the directions BA, AD, and AC,
(/g- 9.) two of which taken together are equivalent to the
third; they will be to each other as the right lines D C,
DA, DB, parallel to their direGions ; that is, recipro-
eally as the fines of the angles included between the
Jines of their directions, and the line of direétion of the
third: D.B being to A D as the fine of the angle BA D
to the fine of the angle A B D.

1g. In anequable compound motion, the velocity pro-

duced by the confpiring powers is, to the velocity of each
of the two apart, us the diagonal A D (fg. 3.) of the pa-
rallelogram A B DC, in the direftion of whofe fides they
a&, to either of thofe fides A B or A C.
- Forinthe fame time that one of the powers will carry it
over the fide of the parallelogram A B, and the other over
AC feparately, joined together they carry it over the dia-
gonal AD. The diagonal A D, therefore, is the {pace
deferibed by the confpiring powers in the fame time : but
in an equable motion the velocities in the fame time are as the
fpaces: the velocities therefore arifing from the confpiring
forces are to the velocity arifing from either force, as A D
toABor AC.

Hence the confpiring forces thereof being given; 7. e.
the ratio of the velocities being given by the lines A B and
AC given in magnitude, and the dire€&tion through thofe
lines being given in pofition, or by the angle of direction ;
the celerity and direétion of the oblique motion is given ;
becaufe the diagonal is given both in magnitude and po-
fition,

The oblique motion however being given ; the fimple ones
arenot, vice verfi, given; becaufe the fame oblique motion
may be compounded of various fimple ones.

20. Ina compound motion produced by the fame forces,
the velocity is greater, if the angle of direction be lefs ; and
lefs, if this be greater.

For let the greater angle of dire€&tion be B A C (fig. 10.)
the lefs I AC; fince the powers are fuppofed the fame,
A.C will be common to each parallelogram A FC E and
B AC D, and belides A B= AF. Now it is evident,
that, da the cafe of the greater angle, the diagonal A D is

defcribed ; and, in the cafe of the lefs angle, AE: and
both in the fame time, becaufe A B=APF. The velo-
cities, therefore, are as A D to A E: wherefore, fince AD
is lefs than A TS, the velocity in the cafe of the greater angle
is lefs than that of the lefs angle.

Hence, fince the legs AC and CE, with the included
angle, being given, the angle C E A, and thence alfo AE,
is found; the velocity of the confpiring powers, and the
angle of dire&tion, in any particular cale, being given, the
velocity of the compound motion, and confequently the ratio
of the velocities produced by the fame powers under dif-
ferent angles of direGtions, may be determined.

For the particular laws of motion arifing from the collifion
of bodies, both elaftic and unelaflic, and that where the direclions
are both perpendicular and oblique, fee Coitision and Per-
CUSSION.

Fer circular motion, and the laws of projediles, fee Pro-
JECTILE.

For the motion of pendulums, and the laws of ofcillation, fee
PENDULUM.

Morton, Altitude of. See ALTITUDE.

Morion, Longitude of. See Loncirupe.

Morton, Perpetual, in Mechanics, a motion which is fup-
plied and renewed from itfelf without the intervention of
any external caufe ; or it is an uninterrupted communication
of the fame degree of motion from one part of matter to
another, ina circle or other curve returning into itfelf, fo
that the fame momentum ilill returns undiminifhed upon the
firft mover.

This celebrated problem of a perpetual motion confiits
in the inventing of a machine, which has the principle of its
motion within itfelf. M. de la Hire has demonttrated the
impeffibility of any fuch machine, and finds that it amounts
to this, viz. to find a body which is both heavier and lighter
at the fame time; or to find a body which is heavier than
itfelf.

To find a perpetual motion, or to conftru& an engine,
&c. which fhail have fuch a motion, is a famous problem
that has employed the mathematicians of two thoufand years ;
though none, perhaps, have profecuted it with attention and
earneftnefs equal to thofe of the prefent age.

Infinite are the {chemes, defigns, plans, engines, wheels,
&e. to which this longed-for perpetual motion has given
birth = it were as endieis as impertinent to give a detail of
them all.

In effet, there feems but little in nature to countenance
all this affiduity and expeGation: among all the laws of
matter and motion, we know of none yet, which feem to
furnifh any. principle or foundation for {uch an efleé.

A@tion and re-aétion are allowed to be ever equal ; and
a body which gives any quantity of motion to another,
always lofes juft fo much of its own; but under the pre-
fent Rate of things, the refiftance of the air, the fri€tion
of the parts of machines, &c. do neceflarily retard every
motion.

To keep the motion conftant, therefore, either, firft, there
muft be’a fupply from fome foreign caufe ; which in a per-
petual motion is excluded.

Or, fecondly, all refiftance from the frition of the parts
of matter muit be removed; which neceflarily implies a
change in the nature of things.

For, by the fecond law of nature, the changes made
in the motions of bodies, are always proportional to the
imprefled moving force, and are produced in the fame
dire@ion with it; no motion then can be communicated
to any engine, greater than that of the firft force im-

refled.
a r Bat,

M: 072

But, on our earth, all motion is performed in a refitting
medium, and mult, therefore, of neceffity be retarded ;
eonfequently, a confiderable quantity of its motion will be
{pent on the medium. Re

Nor is there any engine or machine in which all fri€tion
can be avoided; there being in nature no fuch thing as
exa@ fmoothnefs, or perfeét congruity; the manner of
the cohefion of the parts of bodies, the {mall proportion
the folid matter bears to the vacuities between them, and
the nature of thofe conftituent particles not admitting it.
This fri€tion, therefore, will alfo in time fenfibly diminifh
the impreffed, or communicated force; fo that a perpetual
motion can never follow, unlefs the communicated force
be fo much greater than the generating force, as to re-
compence the diminution made therein by all thefe caufes :
but nil dat quod non habet, and the generating force can-
not communicate a greater degree of motion than it hath
itfelf.

Or, thirdly and laftly, there muft be fome method of
gaining a force equivalent to what is loft, by the artful
difpofition and combination of mechanic powers; to which
laft point, then, all endeavours are to be directed : but
how, or by what means fuch force fhould be gained, is
ftill a myftery ! at f

The multiplication of powers or forces, it is certain,
avails nought : for what is gained in power is ftil loft
in time, fo that the quantity of motion {till remains the
fame. This is an inviolable law of nature ; by which no-
thing is left to art, but the choice of the feveral combina-
tions that may produce the fame effect. :

Although it 1s allowed, that, by the refolutioa of force,
there is a gain or increafe of the abfolute quantity of force,
as the two forces in the fides of the parallelogram taken
together exceed the force in the diagonal which is refolved
into them, yet you cannot proceed refolving motion im
infinitum by any machine whatfoever ; but thofe you have
refolyed muft be again compounded, in order to make a
continual movement, and the gain obtained by the refolu-
tion will be loft again by the compofition. In like man-
ner, if you fuppofe two bodies to be perfeétly elaftic, and
that the leffer body ftrikes the other at reft, there will be an
increafe of the abfolute quantity of force, becaufe the
ftriking body will be refle&téd ; but if you fuppofe them
both to turn round any centre, after the ftroke, fo as to
meet again, this increafe of force will be loft, and their
motion will be reduced to its firft quantity. Such a gain,
therefore, of force, as mult be afterwards loft in the a¢tions
of the bodies, can never produce a perpetual movement.
There are various ways, befides thefe, by which abfolute
force may be gained; but fince there is always an equal gain
in oppofite direétions, and no increale obtained in the fame
dire¢tion ; in the circle of aGtions neceflary to make a perpe-
tual movement, this gain mutt be prefently loft, and will not
ferve for the neceflary expence of force employed in over-
coming friction, and the refiftance of the medium. We may
obferve, therefore, that though it could be fhewn, that in
an infinite number of bodies, or in an infinite machine, there
could bea gain of force for ever, and a motion continued to
infinity, it does not follow that a perpetual movement can
be made. That which was propofed by M. Leibnitz, in
Augult, 1690, in the Leipfic As, as a confequence of
the common eftimation of the forces of bodies in motion,
is of this kind, and for this and other reafons ought to, be
rejected.

The poffibility of a perpetual motion has been urged from
the following fpecious argument. Let ‘the height AB
( Plate XXX1V. Mechanics, fig. 11.) be divided into four

MOT

equal parts AC, CD, DE, EB: fuppofe the body A
to acquire, by the defcent A C, a velocity, as 1 ; and this
motion, by any contrivance, to be tranfmitted to an equal
body B: then let the body A, by an equal defeent CD,
acquire another degree of motion, as 1, to be tranfmitted
likewife to the fame body B, which in this. manner is fup-
pofed to acquire a motion, as 2, that is fufficient to carry
it upwards from B to A; and becaufe there yet remain
the motions which A acquires by the defcents D E and
E B, that may be fufficient to keep an engine in motion,
while B and A-afcend and defcend by turns, it is hence
concluded, that a fufficient gain of force may be obtained
in this manner, fo as to produce a perpetual movement,
But it fhould be confidered, that two equal fucceflive im-
pulfes, a&ting upon the fame body, will not produce a mo-
tion in it double of that which would be generated by the
firft impulfe; becaufe the fecond impulfe has neceffarily a
lefs effe€t upon the body, which is already in motion, than
the firft impulfe which a@ted upon it while at reft. In like
manner, if there is a third and fourth impulfe, the third
will have lefs effe& than the fecond, and the fourth lefs
than the third. Hence it appears, that a motion, as 2, in
the preceding cafe, cannot be produced in B, by the two
fucceflive impulfes tranfmitted from A, each of which is
as 1. Maclaurin’s View, &c. book ii. c. 3. See Onrry-
REuS’s Wheel.

Motion, Rotatory. See Rotatory Motion.

Motion, Animal, is that by which the ftvation, figure,
magnitude, &c. of the parts, members, &c. of animals are
changed.

Under thefe motions come all the animal funGtions ; as
re/piration, circulation of the blood, excretion, walking, &c.
Animal motions are ufually divided into two fpecies; viz.
Spontaneous, anid natural.

Spontaneous or mufcular motion is that performed by means
of the muicles, at the command of the will; hence alfo
called voluntary motion : or, according to the fyitem of Dr.
Hartley, voluntary motions are fuch as immediately fucceed
to volition (which fee), without the intervention of fenfible
impreffions, See Muscutar Motion. ‘

Natural, involuntary, or automatic motion, is that effected
without fuch command of the will; by the mere mecha-
nifm of the parts. Such is the motion of the heart and
pulfe ; the periftaltic motion of the inteftines, &c.

Semivoluntary are thofe which in part, but not uni-
formly, follow the will; fuch, e.g. are breathing, vomit-
ing, and the like. Thefe are excited fometimes by a ftimulus
independent on the will; and, at other times, they are partl
reftrained or accelerated by volition, a fenfe of decency,
propriety, &c. with which they may happen to have been
affociated. There are other motions, | originally automatic,
which, after becoming perfe@tly voluntary, by affociation
become gradually voluntary, and in the end completely au-
tomatic again. ‘Thus, a perfon learning to play upon the
harpfichord, exerts an exprefs volition for every motion of
the finger upon the keys of the inftrument; by degrees the
vifible appearance of the notes will produce the motions with-
out the intervention of volition ; and at laft the motions will,
as it were, cling together, and’ produce each other in a man-
ner perfectly automatic, without the intervention of yo-
lition, fenfation, or idea, and even when the attention is wholly
engaged upon a fubject foreign to the performance.

Morton, Jntefline, denotes an agitation of the particles of
which a body confitts.

Some philofophers will have every body, and every par-
ticle of abody, in continual motion, As for fluids it is the

definition

i

MOT
Gefinition they give of them, that their parts are in continual
motion.

And as to folids, they infer the like motion from the ef-
fluvia continually emitted through their pores.

Hence inteftine motion is reprefented to be a motion of the
internal and fmaller-parts of matter, continually excited by
fome internal, latent agent, which of itfelf is infenfible, and
only. difcovers itfelf by its effects; appointed by nature to
be the great inftrument of the changes in bodies.

Merion, in 4/ronomy, is peculiarly applied to the orderly
courfes of the heavenly bodies.

The motion of the earth, from weit to eatt, is now gene-
tally granted among aftronomers: fee it proved under the
article Eartu.

Morton, Mean. See Mean.

The motions of the celeftial luminaries are of two kinds:
diurnal, or common ; and fecondary, or proper.
| Diurnal, or primary motion, is that with which all the
heavenly bodies, and the whole mundane fphere, appear to,
revolve every day round the earth, from ealt to welt. This
is alfo called the motion of the primum mobile, and the common
motion ; to diftinguifh it from that rotation which is peculiar
to each planet, &c. It is about the various phenomena re-
fulting from this motion, that aftronomy is chiefly employed.
See Diurnat.

Secondary, or proper motion, is that with which a ftar,
planet, or the like, advances a certain {pace every day from
weil towards eatt.

See the feveral motions of each luminary, with the irre-
gularities, &c. to which they are fubject, under the proper
articles, EAntH, Moon, Star, &c.

Morton, Angular. See ANGULAR.

Horary Motion of the earth. See Horary.

‘ Paracentric Motion of impetus. See PARACENTRIC.
' Morton of Trepidation, &c. See TRepmarion, and Lt-
BRATION.

Motion, in Mujfic, denotes the manner of beating the
meafure, to haften or flacken the time of the words, or notes.
See Time.

The motion, in fongs compofed in double time, differs
from that in thofe in triple time. It is the motion that dif-
tinguifhes courants and farabands from gavots, borees, cha-
cones, &c. :

Motion, Moto, or Movimento, in the Jtalian Mufic, has
many foie cas fometimes it means only a motion or
paflage from one note to another, at whatfoever diftance, as
a fecond, third, or any other interval; and is the fame whe-
ther the intermediate degrees (if there are any) be founded,
or only the extremes ct them, as the firft and lait found of
any given interval. Sometimes it regards the quicknefs and
flownefs of fuch motions, as a brifl, flow, lively, or languid
motion ; and in this fenfe it is ufed with regard to minuets,
gayots, farabands, &c. See each article in its proper place.

But the moft common, and indeed the molt important ac-
ceptation of the word, is with refpe€t to harmony ; thofe
above defcribed only regarding melody.

With regard to harmony, it is the comparing the manner
wherein an upper or treble part moves from one found to
anether, with that wherein a lower or bafs-part moves ; this
isto be done three ways. The firft is when the upper and
lower parts both move the fame way, either upwards or down-
wards, and is called moto rette. The fecond is when in com-
paring the upper with the lower part, the one afcends while
the other defcends, or ¢ contra, and hence called moto contrario.
The laft is when one of the parts holds out, or continues a
found, while the other rifes or falls on any note whatfoever ;
and this is called moto obliquo.

MOT

Morron, in the Ancient Mujic, was ufed to fignify the
tranfition of the voice, from an acute toa grave found; or
the contrary. This they exprefled by xara sowoy xsveucbar.
See Locts.

Meibomius tranflates it, moveri in loco. :

Motion is alfo ufed, among Mechanics, for the infide of
a watch, &c. more commonly called movement.

Morons, in Military Language, denote the marches,
RU eee &c. which an army makes in changing its
pott. By
The great fkill of a general confifts in difcovering the
enemy’s motions, and concealing his own. Nothing is more
dangerous than to make great motions before a powerful
enemy, ready to come to blows. See Marcu.

Motion, inthe Manege. A horfe is faid to have a pretty
motion, when he moves and bends his fore-legs with great
eafe and freedom upon the manege. But if a horfe trots
right out and keeps his body ftraight, and his head high, and
bends his fore-legs handfomely, then to fay he has a pretty
ous with him, implies the liberty of a@ion of the fore-

ead.

Motion, or Emotion, in Rhetoric. See Passion.

Motions, Rhythmical, a phrafe ufed by Voffius, and other
writers on the ancient rhythm, to exprefs thofe motions
which were made ufe of in the Greek and Roman entertain-
ments to convey the ideas of the poet, or to affift mufic in
roufing the paffions. Thefe not only had great force when
joined with founds, but even without any veice or found they
could move the paffions in the fpeGator more than many of
the beft orators of the times could do with their mott la-
boured difcourfes.

Rofcius, the ftage-player fo famous in their pantomimes,
which were all dumb-fhow, was fo excellent at expreffion by
thefe rhythmical motions, or geftures, that Cicero and he
being contemporaries, there were many difputes between
them, which could vary the fame fentence moft ; the one
ufing all the power of words, the other being confined to
geftures alone.

Motion in court. In the courts of chancery, king’s bench,
&c. motions are made by barriiters and counfellors at law,
for what concerns their clients’ caufes; and where any motion
is made in chancery, that is not of courfe, generally an affi-
davit of the faéts alleged mut be read in court ; and if mo-
tions are founded on the general rules or ufage of the court,
and are not of courfe, but granted or denied as the court
thinks fit, on hearing counfel on both fides, notice is to be
given in writing to the folicitor of the other party, or his
clerk in court, exprefling every thing to be moved for, which
mult be ferved two days at leaft before the day on which the
motion is to be made; whereof affidavit shuft alfo be made.

Morion of Plants, in Gardening, the-courfe or dire&tion
of growth which is taken in different parts of them.

With refpe& to the roots and ftems, the direction is totally
oppofite, the former either running direlly downward into
the ground, or horizontally under the furface ; while the lat-
ter direct their motion towards the air and light of the fun.
moltly in an upright manner, but fometimes horizontally
along the furface of the ground. The caufes which operate
in promoting thefe are the queft of nourifhment in the root,
and the influence of the air, and light of the fun, on the ftem ;
for when any number of plants growing in pots is placed in
a room, which only admits a {mall portion of light at one
place, the ftems all incline towards that fide; in clofe dark
thickets, the ‘young trees always leanto the part where the
mott light penetrates ; and the new fhoots of efpalier or wall-
trees detach themfelves from thofe fupports, in queft of free
air and light,

And

MOT

And it would feem that the force of motion is greater in
the roots than in the ftems; the roots, without ever once
going out of their way, pierce the hardeft foils, penetrate
isto walls, which they overturn, and even into rocks, which
they {plit; whereas the items and branches furmount ob-
itacles by leaving their natural dire€tion, and over-topping
them.

But though the natural tendency of moft ftems or trunks
is to afcend, yet fome by their weaknefs, or natural growth,
defcend : and occafionally by means of roots breaking out
all along the ftems and branches, as in the ftrawberry, penny-
royal, and many other creeping plants, the ftems are, by
the roots {triking into the earth, tethered as it were to the
ground, ard only their extremities have the power of directing
their courfe upwards.

The leaves and flowers of plants alfo dire& their courfe
towards the air, and light of the fun; the leaves always turn-
ing their upper furface outward to the air and light ; which
is very obyious in wall-trees, and whea a branch is over-
turned, fo that the leaves are inverted, they naturally dire&
their furfaces again gradually upwards to the light and air,
though this often takes them feveral days’ growth. Some
flowers are alfo fuppofed to have a particular daily motion,
fo as to prefent their furfaces direGtly to the fun, and follow
the diurral courfe of it, as the fun-flower, and molt of the
compound flowers; in ail of which the difk or furface is be-
lieved to look towards the eaft in the morning, the fouth at
noon, and the weft in the evening.

And during the heat of the fun, the pinnated or winged
leaves, particularly of the papilionaceeus tribe of plants, rife
vertically upwards, the oppelite lobes or folioles, which com-
pole the leaves, rife fo as to be generally applied clofe to-
gether by their upper furfaces; but in that itate of the at-
mofphere which generally precedes a {torm, or during a
clofe, moilt, cloudy air, the lobes of the fame fort of leaves
extend themfelves commonly along the footftalk ; and after
fun-fet incline ftill lower, and hang dire@tly down under the
footftalk, being applied clofe together like the leaves of a
book, by their lower furfaces ; a tate which by Linnzus is
called the fleep of plants.

Farther, the fimple leaves of many plants, when their fur-
face is expofed to an ardent fun, alfo become concave above,
but gradually recover as the heat declines. But, of all the
motions of the leaves of plants, none is fo fudden and rapid
as thofe of the fenfitive and humble kinds.

There is another kind of motion in plants ; that is, elaf-
ticity ; which is refident particularly in fome forts of feed-
veflels, fuch as the yellow balfamine, and {purting cucum-
ber, &c, in which their fruits, when arrived at maturity,
burlt open like a fpring, and dart out their feeds with an
elaftic force to a confiderable diftance in. many cafes.

MOTIR, in Geegraphy, a fmallifland in the Balt Indian
fea, of a triangular torm, about 24 miles S. from Ternate.
N. lat, 0° 26’. E. long. 127° s9/.

MOTIVE is fometimes applied to that faculty of the
human mind, by which we purfue good and avoid evil. ‘Thus
Flobbes dilting uifhes the faculties of the mind into two forts,
the cognitive, and motive.

Morive, in Metaphy fies and Merals, denotes whatever
moves or influénces the mind in its choice; which fome
writers have extended fo as to include the bias of the mind
as well as the end in view, and to comprehend both reafon
and inclination, and in a word, every cireumftance imme-
diately previous to the volition, and which in the leat degree
contributes to generate the choice. Others, however, con-
ceive that it is abfurd to fay, that our inclinations aét upon

MOO T

us, or compel us, and that our defires and fears put us inte
motion, or produce. our volitions; that is, are agents. But
though this notion be abfurd, it is perfe@tly conceivable that
they may be the sccafions of our putting our/clves into motion.
Accordingly it is alleged, that there is an effential and total
difference between the ideas of an efficient caufe and an account
or occafion. What fenfe would there be in faying that the
Jfituation of a body, which may properly be the occafion or
account of its being ftruck by another body, is the efficient
of its motion or its impeller ? It is upon the influence of mo-
tives that the modern advocates for the doétrine of neceflity
lay the main ftrefs of their caufe. Every deliberate ation,

they fay, muit have a motive. When there is no motive on the
other fide, this motive muft determine the agent: when there

are contrary motives, the ftrongeft muft prevatil. We reafon

from men’s motives to their aGtions, as we do from other

caufes to their effets. If man be a free agent, and be not

governed by motives, all his a@ions muft be mere caprice ;

rewards and punifhments can have novefle& ; and fuch a being

mutt be abfolutely ungovernable. On the other hand, the

advocates for liberty, confidered as ‘* a power to at,” or

“a power of /e/f-motion, or felf-determinatior,’’ whillt they

allow, that all rational beings are influenced, and ought to

be influenced by motives, maintain, that the influence of
motives is.of a very Ccifferent nature from that of, efficient

caufes. They arc neither caufes nor agents. They fuppofe

an efficient caufe, and can do nothing without it. We can-

not, without abfurdity, as they argue, fuppofe a motive ei-

ther to act or to be ated upon; itis equally incapable of
a&tion or paffion; becanfe it is not a thing that exilts, but a
thing that is conceived ; it is what the {choolmen call an ‘ ens

rationis."’ Motives, therefore, may influence to a€tion, but

they do not a&. They may be compared to advice, or ex-

hortation, which leaves a man {till at iberty. For ia vain

is advice given, when there is not a power either to do, orto

forbear, what it recommends. In like manner, motives fup-

pofe ltberty in the agent, otherwife they have no influence at

all. With refpec& to matter, it isa law of nature, that every

motion, and change of motion, is proportioned to the force

imprefled, and in the dire@tion of that force. The fcheme

of neceffity fuppofes a fimilar law to obtain in all the actions.
of intelligent beings ; and this implies, that every aGtion, or

change of action, in an intelligent being, is proportional to

the force of motives impreffed, and in the dire€tion of that

force. It is farther alleged, that as the law of nature refpeét-

ing mafter is founded upon this principle, viz. that matter is

an inert, inactive fubitance, which does not a@, but is aéted
upon, the law of neceffity muft be grounded upon the fup-
pofition, that an intelligent being is an inert, inactive fub-

itauce, which does not a&t, but is acted upon. In relation

to this fubjeé, it has been further alleged, that rational
beings, in proportion as they are wife ahd good, will ac&t

according to the be{t motives; and that every rational being,

who does otherwife, abufes his liberty. The moft perfect

being always infallibly aéts according to the belt motives ;

but to fay that fuch a being does not act freely, becaufe he

always does what is bell, is in effeét to fay, that the proper

ule of liberty detlroys hberty, and that liberty confils only

in the abufe of it. Whilttit is granted, that motives have in-
fluence, fimilar to that of advice or perfualion, this influence

is perfectly confiltent with liberty, and indeed fuppofes,
liberty. In orderto determine the queftion, whether or not
every deliberate aétion muil have a motive, it-fhould be con~
fidered in what. fenfe the word deliberate is ufed. If by a
deliberate action, we mean, agreeably to the onginal meaning

of the term, an action in which motives are weighed, there

mult be motives, and even contrary motives, otherwife on

cou

MOTIVE.

could not be weighed. But if a deliberate aétion means
only, as it commonly does, an aétion done by a cool and
calm determination of the mind, with forethought and will,
many fuch actions are done without a motive. On this point
an appeal may be made to every man’s own conf{cioufnefs,
Cafes do occur, and they are not unfrequent, in which a
perfon who intends the end finds not the leaft difficulty in
adopting one of various means for its attainment, though at
the time he be firmly perfuaded, that it has no title to be
preferred to any of the others. To fay that. fucha cafe can-
not happen, is to contradiét the experience of mankind ; and
to fay that if it fhould happen, the perfon could not exe-
cute his purpofe, is {till more ridiculous, though the authority
of fome of the f{choolmen has determined, that the als
between two equal bundles of hay, would ftand ftill till it
died of hunger.

If a man could not a& without a motive, he would have
no power at all; for motives are not in our own power;
and he that has not power over a neceffary mean, has no
power over the end. Although actions that are performed
without any motive, can have neither merit nor demerit,
and are, therefore, infignificant in a moral eftimation, they
are important, it is faid, in the queftion concerning moral
liberty. For, if there ever was any action of this kind,
motives are not the fole caufes of human action; and if we
have the power of acting without a motive, that power,
-joined to a weaker motive, may counterbalance a ftronger.

It has been further urged, that it can never be proved,
that when there is a motive on one fide only, the action mutt
be determined by it. If there be fugh things as wilfulnefs,
caprice, or obftinacy, among mankind, a fingle motive, or
indeed many motives, may be refilted. When it is faid,
that of contrary motives, the ftrongeft always prevails, it
is neceflary, before the affertion can.be either affirmed or
denied, to afcertain what is meant by the ftrongeft motive;
but this cannot be eafily done. Unlefs fome fort of meafure
of the ftrength of motives, diftinét from their prevalence,
can be found, it cannot be determined, whether the ftrongeft
motive prevails or not. Every thing that can be called a
motive, is addreffed either to the animal or to the rational
part of our nature; and, therefore, motives may -be deno-
minated ‘animal’? when they are fuch as are common to
us with the brutes, and “ rational,”’? when they are peculiar
to rational beings. When a man is a¢ted upon by contrary
motives of the former kind, he finds it eafy to yield to the
ftrongeft; but if it be mquired, whether the ftrongeft of
this kind of motives always prevails, this is probably the
cafe with regard to brute animals. They have no felf-com-
mand, and are, therefore, not accountable. But with men,
poffefling rational powers, and any degree of felf-command,
the ftrongelt animal motive does not always prevail. It is,
however, to rational motives, that the term “ motive’ is
more commonly and more properly applied. They do not

ive a blind impulfe to the will as animal motives do, but
Sey influence the judgment; they convince, but do not
impel, unlefs they excite fome paffion of hope, or fear, or
defire. But there may be conviction without paffion; and
the convition of what we ought to do, in order to fome
end which we have judged fit to be purfued, is what is called
a “rational motive.”” Ifthere be any competition between
rational motives, it is evident, that the ftrongeft, in the eye
of reafon, is that which it is moft our duty and our real
happinefs to purfue. This may be called the ‘ rational
telt’’ of the ftrength of motives. The grand and the
important competition of contrary motives is between the
animal on the one hand, and the rational on the other. If
it be afked, which of thefe is the ftrongeit motive? The

Vou. XXIV.

an{wer is, that the firft is commonly ftrongeft, when ¢
are tried by the animal teft. If it were not fo, human life
would not be a ftate of trial. But contrary motives being
tried by the rational teft, it is evident, that the rational mo-
tive is always the ftrongeft. Hence it is inferred, that the
{trongeft motive, according to either of the telts above-
mentioned, does not always prevail. In every wife and vir-
tuous action, the motive that prevails is the ftrongeft accord-
ing to the rational teft, but commonly the caked according
to the animal. In every foolifh, and every vicious aétion
the motive that prevails is commonly the ftrongeft according
to the animal telt, but always the weakeft according to the
rational. The writer, whofe fentiments we are now flating,
farther obferves, that we reafon from men’s motives to
their ations, and in many cafes with great probability, but
never with abfolute certainty ; but yet we fhould be charge-
able with weak reafoning, if we inferred from this circum-
ftance, that men are neceffarily determined by motives; nor
is it better reafoning to conclude, that, if men are not
neceflarily daecanined by motives, all their ations muft be
capricious. It is equally unreafonable to conclude, that if
men are not neceflarily determined by motives, rewards and
pucifhments would have no effect. Upon the fuppofition of
neceflity, it is alleged, there can be neither reward nor
punifhment, in the proper fenfe, as thofe words imply good
or ill defert. Reward and punifhment are only tools em-
ployed to produce a mechanical effect. When the effe& is
not produced, the tool muft be unfit or wrongly applied.
Whereas, upon the fuppofition of liberty, rewards and
punifhments will have a proper effe&t upon the wife and
good, but not fo upon the foolifh and vicious, when oppofed
by their animal paffions or bad habits; and this is agreeable
to fa&. Upon this fuppofition, the tranfgreffion of the law
implies no defeé in the law, nor fault in the law-giver; the
fault is folely in the tranfgreffor ; and it is upon this fup-
pofition only, that there can be either reward or punifhment,
in the proper fenfe of the words, becaufe it is only on this
fuppofition that there can be good or ill defert. Reid’s
Effays on the Active Powers of Man, Eff. iv, chap. 4 and ¢.
Suppoiing a power of felf-determination, fays another
excellent writer in evincing the confiftency of liberty with
acting from a regard to motives, it is by no means neceflary
that it fhould be exerted without a regard to any end or
rule. On the contrary, it can never be exerted without
fome view or defign. ‘The power of determining ourfelves,
by its very nature, needs an end and rule to guide it ; and
no probability, or certainty, of its being excited agreeably
to arule, can have the leaft tendency to infringe or diminifh
it. All that fhould be avoided here is, the intolerable ab-
furdity of making our reafons and ends in aéting the phy-
fical caufes or efficients of aétion. This is the fame with af-
cribing the a¢tion of walking, not to the feet (or the power
which moves the feet), but to the eye, which only es the
way. ‘The perception of a reafon for ating, or the judg-
ment of the underitanding, is no more than feeing the way. ie
is the eye of the mind, which informs and dire&ts; and
whatever certainty there may be that a particular determina-
tion will follow, fuch determination will be the /e/f-determi-
nation of the mind; and not any change of its ftate ftamped
upon it, over which it has no power, and in receiving which,
inftead of being an agent, it is merely a pafkve fubje? of
agency, This author infifts much on the importance of
the diftinétion maintained by Dr. Clarke, between the ope-
ration of phyfical caufes, and the influence of moral rea/ons.
The views or ideas of beings may be the account or occafions
of their ating ; but it is a contradiGtion to make them the
mechanical efficients of their a@tions. Phyfical and moral
L1 caufes

MOT

caufes differ in the following particulars; the one are beings,
the others are only the views of beings;—the one always
do; and the other may produce a certainty of event; but
the certainties in thefe two cafes effentially differ ; and to
afcribe a neceffary and phyfical efficiency to motives, is (as
Dr. Clarke has obferved) the fame with faying, that «an
abftraét notion can ftrike a ball; the certainty. of event
arifing from the operation of phy/ical caufes is always equal
and invariable, but the certainty of event arifing from moral
caufes, that is, from the views and perceptions of beings,
admits of an infinite variety of degrees; and fometimes
paffes into probability and contingency. Suppofing contrary
reafons equally balanced in the mind, it may be uncertain
how a being willa&. £. G. If a temptation to an ad of
wickednefs comes in the way of a man whofe love of virtue
is nearly equal to the ftrength of his paffions, it may be
doubtful which way he will determine. If his love of virtue
exceeds the influence of paffion, there will be a probability
of his ating virtuoufly, proportioned to the degree in which
the love of virtue prevatls within him; ana it may be fo
prevalent as to make it certain, that he will always follow
his perceptions of virtue. Moreover, in the operation of
phyfical caufes, it is always implied, that there is not in any
fenfe a power to produce, or a poffibility of producing any
ether effect than that which is produced; but the contrary
is true of effeéts dependent on the wi!ls, and occafioned by
~ the views of free agents. A benevolent man will certainly
relieve mifery when it falls in his way ; but he has the power
of not relieving it. On the contrary, a ftone thrown from
the hand mu/? move. The benevolent man aés; the ftone
only fuffers. Who can deny, as the fame author proceeds,
even with refpe& tothe fupreme deity, that however certain
it may be, that he will‘not make his creation miferable, he
has the power to doit? It is, indeed, on this power, that
all our notions of moral excellence in the aétions of beings
depend,
aétion, or flf determination,.than the falling of rain is the
action, or felf-determination of rain, it would not be the
obje& of moral approbation; or the ground of efteem ard
gratitude. It is added, that the cau/ality implied in the
views and difpofitions of beings is entirely confiftent with
moral obligation and refponfibility ; but all, effets brought
about by mechanical laws are inconfiftent with them. Upon
the whole, as our author argues, the queftion concerning
liberty is not, *¢ whether the views or ideas of beings influence
their a€tions ; but what the nature of that influence 1s.’ This,
as the advocates for liberty contend, is not any kind of me-
chanical or phy fical efficiency ; for if it were, man could not
be faid to a@. It would be folly to applaud or reproach
ourfelves for our conduct ; and there would be an end of all
tnoral obligation and accountablenefs. Price’s Review of
Morals, p. 410 to p. 415, ed. 2d; and A Free Difcuffion of
the Doétrines of Materialifm and Philofophical Neceffity, in
a Correfpondence between Dr. Price and Dr. Priettley,
p-134, &c. See Liserty.

The’advocates for neceffity, on the other hand, maintain,
that, if /e/f-motion or Jelf-determination, properly fo called, be
effential to liberty, man does not poffefs it ; and if this, and
nothing elfe, be called agency, they deny that man is an
agent : becaufe every human volition is invariably directed
by the circumftances in which a man is placed, and what
they call “*motives.”” To this purpofe Dr. Prieftley fays,
it appears to me that we have no more reafon, from fad and
obfervation, to conclude that a man can move him/elf, that
is, that he can quill without motives, than that a ttone can
move jtfelf. And, if the will 19 as invariably influenced by
motives as the ftone is influenced by gravity, it may jult

12

Were the beneficence of a being no more his.

MO. T

as well be faid that the ftone moves itfelf, though alway 6
according to the laws of gravity, as that the will, or the

mind moves itfelf, though always according to the motives :

and whether thefe motives be called the moral or the phyfical
caufes of our volitions, is of no fort of fignification, becaufe
they are the on/y and the neceffary calf jultas much as gravity
is the only and neceflary caufe of the motion of the ftone.

Let the mind aét contrary to motives, or the ftone move
contrary to the laws of gravity, and “I fhall then,”’ fays
Dr. Prieftley, “ but not befere, believe, that they are not
the only and neceffary caufes.”’ The difference afferted by
the Libertarians to fubfift between moral and phyfical caufes
and effe&ts, appears to me, fays the fame author, to be that
which fubfifts between voluntary and involuntary caufes and
effe€is: and this indeed is a moft important difference.

Where involuntary motives are coricerned, as is the cafe of a
man dragged by force, it is abfurd to wfe any reafoning or

expoftulation, or to apply rewards or punifhments, becaufe
they can have no effec: but where voluntary motives are
concerned, as in the cafe of a man who is at liberty to go

where he pleafes, &c. reafoning and expoftulation, rewards
and puniihments, have the greatelt propriety, becaufe they

have the greateft effe& ; for they are applied to, and in-
flzence or move the will, as much as external force moves

the body. On this circumftance, vix. the influence of mo-

tives on the will, it is faid, that the whole of moral di/cipline

depends; fo that if the will of :.an were fo formed, as that

motives fhould have no influence upon it, he could not be
the fubje& of moral government; becaufe the hope of re-

ward and the fear of punifhment operate in no other manner

than as motives applied to the will. "The ideas belonging to

the terms accountablene/s, praife, and blame, merit and demerit,

all relate to the bufinefs of moral difcipline, and therefore

neceflarily imply that men are influenced by motives, and

at from fixed principles and charaGer, though on account of
our not comprehending the dotirine of cau/es, and flopping

where we ought not, we are generally under fome miftake or

mifconception with refpe& to them. Dr. Prieftley thinks,

that in treating this fubjeét philofophically, thefe words

fhould be difufed. Correfpondence, &c. ubi fupra. Prieft-

ley’s Differ. vol. ii. Belfham’s Elem. of the Philofophy of
the Mind. See farther on this fubje& the article Ne-

CESSITY.

MOTIVO, in /talian Mufic, implies the theme, fubje&, or
two or three firft bars of a compofition. This technical term
is chiefly ufed by compofers in {peaking of particular moye-
ments. It expreffes the primitive and original idea upon
which a compofer forms an air or movement, and arranges
his defign. It is the motivo, or firft conception, that in-
clines him to feize the pen in order to fix or imbody one
text or thought upon paper in preference to another ; it re-
fembles the prima intenftone of painters. In this fenfe the _
principal motivo or fubjeét ought to be continually in the
compofer’s mind, nor fhould he fufferit to be forgotten by
the audience. A compofer is faid ‘¢ to be beating about the
bufh,’? when he lofes fight of the motivo, and is tringin
paflages together without fenfe or conneétion with eac
other.

Befides the motivo, which is only the leading idea of the
piece, there are particular traits which naturally arife out
of the fubject and modulation, which, by being interwoven
in the texture of the harmony, difcover the author's ability
and refources ; or, if not perceptible, his want of fcience and
invention

MOTO, Ital. motion: as Moto contrario, contrary
motion ; con moto, with motion, not dragged or too flow.

Moto,

MOT

Moro, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ;

miles E. of Pattun.

MOTODZIECNO, a town of Lithuania, in the palati-
nate of Wilna; 64 miles E.S.E. of Wilna. 4

MOTOL, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Brzefc; 60 miles E. of Brzefc. es

MOTOLA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Congo.
—Alfo, a town of Naples, in the province of Otranto, the
fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Tarento; 134 miles E. of
Naples. N. lat. 40° 52’. E. long. 17° 2’.

MOTOORAH, a townof Bengal ; 50 miles $.S.W. of
Calcutta. N.Jat. 229 2'. E. long. 87° 48'.

MOTOOTABOO, one of the {maller Friendly iflands ;
3 miles N.W. of Tongataboo.

MOTORES Ocutorum, in Anatomy, the nerves of the
third pair, which fupply the mufcles of the eye. See
NERVE.

Morores Oculorum Externi, the nerves of the fixth pair,
diftributed to the external {traight mufcles of the eyes. See
NERVE.

- MOTOS, poros, a piece of lint, or linen cloth, opened
like wool, to be put into ulcers, to {top the flux of blood,
&e.

Motos, in the Materia Medica of the Ancients, was a name
given by Galen and others to a kind of caffia bark, the beft
and fineft that has been ufed at any time, The ancients were
very fond of this drug, and ranged it, according to its dif-
ferent goodnefs, into feveral forts.

MOTOUA, in Geography. See Mutova.

MOTOVSKAIA, a town of Roflia, in the government
of Archangel; 12 miles N.N.E. of Kola.

MOTRAPOUDUR, a town of Eengal; 10 miles N. of
Mahmudponr.

MOTRICO, a fea-port town of Spain, in Guipufcoa,
in the bay of Bifcay ; 18 miles W. of St. Sebaftian.

MOTRIL, a fea-port town of Spain, in the province of
Granada. From this town, along the coaft as far almoft
as to Gibraltar, there are feveral fugar-mills, called « In-

enios,’”? and at Motril are four ef them, which have
beeh ufed from time immemorial for the manufaéture ‘of
fagar ; but the culture of fugar-canes has of late, from po-
litical motives, been fuperfeded by that of the vine; 4 miles
E. of Malaga. N. lat. 36° 45'. W. long. 3° 42—Alfo,
a town of Walachia; 10 miles N.N.W. of Krajova.

MOTRIX, fomething that has the power or faculty
of moving.

Morrix, Vis. See Vis Motrix, and Motion.

MOTTA RapwaELLo, in Biography. See RAPHAEL-
LINO.

Motta, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Trevifan;
18 miles E.N.E. of Trevigia.—Alfo, a town of Italy, in
the department of the Upper Po; 21 miles E. of Cremona.

Morra, La, a town of Sicily, inthe valley of Noto; 11
miles W. of Calabria.

Morta di Brazzano, a town of Naples, in Calabria
Ultra; 17 miles S. of Gierace.

Morta di Reina, a town of Naples, in Capitanata; 6 miles
S. of Serviero.

Morra St. Gio, a town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra;
6miles $.S.E. of Reggio.

Morra Sideroni, a town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra ;
4 miles N.E. of Gierace.

MOTTABHEN, a town of Arabia, in Yemen;
miles N.E. of Beit el Fakih.

MOTTAPAR, a town of Hindooftan, in Travancore;
21 miles N.E. of Porcah,

10

MOT

MOTTARELLE, a town of Italy, in the Paduan ;
9 miles S.S.W. of Padua.

MOTTE, Awnrnony Houparr pe 1a, in Biography, a
confiderable French writer, was born at Paris in 1672.. He
was educated at one of the feminaries of the Jefuits, and
was deftined for the profeffion of the law. This was not fuit-
ed to his tafte, fo that he quitted his legal ftudies, and devoted
himfelf to polite literature. At the age of twenty-one he
wrote a comedy, which was reprefented, but which proved
unfuccefsful. Mortified at the difappointment, he wifhed to
take the habit of the order of La Trappe, and offered him-
felf at the monaftery, but after a flay of a few weeks he
was difmiffed, returned to Paris, and compofed an opera,
entitled “ L’ Europe Galante,” that obtained for him great
applaufe. This was the commencement of his fame ; he
afterwards publifhed feveral other pieces, which proved that
he had great talents for lyric poetry. In 1707, he pub-
lifhed a volume of “ Odes,” that were pretty much read,
but did not add to his reputation. In 1710 he was ad-
mitted a member of the French academy, and his difcourfe
on his reception was reckoned a model of the kind. He
next had a defire of being diftinguifhed in the compolition
of tragedies, and wrote feveral, of which the moft fuccefs-
ful was ‘Ines de Caftro;” it proved, we are told, one of
the moft interefting pieces on the French ftage, was aéted a
vaft number of times on its firft appearance, and is ftill po-
pular, From tragedy he turned to comedy, and compofed
feveral pieces of that kind which were well received, parti-
cularly one entitled ** Le Magnifique,’’ which has retained
a place among the moft popular performances. In 1719
he publifhed.a volume of “ Fables,”’ which, though greatly
criticifed, were much read, and feveral of their lines be-
came proverbial. He was author likewife of paftoral
eclogues, cantatas, pfalms, and hymns; but he has likewife’
attained to a high degree of excellence as a profe writer.
His academical difcourfes have been much applauded, par-
ticularly an eulogy on Lewis XIV., which, among the num-
ber compofed for the purpofe, is the only one not entirely
forgotten. He affumed alfo the charaGer of a theolo-
gian, and drew up “ A Plan of Evidences of Religion,”
whieh is thought to be a very valuable produétion. He
maintained, through life, a perfe& calmnefs in all the events
of the world: although for many years he was reduced
nearly to a ftate of blindnefs he bore the affliction with
much patience and’refignation, as he did the fymptoms of
a decline, which put anend to his life in 1731, at the age
of fifty-nine. His works were publifhed colleétively at
Paris in 1754, in eleven volumes, 8vo. An inftance is given
of the great mildnefs of his difpofition: being in a crowd
he trod on the foot of a young man, who inftantly ftruck
him a blow on the face: « Sir,’ faid La Motte, «you
will be very forry for what you have done when I tell you I
am blind.” ~—Moreri.

Morte, in Geography, a {mall ifland in lake Champlain,
about eight miles in length, and two in breadth, diftant two
miles from Hero ifland. It conftituted a townfhip of its
own name in Franklin county, Vermont, named in 1802
Vineyard: which fee.

Morte, Za, atown of France, in the department of the
be ae placed on an eminence, not far from the Mouzon 5
6 miles N.E. of Bourmont.

Morre-Achard, La, a town of France, in the department
of the Vendee, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of
Les Sables d’Olonne; 9 miles N.E. of it. The place con-
tains 250, and the canton 7533 inhabitants, ona territory of
3174 kiliometres, in 12 communes,

Lia Morte

MOT my

Morte-Chalencon, La,atown of France, in the depart-
ment of the Drdme, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri&t of Die; 16 miles S. of Die. The place contains
1161, and the canton 7546inhabitants, ona territory of 3624
kiliometres, in 17 communes.

Morte-du-Caire, La, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lower Alps, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri&t of Silteron ; 9 miles N. of it. The place con-
tains 581, and the canton 4435 inhabitants, on a territory
of 1974 kiliometres, in 12 communes.

Morrte-Heraya, La, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Two Sevres, and chief town of a canton, in
the diftri@ of Melle. The place contains 2515, and the
canton 8536 inhabitants, on a territory of 165 kiliometres,
in 8 communes.

Morte St. Jean, La, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Saone and Loire ; 6 miles W.N.W. of Paray-
le-Monial.

MOTTENE, a town of Arabia, in Yemen; 8 miles S.W.
of Sana. ;

MOTTENHAGEN, a town of Pruffia, in the province
of Natangen; 15 miles E.S.E. of Konigfberg.

MOT TEVILLE, Frances Bertaup bp; in Biography,
daughter of a gentleman in ordinary of the king’s bed-
chamber, was bora in Normandy about the year 1615. She
vias brought up at the court of queen Anne of Auttria, with
whom fhe ingratiated herfelf by her talents and agreeable
manner. By the influence of cardinal Richelieu fhe was
banifhed the court, and retired to Normandy, where fhe
married Nicholas Langlois, lord of Motteville, firft prefi-
dent of the chamber of accounts at Rouen. He was an
old man, and left her a widow in about two years. After
the death of Richelieu, queen Anne, then regent of France,
recalled her to court, and kept her about her own perfon.
The attachment which fhe had to the queen induced her to
adopt the defign of writing memoirs of her life, and with
that view fhe began to note downevery thing worthy of re-
membrance. The refult was a work entitled “* Memoires
pour fervir a 1 Hiftoire d’Anne d’ Auftriche :’’ it was printed
in 1723, in five volumes 12mo., and again in 1750, in fix
volumes 12mo. Thefe memoirs difplay an intimate ac-
quaintance with the court during the minority of Lewis XIV.,
and are re das true. She died at Paris in the year
1689. oreri. f

MOTTEUX, Perer Antruony, was a native of
France, being born in 1660 at Rohan, in Normandy, where
alfo he received his education. On the revocation of the
edict of Nantes, he came over to England. He lived at firft
with his godfather and relation, Paul Dominique, efq. ; but
afterwards became a confiderable trader himfelf, kept a large
Eaft India warehoufe in Leadenhall-ftreet, and had a very
genteel place in the general polt-office, relating to the fo-
reign letters, being matter of feveral languages. During his
refidence in this kingdom, he acquired fo perfect a mattery
of the Englith language, that he not only was qualified to
give a very good tranflatiou of Don Quixotte, but alfo wrote
feveral fongs, prologues, epilogues, &c; and, what was
full more extraordivary, became a very eminent dramatic
writer in a language to which he was not native. He pro-
duced about 18 dramas, This gentleman, who feems to
have led a very comfortable life, his circumftances having
been perfectly eafy, was yet unfortunate im his death; for
he was found dead in adiforderly houfe, in the, parith of St.
Clement Danes, not without fufpicion of having been mur-
dered. This accident happened to him on the 19th of Fe-

MOT

bruary 1717-18, which, being his birth-day, exaétly com-
pleted his 58th year. Biog. Dram. i

MOTTLEY, Joun, was the fon of colonel Mottley,
who was a great favonrite with king James II., and fol-
lowed the fortunes of that prince into France., James, not
being able himfelf to provide for him fo well as he defired,
procured for him, by his intereft, the command of a regi-
ment in the fervice of Louis XIV., at the head of which he
loft his life, in the battle of Turin, in the year 1706. Mr.
Mottley received the firft rudiments of his education at St.
Martin’s Library fehool, founded by archbifhop Tennifon ;
but was foon called forth into bufinefs, being placed in the
excife-office, at 16 years of age, under the comptroller,
lord vifeount Howe, whofe brother and fifter were both re-
lated by marriage to his mother. This place he kept till the
year 1720, when, in confequence of an unhappy: contraét
that he had made, probably in purfuit of fome of the
bubbles of that infatuated year, he was obliged to refign it.
Soon after the acceffion of king George I., Mr. Mottley
had been promifed by the lord Halifax, at that time firft lord
of the treafury, the place of one of the commiffioners of the
wine licenfe office; but when the day came that his name
fhould have been inferted in the patent, a more powerful in-
tereft, to his great furprife, had ftepped in between him and
the preferment, of which he had fe pofitive a promife.
Finding his profpeéts overclouded, he applied to his pen,
and wrote his firft drama, which was fuccefsful. From that
time he depended chiefly on his literary talents, and wrote
five dramatic pieces at leaft, befides having a hand in fome
others. Hediedin 1750. Biog. Dram.

MOTTLING, or Metre, in Geography, a town of
the duchy of Carnicla; 10 miles S.S.W. of Landftrafs.
N. lat. 45° 48'. E. long. 15° 15’.

_ MOTTO, an Italian term, literally fignifying qword, or
Saying ; ufed in arms, devices, &c.

Morto of an Armoury, is a fhort fentence or phrafe car-
ried in a f{croll generally over, fometimes under the arms ;
fometimes alluding to the name of the bearer, fometimes to
the bearing, and fometimes to fome remarkable achievement
of the bearer. ;

The motto, or word, fays Guillim, is an external orna-
ment aanexed to coat-armour ; being the invention or conceit
of the bearer, fuccinGtly and fignificantly exprefled, ufually
in three or four words, which are fet in fome f{croll or eom-
partiment, placed at the foot of the efcutcheon.

As the motto holds the loweft place in arms, fo it is the
Jaft in blazoning. In ftriétnefs, it fhould exprefs fomethin
intended iu the achievement; but cuftom has now receive:
whatfoever be the fancy of the devifer.

The ufe of mottos is very ancient; hiftory, both facred
and profane, furnifhing inftances of them. Our anceftors:
made choice of mottos to exprefs their predominant paflions ;
as of piety, love, war, &c. or fome extraordinary adven-
ture that had befallen them; moft of which, from fome fuch
original, have become hereditary in divers families.

The motto of the royal family of England is Dieu & mon
droit ; of the royal family of Bourbon, Z£/perance; of the
order of the Garter, Honi /oit gut mal y penfe, &c.

The motto of a device is alfo called the foul of the device.

MOTU.—£x mero Motu. See Ex.

MOTUARA, in Geography, an ifland in the Pacific
ocean, between the iflands of New Zealand, in Queen Char-
lotte’s found, in which was a fortified village. S. lat. 41°
4. W. long. 184° 50’.

MOTUGOGOGO, a cape of New Zealand, called by
Cook Cape Bret (which fee) lying in S, lat. 35° 10! 30".

W. long.

MOU

Ww. long. ats as'. Onthe well fide of it is a large and
pretty cm ay, lying in S.W. by W., in which there ap-

feveral imail iflands. The point that forms
the N.W. entrance lies W. 4 N., at the diftance of three or
four aes from Cape Bret, and was called by Cook Point

Pocacke.

MOTYSIN, a town of Ruffian Poland, in the palatinate
of Kiev; 20 miles W.N.W. of Kiev.

MOUAH, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat, on the
guif of Cambay ; 54 miles S.S.W. of Gogo.

MOUAMILLADOORO, a town of Hindooftan, in
the Carnatic ; 30 miles N. of Nettore.

MOUCHA, La, a bay on the coalt of Chili, on the
welt coait of South America.

MOUCHAMBP, a town of France, in the department
of the Vendée; 20 miles N.N.W. of Fontenoy le Comte.

MOUCHEROLLE, in Ornithology, the name of a fmall .

bird of the fize of the fparrow, and of the fame colour, but
longer bodied; its wings are of a dufkier colour than the
reft of its body, and its head is variegated with very fmall
blackith fpots; its throat and belly are white, but the throat
and the fides of the breait and belly have a faint reddifhnefs ;
the beak is black, ftraight, and ridged, fo as to appear tri-
angular ; it feeds on flies and other infe€&ts, and is common
in gardens and orchards in many parts of England, though
it ne no Englith name. It is confounded by the common
people with the common white-throat, but differs from it in
that its tail isall of one colour, whereas the white-throat’s is
variegated. It fomewhat refembles alfo the beccifago, or
petty-chaps, but differs from it in having no greenifh colour,
and in its bill being ridged and triangular. See Muscicapra
and Topus.

MOUCHERON, Frepenick, called the O/d, in Bio-
graphy, was aland{cape-painter, born at Embder in 1653,
and the difciple of John Affelyn; but at the age of 22, he
went to Paris to practife the leffons he had learnt in his pro-
feffion, and was fo fortunate as to obtain confiderable ap-
plaufe, at an early period, by a freedom and boldnefs of
hand. and a certain air of nature which his works poffefs,
without, however, being highly meritorious, or ever being
carried to any great degree of perfection. His choice of
fubjeéts was generally from the common fcenes of nature:
thefe he wrought with a full pencil, and a touch light and
free. His colouring is generally of a negative cait, with the
fore-grounds wrought up clear and rich; but his middle
diftances are often pale and indiftinét, and have a little too
much the air of the painter's’ not being decidedly well in-
formed of his own intentions, From Paris he went to fettle
at Amfterdam, and during his continuance in that city, the
figures in his landfeapes were frequently painted by Adrian
Vander Velde; as during his refidence in France, they were
by Theodore Helmbreker. He died at the age of 53.
His fon,

Movcueron, Isaac, was born at Amfterdam in 1670,
and having had the advantage of his father’s inftructions in
the art of painting, till he arrived at the 24th year of his
age, he then travelled to Rome, where he made defigns of
the interefting, and often beautiful, fcenery around that
city. Of thefe he carried back with him to his native place
a very confiderable number, and was there employed in
painting pictures from them, in halls, faloons, and the apart-
ments of noble edifices; being affifted with figures for his
{cenery by Verkolie and De Wit. He lived till the year
1744, having enjoyed great praife and benefit from the ex-
ercife of his talents; and his works are ftill very much
efteemed.

a ® I

MOV

MOUCHOU, in Geography, a rivet of China, which
runs into the Eaftern fea, N. lat. 36° 56’. E. long. 121 4,

MOUCIUR, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Caramania ;
30 miles N.N.E. of Akferai.

MOUD, a town of Affatic Turkey, in Caramania; 78
miles S.E. of Cogni.

MOUDON, Mixpen, Mildunum, a town of the Hel-
vetian republic, which gives namie to a bailiwick, in the can-
ton of Berne. It is a handfome town, and was formerly
the capital of all that part of the Pays de Vaud, which be-
longed to the duke of Sivoy. It was the ordinary refi-
dence of his chief bailif, and the place where the ftates were
accultomed to meet. The town is inconveniently fituated
on the river Broye, part of it being level, and part of it
lying on the declivity of a hill, from which a rivulet paffes,
and rofhes through the lower town, and runs with rapidity
into the Broye. In the upper town was formerly a church,
dedicated to the Virgin Mary, of which nothing now re-
mains but a tower or kind of fteeple. In the lower part of the
town is one church. Antonine mentions this place in his
Itinerary, and it is thought to be one of thofe which the
Swifs burned in the time of Julius Czfar. Some ancient
medals and other curiofities have been found in this place.
The diftrié or bailliage, in which it lies, is about ten miles
long and eight broad, partly mountainous and woody, and
partly fertile. The town, fituated at the entrance of a nar-
row valley, is diftant rr miles N.E. from Laufanne. N. lat.
46° 42'. E. long. 6° 56.

MOUDYEL, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Cuddapa; 40 miles N.N.W. of Gandicotta.

MOVE in arreft of Judgment. See Arrest.

MOVEABLE, fomething fufceptible of motion, or that
is difpofed to be moved. See Morion.

A fphere is the moft moveable of all bodies, 7. ¢. it is the
eafieft to move; a door is moveable on its hinges, the mag-
netical needle on a pin, or pivot, &c.

Moveable is frequently ufed in contradiftinGion to fixt.

Moveaste Feafs. See Feasts and Easter.

MOVEABLES, or Moveasre Goods, by civilians
called dona mobilia, are thofe which are capable of being re-
moved from one place to another; or which may be con-
cealed or perverted ; as not being fixed to the ground, &c.
See Goons and Cuarrrts.

In England, we have two kinds of effeéts, moveable and
immoveable> the moveable are, ready money, merchandizeés,
bonds, book-debts, cattle, and houfhold furniture, not faf-
tened either with iron or nail, nor fealed in the platter, but
which may be tranfported without either fraction or deteri-
oration.

In the cuftomary laws, they fay, moveables follow the
perfon, and his proper habitation; moveables follow the
body, &c. which words have different meanings in different
countries. Sometimes they fignify, that moveables go ac-
cording to the cuftom of the place where is the habitation of
the deceafed, though he die in another place ; and fometimes
they fignify that moveables follow the cultom of the place
where the defuné died.

MOVEMENT, Morton, a term frequently ufed in the
fame fenfe with automaton.

The moft ufual movements for keeping time are watches
and clocks: the firft are fuch as fhew the parts of time, and
are portable in the pocket ; the fecond fuch as publifh it by
founds, and are fixed as furniture. See Hororocrum and
CHRONOMETER.

Movement, in its popular ufe among us, fignifies all
the‘inner work of a watch, clock, or other engine, which

moves,

MOU

moves, and, by that motion, carries on the defign of :the in-
ftrument. aA.

"The movement of a clock, or watch, is the infide; or
that part which meafures the time, ftrikes, &c. exclufive of
the frame, cafe, dial-plate, &c. See Cxiocx, CLock-
Making, Crock Movement, and Watcu.

Movement, in Archite@ure, is.a term ufed by fome
writers to exprefs the rife and fall, the advance and recefs,
with other diverfity of form, in the different parts of a
building, fo as to add greatly to the pitturefque of the
compofition. For the rifing and falling, advancing and re-
ceding, with the convexity and concavity, and other forms
of the great parts, have the fame effect in architecture, that
hill and dale, fore-ground and diftance, fwelling and finking,
have in land{cape ; that is, they ferve to produce an agree-
able and diverftfied contour, that groups and contraéis like
a picture, and creates a variety of light and fhade, which
give great fpirit, beauty, and effe&, to the compofition.

MOVER, or Fir/t Mover. See Mosite.

Mover, Perpetual. See Perpetual Motion.

MOUFET, or Murrett, Tuomas, in Biography, a
phyfician and naturalift of the 16th century, was born in
London, and received his early education in that metropolis.
He was then fent to Cambridge, and fubfequently pro-
ceeded on his travels, which he profecuted through feveral
of the countries of Europe, where he contracted an ac-
quaintance with many of the moft eminent foreign phyficians
and chemifts. Before his return he had taken the degree of
M.D.; and he fettled in London, where he praétifed phyfic
with confiderable reputation. It appears alfo, that he re-
fided for fome time at Ipfwich. He was particularly pa-
tronized by Peregrine Bertie, lord Willoughby, and accom-

anied him on his embafly, to carry the enfigns of the order
of the Garter to the king of Denmark. He likewife was
in camp with the earl of Effex in Normandy, probably in
1591- He {pent much of the latter part of his life at Bul-
bridge, near Wilton, in Wiltfhire, as a retainer to the Pem-
broke family, from which he received an annual penfion.
He died in that retirement, about the end of queen Eliza-
beth’s reign.

Dr. Moufet was a writer of confiderable diftinGion in his
day, and appears to have been among the firft. phyficians
who introduced chemical medicines into pra¢tice in England,
He publifhed in 1584, at Francfort, an apology for the
chemical feé&t, which was then beginning to prevail in Ger-
many, though much oppofed by the adherents of the {chool
of the ancients: it was eutitled De Jure et Preftantia
Chemicorum Medicamentorum, Dialogus Apologeticus.”
The work difplays a good deal of learning and ficill in argu-
mentation. This traét was republifhed in the ‘* Theatrum
Chemicum,”” in 1602, with the addition of “ Epiltole
quinque Medicinales, ab codem Auétore confcripte,’’
which are all dated from London in the years 1582, 3, and 4.
Thefe epiftles contain a farther defence of the chemical. doc-
trines, fome keen remarks on the fanciful reafonings of the
Galenifts, and many fenfible obfervations againft abfolute
{ubmiffion to the authority of great names, The laft of
thefe letters treats of the benefits of foreign travel to a phy-
fician, and defcribes Padua as the beft medical {chool. His
liberality, as well as his learning, was evinced in the publi-
cation of another work, ‘* Nofomantica Hippocratica, five
Hippoeratis Prognoltica cunéta, ex ompibus ipfius f{eriptis,
methodice digelta, Libri ix.’’ Franc, 1588: for the writ-
ings of the father of phyfic were treated with contempt by
Paracelfus, and the majority of the chemical feet. The lait
medical work of Moufet’s is entitled “ Health's Improve-

MOU

ment; or, Rules comprifing and difcovering the Nature,
Method, and Manner of preparing all forts of Food ufed in
this Nation.’’ A correéted and enlarged edition of this book
was printed by Chriftopher Bennet at London, 1655, 4to.
It is a curious and entertaining performance, on account of
the information which it contains refpeGting the diet ufed in
this country at that time. From his concluding dietetic
aphorifm, it would feem that the Englifh even then afforded
juft caufe for the imputation of grofs feeding, which fo-
reigners have generally thrown upon them, ‘ If our break-.
faft be of liquid and {upping meats, our dinner moift, and
of boiled meats, and our fupper chiefly of roaft meats, a
very good order is obferved therein, agreeable both to art,
and the natures of moft men.’’ Moutet, however, was moft
particularly diftinguifhed as a naturalift; and he enlarged
and finifhed, with great labour and expence, a work en-
titled «* InfeGorum, five minimorum Animalium Theatrum ;
olim ab Edw, Wottono, Conrado Gefnero, Thomaque Pen-
nio inchoatum.?? It was left in manufcript, and publifhed
in London, in 1634, by fir Theodore Mayerne, who com-,
plains of the difficulty he found in getting a printer to under-
take it. An Englifh tranflation of it was publifhed in 1658.
Though not free from.the imperfections of an infant f{eience,
this was really a refpe€table and valuable work; and Haller.
does not {cruple to place the author above all other entomo-
logifts previous to Swammerdam. Aikin’s Biog. Memoirs
of Med. :

MOUGDEN, in Geography. See CHEN-YANG.

MOUHUN, a town of Hindoottan, in Lahore ; 10 miles:
S. of Koofhaub.

MOUKI, a town of Arabia, in the province of Hedsjas ;
60 miles S.W. of Mecca.

MOUL, The, a cape of Scotland, on the eaft coaft of
the ifland of Shetland. _N. lat. 60° 24'. W. long. 1° 10',

Mouvt-Head, a cape of Scotland, on the north coalt of
the ifland of Papa Weftra. N. lat. 59° 13'.. W. long. 2°
45'.—Alfo, a cape on the eaft coaft of the ifland of Pomona.
N. lat. 58° 52’. W. long. 2° 34/.

MOULAMKENG, a mountain of Thibet.
46'. E. long. 99° 56.

MOULAPUDDY, a town of -Hindooftan, in the pro-
vince of Dindigul; 7 miles N.E. of Dindigul. :

MOULAR, a town of Hindootlan, in the Carnatic;
10 miles N. of Tiagar.

Moutar, Le, a town of France, in the department of
the Po; 3 miles S.W. of Sufa.

MOULD, or Moxp, in the Mechanic Arts, &c. a cavity
artfully cut, with defign to give its form, or impreffion, to
fome fofter matter applied in it.

Moulds are implements of great ufe in feulpture, found-
ery, &c.

The workmen employed in melting the mineral or metallic
glebe dug out of mines, have each their feveral moulds, to
receive the melted metal as it comes out of the furnace ; but
thefe are different, according to the diverfity of metals and
works. In gold mines, they have moulds for ingots; in fil-
ver mines, for bars; in copper and lead mines, for pigs or
falmons ; in tin mines, for pigs and ingots; and in iron
mines, for fows, chimney-backs, anvils, cauldrons, pots, and
other large utenfils aud merchandizes of iron; which are
here caft, as it were at firft hand.

Moutps of Founders of large Works, as ftatues, bells,
runs, and other brazea works, are of wax, fupported within~
fide by what they call a core, and covered withontfide with |
acap orcafe. Itisin the {pace which the wax took up,
which is afterwards melted away to leave it free, that the liquid »

metal

N. lat. 30°

MOU

.metal runs, and the work is formed ; being carried thither

through a great, number of little canals, which cover the
whole Rete See Founprry. ?

Moutps of Moneyers are frames full of fand, in which
the plates of metal are caft that are to ferye for che ftriking
of ee of gold and filver. See Corina. }

A fort of concave moulds made of clay, having within
them the figures and inferiptions of ancient Roman coins,
are found in many parts of England, and fuppofed to have
been ufed for the cafting of money.

_Mr. Baker having been favoured with a fight of fome of
thefe moulds found in Shropfhire, bearing the fame types and
infcriptions with fome of the Roman coins, gave an account
of them tothe Royal Society.

They were found in digging of fand, at a place called
Ryton, in Shropfhire, about a mile from the great Watling-
ftreet road. They are all of the &ze of the Roman denarius,
and of alittle more than the thicknefs of ahalfpenny. They
are made of a fmooth pot or brick clay, which feems to have
been firit well cleanfed from dirt and fand, and well beat or
kneaded, to render it fit for taking a fair impreffion. There
were a great many of them found together, and there are

many of them not unfrequently found in Yorkthire; but.

they do not feem to have been met with in any other king-
dom, except that fome have been fatd to be once found at
Lyons. They have been fometimes found in great numbers,
joined together fide by fide, on one flat piece of clay, as if
intended for the caftinga great number of coins at once ;
and both thefe, and all the others that have been found, feem
to have been of the emperor Severus. They are fometimes
found impreffed on both fides ; and fome have the head of
Severus on one fide, and fome well-known reverfe of his on
the other. They feem plainly to have been intended for the
coinage of money, though it is not eafy to fay in what man-
ner they can have been employed to that purpofe, efpecially
thofe which have impreffions on. both fides, .unlefs it may.be
fuppofed that they coined two pieces at the fame time by the
help of three moulds, of which this was to be the middle
one.

If by difpofing thefe into fome fort of iron frame or cafe,
as our letter-founders do the brafs moulds for cafting their
types, the melted metal could be eafily poured into them, it
would certainly be a very eafy method of coining ; as fuch
moulds require little time or expence to make, and therefore
might be fupplied with new ones as often as they happen to
break.

Thefe moulds feem to have been burnt or baked fufficiently
to make them hard ; but not fo as to render them porous like
our bricks, by which they would have loft their {mooth and
even furface, which in thefe is.plainly. fo clofe, that whatever
metal fhould be formed in them would have no appearance
like the fand-holes by which the counterfeit coins and medals
are ufually detected. .

Moutps of Founders of /mall Works are like the frames of
coiners: it 1s in thefe frames, which are likewife filled with
fand, that their feveral works are fafhioned; into which, when
the two frames of which the mould is compofed are rejoined,
the melted brafs is run.

Mout ps of Letter-founders are partly of fteel and partly
wood: the wood, properly {peaking, ferves only to cover
the real moyld which is within, and to prevent the work-
man, who holds it in his hand, from being incommoded
by the heat of the melted metal. Only one letter or type
can be formed at once in each mould. See Letter-Founp-
ERY.

Moutps, in the Manufa@ure of Paper, are little frames
compofed of feveral bras or iron wires, faftened together by

MOU

another wire flill finer. ‘Each mould is of the bignefs of the
fheet of paper to be made, and has a rim or ledge of wood
to which the wires are faftened, Thefe moulds are more
ufually called frames or forms.

Mouups, Furnace and Crucible Makers’, are made of wood,
of the fame form with the crucibles; that is, in form of a trun-
cated cone: they have handles of wood to hold and turn
them with, when, being covered with the earth, the workman
has a mind to round or flatten his veffel. ¢ ‘

Mousps for Leaden Bullefs are little iron pincers, each of
whofe branches terminates in a hemifpherical concave, which,
when fhut, form an entire {phere. In the lips or fides,
where the branches meet, is a little jet or hole; through which
the, melted lead is conveyed.

Moutps, Laboratory, are made of wood, for filling and
driving all forts of rockets and cartridges, &c.

Moutps, Glaziers’. The glaziers have two kinds of
moulds, both ferving to caft their lead: in one they caft the
lead into long rods or canes fit to be drawn through the vice,
and the grooves formed therein ; this they fometimes call
ingot-mould. In the other they mould thofe little pieces of
lead a line thick, and two lines broad, fattened to the iron
bars. Thefe may be alfo cait in the vice.

Moutns, Goldjmiths’. The goldfmiths ufe the bones of
the cuttle-fifh to make moulds for their {mall works ; which
they do by preffing the pattern between two bones, and leay-
ing a jet or hole to convey the ifilver through, after the pat-
tern has been taken out.

Movtp, among Mafons, is a piece of hard wood or iron,
hollowed withinfide; au{werable to the contours of the mould-
ings orcornices, &c. tobe formed. This is otherwife called
caliber.

Mou tp, a cavity formed in the external furface of a body,
intended to be caft. of liquid or foft matter, which after a
certain time wil! acquire folidity.

Moutp, in Ma/onry, is a templet made to-a feGtion of
the ftone intended to be cut. The ends or heading-joints
being formed as in a cornice by means of the mould, the in-
termediate patts are wrought down by ftraight edges or cir-
cular templets, according as the work is ftraight or circular,
upon the place. When the furface intended to be made is
required to be very exaét, a reverfe mould is ufed in order
to prove the work, by applying the mould ina tranfverfe
direétion.

Moutps, among Plumbers, are the tables on which they
caft their fheets of lead. Thefe they fometimes call fimply
tables. -Befides thefe they have other real moulds, with
which they cait pipes without foldering. See each deferibed
under PLUMBERY.

Mou ps, among the Gla/s-Grinders, are wooden frames,
on which they make the tubes with which they fit their per-
{pectives, telefcopes, and other optic machines.

‘Thefe moulds are cylinders, of a length and diameter ac-
cording to the ufe they are to be applied'to, but always
thicker at one end than the other, to facilitate the fliding.
The tubes made on thefe moulds are of two kinds; the one
fimply of pafteboard and paper ; the other of thin leaves of
wood joined to the pafteboard. To make thefe tubes to draw
out, only the lait or innermoft is formed on the mould ; each
tube made afterwards ferving as a mould to that which is to
go over it, but without taking out the mould from the firft.
See GrinpING.

Moutps ufed in bafket-making are very fimple, confifting
ordinarily of a willow or ofier turned or bent into an oval,
circle, {quare, or other figure, according to the bafkets,
panniers, hampers, and other utenfils intended. On thefe
moulds they make, or, more properly, meafure, all their

work «

MOU

work: and, accordingly, they have them of all fizes,
thapes, &c. ’

Moutps, in Ship Building, are the fhapes of the various
timbers, knees, &c. made of board from the lines on the
mould-loft floor, for the purpofe of fawing out the various
timbers, &c. to the fhape required. Alfo thin flexible pieces
of pear-tree or box, ufed in drawing the draughts and plans
of a fhip.

Moutp-Loft is along even floor, on which the fhip is
laid-off toits full fize, from the draughts and feveral other
operations, which will be correétly explained in the article
SHIP-BUILDING.

Moutps, among Tallow Chandlers, are of two kinds:
the firft fer the common dipped candles, being the vef-
fel in which the melted tallow is difpofed, and the wick
dipped.

This is of wood, of a triangular form, and fupported on
one of its angles, fo that it has an opening of near a foot
at top: the other, ufed in the fabric of mould candles, is of
brafs, pewter, or tin. Here each candle has its feveral mould.
See each under CANDLE.

Mowxp, among Gold Beaters, a certain number of leaves
of vellum, or pieces of guts, cut fquare, of a certain fize,
and laid over one another, between which they put the leaves
of gold and filver which they beat on the marble with the
hammer. See Goip-Leaf.

They have four kinds of moulds; two of which are
of vellum, and two of gut: the {malleft of thofe of vel-
lum confifts of forty or fifty leaves; the largeft contains
a hundred: for the others, each contain five hundred
leaves.

The moulds have all their feveral cafes, confifting of two
pieces of parchment, fetving to keep the leaves of the
mould in their place, and prevent their being difordered
in beating.

Mouton, or Mold, in Agriculture, the loofe friable particles
of earth or foil which are met with onthe furface of the
ground, called alfo natural or mother earth. (See Earru
and Loam.) It is of different qualities in different fitua-
tions. The properties of mould are in fome meafure diftin-
guifhed by their appearances, thofe of a bright chefnut or
hazely colour being generally good, as of this colour are
the beft loams, and alfo the beft natural earths; and it is
an advantage if they cut like butter, and do not ftick
obftinately, but are fhort; and tolerably light, breaking
into {mall clods, and wrought without crufting or chopping
in dry weather, or turning to mortar in wet. The next to
thefe are the dark greyand ruffet moulds: the light and dark-
coloured, fuch as is ufually found on common heathy ground,
is inferior, and the yellowifh-red coloured the wortt of all: this
is commonly found in wild and wafte parts of the country,
and for the moft part produces nothing but gorfe, furze, and
fern, according as the fub-foils are more or lefs of a light
and fandy, or of a fpewy gravel, or clayey nature. In all
moulds of lands that are good, after rain, or breaking up,
they emit a good f{mell. It is eafily difcovered by the touch
whether they confift of fubitances entirely arenaceous or
clammy, or whether they be tender, fatty, deterfive, or
flippery ; or more harhh, gritty, porous, or friable.

Thole moulds that have a blackifh appearance, and con-
tain much carbonaceous matter, are always found rich and
good in moft ufes of the farmer.

It is of vatt utility to have the mould of all the fliffer
forts of foil well broken down, and reduced before feeds of
any kind are fown upon them. This is capable of being
effected in various ways, as by turning them up in fharp
ridges in the autumn, in order to have the action of the

MOU

froft in the winter, and by frequent harrowing and rolling
them with rollers proper for the purpofe. Alfo by the
proper ufe and application of the cultivator, fearifier, and
fcuffer. See thefe different tools.

Moulds, according to Mr. Da Cofta, are ¢ und
earths, of a loofe foft texture,” fomewhat du@ile while
moift, and compofed of earthy particles, mixed with the
putrefied remains of animal and vegetable bodies. He
diftinguifhes them by their colours into the black, not aéted
upon by acids, to which belongs the common vegetable
mould, or garden earth; the red, which is alkaline; and
the brown, fome of which are not a€ted upon by acids, and
others alkaline.

Moulds, according to Kirwan, (Elem. of Mineralogy,
vol. i.) are loams (fee Loam), mixed with animal and vege-
table remains, particularly from putrefaGtion ; generally of
a black, brewn, yellowifh, or greyifh-brown colour. The
properties of thefe are highly interefting to agriculture, and
may be pretty nearly determined by comparing their weight,
when dried, at 140° of Fahrenheit, with that which they
lofe by being heated to rednefs in an open fire, continued as
long as any- coaly fubftance remains in them; yet not
exactly, without fome nicer operations, as the animal earths
will itill remain undetermined, and alfo the vegetable athes.

To analyfe mould by means of water, Shaw propofes to
wath it thoroughly in warm water in large quantities, and
then to filtrate the liquor. Afterwards evaporate this to a
confiderable degree of concentration, and it is manifeltly of
a faline tafte, but making no alteration in fyrup of violets ;
therefore the falt it contains is neither acid nor alkaline,
but neutral. This analyfis purfued farther, the particles
may be difunited and kept feparate, and will be found to be
a large proportion of fand, a quantity of a light mud, ca-
pable of remaining a long time fufpended in water, and a
heavier mud finking immediately in water. By an analyfis
of any particular mould by this means, we may find its true
conftituent particles, and be able to mix up and compound
a fimilar one for the growth of any peculiar plant it pro-
duces. But plants have the affiftance of heat as well as
moifture, in the draining their juices from the earth; there-
fore it may not be improper to try the effe& of fire on the
fame fubje&t. The common garden mould diftilled in a re-
tort ina naked fire, managed in its various degrees, affords
a water, an oil and fpirit like thofe yielded by animal fub-
jects, and poffibly arifing from fome extraneous particles
mixed with the earth, and a dry caput mortuum, or indolent
earth, remains in the retort.

The particles of animal, vegetable, and mineral fub-
ftances, floating in the atmofphere, and thence precipitated _
on the earth, may give fome of the properties to garden
mould, and thofe different in different places; as is evident
about London, where the mould is fo impregnated with
{moke, precipitated on it from the atmofphere, that it differs
much from that of open countries. Shaw’s Leétures,
Pp. 64

Mov tp, in Gardening, fuch earthy fub{tances as conftitute
foils, when reduced into a fine pulverized {tate in their par-
ticles. It is of different qualities, according to the nature
of the earth or foil in which it is found. But the belt for
the general purpofes of gardening is probably that which
contains a large proportion of carbonaceous or vegetable
matter, It is of very different colours in different cafes, as
hazel, dark-grey, ruffet, afh, yellowifh-red, and various
others. But the firit three colours are generally confidered
as denoting the beft qualities, and the laft the mott unfriendly
to the growth of vegetables.

Thofe moulds which are capable of working well at all

fealons,

“er

MOU

feafons, are rather light and dry, perfe@tly mellow and fine
in their particles, being well enriched with vegetable and
animal matters, are moltly preferred, and capable of afford-
ing the largelt crops of good vegetables of the different
kinds. See Eartu and Som.

Moutp, Hip. See Hir-Mould.

Moutp on Hops, in Rural Economy, a vegetable difeafe,
which is liable to affe&t the hop plant in the more advanced
periods of its growth, and produce much mifchief to the
crop. See Fern.

Moutp, /ron. See Irnoy-JMould.

Mouzp, Vegetable, in Agriculture, that fort of mould which
is chiefly formed from the recrements of decayed vegetables.
It forms the furface ftratum of mott foils, and is, in general,

of a more dark,colour than that which is below it. See

Soir and VecerasLe Mould.

MOULDINESS, a term applied to an appearance in
bodies which are much expofed to the humidity of the at-
mofphere, and which fhews itfelf by a kind of white down,
or /anugo, on their furface. It is liable to affe& different
articles of farm produce, unlefs guarded againft by depofiting
them in proper dry places. See Mucor.

This mouldinefs, when viewed with a microfcope, affords
acurious {peétacle: being a kind of meadow, out of which
avife herbs and flowers ; {ome only in the bud, others full
blown, and others decayed ; each having its little root, ftalk,
and other parts; the figure of which may be feen in Hook’s
Micrographia. The fame may be obferved of the mouldinefs
which gathers on the furface of liquid bodies.

Mr. Bradley obferved this mouldinefs in a melon very ac-
curately, and found the vegetation of thefe little plants to be
exceedingly quick, Each plant had its feeds in great abun-
dance, which did not feem to be three hours before they
began to {hoot up; and in fix hours more the new plant was
complete and mature, and the feed ready to fall. When the
fruit had been covered with a mould for fix days, its vegeta-
tive quality began to abate, and it was entirely gone in two
days more ; then came on a putrefaction, and the flethy part
of the melon yielding nothing but a ftinking water, which
began to have a gentle motion on its furface; and in two
days’ time maggots appeared, which in fix more laid them-
felves up in their bags, where they continued four days, and
then came out flies. ‘Thefe maggots were owing to the eggs
of flies depofited in the putrefaction.

MOULDING, any thing caft ina mould, or that feems
to have been fo, though in reality it were cut with a chiffel, or
the axe.

Mouvtpixe, in Architefure, an ornamental furface, fuch
that all its tranfverfe feGtions are equal and fimilar
throughout the length, the tranfverfe fettions being thofe
which are every where perpendicular to the edge or edges
of the faid ornamental furface.

A regular moulding has either contrary, curved, circular,
or elliptic fe&tions. See Cymatium, Cyma-Re@a, Cyma-
Reverfa, Ecurnus, Ovoro, Quarrer-Round, CAvEtTTA,
Scotia, Aporyycis, Scape, &c. and Plate XX1. Archi-
vedlure.

Mouldings in affemblage are ufed in the formation of cor-
pices, architraves, bafes, capitals, &c.

Mouldings are either plain or enriched with eggs, and
with foliage difplayed in a variety of forms. , Some enrich-
ments are peculiar to certain forms of mouldings, as eggs
and anchoirs, or egg and tongue to the ovolo. See
Plate XX1. Archite@ure.

Mou toprincs, in Gunnery, are annexed to guns by way of
ornament, and depend chiefly on the maker’s fancy.

It may be obferved, in general, that they fhould be plain

Vou. XXIV.

MOU

and fimple, and the metal fhould be projected ‘as little as
poflible, fo that the piece may lie clofe on the carnage. See
Cannon.

Moutpina, the act of marking out the fhape of any
timber, &c. from a mould givens as when it is fo cut, itis
faid to be moulded, which is the contrary dimenfion from
fiding. See Sipen.

Moutnpina, Bed. See Ben-Moulding.

Movzpine, Plane. See PLANE. 1

MOULE, Lx,.in Geography, a town of the ifland of
Guadaloupe, on the N. coaft, NN, lat. 16° 30’. W. long.
62° 2471,

MOULIN, Cuartes bv, in Biography, a French juritt,
was born at Paris, of an ancient family, in the year 1500.
He was diltinguithed from his early years by the facility
with which he took his education. He acquired the redi-
ments of learning at Paris, and went to ftudy the jaw at
Orleans and Poiétiers. He was admitted an advocate at
the age of twenty-two, and ated fome years as a pleader ;
but an impediment in his {peech obliged him to retire from
practice. He now devoted himfelf to literature, and be-
came greatly celebrated as an author. In 1539, he pub-
lifhed a work, entitled «* Commentaire fur les Matieres Feo-
dales de la Coutume de Paris: and in 1551, * Obferva-
tions fur Edit du Roi Henri II. contre les Petites Dates.”
This edi had arifen from the hoftility between the court
of France and Rome; and Du Moulin, in his work, warmly
advocated the liberties of the Gallican church, which gave
fo great offence to the papal court, that the parliament of
Paris found it neceflary to pafs a decree for its fupprefiion.
The zealous Catholics found means to excite the populace
againft him asa favourer of herefy. His houfe was pillaged ;
he quitted Paris, and retired to Germany for fafety. He
employed himfelf feveral years, at different towns in that
country, and in Burgundy, in giving letures on the law
with great reputation. He returned to Paris, after having
endured an imprifonment of four months for refufing to
undertake an unjuft caufe; but in’ 1562, he quitted the
metropolis, on account of the religious wars. Two years
afterwards he came back, and was thrown into the Concier-
gerie, for a work which he printed that regarded the coun-
cil of Trent. He died in 1566. He had for many years
been confidered in France as an oracle of jurifprudence, and
of an authority equal to that of the greateft names in the
{cience, ancient or modern. Of his own fuperiority he
was fully fenfible, and did not fcruple to entitle himfelf
«© The Do@or of France and Germany ;’’ and he would
fometimes prefix to his opinions, * 1, who am fecond to no
one, and whom no one can teach any thing.” His works were
colleéted and printed in five volumes folio. Moreri. _

Moutin, PETER DU, a learned French Proteftant divine,
was born at Buhy, in the Vexin, in 1568. He purfued his
ftudies, firft in Paris, and afterwards in England ; and from
this place he proceeded to the univerfity of Leyden, where
he became a profeffor, and taught philofophy with applaufe.
Being admitted to the miniftry, he undertook the pattoral
duty of a Proteftant church of Charenton near Paris, and
was foon after appointed chaplain to Catherine de Bourbon,
princefs of Navarre, and fifter of Henry TV. In 1615, he
vifited England, and James I. prefented him with a pre-
bendary of Canterbury. He afterwards went to Sedan,
and became profeffor of divinity, and had entrufled to him
the principal managen’€nt of the concerns of the Proteftants
in France. He died in 1658. He wrote a great number
of works, of which the principal are “ The Anatomy of
Arminianifm,” in Latin; “ A Treatife on the Keys of the
Church ;?’ “The Capuchin, or Hiftory of the Monks ;”

Mm and

MOU

and “ A Defence of the Reformed Churches.’? A vein of
fevere fatire is faid to run through feveral of his controver-
fial pieces. Moreri.

Mouttx, Peter pv, fon of the preceding, and a clergy-
man of the church of England, was born, it is f{uppofed, at
Paris, about the year 1600. He ftudied at Leyden, where he
was admitted to the degree of dottor of divinity. He after-
wards came to England, and was incorporated in the fame
degree at the univerfity of Cambridge. He was patronized
by Richard, earl of Cork, who appointed him governor to
his fons, whom he afterwards accompanied to Oxford. Here
Du Moulin remained two years or more, and preached fre-
quently in the church of St. Peter in the Eaft. After the
reftoration of Charles I1. he was appointed chaplain in ordi-
nary to his majefty, and given a prebend at Canterbury,
where he fpent the remainder of his life. He died in 1684,
in the eighty-fourth year of his age. He was author of
feveral works, of which we may mention, 1. The Peace of
the Soul; 2. A Defence of the Proteftant Religion. He
was author of the famous work, entitled ** Regii Sanguinis
Clamor ad Ceelum.” which was publifhed at the Hague, in
1652, by M. Alexander More. Anthony Wood gives him
the chara&ter of an honeft, zealous Calvinift. Moreri.
Wood’s Athen. Oxon.

Moutix. Fer de Moun. See Fer.

MOULINET, a French term properly fignifying a little
mill, being the diminutive of moulin, mill.

It is ufed in mechanics to fignify a roller, which, being
croffed with two levers, is ufually applied to cranes, capftans,
and other forts of engines of the like nature, to draw ropes,
and heave up ftones, timber, &c.

Mouttnev is alfo a kind of turn-ftile, or wooden crofs,
which turns horizontally upon a-ftake fixed in the ground ;
ufually placed in the paflages to keep out horfes, and to
oblige paffengers to go and come one by one.

Thefe moulinets areoften fet near the outworks of fortified
places, at the fides of the barriers, through which people
pafs on foot.

MOULINS, Guyarsprs, in Biography,a French prieft and
canon, who flourifhed towards the clofe of the 13th century.
He is mentioned as being the firft perfon who gave a tranf-
lation of a confiderable portion of the Scriptures in the
French language. He was promoted, in 1277, to the
deanery of his chapter, after which we hear no more of
him. His tranflation was printed in 1487, by order of
Charles VIII. Moreri.

Moutins, in Geography, a town of France, and principal
place of a diftrié, in the department of the Allier, before
the revolution the capital of Bourbonnois, fituated on the
Allier, and efteemed one of the pleafanteft townsin France,
having broad and clean ftreets: its principal trade confilts
in cutlery ; and near it is a medicinal fpring. The E. par-
tition contains 7000, and its canton 11,074 inhabitants, in
feven communes. Its W. divifion contains 6200, and its
canton 10,525 inhabitants, in to communes. Its whole
territory comprchends 335 kiliometres. N. lat. 46° 35/.
E. long. 3° 24/.

Moutins-en-Gilbert, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Nievre, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri&t of Chateau-Chinon ; feven miles S.W. of it. The
place contains 2500, and the canton 8469 inhabitants, ona
territory of gto kiliometres, in nine communes, N. lat.
46° 59’. E. long. 3° 53’.

Moutuins-le-Marihe, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Orne, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
tri€t of Mortagne ; 18 miles N.E. of Alengon. The place

MOU

contains 878, and the canton 7781 inhabitants, on a territory
of 192% kiliometres, in 20 communes.

MOULONGE Istanps, a clutter of {mall iflands in the
Indian fea, near the coaft of Africa. S. lat. 10° 45’.

MOULTAN, a province of Hindooftan, lying princi-
pally on the E. fide of the Indus; bounded on the N. by
Lahore, on the E. by Delhi, on the S. by fandy deferts,
that feparate it from Agimere, and on the W. by Perfia.
It belongs at prefent to the people called Seiks; and its
produétions are cotton, fugar, opium, galls, brimftone, &c.
Its trade in the time of Aurungzebe was flourifhing ; but
at prefent it is inconfiderable, on account of the rapacious
difpofition of its poffeffors. Y ,

Movttran, a city of Hindooftan, the capital of the fore-
mentioned province, and one of the moft ancient towns of
Hindooftan. Although it is a place of fmall extent for
the capital of a viceroyalty, it is ftrongly fortified, and
much celebrated for its pagoda, which is held in great vene-
ration by the Hindoos. It has, or lately had, a great ma-
nufaGture of cottons ; but its trade has much declined,
partly becaufe the river that led to it has been in a great
meafure choked up, and its channel fpoiled. This is the
modern capital of the country defigned by the hiftorians of
Alexander for that of the «* Mall,’ although the ancient
capital ftood nearer to Toulumba. Moultan has been gar-
rifoned ever fince the year 1779, by the king of Candahar’s
troops. N. lat. 30°34’. E. long. 71° 21'.

MOULTING, among Farmers, a term fignifying the
changing of the feathers in animals of the domettic bird
kind. It is a procefs which takes place annually towards
the latter end of the year, when care fhould be taken to
have them well fed, and kept as much as poflible in a
fheltered fituation. In fome forts of birds, as the goofe,
advantage is taken of this feafon for collecting the feathers
for various ufeful purpofes.

Movutt1NG in Hor/es, a term fometimes applied to horfes,
when they alter, change, or caft their coats towards the
latter end of autumn. As they become weak at this period,
they fhould be well kept, and not have too much work,
Great care fhould, likewife, be taken in the cleaning and
drefling of them.

Mouttine, in Natural Hifory. See Mortine.

MOULTONBOROUGH, in Geography, a town of
America, in New Hampfhire, now called New Hampton ;
which fee.

MOULTRIE Forr. See Suttivan’s J/land.

MOULTRIEVILLE, a town lately fettled on Sulli-
van ifland, South Carolina. It is a place, containing 200
dwelling-houfes, much reforted to by the inhabitants of
Charlefton, during the fummer and autumn, both for plea-
fure and health.

MOUND, a term ufed for a bank, rampart, or other
fence, particularly of earth; or of earth and ftone. ,

Mounp, or Mond, in Heraldry, is a ball or globe with
a crofs upon it ; fuch as our kings are ufually drawn with,
holding it in their left hand, as they do the fceptre in the
right.

MOUNENESS, in Geography, a cape on the S.E. coatt
of the ifland of Unit, one of the Shetland iflands. N. lat.
Gx°.gi Ws long. 19 alc

MOUNT, an elevation of earth, called alfo mountain.

The words mount and mountain are fynovimous; but the
former is fcarcely ever ufed in profe, unlefs when accom-
panied with fome proper name; as mount tna, mount
Gibel, mount Lebanon, mount Sinai, mount Atlas, mount
Parnailus, &c. :
8 Mount

MOU

Mount Airy, in Geography, a town of America, in Surry
county, Carolina; 400 miles from Wafhington. ~

Mount Baker, a mountain on the W. coaft of North
America. N, lat. 48°39!. E. long. 238° 20.

Mount Battock, a mountain of Scotland, in the W. part
of the county of Kincardine ; 16 miles N.W. of Bervie.

Movunt's Bay, a bay in the Englifh channel, on the S.
coaft of the county of Devon, between the Land’s End and
Lizard Point. N. lat. 50° 7’. W. long. 5° 20’.

Meunt Bethel, Upper and Lower, two townfhips of
America, in Northampton county, Pennfylvania ; both con-
taining 2234 inhabitants.,

Mownr Calder, a barren mountain, which forms the ex-
treme S. point of Port Proteétion, in the N.W. part of
the Prince of Wales's Archipelago.

Mount Calvary. See Catvary.

Mount Camel, a mountain of New Zealand, at the N.
extremity of Eaheinomauwe ; 30 miles S.S.E. of Cape
Maria Van Diemen.

Mount Campéell, a mountain on the N.E. coaft of Ker-
guelen’s land. S. lat. 49° 12'. E. long. 70° 20’.

Mowunr Carmel, Knights of. See CARMEL.

Mownt of Cocos,in Geography, an ifland in the South Pacific
ocean, difcovered by Le Maire and Schouten in the year 1616.
The ifland is faid to be high and covered with trees, parti-
cularly thofe of the cocoa-nut; the inhabitants are hand-
fome, ftrong, and well proportioned, having hair of various
colours, which is worn in different forms ; they are thieves,
and anxious to obtain iron. The navigators procured cocoa-
buts, bananas, yams, fome {mall hogs, and frefh water.
This ifland is called by the natives ** Kootabee.” S. lat.
16°. E. long. 177%.

Mount Defert, an ifland, confifting of a valuable tra&
of land, on the coaft of Hancock county, in the ftate of
Maine. On the S.E. fide are two confiderable iflands,
called « Cranberry iflands,”’ which ferve to form a harbour
in the gulf that fets up on the S. fide of the ifland. The
_ whole ifland contains 1121 inhabitants. The northerly part
- was formed into a townfhip, called Eden, in 1796. The
fouth-eafternmoft part of the ifland lies in about N. lat.
44°12'. W.long. 68° 10’. Onthe main land, oppofite
to the N. part of the ifland, are the towns of Trenton and
Sullivan. It is 335 miles diftant N.E. from Bofton.

Mount Edgecombe. See EDGECOMBE.

Mount £dgecuml, a mountain or eminence on the W.
coait of the entrance into Plymouth harbour, on the coaft of
Devonfhire. N. lat. 50° 21’. W. long. 4° 8!.

Mount-£gg, in Mining. In the tin-works, after the tin
from the burnt ore is melted down, and re-melted, there
will fometimes remain a different flug in the bottom of the
float; this they call mount-egg ; and though of a tin co-
lour, yet it is of aniron nature, as hath been found by
applying a magnet to it.

Mount Fairweather, in Geography, a mountain on the
W. coaft of North America; 12 miles N.E. of Cape Fair-
weather.

Mount Felix, a lofty cape on the N.E. coaft of Africa,
at the entrance of the Arabian gulf; 40 miles W.N.W. of
Cape Guardafui. N. lat. 12°. E. long. 50° qo’.

Mount Gardner, a mountain and promontory on the S.W.
coaft of New Holland, forming the E. boundary of King
George III.d’s Sound. S. lat. 35° 4'. E. long. 118° 29.

Mounr Guard, in Military Language. See Guarn.

Mount Helleby, in Geography, a mountain of confiderable
height in the ifland of Barbadoes.

Mount Hillary, or St. Hillary's Mountains, fome moun-

MOU

tains of Ireland, in the county of Cork, S. of the river
Blackwater, between Mallow and Millftreet.

Mount Holly, a town, or rather a village, with a poft-
office, in Burlington county, New Jerfey, on the banks of
Ancocus creek, 12 miles S.E. of Burlington.

Mount Holly, a townfhip in Rutland county, Vermont,
formed out of a part of Wallingsford, a part of Ludlow,
and a gore of land between them; containing 668 inha-
bitants.

Moun't-Hope Bay, a bay on the N.E. part of Narra-
ganfet bay.

Mounr Joli, lies on the northern coaft of the gulf of
St. Lawrence, in Labrador; and « Mount Ifland’’ lies on
the fame coaft, in N. lat. 50° 5’. W. long. 61° 35’.

Mount Joy, a Moravian fettlement in Pennfylvania; 16
miles from Litiz.—Alfo, the name of two townfhips in
Pennfylvania ; the one in Lancafter, the other in Adam's
county.

Mount Leinfler, a high and rocky mountain of Ireland,
in the county of Wicklow, on the borders of Wexford.
It confifts of granite. It is about 12 miles S.S.E. from
Carlow.

Mount Major, a mountain of America, in New Hamp-
fhire, on the fide of lake Winnipiffiokee. N. lat. 43° 23'.
W. long. 71° 20’.

Mount Mifery, a mountain of the ifland of St. Chrif-
topher, near the W. end.—Alfo, a town of America, in
the {tate of Conneéticut ; eight miles N.E. of Norwich.

Mount Olympus, in Ancient Geography. See Otympus.

Motnt Olympus, in Geography, a mountain on the W.
coat of North America. N. lat. 47% 50'. E. long. 236?
24!.

Mount Orgueil Cafile, called alfo “ Gowray caftle,”’ from
an adjacent village, derives its name of Orgueil from the
promontory on which it is fituated, which was given to it,
according to vulgar tradition, by Henry V., or rather by
the duke of Clarence. Of this edifice in the ifle of Jerfey,
we have hiftorical record as early as the reign of king John,
before whofe time it had been a confiderable fortrefs, and
by whom it was repaired and re-fortified. This caftle ftilt
ftands, and prefents to the obferver a grand appearance,
though in a flate of decline ; five miles W. of St. Helior.

Mount Paterfon, a mountain on the N. coaft of Cha-
tham, in the, North Pacific ocean; 10 miles W. of Cape
Young.

Mounts of Piety, are certain funds, or eftablifhments, in
Italy, where money is lent out on fome fmall fecurity.
We had alfo mounts of piety in England, raifed by contri-
butions for the benefit of people ruined by the extortions of
the Jews.

The name “ mons pietatis'’ came with the invention from
Italy, and is equally old, if not older. Funds of money
formed by the contributions of different perfons, for fome
{pecified end, were long before called ‘ montes,’’ In the
fir century of the Chriftian era, free gifts were colleGied
and preferved in churches by ecclefiaftics, partly for the
purpofe of defraying the expence of divine fervice, and
partly to relieve the poor. Such capitals which were con-
fidered as ecclefiaftical funds, were by Prudentius, in the
beginning of the fifth century, called « montes annonz,”’
and ‘‘ arca numinis.”” Tertullian (Apolog. cap. 39.) calls
them ‘ depofita pietatis,’? and hence has been formed the
denomination of * montes pietatis.”’

In procefs of time thofe banks, that were employed in
Italy, during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, to bor-
row money in the name of ftates, for which the public

m 2 revenues

MOU

revenues were mortgaged and intereft paid, were alfo called
« montes.’”? In this fenfe the word is ufed by Italian hif-
torians of much later times. Thefe loan-banks, or ‘« montes,”’
received various names, fometimes from the princes who
eftablifhed them, fometimes from the ufe to which the mo-
ney borrowed was applied, and fometimes from the objets
which were mortgaged. The popes gave to their loans, m
order to raife their finking credit, many of thofe fpiritual
advantages, which they conferred on the ‘* montes pietatis.””
See Loan-Banks, and LomBarps.

Mount Pleafant, in Geography, a poft-town of America,
in Weft Chefler county, New York, on the E. fide of Hud-
fon’s river ; containing 2704 inhabitants.—Alfo, the name
of a townfhip in Adam’s county, Pennfylvania.—Alfo, a
villaye of Maryland, fituated partly in each of the counties
of Queen Anne and Caroline ; about 11 miles E. of the town
of Church-Hill.

Mount 2 sinier, a mountain of North America, in New
Georgia. N. lat. 47° 3!. E. long. 238° 2!.

Mouxyr Sinai, St. Catharine of. See CATHARINE.

Mount St. Auguffine, an ifland in the North Pacific ocean,
near the W. coalt of North America, juft within the en-
trance of Cooke’s inlet, which rifes with an uniform afcent
tothe centre of the ifland, inclining fomewhat to its eaftern
fide. The paflage between the ifland and the main land 1s
about fix miles. The ifland itfelf is about 27 miles in cir-
cuit ; and from its lofty conical eminence down to the water-
fide, it is covered with {now and ice, through which neither
tree nor fhtub could protrude. The landing is dificult on
account of the detached rocks, which at the diftance of
about a quarter ‘of a mile from the fhore furvound it. N.
lat. ¢g° 22'. E. long. 207° 9’. |

Mocnr St. Elias, a mountain on the W. coaft of North
Ametica, about 36 miles from the Pacific ocean, perpetually
covered with fnow. N. lat,60° 22’. E. long. 419° 21.

Mount St. Helen’s, a mountain on the W. coa{t of North
America. N. lat. 46° 9'. E. long. 203° 1!:

Mount Stephens, a mountain on the W. coaft of North
America; five miles N. of Point Philip.

Mount Talbot, a {mall poft-town of Ireland, in the
county of Rofcommon, fituated on the river Suck, and
+6 miles W. by N. from Dublin.

Mount Tirza, a place of America, in Parfon county,
North Carolina, having a polt-office; 296 miles from
Wathington

Mount Tom, a noted mountain of America, on the W.
bank of Conneéticut river, near Northampton.—Alfo, the
name of a mountain between Litchfield and Wafhington, in
Conneticut

Mount Vernon, a town of America, in Kennebeck
county, and {tate of Maine; 17 miles N.W. of Hallowell.

Moukv Vernon, the feat of the late George WAsHINnG-
TON, pleafantly fituated on the Virginia bank of Patow-
mac river, in Fairfax county, Virginia, where the river
is nearly two miles wide; nine miles below Alexandria,
127 from Point Look-out at the mouth of the river, and
280 miles from the fea. The area of the mount is 200
feet above the furface of the river ; and after furnifhing a
lawn of five acres in front, and about the fame in rear of
the buildings, falls off rather abruptly in thofe two quarters.
On the N. end it fubfides gradually into extenfive pafture-
grounds; while on the S. it flopes more fteeply, in a fhort
diftance, and terminates with the coach-houfe, ftables, vine-
yards, and nurferics. On either wing is a thick grove of
d fferent flowering forett trees. Parallel with them, on the
land fide, are two {pacious gardens, into which one is led

MOU

by two ferpentine gravel walks, planted with weeping”
willows and thady fhrubs. The manfion-houfe itfelf appears
venerable and convenient ; and viewed from the land’ fide,
the whole aflemblage of buildings bears a refemblance to a
rural village. A {mall park on the river, where the Eng-
lifh fallow deer and the American’ wild deer are feen through
the thickets, alternately with the veffels as they are failing
along, give a romantic and picturefque appearance to the
whole fcenery. On the oppofite fide of a fmall creek to
the northward, an extenfive plain, exhibiting corn-fields and’
cattle grazing, affords in fummer a luxuriant landfcape ;
while the blended verdure of wocdlands and cultivated de-
clivities, on the Maryland fhore, variegates the profpe& ia
acharming manner. Such are the philofophic fhades to
which the commander-in-chief of the American army retired
in 1783, at the clofe of a viétorious war; which he again
left in 1789 to dignify with his unequalled talents the higheft
office which his fellow-citizens could cosfer: and hither he
again retreated in 1797, loaded with honours and the bene=
diGtions of his country. Here, in 1798, he again heard
and obeyed the call of his endangered country, to command
her armies, but was at length fummoned on the rqth of
December 1799 to join the heaven!y hoits. Morfe. See
WASHINGTON.

Mount /Varning, a
Holland. S. lat. 28° 2

Mount Wa/bington hes in the upper part of the ifland of
New York.—Alfo, one of the hicheft peaks of the White
Mountains, in New Hamphhire—A''fo, the fouth-weftern-
motft townfhip of Maffachufetts, in Berkfhire county, 158
miles W. by S. from Bolton; incorporated in 1779, and
containing 291 inhabitants. .

MOUNTAGU, Ricuarn, in Biography, a learned pre-
Jate of the church of England, and an excellent writer on
eccletiaftical antiquities, was born in 1578, at Dorney, in
Buckinghamfhire. He was educated in the claffics at Eton,
and thence he proceeded, in 1594, to King’s college, Cam-
bridge. He rofe rather rapidly in the church, and in 1610
he edited, in Greek, “ Gregory Nazianzen’s Invectives
again{t Julian,” with the notes of Nonnius. In 1624 he
publifhed a piece in anfwer to a pamphlet, entitled * A
Gag for the New Gofpel.”” Mouxntagu’s reply was en-
titled « A New Gag for an Old Goofe ;”’ this was viewed
by fome of his opponents in a very ferious light, and a profe-
cution was commenced agaiaft him, but he had flail enough
to evade it by applying to the king to be allowed to appeak
to himfelf. James confented, and the work was entitled
« Appello Czfarem.”? This appeal increafed the number
of his enemies, but in proportion to the odium heaped upon
him, he increafed in favour at court, and ia 1628 he was
promoted to the bifhopric of Chichefter, though he was at
that very time under the cenfure of the houfe of commons.
He now applied himfelf to his favourite fubje&, church
antiquities, and publifhed, in 1635, ‘* Originum Ecclefiatti-
carum Apparatns,"’ Tomus primus. Tn 1638 he was tranf-
Jated to Norwich, in which he became diitinguifhed as a
perfecutor of the Puritans. In 1640 he completed his
“ Originum Ecclefias, &c.’? and died in the following year.
He was author of many other works, enumerated in the
Biogr. Brit. to which the reader is referred.

OUNTAINS, Moounrarxous Country, &c. In the
language of common life, the more confiderable of thofe
inequalities with which the furface of the earth is diverlified
are generally termed mountains, while thofe of inferior
elevation are diltinguifhed by the, appellation of Ail/s. It
is unneceffary to point out the infuflicieney of this popnlar

7 but

mountain on the FE. coaft of New
]

Te

MOUNTAINS.

but vague diftinction, for which, by the geologifts of the
peefent day, efpecially thofe of the Wernerian {chool, a di-
vifion has been fubftituted, which is far better adapted to
the prefent advanced ftate of geognofy and phyfical geo-
graphy.

The inequalities on the furface of the earth may be divided
into two great claffes, viz. the bottom of the ea, and the
dry land ; for the former of thefe, fee the article Sea. The
dry land, with regard to its inequalities, is divided into high
Tand and low land ; the former denoting an uneven tract of
land confiderably elevated above the level of the fea; the
latter conveying the idea of an extenfive country quite flat,
or of inconfiderable elevation above the fea, chiefly com-
pofed of plains, but alfo hilly where it borders on alpine
country ; and if groups of mountains occur in it, thefe are
always {mall, and occupy its central part.

High land is principally compefed of alpine, mountainous,
and hilly land ; here and there alfo fome plains occur in it.

Alpine landis formed of groups of mountains, which again
are compofed of mountain chains, or connected’ feries of
fingle mountains. Mountain groups are generally highelt in
the middle, and each of them, in an alpine country, takes a
particular direction ; they are feparated from each other by
plains and vallies, but more frequent!y by mountainous or
hilly country. Each group conftitutes a connected whole,
both with regard to its bafe and its acclivity : it is not, how-
ever, an entire mafs, but interfeéted in many places, though
never quite down to its foot or bafe: where the latter takes
place, the mountain group is confidered as terminated.

The fecond feature in the general afpect of high land is
mountainous land ; itis compofed of fingle mountains colleGted
into chains, which however, not being joined together by a
central or high mountain chain, are never feen to form groups.

The third component part of high land, is hilly land:
which confilts of gentle rounded and undalated elevations 5 it
is much lower than the preceding, and by means of the plains,
which fometimes conititute a part of high land, forms a
tranfition into low land.

In confidering the various parts of which alpine land is
compofed, we obferve that a mountain group always con-
fills of feveral mountain chains, the higheft part of which,
extending through the whole group without beiag inter-
feéted, is called the high mountain chain, or alfo the high
middle chain, in cafes where its fituation is nearly in the
middle of the group; from it a great number of inferior
chains proceed under various angles, which form the ac-
clivity of the group, and are called {ubordinate and lateral
chains. ‘They vary in magnitude and extent; the moft
eonfiderable, called alfo chief mountain chais, is that which,
proceeding from the middle of the high mountain chain,
reaches to the foot of the group; the other chains cither
thoot from the foot of the group towards the principal
mountain chain, but never reach the high mountain chain ;
er they proceed from the high mountain chain, without
however reaching the foot of the group. The fummit of
a mountain chain is called its ridge, that of the higheft
chain the higheit ridge. ‘The concavities in a mountain

roup, which generally run parallel with its longitudinal
Tredion, or feparate one chain from another, are called
valleys ; which fee.

Mountain groups, with regard to their extent, are di-
vided into principal groups, or fuch as are from 30 to 4o
geographical miles in length, for inftance, the alps of Swit-
zerland, and Pyrenees: into middle-fized mountain groups
(Mittelgebirge), which have an exteat of from 10 to 20
geographical miles, fuch as the Hartz mountains, the
Riefengebirge, &c.; and into {mall mountain groups,

which are only fram two or three to ten geographical
miles in length. With regard to their height, mountain
groups are called high, if their elevation exceed 1000 toifes,
or 7000 feet, as-is the cafe with the Andes in South Ame-
rica, and the Alps of Switzerland, Savoy, Tyrol, and the
Pyrengesin Europe. They are of a middle height, if their
ridgé is elevated from 500. to 1000’ toifes above the level of
the fea; fuch as feveral mountain groups of Bohemia,
Franconia, &c. Low mountain groups are from too to
50 toifes, or from 7oo to 2500 feet high. Generally
the length of a mountain group is) proportionate to its
height, and to the breadth ff its bale. If the length and
the breadth of the bafe be nearly alike, the mountain group
is called maflive ; if, on the other hand, the length is very
confiderable in comparifon of the breadth of the bafe, it
is denominated a long mountain group.

Another diftin€&tion of mountain groups is derived from
the difference in the form and the conneétion of the mour-
tains and mountain chains of which they are compofed,
Thus we have common, alpine, and conic mountain groups.
The common mountain groups have a middle-fized, lengthen-
ed principal mountain chain, which gives eut fhorter lateral
chains, and the individual mountains of which thefe chains
are compofed are fingly aggregated in rows: they are moftly
mountain groups ef an intermediave height and extent. In
the conical groups the individual mountains are for the moft
part fingly aggregated like the preceding, but only joined
together at their foot, or not higher up than the declivity,
by which the conical form is produced, which principally
characterizes the mountains of the fletz-trap formation.
The alpine mountain group does not confilt, like the com-
mon group, of {imple rows of mountains, the fummits of
which are fingly projeGting, but as it were of pyramidally
aggregated clufters ; and is therefore to be confidered as a
double aggregation. Thefe alpine mountain groups are the
moft extenfive, and their higheft ridges and fummite gene-
rally confiit of granite.

With regard to the different parts of fingle mountains, we
diftinguifh the foot, the acclivity, and the fummit. The
foot is generally very flat, and more or lefs extenfive ; the
acclivity, or the fpace between the foot and the fummit, is
the moit confiderable and ufually the fteepeft part of the
mountain, fometimes even forming perpendicular preeipices:
the more gentle and gradual the afcent of a mountain, the
richer it generally proves in ores. ‘The fummit varies both
with regard to its fteepnefs and fhape, which latter is’ for
the moit part indicative of the nature of the rock of which
it is compofed ; gneifs and tranfition rocks forming flat or
round‘backed ; clay flate conical, and bafalt, &a) fhort and
obtufe conical fummits, while granite and lime-{tone moun-
tains are often chara(terized by fharp-pointed fummits or
peaks. If feveral of the mountains in a group are flattened,
fuch a ridge is called a platteforme. Very fteep and lofty
fummits are called peaks, necdles, (aiguilles,) horns. Some-
times the fummit is marked by a depreflion; fometimes it is
interfected by ravines, and the inequalities thus. formed are
called caps or kuppen.

Thovgh mountains have been emphatically called “Ia
charpente et Voffature du globe terreftre,”” yet even the
moit elevated of them mutt appear as flight rugofities.only,
when their proportion to the diameter of the earth is con-
fidered: for the higheft mountain of Europe, the Montblanc,
is, on the furface of our planet, what the protuberance
of a line would be on the furface of a globe of about
21 feet in diameter. It is not a long time that we have ob-
tained correct notions of the heights of mountains ; before
the barometer was applied to.the meafurement of altitudes,

their

MOUNTAINS.

their elevation was generally greatly exaggerated by travellers,
fo much fo that the learned jefuit Riccioli, who flourifhed te-
wards the middle of the 17th century, gives it as his opinion
that mountains like the Caucafus may have a perpendicular
elevation of 50 Italian miles; and Ifbrand Ides, in his
embafly to China, having traverfed fome mountains of Siberia,
ftates their height to be about sooo toifes. For the mode of
computing the height of mountains by means of the barome-
ter ; fee that article.

Table of the Heights of Mountains and Hills.

Englifh

DEEN Feet tare
England and Wales. - ENE Sd

the Sea.
Snowden, Caernarvonfhire = - 3568
Cader Idris, Merionethfhire - - 3550
Crofsfell, Cumberland - - 3390
Helvellyn, ibid. - - - 3324
Saddleback, ibid. - - - 3050
Wharnfide, Yorkthire - - 2480
Ingleborough, ibid. - - 2380
Moel-Elian, Caernarvonfhire - 2371
Rippon Tor, Devon - . 1540
Wever hills, Staffordthire - - 1500
Penmaen-Mawr, Caernarvonfhire - 1400
Wrekin, Shropshire - 1400
Brown-Willy, near Bodmin, Cornwall 1368

Malvern hills, in Herefordfhire; the Herefordfhire

beacon above the level of the plain - 1260
the Worcetterfhire beacon - 1300
Ax-Edge peak, above the town of Derby 1200

Scotland.
County of Mid Lothian,
Logan-houfe hill, one of the higheft of oe Pent.

lands - ¥700
Caernethan, one of the Pentlands - 1700
Kirk-Yetton, ditto - - 1544
Caltle-law - - - 1390
Spittal-law - 1360
Arthur-Seat, vicinity of Edinburgh - 810
Braid hills - 690
Dalmahoy hill - - . 680
Salifbury craigs - . - 550
poe aa ill - - - 540
Corftorphine hill - - - 470
Craigmillzr > 360
Calton hill, vicinity of Edinburgh - 350
Eaft Lothian.
Traprain-law - - - 700
Bals rock - - - 400
; Welt Lothian.
Cairn-Naple - - - 980
Cockleren - - - 980
Hillhoufe hill ~ . - 698
Binny craig - - - 680
Ardgath hill - . 540
Berwickhhire.
Dunfe-law 630
Selkirkthire.
Black-houfe heights * « 237
Hanginfhaw - : - 1980

Englith ’

Keer.
Ward-law - 2 - 1g00
Peat-law - - - 1694
Meagle - = 2 - 1480

Roxburghhhire.
Cheviot hills 2 L - 2682
Millenwood-Fell = - - 2000
Windhead hill - - > 2000
Tudhope oy ae - - 1830
Wifp hill - - . 1830
Ruber’s-law - 1419
Eilden hills, the moft wetter aud Bighel 1300
Dunian’s hill é 1024
Minto hill = « - 855
Peeblesfhire.
Dollarburn, by eftimation - - 2840
Broad-law - - - 2800
Glumfeugh = - - 2200
Hillfcleugh - - 2100
Dundroigh, or Druid’ s hill - - 2100
Minchmoor hill . - - - 2000
Carden hill - - - 1400
Lanark hire.
Tinto hill, 1720; according to others 2439
The mine-mafter’s houfe at Leadhills, hice is
the higheft inhabited place in one: Britain - 1564
Weltraw = “ ~ ooo
Town of Lanark - - - 660
Dumfriesfhire.

Hartfell - 3304

Some accounts male the height of this mountain but
2800 feet from the fea. It is probable that this menfura-
tion may rather intimate its height above Moffat. This
mountain fhould be carefully meafured, as it appears to be
the higheft in the fouth of Scotland.

Black Larg, next Ayrfhire - - 2890
Lowther hill - . 2522
Ettrick pen, in Efkdale Muir - 2220
Queentberry hill - - - 2140
Cairn-Kinnow, near Drumlanrig - 2080
Tennis hill, in Tarres _ - - 1346
Langholm hill - - . 1204
Erickftene Braehead - 1118
Ford of the Clyde, above Elvan Foot - 1058
Conftitution hill, near Moffat - 1004.
Burn{wark hill - - - 740
Moffat - - - - 582
Repentance Tower - . 350
Ward-law - - - 326
Annan hill - - - 256
Wigton and Kirkcudbright.
Criffle - - - 1895
Cairnfmuir - - - 17937
Ben cairn - - . 1200
Cairn-harrah - - - 1100
Cairn-pat - - : 800
Ayrhhire
Carleton hill . - - 1554
Craig of Ailfa < " ms 940?

Ifland

7

MOUNTAINS.

Iffand of Arran. agit
Goatfield 2 - - 2945
Renfrewhhire.

Mifty-law < + - 1240
Nielfton craig = + 3 820
Surling fhire.

Ben-Lomond = = - 3262
Wood hill ~ = - 1620
Campfie hills 4 = - 1500
Clackmananhhire.

Ben Cleugh, the higheft fummit of the Ochils 2420?

i Fifefhire.
Lomond hills - - - 165a

Perthfhire.
Ben Lawers - - 4051 Or 4015
Ben More : - 3870 or 3903
Bein-Gloe - - - 3724
Bein-Deirg, or the Red Mountain - 3550
Ben Voirlich - - - 3300
Schehallien - - 3281 or 3564
Ben Ledi - - - 3009
Benivenou - - - 3000
Ben Chochan - - - 3000
Ben Chonzie ; - - 3922
Benachally - = - 1800
Birnam hill - : . 1580
King’s Seat - - - 1238
Kinpurnie - : - II51
Dunfinnan hill - - - 1024
Belmont hill - - - 159
Barry hill - - : 400
Argylehhire.

Cruachan - - 3399 or 3300
Bedinam-braw, in Glencoe - 3150
Beinn-an-oir, higheft pap of Jura - 2470
Beinn-a-chaolois, the moft fouthern of the paps of

Jura, rifes above the found of Ifla 2359

Angus, or Forfar.

Cat-law - - - 2264
Dunnichen hill . - 720
Mearns, or Kinkardinefhire.

Mount Battock - - 3450
Kloachnabane - = 2370
Kerlavick - - - 1890
Aberdeenfhire.

Scairfoch - - : 3400
Gariach - - - 3000
Moulbrax hill . - . 2700
Peter hill - - - 2700
Buck hill - . - 2377
Cairn Ferg - - - 2100
Fare hill - - = 1793
Cairn Monearn - - 1020
Benachie - - - 1000

810

Mormond hill - -

Banffhhire.
Knock hill Re be »,
Lochavon hill ie -
Invernefshire.
Ben-Nevis, the higheft mountain in Great Britain

438
Cairngorum = -
Meal-Fourvouny ai =
Craig-Phatrick v ‘3

Rofshhire.
Ben-Wevis = » 4
Sutherlandhhire.
Beinmore, Affynt - -
Caithnefsthire.
Paps of Caithnefs - -
Ord of Caithnefs = iS
Treland.

Macgillicuddy’s Reeks, county of Kerry, the
higheft mountain in Ireland -

Sliebh-Dorin, county of Londonderry

Knock-Mele-Down, mountains dividing Cork and
Tipperary from Waterford -

Croagh-Patrick, county of Mayo -

Nephin, ibid. -

Mangerton, county of Kerry, above the lake of
Killarney = 2 é

Mourne hills, county of Down -

Commerach-Ridge, county of Waterford

Croaghan Kinfhelly, barony of Arklow

Sawell, county of Londonderry -

Slenifh mountain, county of Artrim

Benbradagh, county of Londonderry -
Alt-Eglih hill, ibid. - -
Benyevenach, ibid. - -

Sliebh-Gallan, ibid. = +
Donald’s hill, ibid. = :

Kedy, ibid. = =

Croneban, county of Wicklow :

Croaghmore, county of Antrim -

Lfle of Man,

Snafel, centre of the ifland -
Iceland.

Snefial - - -

Hecla = = Z

Thyril - : ‘

Torfa - = :
Norway.

Swicku, according to Retzius -

» according to Bergmann, only

Chain of Dofra-fiel 2 ut

Hornalen, province of Bergen -

Chain of Lang-fial = .

Siken-Ulrich, province of Bergen -

Hey-feldt, ibid. - -
Sweden.

Arefkutan, Jemtland - ’

Rattvik - = -

Englith
Feet.
2500
1750

0 or 4350
4050
397°
1150

3720
Se Ae

1929
1250

3404
3150

2700
2666
2640

2505
2500
2160
1850
1600
1390
1300
1300
1250
1250
1200
1100
1000
600

1740

6860
4900
1800
1400

6658
4377
3600
3000
2200
1600
1500

6180
6000
Sylfiellen

MOUNTAINS.

Sylfiellen = b
Hurne, Wet Gothland - -
‘Taberg, tbid. = E
Hanover.
Brocken, or Blockfberg, Hartz -
Heinrichfhohe, ibid. - -
Bruchberg = he
Bohemia.

Ochfenkopf, higheft fummit of the Fichtelgebi rge

The higheft fummit of the Erzgebirge, the chain
that feparates Bohemia from Saxony

The Schneeberg, in the oe goon 3 fepoeen
Franconia and Bohemia

Donnerfberg, or Millefchau, the highet fummit
of the Mittelgebirge

Thuringia.
Schneekopf, according to v. Zach, in French feet,
Silefia.
Schueekopf, the highs fummit of the iclen-
gebirge -
Groffe Rader -
Tafelfichte, Ricfengebirge -
Zobtenberg - z
Switzerland.
Mont Blanc, higheft mountain in Europe, ac-
cording to Sauffure =
Mont Rofa = 3
Jungfrauhorn = ‘g
Ridge of the Furca - -
Neger-horn S s
Monch-horn 2 ie
Buet ~ oe is
St. Gothard

Hofpice of the Great St. “Bernard, the highet in-
habited ground in Europe

Hofpice of Little St. Bernard .

Hofpice of St. Gothard -

Paflage of Mount Cenis 4
Tyrol.

Ocrtler Spitze, the third higheft mountain in

Europe
Great Glockner (in Paris feet) -
Hohenwarshohe (Paris = -
Roth-horn -

Salmfhohe (Paris feet)

Silver-mine near Stertzingen (Paris feet)

Brennef mountain . =
Saltzburg.

Oftelle ~ s

Wat zmann ° a

Rathhavederg é

Mine in Rathhaufberg (Paris feet) °

Stiria
Higheft fummit of the Wechfels (Paris feet)
Saddle in Waidbaden ( Paris feet}

Saddle of the Prenhibel (Paris feet)

Englith
Feet.
4020
716

420

3690
3926
2800
3989
3781
3618

2562

3275

Engliffa
nS Feet.
Cafile of Kaiferau, near the fummit of the Licht- }
mefsberg (Paris feet) - 333°
Alptteig (Paris feet ) - 3297
Aufirias
Summit of the Priel = - 6565
of the Oeticher - 599°
of the Kafsberg - 5215
Mitterfee, (Paris feet) 3084
Claufe, a eats on the borders At Stina and Aubsti
(Paris feet) - 2772
Langgelcheids (Paris feet) - 2344
Town of Eifenertz = - 2056
Carinthia.
Crofs Kogel » 8 g7oe
Hungary.
Peak cf Lomnitz, the highe!t {ammit of fhe Car- }
pathians - 8640
Great peak of Metraees - 8508
Krivan movatain - - 8343
Gold mine of the Krivan - 6954
Fleifchbank - 6168
Budiflaw mountain in Tranfy Ivania . 6888
Turkey in Europe. ~
Mount Athos, according to Kaftner 3353
Spain.
Pic blanc, in the Pyrenees ~ Xo 205
‘Torravocos, eftimated between 8 and goco
Caitile mountains, the elevation of the higheit
fummits, eitimated at from - 8 to gooo
Guadarrama, eitimated between 8 and gooo
Pic de los Reyes, Pyrenees - 7620
Montferrat, in Catalonia - 3300
Filabres - 2000
Higheft point of Gibraltar : 1439
Portugal.
Serra del Maihao, province of Beira, the higheft
fummit of the Serra de Ettrella, eftimated
between - 5 and 6000
Serra de Marao, eftiviated at from 3 to 4000
Murro de Burrageiro < 3500
France.
Loucira, Department of the soa Alps 14,451
Loupiion, ibid. - 14,144
Jocelme, ibid. » = 13,869
Qlan-en-Valgodmar, ibid. ° 13,838
All-Els, Helvetic Alps 12,194
Mont Perdu, the higheft fummit of the Pyrenees 11,283
Aiguille noire de Nevache, ve High se 10 505
Pic'd’ Autare, ibid 97©2
Canigou, Department of Eaftern Pyrenees - 9290
Pic d’Arbizon, ibid. - - 8344
Breven, Sayoy on - - 8300
Allée blanche, ibid. - - 7404
Mont d’ Or, Auvergne - - 0707
Puy de Sanfi, ibid. - . = 6700
Plomb du Cantal, ibid. 6355
Mine de Pezey, Department of the High Al Be 6016
Puy de Loucire, Auvergne -

4900
Poy

MOUNTAINS.

Englith
Feet.
Puy de Déme, ibid. according to aie -. 4518
Puy de Cleirfou, ibid. a . 4280
Puy de Pariou, ibid. - - 4265
Puy de Sandoire, ibid. ¢ - 3980
Italy.
Etna - - 10,963
Monte Ritoaio, Gcifice - 8694
Monte Velino, Naples - - 7878
Monte Cimone - - 6401
Monte S. Angelo, bigor Tddhda - 5260
Vefuvius - - 3900
Porto Fino, Apennines - - 1920
Monte Nuovo, Naples - - 1200
Ruffia in Europe.
Wolchonkky Lines, by eftimation (Paris fess) geco
Tchaturdag, or Palat - 6600
; MOUNTAINS OF ASIA.
Turkey in Afia.
Mount Lebanon, eftimated at = 9520
Mount Ararat - - - 9500
Chain of Olympus - - - 6500
Chain of Mount Ida - - - 4960
Mount Gargara - ~ - 4960
Mount Carmel - - - 2000
Afiatic Ruffia.
Halitzkoi, Altaic chain == - 105735
Tigeretzkoi, ibid. - ms - 10,735
Torgonfkoi, ibid. - = - 10,700
Katunayaifkoi, ibid. - - - 10,650
Avattha, volcano, Kamtfchatka = 9600
Sludina mountain, Altaic chain - - 7722
Schlangenberg, ibid. . - - 6050
‘Tagani, Uralian chain Wai Pet - 4912
Difhigalgo, ibid. iS > x 4912
Kyria, ibid. - - . - 3015
, China.
Petcha, or Hamar, Chinefe Tartary ; 3 eflimated
height above the plains of China - 15,000
Sochondo mountains, ibid, & = 12,800
Me-Lin, eftimated at = « 8000
Mountains of Corea, Chinefe Tartary - 4480
Tibet and Bootan.
The higheft fummit of the mountains of Tibet, ,
according to colonel Crawford, above - 25,000
Soomoonang, Bootan - - - 14,500
Ghafla mountains, ibid. - = 13,030
Chumularee, Tibet - - “ 11,960
Hindooftan.
_ The Ghauts ~ - - - 3000
Indian Tflands.
‘Mount Ophir, Sumatra . s 13,842
Volcano of Sumatra - - - 12,465
Egmont mouptain, the moit northern of the iflands
of New Zealand, eftimated at - 115433
Mountain of Parmefan, in the ifland of Banca,
one of the Sunda ifles - - 10,050
Vou. XXIV.

Englith
Feet.
Peak of Jeffo,-in the ifland of Jeffo, in the fea of
Japan - - 768%
Peak of Quilpaert, in the ifland of the fame name,
in the fea of Japan - 6400

Mountain in Behring’s ifle to the eaft of Kamtfchatka Saco

MOUNTAINS OF AFRICA,

Abyffinia.
Mountains of Geefh, eftimated at = 15,050
Mountains of Amid-Amid, eftimated at - 13,260
Lamalmon, eftimated at - = 11,200
Mountains of Gondar “ir . 8450
Taranta - - - - 7800
Morocco.

The higheft peak of the Atlas chain, eftimated at
Colony of the Cape of Good Hope.

11,980

Compafs mountain, eftimatedat = - 2 10,000

Niewveldt mountains, eftimated at _ 10,000

Kom, eftimated height above the Karroo sire 5000

Khamies mountains - - 4300

Table mountain - - - 3582

Devil’s-Head - ~ ~ 9315

Lion’s-Head - - - 2166

r African Iflands.

Peak of Teneriffe, average height = 12,236
Gros Morne, Ifle of Bourben,

according to de la Caille and Berth - 10,883

St. Vincent - 9600

Volcano of Bourbon be 7680

Monton de Trigo, Canary Ifles - 7400

Ridge of Entre-deux, ifle of Bourbon, be:
tween - ~ =

5120 and 64c0
Bonnet Pointu, or mountain of Cimandef,

ifle of Bourbon - 6050 .
Peak of Ruivo, centre of the ifland of Madeira 5162
Piter Boot, ifle of France - 2714
Diana’s peak, one of the highett fummits in the

ifle of St. Helena - - 2692
Corps du Garde mountain, ifle of France - 2560

MOUNTAINS OF AMERICA.
South America
Caraccas.
Silla de Caraccas - - . 8432
Tutmiriquiri, province of Cumana = 6250
Guachano, ibid. - - - 5250
Chain of Venezuela, from - 4to 5000
Mountains of Bergantin 2 3 4512
New Granada.
Sierra Nevada de Merida - - 16,420
bier Nevada de Santa Martha - - 15,200
New Andalufia. >
Volcano of Duida - - - $467
Cuanarama - - - - 4400
Quito.
Chimboraco, higheft fummit of the ‘Andes, and
one of the highelt on the face ‘of the earth 20;905

Nona Difca

MOUNTAINS.

Englifh

Feet.
Difca Cafada - . - 19,570
Cayambé Ourcou - . - 19,392
Volcano of Cotopaxi - 5 = 18,880
City of Riobamba ss - ae + 18,800
Altar mountain - - = = 17,472
Volcano of Sangaior Mecas = - - 175152
Volcano of Tonguragua - - 16,579
Corazon - - - - 15,808
Bayo Pongo - - BAS 15,800
Gargaviraco — - - - - 15,680
Guancavelica - - - - 14,961
Boueran - - - - 12,652
Cahouapata ss - - - - 11,641
Borma - - - - 10,329
City of Quito - - - 9356
Plain of Schangilli . - - 8992
Carraburu - . - - 7846
La Plata. 3 s
Mountain of Potofi, according to Alcedo - 18,000
Weft Indies.
Higheft fummit of the Blue mountains in Jamaica 7431
Pelee, ifland of Martinique - - 5100
Morne Garou, ifland of St. Vincent’s : 5050
Mount Mifery, ifland of St. Chriftopher - 3711
North America.
Mexico.
Volcano of Popocatepee - - 16,365
Peak of Fraide 8 - - - 15,129
Peak of Cofre - - - 13,275
City of Mexico - - - 7424
Sierra de Tafco - - - 4480
Sierra de Chilpantzingo - = e 3840
United States.
White mountains in New Hamphhire, eftimated at
about - - - - 7870
Kattfkill mountains ; fuppofed height above Hud-
fon’s river - - - - 3454
Killington peak, in Vermont - - 3454
Higheit point of the Apalachian chain in Virginia,
about - - - - - 2700
North Weft Coaft of America.
Mount St. Elias, in lat. 60° 27’ N. 2 12,672
Famweather mountain, lat. 58° 52! N. - 8970
Mountain of Crillon, lat. 58° N. - 5440
Mount Edgecumbe - - - 1281
The higheft of the Stony mountains in the N.W.
parts of America are faid to be 3500 feet above
the adjacent plain, which is eftimated at 2700
fect above the level of the fea.
Old Greenland.
Blaaferk - - - - - 6000

Jamefon’s Mineralogy, vol. iii.

The circumftance of one fide of a chain of mountains, or
of a fingle mountain, being in general ftéeper than the other,
has given origin to an inftruétive paper by Mr. Kirwan,
«« On the Decivities of Mountains,’”? of which the following
ie an abftra&, ‘The theory, according to which this na-

turalift attempts to explain the phenomenon in quettion, will
conftitute part of another article.

That one part of almoft every high mountain is fteeper
than another, could not have efcaped the notice of any per-
fon who had traverfed fuch mountains; but that nature, in
the formation of fuch declivities, had any regard to different
afpeéts or points of the compafs, feems to have been firft re-
marked by the celebrated Swedifh geologift, Mr. Tilas, in
the 22d volume of the Memoirs of Stockholm for 1760.
Neither Vereneus, Ludolph; nor Buffon, in his Natural
Hiftory, publifhed in 1748, have noticed this remarkable
circumitance. The obfervation of Tilas, however, relates
only to the extreme ends, and not to the flanks of the moun-
tains. With refpeét to the former, he remarked that the
Steepefl declivity always faces that part of the country where
the land lies higheft; and that in the fouthern and eaftern
parts of Sweden they confequently face the eaft and fouth-
eaft, and in the northern the weft. The effential part of this
obfervation extends, therefore, only to the general elevation
or depreffion of the country, and not to the bearing of their
declivities.

The difcovery, that the different declivities of the flanks
of the mountains bear an invariable relation to their different
afpeéts, feems to have been firft publifhed by Bergmann, in
his Phyfical Defcription of the Earth, of which the fecond
edition appeared in 1773. He there remarked, that in
mountains that extend from north to fouth, the weftern
flank is the fteepeft ; and that in mountains which run eaft
and weft, the fouthern declivity is the fteepeft, and the
northern the gentleft. This affertion he grounds on the
obfervation related in his firft volume, namely, that in Scan-
dinavia, the Svevoberg mountains that run north and fouth,
feparating Sweden from Norway, the weftern or Norwegian
fides are the fteepeft, and the eaftern or Swedifh the moft
moderate ; the verticality or fteepnefs of the former being
to that of the latter as 4o or 50 to 4 or 2: that the Alpsare
fleeper on their weftern and fouthern fides, than on the
eaftern and northern: that in America the Cordilleras are
fteeper on the weftern fide, which faces the Pacific ocean,
than on the eaftern. But he does not notice a few excep-
tions to this rule in particular cafes, which will hereafter
be mentioned. :

Buffon, in the firft volume of his Epoch of Nature, pub-
lifhed in 1778, is the next wha notices the general prevalence
of this phenomenon, as far as relates to the eaftern and
weftern fides of the mountains that extend from north te
fouth; but he is filent with refpett to the north and fouth
fides of the mountains that run from eaft to weft: nay, he -
does not feem to have a juft comprehenfion of this pheno-
menon, for he confiders it conjointly with the general dip
of the regions in which thefe mountains exift. Thus he
tells us, that in all continents the general declivity, taking
it from the fummit of mountains, is always more rapid on
the weftern than on the eaftern fide: thus, the fummit of
the chain of the Cordilleras is much nearer to the weftern
fhore than to the eaftern; the chain which divides the whole
length of Africa, from the Cape of Good Hope to the ,
mountains of the moon, is nearer, he fays, to the weftern
than to the eaftern feas. Of this, however, he muft have
been ignorant, as that tract of country is fill unknown.
The mountains which run from cape Comorin through the
peninfula of India are, he fays, much nearer to the fea on
the eaft than on the weft: he probably meant the contrary,
as the faét is evidently fo, and fo he {tates in vol. ii, p. 295.
The fame, he tells us, may be obferved in iflands and penin-
fulas, and in mountains. :

This remarkable circumflance of mountains was, notwith-

2 ftanding,

MOUNTAINS.

ftanding, fo little noticed, that, in 1792, the author of an
excellent account of the territory of Carlfbad, in Bohemia,
tells us, he had made an obfervation, which he had never
met with in any phyfical defcription of the earth, namely,
that the fouthern declivity of all mountains was much fteeper
than the northern, which he proves by inftancing the Ertage-
birge of Saxony, the Pyrenees, the mountains of Switzer-
land, Savoy, Carinthia, Tyrol, Moravia, the Carpathian,
and mount Hemus in Turkey. (2. Bergm. Journ. 1792,
P- 385, in the note.) Hermann, in his Geology, pub-
ifhed in 1787, has at leaft partially mentioned this circum-
ftance ; for he fays that the eaftern declivities of all moun-
tains are much gentler, and more thickly covered with
fecondary ftrata, and to a greater height, than the weftern
flanks, which he inftances in the Swedifh and Norwegian
mountains, the Alps, the Caucafian, the Apennine, and
Ouralian mountains; but the declivities bearing a fouthern
or northern afpect he does not mention.

Lamétherie, in vol. iv. of his Theory of the Earth, pro-
duces numerous inftances of the inequality of the eaftern and
weftern declivities, but {carcely any of the northern and
fouthern, whofe differences he does not feem to have no-
ticed; but he makes the remark, that the coafts of different
countries prefent fimilar declivities. With regard to eaftern
and weftern afpeét, he thinks that a different law has ob-
tained in Africa from that which he’ has obferved in other
countries ; for in that vaft peninfula he imagines the eaftern
declivities of mountains are the fteepeft, and the weltern the
gentleft. Of this, however, he adduces no other proof
but that the greateft rivers are found on the weftern fide.
This proof feems infufficient, as, if mountains be fituated
far inland, great rivers may flow indifcriminately from any
fide of them; and fometimes few rivers flow even from the
fide whofe defcent is moft moderate: for inftance, from the
ealtern fide of the mountains of Syria. The Elbe and the
Oder, two of the greateit rivers in Germany, take their
courfe from the weftern fides, the firft of the Bohemian,
and the other of the Moravian mountains, which yet are the
fteepeft. Many originate from lakes, as the Shannon in
Ireland. Many take fuch a winding courfe, that, from a
bare knowledge of the place of their difemboguement, it is
impoflible to judge from what fide of a mountain they iffue,
if from any: their courfe at moit difcovers the depreffion of
the gencral level of the country.

In 1798 the celebrated traveller and circumnavigator,
John Reinhold Forlter, publifhed a geological traét, which
merits fo much more attention, as all the facts were either
obferved by himfelf, or related to him by the immediate ob-
fervers. In this he ftates as a fa& univerfally obferved, that the
fouth and fouth-eaft fides of almoft every mountain are fteep,
but that the north and north-welt fides are gently covered and
eonne&ed with fecondary ftrata, in which organic remains
abound, which he illuftrates by various inttances.

Having advanced thefe general remarks, Mr. Kirwan pro-
ceeds to {tate the principal obfervations relative to this
object, that have been made in different parts of the world ;
viz.

In Europe: 1. The mountains that feparate Sweden
from Norway extend from north to fouth; their weftern
fides are fteep, and the ea{tern gentle (Bergm. Erdbefchreib.
li. p. 157.) 2. The Carpathian mountains run from eaft to
weft ; their fouthern fides towards Hungary are fteep, their
northern towards Poland moderate. (Forlter, § 46.)—
3. Dr. Walker obferved that the coats and hills of Scotland
are fteeper and higher on the wettern fide than on the eaftern.
(Jamefon’s Mineralogy of Scotland, p. 3.) However,
Jamefon obferved that the fouth fide of the ifle of Arranis

the loweft, and the north fide the higheft. (P.51.) 4. The
mountains of Wales are gentle on the eaftern, and fleep on the
weftern fides. 5. The mountains of Parthery, in the county
of Mayo, are fteep on the weftern fide. 6. The mountains
which feparate Saxony from Bohemia defcend gently on
the Saxon or northern fide, but are fteep on the Bohemian
or fouthern fide. (Charpentier, p.75.) The fouthern de-
clivity is to the northern as fix to two. (Bergm. Journal,
1792, p. 354.) 7. The mountains which feparate Silefia
from Bohemia run nearly from eatt to weft, yet are fteeper on
the northern or Silefian fide, than on the oppofite Bohe-
mian. (Affemanni Silefia, 335.) Such branches as run
from north-eait to fouth-weft have their weftern covered
with primordial ‘trata, and are confequently lefs fleep. (New
Roz. p. 157-) 8. The Meiffner, in Heffia, is fteeper on
the north and eaft fides, which face the Warra, than on the
fouthern and weftern. (Bergm. Journ. 1789. p. 272.)
g- The mountains of the Hartz and Habicht{wald are tteep
on the fouth, and gentle on the northern fides. (Forfter,
§ 46.) 10. The Pyrenees, which run from eaft to welt, are
{teeper on the fouthern or Spanifh fide. (Carbonieéres, xiii.)
11. The mountains of Crim Tartary are gentle on the
northern, and fteep on the fouthern fides. Forfter, ibid.

In Afia: 12. The Ourals, which ftretch from north to
fouth, are far fteeper onthe weftern than on the fouthern
fide. (Hermann Geol. p. go, and Befchreib. des Ural,
p- 389.) 13. The mountain of Armenia, to the weit of the
Ourals, is fteep on its eaft and north fides ; but gentle on the
fouthern and eaftern. (Forfter, ibid. and Hermann, ibid.
P- 390, in the note.) 15. So alfo are the mountains of
Caucafus, (Schriftend. Berl. N. F. Gefellfch. iii. p. 471.)
16. The mountains of Kamtfchatka are fteep on the
eaftern fides. {Pallas AG. Petrop. 1777, p. 43.) 17. The
Ghauts, in the Indian peninfula, are fteep on the weftern fide:
18. The mountains of Syria, which run from north to fouth,
fkirting the Mediterranean, are faid to be fteeper on the
weftern fide, facing the Mediterranean. Delamétherie, iv.
p- 380.

In America: The Cordilleras run from north to fouth ;
their weftern flank towards the Pacific are fteep, their eaftern
defcend gradually. In Guiana there is a chain of mountains
that run from eaft to weft ; their fouthern flanks are fteep,
their northern gentle. Condamine, p. 140. Kirwan in
Tranf. Irifh Acad. vol. viii.

Forfter and Pallas account for the exiltence of unequal
declivities on the oppofite north and fouth fides, by imagin-
ing that a great flood from the fouthward has given the earth
its prefent form: Mr. Kirwan, on the other hand, in the
memoir from which the above obfervations are extracted, has
endeavoured to explain the origin of the inequalities, not
only of the northern and fouthern, but alfo of the eaftern
and weftern declivities, by affuming a twofold violent motion
of the waters, by which the earth was originally covered,
namely, the one from eaft to weft, the other from north to
fouth : the former of thefe motions having been refifted by
the mountains which ftretch from north to fouth, this oppo-
fition muft have diminifhed the impulfe of the water, and
difpofed it to fuffer the earthy particles with which it was
impregnated to be depofited on the eaftern declivities, which
rendered them gentle, gradual, and moderate ; while the
weitern fides, receiving no fuch acceffions from depofitions,
muft have remained fteep and craggy. The courfe of the
waters from north to fouth was in the fame manner refifted
by the primeval mountains that run from eaft to weft, which
occafioned fimilar depofitions on the northern fides of thefe
mountains, againft which thefe waters impinged, and thus
{moothed them, Again, where mountains interfeét each

Nn2 other

MOUNTAINS.

other in an oblique direGion, the north-eaft fide of one range
being contiguous.to the fouth-welt flanks of another range;
there the afflux. of adventitious particles on the north-eaft fide
of theone muft have frequently extended to the fouth-weit fide
of the other; particularly if that afflux were ftrong and

‘copious . thus the Ertzgebirge of Saxony, which runs from
welt to eaft, has its north-eait fide contiguous to the fouth-
welt fide of the Riefengebirge, which feparates Silefiafrom
Bohemia, and hence thefe latter are covered with the fame
beds of gneifs, &c. as the northern fides of the Saxon, and
thereby are rendered fmooth and gentle, comparatively to the
oppofite fide, which, being fheltered, remains fteep and
abrupt. Itis in thismanner that Mr. Kirwan accounts for
the above obfervation, N“7. He alfo admits, that, from
various contingent local caufes, fuch as partial inundations,
earthquakes, volcanoes, the erofion of rivers, the elapfion
of ftrata, difintegration, the difruption of the lofty mounds
by which many lakes were anciently hemmed in, feveral
changes were produced in particular countries, that may at
firft fight appear exceptions to the operations of the general
caufes ftated by him .Thus the mountains of Kamtfchatka
had their eaftern flanks torn and rendered abrupt by the ir-
ruption of the general deluge, probably accompanied by
earthquakes ; and thus the Meifiner had its eaft and north
flanks‘tiidermined by the river Warra : thus, too, the eighth
and fixteenth of the above cited obfervations are accounted
for, as is the thirteenth, by the vaft inundations fo frequent
in that country (Pallas. i. p. 172.), which undermined or
corroded its eaftern fide, while the weftern was fmoothed by
the calcareous depofitions from the numerous rivers in.its vi-
cinity. Kirwan, loc. cit.

It fhould not be left unnoticed here that among the ob-
fervations collected by Mr. Kirwan to fupport his’ theory,
there are fome that appear lefs corre&t, fuch as the tenth, in
which the Pyrenees are faid tobe fteeper on the fouthern or
Spanifh fide ; whereas, according to the obfervations of a late
intelligent traveller in thofe parts, profeflor Link, the northern
flanks of moft parts of that group of mountains are far
fteeper than thofe on the Spanifh fide.

More generally correét appears to be the obfervation
made by feveral geologiits, that all confiderable chains are
found to ftretch from north-eaft to fouth-weft ; though, indeed,
the Norwegian mountain chain, and that of the Ural, and
part of the Cordilleras of the Andes, mutt be confidered as
exceptions to thisrule. Profeffor Link endeavours to prove
that the prefent form of the whole of Europe may be {fatif-
faftorily accounted for by this dire€tion of the chains of
mountains, and the influx of the fea from weft to eaft.
See Link’s Geolog. u. Mineral. Bemerkungen auf einer
Reife durch das Sud weflliche Europa, 1801.

For a hiltory of the principal mountain chains on the
globe, we muft refer the reader to the articles ALps, AL-
vaic Mountains, Caucasus, PyReNEES, URAL, &c. as alfo
to Pinkerton’s Geography, and Wilfon’s Hiftory of Moun-
tains; We cannot, however, conclude this article with-
out giving fomé obfervations on the mountains of Portugal
and Spain, ab{tra&ted from the work of profeffor Link
above alluded to, and which have appeared the more worthy
of a tranflation, as they principally relate to a part of Europe
which had not beforé been examined with a view to its
orology.

The northernmoft part of Portugal, the province of Entre
Douro e Minlio, is entirely compofed of mountain chains
which run nearly parallel to each other, from E.N.E. to
W.S.W.), deviating only now and then more towards N. and
S., particularly in the north-eaftern and eafters parte of this

province. ‘The vallies are rather narrow, and widen only
towards the fea; perfe& plains are not feen in this part of
the country. The higheft among thefe chains is that called
Serra de Gerez (pronounced Sheréz) 5 it enters the country
at Montalegre, and following the courfe of the Rio Homem
(principally in the direGtion on E.to W., inclining at aft a
little towards S.W.), branches out into the lower ranges of
hills towards the Cavado: it alfo fends forth confiderable
ranges of hillsto the fouthward. Amott all its yallies run in
an afcending dire€tion from S. to N., terminating at the ridge
which there feparates Portugal from Spain. The moft re-
markable of thefe vallies is that called Caldas da Gerez, where
are warm baths; and on its eaftern fide we find the moft
elevated fituation of the whole range, wiz. the Murro de Bur-
rageiro. The Gerez mountains conhft entirely of granite,
forming rugged and craggy fummits ; and in fome parts (as
in the valley of Caldas) the feldfpar of this rock is decom-
pofed and converted into porcelain earth. There are no
where traces of real ftratification obferved in this granite.
At the foot of one of the higheft parts of this range, four
warm {prings iflue from out of a granite unqueftionably pri-
mitive ; a circumftance which appears remarkable, as it is.
generally fuppofed that the heat of fuch fprings 1s owing
to inflamed beds of coal, which cannot be expeéted ina
fituation like this. They are found in feveral other parts,.
fuch.as at Guimaracus, exactly under the fame circum-
ftances.. On afcending the mountains that clofe the valley
of Caldas at the weftern fide, we arrive at an elevated
mountain plain, whofe weftern declivity is covered witha
fine granitic fand, which renders it prebable that the plain
owes its exiftence to the detritus carried down by the waters.
Alfo detached rocks of quartz are found here, particularly
near the village Coride ; they are of confiderable fize, fnow-
white, and produce a beautiful effect. Oa the northern
boundaries of this plain, the Serra Amarella, a {mall range
of hills iffuing from the Gerez, feparates Portugal from
Spain. The elevation of the Gerez mountain chain is efti-
mated, by prc#effor Link, at 3000 feet. There are frequent
traces of metalliferous veins in the S. of this province, and
on the banks of the Douro. At Oporto copper pyrites and
malachite are found in the granite.

The mountains of Traz os Montes are lefs granitic,
confifting chiefly of flaty fand-{tone ; their direGion is from
N.E. to S.W. The higheft and moit remarkable hain of
this province is the Serra de Marao, which name it obtains
near Amarante, although in the fame range the mountains
extend far to the N.E. The Marao, properly fpeaking,
commences about Mirandella, proceeding m a fouth-welterly,
diretion as far as the river Tamega. The rounded form
of its ridge and fummits, and the evennefs and uniformity
of its flanks, announce, even at-a diftance, a chain different
from that of the Gerez. On approaching the Marao from,
the N. fide, the traveller paffes over a confiderable tra&t of
granitic ground. At the village of Lixe (Lifhé) the gra-_
nite is {tratified ; but in the neighbourhood of Amarante it
appears again in craggy rocks. On the fummit of the
Marao the granite becomes fine-grained, paffing into flaty
fand-{tone ; this is {ucceeded by clay-flate, which forms the
higheft part of the mountain. This clay-flate has the
peculiarity of feparating, not only into flates, but alfo into
flags. It contains imbedded chiaftclite. The elevation of
the Marao is not inferior to that of the Gerez, and of the
Serra de Foia in Algarvia. The Douro is accompanied
almoft through the whole province by a range of hills of
lefs height than the Marao; they all confit of a flaty fand-
{tone pafling into clay-flate. It is on thefe hills that the
grape grows which. yields the port wine ; the fleep decli-

; vities ©

MOUNTAINS.

ities towards the S., with the black colour of the flate,
tile sty intenfe heat in the vineyards. Thefe hills alfo
contain chalybeate fprings, fuch as thofe of Relva, in the
parifh of Guiaes, at Fermentoes, in the parifh of De Paffos,
The principal chain in Beira, and indeed in the whole king-
dom, is the Serra de Eftrella. It fends forth two rivers intwo
different directions, viz. the Zezere to the fouthward, and the
Mondego towards the N.and E. It ftretches from N.N.E.
to $.S.W., commencing at Alorico, and extending to fome
leagues towards the S. of St. Romao. On the N. fide the
‘mountains rife very gradually, whence it is called Serra
Manfa; but the S. fide has obtained the name of Serra
Brava, the wild or bold mountain chain, on account of the
craggy rocks and fteep precipices by which it is terminated
there, and which afford a moft beautiful view on that fide.
The higheft fummit, called Malhao_ da Serra, is on the
fouthern extremity. The Eftrella is unquettionably the
termination of the chain which f{eparates New from Old
Caftile. The oppofite Sierra de Gataris evidently conneéted
with it by means of ranges of lower hills. Nor is there
any material difference in the nature and appearance of thefe
chains; for the Effrella, like the Caftile mountains, con-
filts of granite, and, like them, has a gradual acclivity on
the N. and W. fides, and is fteep on the S. fide ; whereas,
the northern mountain. chains of Spain and Portugal are
either equally fteep on both fides, or thew fteeper acclivities
on their northern flanks. Some diftin@ ranges, being con-
tinuations of the Eitrella, are feen to proceed to the fouth-
ward, towardsthe Tagus. Thefe ranges of hiils often ex-
hibit common fand-{tone without mica, covering the flaty
fand-ttone. There are feveral ranges of mountains in the
vicinity of Coimbra ; fcrto it extend the S.W. branches or
continuations of the Eftreila, as alfo fome of its fubordinate
ranges, to which may be referred the Serra di Buffaco ; and
a branch of the fouthern calcareous chain likewife extends
to thts part of Beira; the others are compofed of flaty
fand-ftone and flate-clay. The mountains on the coaft, from
the Mondego to the banks of the Vonga, are calcareous,
like thofe of Coimbra, but remarkable on account of
the flate-clay and flaty fand-{tone, alternating with a bed of
coal (or rather brown coal) of upwards of four feet in
thicknefs. Along the whole coait of Figueira, as far as
above the Cape, traces of coal are obferved, as alfo at the
Cape Efpichel, of which more wiil be faid hereafter. .
The central part of Eftramadura is occupied by a high
ehain of calcareous mountains, which principally ftretches
from N.N.E. to S.S.W., but fends out branches at its two
extremities, which unite with other mountain chains. -At
Condeixa, two leagues from Coimbra, it gives out feveral
fubordinate branches, which proceed beyond the Modego
to Coimbra, where they form the coaft above Buarcos.
From Condeixa it runs to the fouthward of Pombal, from
thence to the eaftward of Leiria and Porto de Moz, along
Alcobaca, and from here to the eaftward of Obidos and
Torres Vedras, where it joms the range of Monte Junto.
A very confiderable fecondary range at its eaftern fide 1s
that of Loufao, to the S.E. of Coimbra, and fill in the
province of Beira: it is elevated enough to be in winter
covered with fnow, which is earried to Lifbon. All thefe
ranges of hills are very clofely grouped. The Monte Junto,
which is more ftriking than the reit, on account of its fupe-
rior height, appears, however, to be only part of the prin-
cipal range. The lime-itone of thefe hills refls on fand-
ffone. At Rio Mayor, on the eaftern declivity of this
range of calcareous hills, falt-fprings-are found. The lime-
ftone of which the high central range is compofed is of a

very ‘compaét texture, and commonly of a fmoke rey
colour, though in fome places it conftitutes very fine white,
or black marbles, fufceptible of a good polifh; the black
variety of Porto de Moz and Leiria is of fuperior quality.
Petrifaétions are feldom feen in this lime-ftone. All thefe
calcareous mountains of the principal chain are fteep, and
covered with {mall ftones, from out of which fome large
rock is here and there feen to projet. The fides and tops
are rounded and coyered with low underwood ; their ap-
pearance is barren and dreary, while the lower fecondary
ranges are diverfified by fine green fhrubs, and difplay a
luxurious vegetation. On the wettern fide of the principal
range, the fand-{tone and lime-ftone hills alternate, in the
fame manner as on the eaftern fide. Near Torres Vedras,
and other places, beds of coal have been found. Two
leagues from Obidos are the celebrated warm baths, Caldas
da Raynha. On the eaftern fide of the calcareous chain,
the plain of Golegao and Santarem feparates the mountains
belonging to the Upper Tagus, and to the chain juft de-
fcribed. The granitic mountains of Cintra conftitute a
lofty and rugged chain, which has been called a branch of the
Eftrella; but it may rather be looked upon as a protu-
berance of the above defcribed diftant granitic chain, which
here again emerges from the earth: cragey rocks, fteep fork-
ed fummits, innumerable rivulets and their fources, and the
woody acclivity on the north fide, contribute to make thefe
mountains one of the moft romantic fummer refidences for the
richer inhabitants of Lifbon. The whole range from Cintra,
to Cabo de Rocca, has only two legoas in length; it is
rather fteep towards the N.E., but its defcent is gradual to-
wards the cape,’ where it terminates in a precipice, which
is only from 50 to 8o feet above the level-of the fea. The
flanks of thefe mountains are covered with other rock-ftones,
of which compaét lime-ftone is the more common. The
hills about Lifbon are principally compofed of lime: {tone,
efpecially on the eaft fide of the city; they run along the
banks of the river as far as Villa Franca, where the country
becomes lefs hilly, and from hence {mall hills of fand-ttone,
or only fand, continue as far as Santarem. To the N. and
W. of Lifbon, calcareous hills alternate with bafaltic hills;.
but the bafaltic range, properly {peaking, enly begins at
Belem, or the banks of the Tagus, andiextends over three
legoas, as far as Bellas and Cabeca di Montachique. The
whole tra&, however, does. not confit of bafalt ; it only
forms infulated hillocks among thofe of lime-ttone. There
is no other place onthe whole north fide of the Tagus
which prefents that rock ; nor is it any where feen to ex-
hibit columnar, or other fepars.tions, as is the cafe with the
bafalt of many other countries. On the banks of the Tiver,
the lime-ftone overlays the bafalt in horizontal ftrata.

The elevated diftri& of Alentejo ftretches in general from
N.N.E. to S.S.W., dividing the rivers of this province
into two ranges, one of which takes its courfe towards.
the Guadiana, and the other towards the Tagus, and the
weltern coaft. We fee here no chain, buta great number of
{mall interrupted ranges of mountains, which generally run
from N. to S., witha flight deviaticn to the weftward. If
we begin the furvey of the elevated ground of this province
with the plain of Badajoz, which extends to the weftward
as far as the hills on which is fituated the fortrefs of Elvas,
we find at this latter place granitic rocks, which generally
form the bafe of thofe hills, while the tops are covered by
granular lime-flone ; on the whole in the fame manner as in
the mountains of Cintra,, except that in thefe latter the
granite projects over the Jime-ttone. The fmall: hills from
the Venda to near Eftremoz confift of a flaty fand-fone,
which paffes into flate-clay ; the ftrata. are- often. vertical...

8 “At

MOUNTAINS.

At Eftremoz the hills become more elevated; they are
covered with black granular lime-ftone, which may pafs for
one of the fineft marbles in the kingdom. From the Venda
to Montemor 6 Novo, {laty fand-itone and granite are found
to alternate. The neighbourhood of Montemor is entirely
granitic. From here to the weftward the hills decreafe
rapidly in height, and are loft in the great fand plain of
Alentejo. To the northward of Montemor, the high land
of Alentejo extends as far as Portalegre aud the Tagus:
granite is ftill alternating with flaty fand-ftone. To the
fouthward the granitic ground extends to Evora, Vidiguera,
and Beja, and from thence uninterruptedly to Serpa, on the
oppofite fide of the Guadiana ; the whole of this traét form-
ing a very fertile elevated plain with low hills. Beyond the
Guadiana a range of low hills commences, confifting of flaty
fand-ftone, and forming the moft dreary and barren tract of
country in the whole kingdom; they run from N.E. to
§.W., and are in fa& only continuations of fubordinate
chains of the Sierra Morena in Spain. The Serra da Arra-
bida, which rifes precipitoufly from a fandy plain, ftretches
from E.N.E. to W.S.W. towards the fea. It forms the
fouthern cape at the mouth of the Tagus, or the Cabo de
Efpichel; where, to the fouthward, the mountains rife al-
moft perpendicularly above the fea. This chain begins to
the northward by a range of low hills at Aldea dos Mouros,
which accompanies the main chain as far as Calheriz ; to the
eaftward it begins with a rounded almoft conical mountain,
on which the monaftery of Palmella is fituated : it fuddenly
rifes to a confiderable height (about 1500 feet), its fides are
fteep and its ridge is narrow. The higheft point of the
chain is between Azeytao and Aldea dos Mouros, and the
fea; towards Cezimbra, and laftly, towards the Cabo de
Efpichel, it falls off confiderably, (but not fo muchas the
Cintra chain does near the Cabo de Rocca, ) and terminates
as a precipice which overhangs the fea. The foot of this
chain confifts at its northern fide of a kind of old fand-ftone,
which alternates with ftrata of a red-brown clay, which alfo
traverfes the former in various directions ; this is fucceeded
up to the fummit by compaé lime-ftone, with fome few
petrifactions, which in fome places forms beautiful varieties
of marble. Near Calheritz and Cezimbra, where the chain
begins to fall off in height, brown coal has been found.

Parallel with the Serra da Arrabida, an infulated, not
very elevated chain, ftretches towards the fea, viz. the
Serra de Grandola : it forms two ranges, proceeding toge-
ther from the fouthward of Grandola, both of which coniift
entirely of a clofe clayey fand-ftone, which is here and there
fchiftofe and micaceous. This chain, which in fome maps
is defignated by the name of Serra Minas de Cobre, has confi-
derable veins of copper ore, but they are not wrought, owing
to the {carcity of wood in thefe parts. It is connected, by
fingle ranges of hills, with the mountains of Campo de
Ouique, and the Algarvian mountains.

The chain of mountains which feparates Algarve from
Alentejo, begins to the northward of Cape St. Vincent, near
to the coaft; at firft it conftitutes the elevated Serra de
Monchique; then, again falling, it forms de Serra de Cal-
deirao ; and, laftly, it terminates in the mountains on the
banks of the Guadiana near Mertola. On the northern fide
it has a great number of fubordinate ranges, and thefe con-
fit of granite and fand-ftone ; on the fouth fide it 1s accom-
panied, from Cape St. Vincent to near the Guadiana, by a
chain of calcareous mountains. The Serra de Monchique
appears to be of the fame height as the Gerez and the
Marao, On its northern fide a range of mountains, com-
pofed of fand-ftone, runs parallel to it. ‘The highett part
of the chain of Monchique is called Serra de Foja; it isa

granitic ridge, emerging from out of the fand-ftone moun-
tains, which furround it on all fides. On the fouth fide of
Serra de Foja, near to its fummit, is fituated, in the midft
of orange and chefnut groves, the romantic village of Mon-.
chique. On the fteep woody fide of the mountain, near
this place, and to the fouthward, are the warm {fprings
which iffue from among granitic rocks, fimilar to. thofe in
the Gerez mountains. The chain of Algarve is covered on
all fides by mountains of flaty fand-itone, which nearly
afcends to its fummit. The range of fand-{tone mountains
falls off to the eaftward, but again rifes at the Serra de
de Caldeirao, The higheft point of this chain is between
Faro and Os Padroes in Alentejo. Towards Tavira and
Caftro Marim thefe mountains approach the fea, and to
the eaitward of them commence the mountains that run
along the Rio Deleyte, and thofe of Mertola. This whole
eaftern part of the chain, from Caftro Marim to Mertola

confifts of a clayey maflive fand-ftone, not unlike the graa-
wacke of the Hartz. Cape St. Vincent, which is elevated
from fifty to eighty feet above the level of the fea, is formed
by part of a range of calcareous hills, which proceeds from
the principal chain : the fame hills run along the fea to the
eaftward as far as Caftro Marim. Near Cape St. Vincent
lege maffes of bafalt are feen difperfed on the calcareous

ills.

‘The very regular form of Spaix is ina great meafure deter-
mined by two mountain chains, which may be confidered as
branches of the Pyrenees; one itretching from Guipufcoa
and Navarra to Cape Ortegal, another trom Catalonia to
Murcia. Several other chains traverfe the middle and the
fouthern part of the country from E. to W. in nearly a
parallel direction: the principal of them are the chain in
South Galicia, the Caftilian mountains, extending as far as the
Sierra de Gata and de Eftrella in Portugal, the mountains
near the Tagus, the Sierra Morena, and the Alpujarra. From
thefe iflue a great number of lateral and more fubordinate
chains, and among them are feen fingle elevated plains or
terraces, fuch as thofe of Alava, Old Caftile, and part of
Leon, Arragon, New Caftile, and La Mancha.

The mountain chain which paffes into Bifcay may be con-
fidered as a continuation, or a branch, of the Pyrenees. The
more elevated groups begin at that part where France is
feparated from Spain by the Bidafloa: they at firft run ta
the northward, but foon take a more weftern direction, till
at laft they ftretch exaétly from E. to W. Compaét lime-
ftone is the rock of which the mountains of Guipufcoa are
chiefly compofed. They are rounded off, and are never
feen to form acute ridges. On the boundaries of Guipufcoa
and Alava, to the fouthward of the village Salinas de Lecy
a higher chain runs almoft in a ftraight line from E, to W.
The dire¢tion of the rivers and brooks of this chain indicates
this to be the moft elevated part of the province. On the
foot of thefe mountains fand-itone appears for the firft time.
The mountain chain of Guipufcoa extends to the W. and
N.W. through Bifcay to the Aiturias; and it alfo appears
to traverfe the northern part of Galicia, and to form Cape
Ortegal. On the northern fides of Salinas de Lecy the
afcent is fteep ; the fouthern fide is much lefs fo, and runs
out into the elevated plain or terrace of Vittoria, The
principal rock in thefe mountains is compact lime-ftone
re(ting on flaty lime-ftone and clay-flaté. The plain of
Alava, which is {till confiderably elevated, may be called
the firit terrace of the Pyrenees; the fecond terrace is the
plain of Old Cattile, which extends as far as Leon, and is
{eparated from the former by a range of calcareous moun-
tains which here accompany the Ebro, and may be confidered
as the fore-runners of the chain of Bifcay ; they are Cragey

an

MOU

and fteep, and at Pancorvo they have a confiderable
height.

In Galicia, to the northward of the Douro, and near the
boundaries of Portugal, a chain commences, which runs in a
parallel direGtion with the Gerez mountains, and to which
belong the mountains of Monterey where tin is found.

The high mountain chain which feparates Old from New
Caftile is one of the moft confiderable in Spain: it may be
‘looked upon as a feries of interrupted fmaller chains, which,
running between Old and New Caftile, form here the Puerto
de Guadarrama; farther to the S.W. the Sierra del Pico ;
ftill farther, de Montana de Griegos ; and, laftly, the Sierra
de Gata, and the Serra de Eftrella. The interior and the
higheft ridge of this chain (which cannot, with propriety,
be called a branch of the Pyrenees,) confifts entirely of
granite, which, at the foot, is overlaid by mafles of mica-
ceous fand-{tone approaching to mica flate. The granite
of the fummit is broken and craggy, forming wild and gro-
tefque groups. The Puerto de Somofierra has ftill a
rounded fhape; but the lefs elevated mountains towards
Madrid, the Pico de Miel, &c. prefent jagged and fteep
fummits. The flanks of the Guadarrama are extremely
dilacerated and rocky ; and the Sierra del Pica probably
derives its name from its pointed fummit. In feveral parts
this chain rifes from the plain of New Caftile with a fteep
afcent ; this is the cafe with the Guadarrama, but ftill more
ftrikingly with the Montana de Griegos. From the con-
fiderable cold on the higheft fummit, and the almoft perpetual
fnow, in a latitude like this, we may infer that its elevation
is about 8000 feet above the level of the fea. This chain
appears to be rich in minerals, but has not yet been {cien-
tifically examined in this refpeét. The {maller mountains
contiguous to the bafe of this chain confift, on the New
Caftile fide, of a folid fand-ftone, feparated into mountain
mafles; lower down flaty micaceous fand-ftone is found ;
and, laftly, common fand-ftone, overlaid by compaé lime-
ftone : the latter, however, are often wanting, when the gra-
nite is feen to rife from the plain.

The plain of New Cattile may likewife be denominated
a terrace, or elevated plain, though it is lefs fo than that on
the Old Cattile fide of the chain. This terrace continues to
eaftward, as far as the ranges of mountains between the Ebro
and Tagus, where, at firit, it extends along both fides of
the latter river, but laftly only on its northern fide, as far as
Placentia and Coria: it #, for the moft part, covered with
fand and rolled itones, but alfo diverfified with ranges of
hills compofed of clay, with gypfum, lime-ftone, and other
foffils. Lhe rolled ftones of this plain confit chiefly of that
fine granitic mixture of quartz, fome feld{fpar, and much
brafs-coloured mica, known under the name of avanturino.
In the neighbourhood of Talavera alfo, porphyry-flate, mica-
flate, &c. are found among thefe as rolled {tones. In the
neighbourhood of Madrid, Aranjuez, and, indeed, in the
whole northern part of New Caltile, the hills confift of
gypfum ; thofe of the central part are compofed of clay,
which is generally mixed with fand and pebbles. ‘Towards
the banks of the Tagus they are of a coarfe-grained, old
fand-ftone ; and thefe are immediately fucceeded by granitic
hills.

Nearly in a parallel direGion with the Caftilian mountains
run the ranges of mountains which accompany the Tagus,
and traverfe the elevated country between this river and the
Guadiana. With regard to length, thefe ranges are in-
ferior to thofe of the laft-mentioned chain; but they are an
affemblage of feveral chains, which ftretch parallel to each
other. They do not attain the height of the Guadarrama,
the Sierra del Pico, the Montana de Griegos; yet the ele-

MOU

vation of the Sierra de Guadalupe is not incenfiderable.
This mountainous traét has on its eaftern and fouthern fides
the elevated plain or terrace of La Mancha; on the fouth-
weit it terminates in the plain on the Guadiana. Parallel
with it runs the Sierra Morena, with its continuations, the
chains which traverfe Cordova and Seville, and which join
the Portuguefe mountains near the banks of the Guadiana.
Thefe mountains are not very elevated, but rich in ores:
they are principally compofed of granite, as are the Mon-
tanas de Toledo, the Sierra de Guadalupe, and the ridge
between the Tagus and the Guadiana. Near the Tagus,
the granite hills give way to others compofed of flaty mi-
caceous fand-ftone. Between Almaraz and Truxillo, beds
of phofphate of lime have been found in this flaty fand-ftone,
and alfo in maffive quartz. The country about Truxillo
confiits of a granitic plain: the town itfelf is furrounded
by confiderable rocks, which on this fpot, otherwife open
and flat, has a fingular and flriking appearance. On thefe
granitic plains are alfo fituated the craggy granite mountains
of §. Cruz. The Guadiana at Merida has a granitic bed ;
on the fide oppofite to this place the la{t granitic hill is feen,
when, at the place where the river enters Portugal, the
plain of the Guadiana fucceeds, which is covered with clay
and fand.. The low hills, farther up the Guadiana, confift,
in the vicinity of Meajadas, of flaty fand-ftone ; and farther
down, at the village S. Pedro, of old red fand-ftone.

The chains of Catalonia and Valencia appear to be con-
tinuations of the Pyrenees; but the Alpujarra in Granada
and the Sierra Morena fhould be kept diitin& from them,
for they belong to that feries of mountains which runs in a
parallel dire€tion with the Caftilian mountains. The moun-
tains of Valencia, and thofe of Catalonia which join them,
confift, according to Cavanilles, of lime-ftone, generally
containing petrifactions. Catalonia appears to be very rich
in rock ftones, and it is the only pftovince of Spain in which
bafalt is found; a leaft, a bafaltic column, in the mufeum
of Madrid, is marked as coming from Catalonia. The
principal rock-ftone of the Sierra Morena, according to the
f{pecimens feen by profeffor Link, is a flaty fand-ftone.
The Alpujarra in Granada is faid chiefly to confift of lime-
{tone.

Mountains, Aitradion of. See ATTRACTION.

Mountains, Burning. See VoLCANo.

Mowntarn-Mafes. This word, in the Wernerian fyftem
of geognofy, denotes a modification of itruéture obfervable
in the rock formations that compofe the crult of the earth,
but demonftrable only in confiderable maffes, or whole
mountains. To this ftru€ture belongs /fratification (fee
Strata,) and what is called the jeamed /lrudure, on
account of the lines that indicate the diftinét concretions,
running parallel in one direction, but interfecting each other
in another direGtion, and thus conveying the idea of feams.
A ftriking example of this latter ftru¢ture is the columnar.
The columns are fometimes regular, fometimes approach to
the globular form, and occur even curved. ‘They are from
a few inches to many fathoms long. The iflands of Staffa
and Eigg prefent admirable examples of it, in thofe bafaltie
columns which are fometimes colleéted into groups; and
fuch groups are often feparated from each other by rents,
which render them more diftin@t. ‘Thefe groups may be
confidered as immenfe diftin€& concretions: the columns of
which they are compofed often tend towards a centre;
others are parallel, or perpendicular; fome are horizontal ;
and all thefe varieties fometimes occur in the fame hill.
Sometimes they are jointed, fo that the convex extremity of
the one column Jjs fitted to the cqncave extremity of the
other; and thefe columns are ufually compofed of: elena

dilting

MOU

diftin&® concretions. The globular concretions are com.
pofed of curved lamellar concretions: the fpaces between
the different globular concretions are compofed of a loofer
matter than the concretions themfelves; and it is by the
falling out of this lefs compact fubftance that the ftructure
of fuch columns is firft developed. No rock fhews this kind
of ftruéture more diftin@ly than bafalt: in it we have all
the varieties of the feamed ftru€iure, from the fmalleft,
which is the lamellar diftin® concretion, to the largett,
which is formed by the grouping of columns. This kind
of ftruture occurs alfo in porphyry and green-ftone. Lava
never prefents any of the varieties of the feamed ftru€ture ;
a negative character, which fufficiently diftinguifhes it from
green-ftone or bafalt, with which it has been confounded.

Another kind of feamed ftru€ture, which deferves to be
defcribed, is the tabular feamed ftruéture. It is diftin-
guifhed from the Jamellar, by being always ftraight and
much thicker: it is generally from three to nine feet in
length, and rarely thicker than two or three inches. Ba-
falt, in the lower parts of an individual depofition, has often
this kind of ftructure. At firft fight, it is not unlike ftrati-
fication. It alfo occurs in columnar porphyry.

' The laft kind of feamed ftru€ture is the /arge globular, or
maffive, in which all the dimenfions are nearly alike. It
occurs alone, that is, without any other kind of ftructure,
and is from one to three or more fathoms in diameter. The
Jarger balls fhew lamellar diftin&t concretions, which are
always more folid the nearer they approach the centre.
The roundifh balls of granite, found difperfed over low
countries, have. been confidered as boulders or rolled ftones ;
and many theories have been formed to account for their
tranfportation. The granite of Arran prefents this kind of
ftruéture. Jamefon’s Sy{tem of Mineralogy, vol. ii.

Mountain Afh, in Gardening. See Sorsus.

Mountain Blue. Seé Copper.

Mountain, Cock of the, Urogallus, in Ornithology.
Grouse and Terrao Urogallus.

Mountain Cork. o.. 9 ;

Moox rain Pax a PORES Es

Mountain Green. See Copper.

Mounrain-Heath, the name by which fome call the faxi-
frage of botanical writers. :

Mountain Indians, in Geography, Indians. of North
America. N. lat. 65°. W. long. 127° to 130°.

Mountain Land, in Agriculture, aterm applied to fuch
land as lies on fides of hulls, and which is often of a poor
barren nature.

Mountain Milk. See Rock-mivk.

Mounratns in the Moon. See Moon.

Mounvrain Spring Bay, in Geography, a bay on the north
coat of Jamaica. N. lat. 18° 31’. W. long. 77° 29).

Mountain Torrents, in Agriculture, fuch runs of water
as difcharge themfelves fuddenly from the more elevated tops
and fides of mountain lands. ‘Thefe torrents may often be
converted to an ufeful purpofe, in watering the grounds that
lie below, or on the fides of them.

MOUNTEBANKS, derived from the Italian montare in
banco, are quack doétors or jugglers, who vend their boatted
medicines, and exhibi. their tricks on a public flage. Ste
Nusance.

MOUNTED, 1in Sea Language, the ftate of being armed
or equipped with a certain number of cannon ; expreffed of
a vellel of war.

MOUNTING the Guard, Trenches, Breach, &9¢. denotes

the going upon duty, being upon guard inthe trenches, run-
ning to the breach, &c.

See

MOU

MowntinG a Cannon, Mortar, &c. is the fetting it on its
carriage, or the raifing its mouth. s

Mounting, in the Manufadories, fomething that ferves t
raife or fet off awork. Thusthe frame or border, and its
dependencies, make the mounting of a looking-glafs: the
fuit, or butt, the mounting of a mufquet, carbine, &c. and
the hilt, &c. the mounting of a {word.

MowuntinG.of a Fan, the fticks which ferve to open and
fhut it, whether they be of wood, ivory, tortoife-fhell, whale-
bone, Indian-cane, or the like. See Fan. 3

MOUNTMELLICK, in Geography, a polt-town of
Ireland, in the northern part of the Queen’s county. The
woollen bufinefs is carried onin it. Itis 42 miles W.S.W.
from Dublin, and nearly ix N. from Maryborough.

MOUNTNUGENT, a fmall poft-town of Ireland, in
the county of Cavan; 46 miles N.W. from Dublin.

MOUNTRATH, a poft-town of Ireland, in the Queen’s
county. It is alfo called Moynrath, a name which implies
the Fort inthe bog. The wool-combing bufinefs formerly
flourifhed here, but has much declined. Forges and fur-
naces for iron have been long eftablifhed here, but from
fcarcity of charcoal, they are not often ufed; which is to
be regretted, as there is an extenfive bank of excellent
iron ore. Mountrath is a good market-town, 47 miles S.W.
from Dublin, and 6{ miles beyond Maryborough on the
road to Limerick. Beaufort. :

MOUNTSHANNON, a {mall town of Ireland, in the
fouth-eaftern corner of the county of Galway, and on the
river Shannon, oppofite to the ifland. of Innis Calthra. It
is about 8 miles N. by W. from Killaloe, and 105 miles W.
by S. from Dublin.

MOUNTSORRELL, or Mowunrt-soar-HILL, a {mall
market-town in the hundred of Weft Gofcote, Leicefter-
fhire, England, is fituated, as its nameimports, on an emi-
nence near the banks of the Soar, on the great turnpike-
road from Leicefter to Derby, at the diftance of {even miles
from the former, and 104 from London. On the weltern
fide is the termination of a’ ridge of high hills, which ex-
tend through Charnwood foreit into Derbythire. The
higheft point, almoft overhanging the town, is called Ca(tle-
hill, where was formerly a fortrefs, which is mentioned as
early as the reign of king Stephen, and was of diftinguifhed
note in the contentions between the barons and the crown,
in the time of king John and Henry III.: in the latter
reign it was razed to the ground, and has never been re-edi-
fied. The town is partly in the parifh of Barrow-upon-
Soar, and partly in that of Rothley: and the vicars and
proprietors of each are allotted their proportionate fhare of
lands and tythes by an aét of parliament which paffed in the
year 1781. Mountforrell-hillis a rock of reddifh granite,
with pieces of which the ftreets are paved. ‘They are com-
monly called Charley-foreft ftones, and in many places ftand
out bare, and are of fuch hardnefs, after being expofed
to the air, as to refift alltools. Such pieces as can be gor
from under the ground are broken with a fledge, and ufed
in buildings in the fhape in which they are broken. Many
houfes are built with them, and make a very fingular ap-
pearance. hey are often imperfect cones; and being too
hard to be cut or broken, the {moothelt face is laid outer-
moft, in beds of excellent lime. Thefe {tones, from their
uncommon hardnefs, are often ufed for painters’ mullets,
At the end of Barn-lane, which feparates the parifhes of
Rothley and Barrow, formerly {tood a curious crofs, which
confifted of a flender, oagonal fhaft, fluted, and orna-
mented within the flutes with carved heads, quartrefoils, &c.;
the upper part of the fhaft was terminated by a crocketted
pediment and niches, fupported by angels, ‘This relic of

monattic

MOU

monatlic antiquity was taken down in 1793, and removed
into the grounds of fir John Danvers, who caufed a {mall
market-houle, in imitation of a pavilion, to be ereéted in
its ftead. Inthis town were formerly two chapels; but it
now has only one, which is fubordinate to the church of
Barrow. Here are alfo three meeting-houfes for Prefby-
terians, Baptilts, and Methodilts. The population, in the
year 1801, was returned to parliament as 1233; the number
of houfes as 231. A weekly market is held on Monday,
which, with an annual fair, were firft granted, in 1292, by
Edward I. to Nicholas de Seagrave and his heirs. Beauties
of England and Wales, vol. ix: from Nichols’s Hiftory
and Antiquities of Leicefterfhire, 7 vols. folio,

MOUR, a town of Nubia, fo called from a {pring of
bitter water; 180 miles W. of Syene.—Alfo, a town of
Hindooftan, in Dowlatabad ; 10 miles W. of Beder.—Alfo,
a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; 6 miles S.S.E. of Ma-
nickpour.

MOURA, a town of Portugal, in Alentejo ; containing
two pavifh churches, an hofpital, feveral convents, and about
4000 inhabitants ; 82 miles E.S.E. of Lifbon. N. lat. 38°
7'. W. long. 7° 21'.—Alfo, a town of Africa, on the Gold
coaft; 5 miles N.E. of Cape Coalt caftle.

MOURAILLE, in Farriery. See Barnactes.

MOURAO, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in the
province of Alentejo, on the Guadiana, defended by a cattle,
and containing about 1400 inhabitants; go miles E.S.E. of
Lifbon. N lat. 58° 20’. W. long. 7° 8’.

MOURERA, in Botany, Aubl. Guian. 582. t. 233.
See Lacis.

MOURET, Joun Joseru, in Biography, chamber mufi-
cian to Louis XIV., fuperintendant of the duchefs du
Maine’s band, and direétor of the Concert Spirituel, was
born at Avignon in 1682, where his father, a filk mer-
chant, gave him a good education, and cherifhing his na-
tutal paffion for mufic, {pared no expence in facilitating the
means of his making a great progrefs in the art.

He came to Paris in 1707, and had foon admiffion into
the beft houfes. His figure excited prejudices in his fa-
vour, his countenance was gay and cheerful, his converfa-
tion lively and agreeable ; and his voice in finging fine for a
compofer made him fought and careffed every where.

The duchefs of Maine confided to him the condué of her
magnificent feitivals, known by the name of “ Les nuits de
Sceaux.”’ Soon after, he married Mademoifelle Prone de
S. Mars, daughter of the duke of Maine’s filverfmith, by
whom he had one only daughter. The many misfortunes
which he fuffered two years before his death, occafioned him
fuch mortification as brought him to the grave, after having
fo deranged h‘s intellects, that his friends were obliged to
have him confined at the Fathers de la Charité at Charenton,
where he died in the year 1738, in the 56th year of his
age.
witadret was not an able compofer; but he had a good
tafte, which fupplied him with agreeable melodies. He
furnifhed the opera, as one of the fucceffors of Lulli, with
fix ferious operas, publifhed many cantatas and fingle fongs,
three books of ferious airs and bacchanalian fongs, many
entertainments for the comedie Frangoife and the comic
opera, a fet of fonatas for two flutes, a book of military
pieces, and mufic exprefsly compofed for many fellivals at
Sceaux, &c.

MOURGUES, Micwaet, a French mathematician,
was born in the province of Auvergne about the year
1643. He became a profeffor of rhetoric and mathe-
matics in different houfes belonging to his order, and was
at length appointed to the chair of profeflor-royal at

Vou. XXTY.

MOU

the univerfity of Tou'oufe. He died, in 1713, a facrifice
to his exertions in the caufe of humanity and religion,
during the dreadful peftilential diforder which then raged
at Touloufe. To very profound as well as extenfjve eru-
dition, he united the moft polifhed and amiable manners,
and the molt ardent piety, which made him zealous in his
attempts to reform the age in which he lived. He was
aconfiderable writer ; his moft celebrated pieces are, “« New
Elements of Geometry, comprifed in lefs than fifty Propo-
fitions ;’’ this work has never come into our hands, but we
are {ceptical as to the value of a work of this kind being con-
tained in fo {mall a fpace: ** A Parallel between Chrif-
tian Morality and that of the Ancient Philofophers:” « An
Explanation of the Theology of the Pythagoreans, and of the
other learned Sects in Greece, for the Purpofe of illuftrating
the Writings of the Chriftian Fathers :’’ and “A Treatife
on French Poetry.’’ Moreri.

MOURI, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Foota
N. lat. 10° 43’. W.long. 11° 5'.

MOURIRIA, in Botany, Juiff. 320.
Guian. 452.t. 180.) See PeraLoma.

MOURMIRON, in Geography, a town of France, in

the department of the Vauclufe, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftri& of Carpentras; 17 miles N.E. of Avig-
non. The place contains 1586, and the canton 8266 inha-
bitants, on a territory of 280 kiliometres; in 10 communes.

MOURNE, a barony of the county of Down, Ireland,
which is almolt covered with a large mafs of very high
mountains, generally called the Mourne Mountains, of which
Sliebh-Donard is the chief. Thefe are primitive moun- -
tains, confilting chiefly of granite, The town of Newry is
fituated at the bafe of them.

Mourns, a river of Ireland, proceeding from a lake of
the fame name in the county of Donegal, which paffing into
the county of Tyrone receives the waters of the Derg, and
below Strabane runs into the Foyle.

MOURNING, a particular drefs or habit, worn to fig-
nify grief, on fome melancholy occafion.

The modes of mournirg are various in various countries >
as alfo are the colours that obtain for that end. In Europes
the ordinary colour for mourning is black; in: China, it is
white; in Turkey, blue or wicket ; in Egypt, yellow; in
Ethiopia, brown. The ancient Spartan and Roman ladie¢
mourned in white: and the fame colour obtained formerly
in Caftile, on the death of their princes. Herrera ob-
ferves, that the la(t time it was ufed was in 1498, at the
death of prince John. Kings and cardinals always mourn
in purple.

Each people pretend to haye their reafons for the particu-
lar colour of their mourning: white is fuppofed to denote
purity ; yellow, that death is the end of human hopes, as
leaves when they fall, and flowers when they fade, become
yellow ; brown denotes the earth, whither the dead re-
turn ; black, the privation of life, as being the privation of
light ; blue expreffes the happinefs which it is hoped the
deceafed enjoy ; and purple or violet, forrow on the one
fide, and hope on the other, as being a mixture of black
and blue.

Mourning, among the ancients, was exprefled various
ways, as by tearing their clothes, by wearing fackcloth,
laying afide crowns and every other mark of joy. Plutarch,
in his Life of Cato, relates, that from the time of his leav-
ing the city with Pompey, he neither fhaved his head, nor,
as uiual, wore the crown or garlaud. Sometimes public
grief was teftified by a general faft. See Fast.

Among the Romans a year of mourning was ordained,
by law, for women who loft their hufbands.

Oo

(Mouriri; Aub!

Ty

MOU

In public mournings at Rome, the fhops were fhut up,
the women laid afide all their ornaments, the fenators
their laticlavian robes, and the confuls fat in a lower feat
than ufual.

The ancients had a remarkable way of mourning for fol-
diers flain in battle. The whole army attended the funeral
folemnities, with their arms reverfed, it being cuftomary for
mourners, in mot of their a€tions, to behave themfelves in
a manner contrary to what was ufual at other times. In
thofe places where it was the fafhion to wear long hair,
mourners were fhaved ; and where others fhaved, mourners
wore long hair. The conjecture of thofe, therefore, is fri-
volous, who imagine that the foldiers turned the heads of
their fhields downwards, left the gods, whofe images were
engraved upon them, fhould be polluted with the fight of

a corpfe ; fince not the gods only, but any other fignres, ’

were frequently reprefented on fhields ; ner did the few only
near the corpfe, but the whole company held their fhields
in the fame pofition: not to mention that other arms were
alfo pointed downwards. Potter, Archeol. Grec. tom. 11.
« 163.

a “The aurnittes of the Eaftern nations of Indians are much
more clofely followed, though of much fhorter duration than
ours. After the death of a near relation, they mourn fif-
teen days, during which time they eat nothing but rice and
water : they are not to chew betel, or to ufe the common
wafhings in this time ; but they are to do acts of charity,
fuch as diftriburing food to the poor; and prayers are faid,
intreating the Almighty to forgive the fins of the dead per-
fon, and affign him a good place in the other world. On
the fixteenth day, that is, the day after the finifhing of the
time of mourning, they make a folemn feaft according to
their abilities, and invite to it all their friends and neigh-
bours. After this, they annually, on this day, give food to
the poor, and renew their prayers for the happinefs of the
dead perfon. Phil. Tranf. N° 243.

MOUROU, in Geography, a mountain of ‘Thibet.
N. lat. 30° 20!._ E. Jong. 83° 14!.

MOURQUCE®OA, in Botany, Aubl. Guian. 141. t. 54.
Juf. 133. Lamarck Hlluftr. t. 103; a climbing fhrub of
the natural o¥derof Convolvuli, found by Aublet in the ex-
tenfive forefts of Guiana, where it afcends to the fummits of
the loftie(t trees. Leaves alternate, ftalked, elliptical, en-
tire, firm, fmooth, fix inches long and three broad. Flowers
in axillary tufts, large. Calyx in five deep rounded feg-
ments, two of them concealing the relt, violet-co!oured,
permanent. Corolla blue, monopetalous, with a fhori fun-
nel-fhaped tube, and broad limb, in five deep rounded feg-
ments. Stamens five, inferted into the tube, fhorter than the
limb, and oppofite to each of its lobes ; anthers incumbent.
Germen fuperior, conical, violet-coloured like the /2y/e, which
is thread-fhaped, with a /ligma of two rounded flat lobes.
Capfule oval, pointed, witha fibrous coat, of two cells, one
of the three which exift in the germen being abortive. Seeds
folitary, reddifh, polifhed, long, convex on the outiide, flat
on the inner.

This plant is perhaps juftly referred to Convoluulus by
Willdenow. See Convoirvutus Macrofpermus, n. gi.
Willd. n. 62. Sp. Pl. v. 1.860.

MOUROU-CONGHE, in Geography, a town of Thi-
bet; 76 miles E.N.E. of Laffa.

MOURTEAH, atown of Kemaoon ; 25 miles E.S.E. of
Kerigar.

MOURZOUK, a city of Africa, and capital of the
_ kingdom of Fezzan, is fituated on the banks of a {mall ri-

ver, and is alfo fupplied with water from a multitude of
fpriogs and wells. It is furrounde d by a high wall, which

5t

MOU
not only ferves to defend it, but enables the government ta
colleét, at its three gates, a tax on all goods (provifions ex-
cepted) that are brought for the fupply of its inhabitants.
Being formerly built with ftone, it ftill retains the appellation
of a Chriftian town; butthe medley which it prefents to the
eye of the vaft ruins of ancient buildings, and of the hum-
ble cottages of earth and fand, that form the dwellings
of its prefent Arab inhabitants, is fingularly grotefque and
ftrange. Its diftance from Mefurata, which borders on the
weil, dnd with refpe€t to which its fituation is nearly fouth,
is about 262 miles. N. lat. 27°20'. E.long. 15° 35'.

MOUSA, a {mall ifland among the Shetlands. N. lat.
60° 24'.. W. long. 1° 20'.

MOUSANAGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ;
18 miles W.N.W. of Corah. :

MOUSAR, a town of Perfia, in, Lariftan; 48 miles
N.W. of Lar.

MOUSE, Mus, in Zashgy. See Mus.

Mouser, Dor. See Myoxus and Scrurus Siriatus.

Mouss, Sable, called alfo Jemmer, or lemming, the name
of an animal found in Lapland, and m other cold countries :
many extraordinary things are related of the manner of
living of thefe creatures. See Mus Lemmus.

They are of the bignefs of a fquirrel, and their fkin is
treaked with brown and black ; there are alfo fome fpots be-
fide the ftreaks ; the black isa very fine deep cclour, the
brown is pale ; they have two very fharp teeth above, and
two below of the fame kind: their feet are like a fquirrel’s ;
they are ufually very fat and flefhy, and are fo quarrelfome and
fierce, that if a ftick be held out to them, they will bite at’
it, and will hold it fo falt, that they may be toffed and {wong
about in the air by it, without letting it yo. In their march
they ufually keep a dire& line from north-eaft to fouth-welt,
and always travel in thoufands in the fame troop. The
whole number forms a {quare body, and they march enly”
from the time of the twilight till the morning, lying {till all
the day. :

They march in lines, which are fome ells diftant, but al-
ways exatly parallel to each other, fo that the places they
have gone over look like the furrows of a ploughed field.
If they meet with any thing in their way that might deter
another animal, it never ftops them; but though it be a fire,
a deep well, a pond, a torrent, ora bog, they, without he-
fitation, venture through, and by that means many thoufands
of them are deftroyed, and are found dead in the morning,
in the waters or otherwife. i

They never‘come into a houfe, nor meddle with any thing
that we eat; if they chance to come to a houfe in their
way, there they ftop till they die; but if they come to a
{tack of hay or corn, they eat their way through,

When they march over a meadow, they doit great damage.
by eating the roots of the grafs; butif they encamp there:
they wholly deftroy the produce ; the land looks like a place
where there had been a fire, and the whole furface looks as
if ftrewed with afhes.

The Laplanders are always glad to fee thefe creatures on
their march, for it always foretels plenty of more valuable
creatures among them: the fame cold that fends thefe out
fending alfo a number of fow), {quirrels, foxes, and Oiler
animals the fame way. Wormius has written a complete
treatife on this animal, calling it mus Norqwegius: this is re-
printed at large in his Mufeum. Phil. ‘Tranf. N° ast.
p» 112.

They commonly vifit the country once or twice in twenty
years: Linnus fuppofes that they come from the Norwe-
gian Lapland Alps; but Pontoppidan thinks that Kolan’s
rock, which divides Nordland from Sweden, is their native

place,

MOU

place. After ravaging the country, deftroying the grafs,
and infeGting the very ground, they at length perifli, either
through want of food, deltroying one another, or in fome
great water, or the fea. :

Mouse, Sea. See ArPHRODITA.

Mouse-ear, in Botany. See Hieracius.

Mouse-ear Chickweed. See CerasrruM.

Mouss-ear, Scorpion-gra/s. See Myosoris.

Moussr-tai/. See Myosurus.

Movusg, in the Sea Language, is a fort of knob, ufually
in the fhape of a pear, wrought on the outfide of a rope, by
means of {pun yarn, parfling, &c. and ufed to confine fome
other fecurely to the former, and prevent it from fliding
along its foot! Thefe moufes are particularly ufed on
the itays of the lower matt, to prevent the eye from flipping
up tothe maft.. There is alfo a fmaller one round meffen-
gers, formed by intertwifting a {mall rope round the ftrands.

Mouse, Ea/t, Middle, Weft, in Geography, {mall iflands
on the north coalt of the ifland of Anglefea.

Mouse Harbour, a harbour on the ealt fide of the ifland
of St. John, in the gulf of St. Lawrence, between. Ealt
Pojnt and Three Rivers.

MOUSH, atown cf Turkifh Armenia, feated on ariver
that runs into the Euphrates; 84 miles S.S.E. of Erzerum.
N. lat. 387 48'. E. long. 41° go’.

MOUSING a Hook, in Sea Language, the operation of
faftening a {mall cord or‘line, or feveral turns of {fpun-yarn,
acro{s the upper part, from the point to the back of it, in
order to prevent it from unhooking, by the motion of the
veflel, or otherwife.

MOUSSY, in Geography, a river of Hindooftan, which
croffes Golconda, and runs into the Kiftnah, on the borders
of the circar of Palnaud.

MOUSTIER, Cuartes-ALBerT DE, in Biography, a
French dramatic writer, was born in 1761; and having re-
ceived a good education, he entered, and for a time followed,
the profeffion of the law, which after a few years he aban-
doned, in order that he might devote himfelf entirely to the
purfuits of literature. In 1790 he publifhed « Lettres a
Emilie fur la Mythologie,’ in fix volumes 18mo. written
for the purpofe of inftruéting. young perfons, particularly
the fair fex, in fabulous hiftory. His comedies are mott
known, of which the following are the titles of fome: ‘* Le
Conciliateur ;”” ‘“* Les Femmes; “ Les Trois Fils ;”? “* Le
Tolerant ;” and<¢ Alcefte a la Campagne.”” Some of thefe
were exceedingly fuccefsful. ‘They are faid to be witty and
full of point, but the characters are fingular, and out of
nature. He compofed an opera, entitled “ Apelles et Cam-
pafpe,’” and fome poems. He was amember of the Na-
tional [nftitute ; and died in 1800, leaving behind him feve-
ral compofitions in manufcript.

MOUSTIERS, in Geography, atown of France, in the
department of the Lower Alps, and chief place of a canton,
in the diltri&t of Digne; 15 miles S. of it. The place
contains 1831, and the canton 3533 inhabitants, ona terri-
tory of 2274 kiliometres, in five communes.

MOUTA, a town of Portugal, in Eftramadura, on the
left bank of the Tagus ; 5 miles S. of Lifbon. :

MOUTABEA, in Botany, Aubl. Guian. 679. t. 274.
Juff. 420; aname altered from the Aymoutabou of the In-
dians of Guiana. See Cryprosromum, where it is printed,
by mittake, Montabea.

MOUTABORA, in Geography, a {mall ifland insthe Pa-
cific ocean, near the E. coaft of New Zealand. N. lat.
37° 59'. W. long.-193° 7’.

MOUTAN, in Botany, the name under which the beau-
tiful tree Pazony has come to us from China, and which is

MOU

now retained asits {pecific appellation, by Dr. Sims in Curt

Mag. t. 1154, and Mr. Aiton, in Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 3
15.

: MOUTH, in Anatomy. This part of the body is deferibed

inthe article DecLurrrion, in which the figure, the open-

ings, and the parts compofing the fides of the cavity, are con-

fidered. The teeth are defcribed under Cranium.

Dr. Derham obferves, that'the mouth, in the feveral fpe-
cies of animals, is nicely adapted to the ufes of fuch a part ;
and well-fized and fhaped for the catching of prey, for the
gathering and receiving food, the formation of fpeech, f&c.

In fome creatures it is wide and large, in others little and
narrow ; in fome it is formed witha deep incifure up into the
head, for the better catching and holding of prey, and more
eafy comminution of hard, large, and troublefome food ; in
others with a fhort incifure, for the gathering and holding of
herbaceous food. See Anatomy of Birns, Fisu, and InsEcTs.

Mout is alfo ufed, in the courts of princes, for what
relates to their eating and drinking. Hence, officers of the
mouth, yeomen of the mouth, &c.

Daviler defines mouth, an apartment compofed of feveral
rooms, as offices, kitchens, &c. where the meat intended for
the fir tables is drefled by itfelf. At court, this is called
the king's mouth. ,

Mourn, inthe AMapege, denotes a horfe’s feeling or fenfi-
bility in that part where the bits are applied. See Horse.

Mourn, Ridzes of a horfe’s. See Rince

Mourn, Opening or _/hutting the, of a cardinal, is’a cere-
mony ufed in the confiltory of Rome; wherein the pope
fhuts a new-eleéted cardinal’s mouth, fo that he may not
{peak at all, even though the pope fhould {peak to him ; and
remains, inthe mean time, deprived of all voice, both ative
and paffive, till the calling of another confiftory, when the
pope opens his mouth again, making a little harangue, to
teach him how to fpeak, and comport himfelf in the con-
fiftory.

MOUTHE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Doubs, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri@ of Pontarlier; 13 miles S.W. of it. The place
contains 1000, and the canton 8641 inhabitants, on a territory
of 3124 kiliometres, in 24 communes. ‘

MOUTIER, a town of France, in the department of
the Upper Rhine, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
tric of Délémont. The place contains 467, and the can-
ton 3977 inhabitants, on a territory of 1624 kiliometres, in
23 communes.

MOUTIERS, a town of France, in the department of
Mont-Blare, and principal place of a diftri&@; the town is
divided into the northern and fouthern parts: the former
contains 1470, and its canton 12,202 inhabitants, on a ter-
ritory of 2374 kiliometres, in 24 communes: the latter has
535, and its canton 12,146 inhabitants, on a territory of
707% kiliometres, in 20 communes.

Moutiers-les- Mauxfaits, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Vendée, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri@ of Les Sables-d’Olonne ; 14 miles E. of it,
The place contains 349, and the canton 10,634 inhabitants,
on aterritory of 3524 kiliometres, in 18 communes.

Moutiers, Zrois, a town of France, in the department
of the Vienne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét of
Loudun. The place contains 1257, and the canton 7599 in-
habitants, on a territory of 217% kiliometres, in 16 com-
munes.

MOUTON, Jean, in Biography, a great mufician, who,
flourifhed in the time of Louis XII. and Francis 1., to both
which princes he was maeftro di cappella: feveral of his
mafles in four parts appear among the firft that were printed

Oo3 with

MOU

with types, under a patent granted by Leo X., and figned
by cardinal Bembo, his prime minifter.

Glareanus calls him a Frenchman; but Lud. Guicciar-
dini claims him as a native of the Netherlands. Wherever
he was born, it is certain that he fpent the chief part of his
life in the fervice of the French court, during the reigns of
Louis XII. and Francis I. He was a difciple of Jofquin,
and mafter of Adrian Willaert, not his fchelar, as Printz,
and others after him, have afferted.

Norwithitanding the rapture with which Glareanus {peaks
ef this compofer’s maffes, they feem to us inferior in melody,
rhythm, and defign, to thofe of Jofquin, dela Rue, and
Fevin. It is in his fourth mafs, that we firft met with two
flats at the clef, and an accidental flat to A. In fcoring this
compofition from the Mufeum copy, in four feparate bocks,
we found it confifted of fourteen feveral movements, in wl ich
we can-difcover no variety of meafure or {ubjeét: nor is the
want of melody compenfated by richnefs of harmony, inge-
nuity of contrivance, or learning of modulation. His mo-
tets, however, if not more nervous and elaborate than thofe
of his contemporaries, are more {mooth and polifhed: but
he lived in a court.

His motet, * Non nobis Domine,’’ is not only pleafing,
but mafterly. It was compofed in 1509, for the birth of
Renée, the fecond daughter of Louis XII. by Anne of Bre-
tagne, as appears in the body of the motet; and this is fuf-
ficient to confute the opinion of Mouton having been the
{cholar of Adrian Willaert, who, according to his own ac-
count, went into Italy very young, during the pontificate of
Leo X. Zarlino, Initit. 4ta parte, p. 346.

He compofed another motet in 1514, cn the death of
queen Anne de Bretagne; but the belt of -his compofitions
that we have feen, isthe motet, ‘¢ Quam pulchra es amica
mea,’’ from the fong of Solomon. It is compofed for three
tenors and a hafe; the fubjeéts of fugue are pleafing, and
treated with uncommon clearnefs and abilities, tor fo early a
period of counterpoint.

Mouton d'Or, an old French coin. See ANGEL.

MOUTOUCHIA, in Botany, Jufl. 365. (Moutouchi;
Aubl. Guian. 748. t. 299.) See Prerocarpus.

MOUVEMENT, Fr. Movement, Engl., and Movi-
mento, Ital. in Mufc, are all of nearly the fame import in
all the three languages. They imply the degree of motion,
whether quick or flow, of a melody or mufical compofition.
(See Measure and Morivo.) The tlyle and charaGter be-
longing to each movement, are srenerslie exprefled by fome
peculiar denomination: as allemande, minuet, gavot, fara-
band, jig, &c. and every kind of meafure that has been
ufed as a dance. All the Italian terms that have been
adopted by the reft of Europe, will be explained in their
alphabetic place; fuch as adagio, largo, lento, andante,
moderato, allegro, prefto, &c. which have likewife their
fhades, their augmentations and dimirutions; as largo, lar-
ghetto, allegro, allegretto, adagio, pici adagio, prelto, pici
prelto, &c.

Though flow movements are generally appropriated to
forrow and melancholy, and animated movements to chear-
falnefs and mirth, there are frequent modifications by which
one paflion {peaks in the tone of another; it is, however,
true, that gaiety cannot be exprefled by flow founds; but
grief, pain, and defpair, have often the language of im-
patience and fury. Roufleau’s five degrees of movement
eftablifhed in mulic, are adagio, largo, andante, allegro, and
proftos whic h fee.

MOUZANBANO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in
the Veronefe; 14 miles S.W, of Verona.

MOUZON, a town of France, in the department of

MOW

the Ardennes, and chief place of a canton, in the diftti&
of Sedan, feated on the Meufe; 9 miles S.E. of Sedan.
The town contains 2143, and the canton 7987 inhabitants,
on a territory of 200 kiliometres, in 17 communes. In
this place is a manufacture of ferges. N. lat. 49°36’. E.
long. 5° 9!.

MOW, a town of Hindooftan, in Allahabad; 60 miles
E.N.E. of Chanderee.—Alfo, a town of Oude; 20 miles
S.E. of Azimgur.—Alfo, a town in the circar of Chande-
ree; 8 miles S.E. of Seronge-—Alfo, a town in Oude;
16 miles N.N.E. of Furruckabad.—Aléo, a town in Bo-
gilcund; 30 miles E. of Rewah.—Alfo, a town in Babar ;
12 miles N.E. of Hajypour. N. lat. 25° 49’. -E. long 85?
36.—Alfo, a town in Oude; 18 miles E.N_E. of Fyzabad.
—Alfo, a town in Allahabad; 20 miles N. of Allahabad.
N. lat 25°57’. E. long. 83° 48’.

Mow, in Agriculture, a pile, heap, or colleGion of corn,
ftraw, hay, or any fimilar fubftance placed together for the
purpofe of being kept in a barn or other building. See
Stack and Rick.

Mow-durnt, 2 term applied to fuch fubfances as are
over-heated in the mow by the procefs of fermentation, as
hay, corn, &c.

MOWAH, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Bahar; 32 miles E. of Hajypour. N. lat. 25° 34!. E.
long. 86 —Alfo, a town in Oude; 20 miles of Fyzabad.

MOWDHILL, in Rural Economy, a provincial term
applied to a mole-hill.

MOWDIWARYP, a provincial term fometimes fignify-
ing the mole.

- MOWEE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Guzerat; 40 miles N.E. of Noanagur.

Mowesg, one of the Sandwich iflands, next in fize and
neareft in fituation to Owhyhee; lying at the diflance
of 8 leagues N.N.W. from it, and 140 geographical miles
in circumference. This ifland is divided by a low ifhmus
into two circular peninfulas, of which that to the E. is
called Whamadooa, and is double the fize of the weltern
peninfula, called Owhyrookoo. The mountains in both rife
to a great height, being feen at the diftance of upwards of
30 leagues. The northern fhores, like thofe of Owhyhee,
afford no foundings; and the country prefents the fame ap-
pearance of verdure and fertility. ‘To the S.E., between
this and the adjacent ifles, there are regular foundings of
150 fathoms, with a fandy bottom. From the W. point,
which is low, runsa fhoal, flretching out toward Ranai to a
confiderable diftance ; and to the fouthward of this is a fine
f{pacious bay, with a fandy beach, fhaded with cocoa-nut
trees. Here probably might be found good anchorage,
with fhelter from the prevailing winds, and the beach might
afford a convenient place for landing. ‘The country behind
prefents a very romantic appearance. The hills rife almoft
perpendicularly in a variety of peaked forms, and their {teep
fides, with the deep chafms between them, are covered with
trees, among which thofe of the bread fruit abounded.
When La Peroufe, in 1786, came within fight of this ifland,
200 canoes came out to meet him, laden with pigs, fruit,
and frefh vegetables, which the inhabitants fent on board,
and forced him to accept, without any {tipulation on their
part. The inhabitants appeared to bear fome refemblance
to thofe of Eafter ifland, and indicated a more robult con.
flitution ; but it had been impaired by difeafe. Their com-
mon height is about five feet three inches; their habit of
body fpare, their features coarfe, their eye-brows thick,
their eyes black, their afpect determined though not feroci-
ous, their cheek-bones high, and their nottrils rather wide ;
their lips thick, their mouth large, as well as their teeth,

which,

MOW

which, however, were fine and regular. Some of them
had loft one or more of their teeth, which, as a modern na-
vigator fuppofes, they had | erin out when ore for their
relations or friends. ‘Thefe people are more mufcular, their
beard more bufhy, and their bodies more covered with hair
than thofe of the Eafter ifland. ‘heir hair, which is black,
is cut into the fhape of a helmet, and the part, which they
fuffered to grow, reprefenting the plume, was red at the ex-
tremity, having probably been coloured with the acid juice
of fome vegetable. ‘The women are much fmaller than the
men, and are in general ill-made, with coarfe features, a

loomy countenance, and rude, ftupid, awkward manners.
[he inhabitants of this ifland are gentle and prepoffeffing,
and, iu their manner, polite to ftrangers. ‘They paint them-
felves, tattoo their flkin, and pierce their ears and the carti-
lage of the nofe, in which they wear rings, by way of orna-
ment. hey are not circumcifed, but they ufe a kind of
infibulation. The drefs of both fexes confilts of a piece of
cloth covering thofe parts which are commonly concealed,
and are then wrapped round their bodies. Thefe cloths,
made from the paper mulberry, are beautifully variegated,
being painted with great talte. Their houfes, colleéted into
villages, are built in the manner of thofe in Eafter ifland,
but their form is {quare. With regard to their government,
it was obferved that they were arranged into various tribes,
each of which was under the controul of its refpeétive chief.
The excellence of the climate and the fertility of the foil
would afford the inhabitan*s every means of happinefs, did
not leprofy and fyphilis rage among them, very generally
and with great violence. The inhabitants of this ifland ap-
peared in 1793 to be in a very diltrefled flate, having fuffered
much by a war of ri years’ continuance with their neigh-
bours of Owhyhee. N. lat. 20° 34’ 30". E. long. 203°
40’. Cook’s Third Voyage, vol. ii. Peroufe’s Voyage,
vol. ii.

MOWGUNGE, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; 27
miles E. of Rewah.

MOWILGONGA, a river of Ceylon, which runs into
the fea at Trinkomaly.

MOWING, in Agriculture, the art of cutting down
corn, grafs, &c. by the fcythe. Jn the mowing of grain
erops, fuch feythes as are fhorter in the blade than the com-
mon ones, and which, inftead of acradle, have two twigs of
ozier put femicircular-wife into holes made in the handles,
near the blades, in fuch a manner that one femicircle inter-
fe&ts the other, are made ufe of. But for the cutting of
grafs longer and thinner fcythes are generally in ufe.

A late praétical writer ftates, that in ‘the cutting of
grafs crops for the purpofe of being converted into hay, it
1s neceffary that they be in the moft fuitable tates of growth
and maturity, for affording the belt and moft nutritious fod-
der. With this view, it would feem, that they fhould nei-
ther be cut at too early a period, nor fuffered to ftand too
long ; a3 in the former cafe there will be confiderable lofs in
the drying, from the produce being in fo foft and green a
condition, and in the latter from a large proportion of
the nourifhing properties being expended. It is probable,
therefore, that grafs, when mown before it becomes in full
flower, while the rich faccharine juice is in part retained at
the juice of the flower-ftems, is in the moft proper con-
dition for being cut down, as at that period it mult con-
tain the largeit proportion of nutritious materials, but
which then begins to be abforbed, and taken up in pro-
portion as the flowers expand, and the feeds ripen, fo as
to conititute the meal or ftarch of the feed lobes, and is
either difperfed upon the land, or fed upon by birds; the
grals ftems with their leaves being left in a fimilar fitua-

MOW

tion to that of the ftraw of ripened grain. But there-are
other circumftances, befides thofe of ripenefs, to be ata
tended to in determining the period of cutting crops of grafs,
as in fome cafes, when they are thick upon the ground,
the bottom parts become of a yellow colour before the
flowering fully takes place; under fuch circumftances it
will always be the moft advifable practice to mow as foon ag
the weather will poffibly admit; for if this be negleéted,
there will be great danger of its rotting, or at any rate of
its acquiring a difagreeable flavour, and of becoming of but
little value. Where grafs is very tall, as is often the cafe in
moilt meadows, it is liable to fall dewn and lodge, by which
the fame effects are produced.’’ In this cafe, alfo, the mow-
ing fhould be performed as foon as poffible, ** as when much
Jaid it foon becomes rotten, and of little or no ufe as hay.’?

However, in cafes where there is nothing of this fort, it
appears evident, that the moft proper time for performing
the bufinefs, is when the grafs has begun to flower, before
the feed ftems become hard and wiry; as at this period it
would feem to contain the largeft proportion of ufeful mat-
ter. Befides, when left to ftand too long, the after-grafs is
not only lefs abundant, but there is great lofs in it by the
crumbling down of the ftems, in the different operations of
hay-making, as has been ftated in the Perthfhire Report.”

It may be noticed, that the ufual time of cutting for hay-
in the firft crops, is * from about the middle of June to-
the beginning of the following month, according to the
nature of the land, or as the diltri&t is more early or late in-
the produce.”

And in the operation of mowing, the chief art confifts
in cutting the crop as clofe to the furface of the ground
as poflible, and perfeétly level, pointing the {wathes well out,
fo as to leave fcarcely any ridges under them.

But in cutting rouen, or fecond crops of grafs, more
attention in thefe different refpects will be neceflary than
in the firft, as the crops are moftly much lighter and more
difficult to cut, the fcythe being apt to rife and flip through
the grafs without cutting it fairly, except when in the hands
of an expert workman. Crops of this fort fhould always
be cut as much as poffible when the dew is upon them; and
as foon as ever there is a tolerable growth, as by waiting the
feafon is conftantly getting more unfavourable for making
them into hay ; and when not well made this hay is of little
or no value. When the grafs has been decided to be in the
proper condition for being cut down, a fet of mowers pro-
portioned to the extent of the crop fhould be immediately
provided. In fome diftriéts, it is the cuftom to pay thefe
labourers by the day, but a better and more general praétice
is, it is fuppofed, to let the work at a certain price by the-
acre."? The extent or proportion of ground that can be
mown in any given fpace of time, muft obvioufly vary much
according to the nature of the ground, the fullnefs of the
crop, and the goodnefs of the workmen, but in general an
acre is fuppofed a full day's work for an expert mower.

In mowing barley, oats, or other grain crops, the corn
is generally on the right hand of the workman; but M. de
Lifle had a method of mowing wheat, in which the corn was
at his left hand: he mowed it inward, bearing the corn he
cuts on his fcythe, till it comes to that which is ftanding,
again{t which it gently leans. After every mower a gatherer
follows, who may be a lad, or a woman. The gatherer
keeps within five or fix feet of the mower, and being pro-
vided either with a hook or ftick about two feet long, ga-
thers up the corn, making it into a gavel, and laying it
gently on the ground: this muft be done with fpirit, as
another mower immediately follows: as to every mower
there is a particular gatherer. And to do this work pro-

perly,

MOX

perly, the mower fhould form but one traét with his. feet,
advancing in a pofture nearly as if he was going to fence,
‘one foot chafing the other. In this manner the ftanding corn
ds mowed; and the workman fhould take care to have the
wind at his left, as it bears the corn towards the {cythe, and
-eaufes it to be cvt nearer the ground. “ When wheat 1s bent,
the workman takes the corn as it prefents itfelf to him,
which has the fame effe@ as if the wind was at his left fide.
‘And when it is laid, it is more troublefome te the gatherer,
becaufe the cut corn is apt to be mixed with that which is
' ftanding; but a good mower takes advantage of the wind,
and cuts it againft the way it is laid. No particular direc-
tions can be given for corn that is lodged and entangled,
unlefs it be to take it as it is inclined, as if the wind were
on the back of the mower.

- The ufual method of mowing grain is, however, in the
fame manner as for rafs, the feythe only having a cradle or
bow fixed upon the heel of the handle.

It is ftated, in the tenth volume of the Agricultural Ma-
gazine, that in the © praGice of every department of the
kingdom, the feythe is fwung horizontally, or nearly level,
leaving the ftubble of almoft an even height; or if it rife on
either fide, forming what are called fwath-balks, the butts
of the {waths are fuffered to reft upon them, the heads or
ears of the corn falling into the hollow or clofe mown part
of the preceding {wath-width. They are of courfe liable,
in a wet feafon, not only to receive an undue portion of rain
‘water, but to be fouled with the fplafhings of heavy
fhowers.”? But that in the Kentifh practice, which is faid
to excel thofe of other diftri@ts, “the pofition of the {waths
js different. Here, the heads of the corn reft on the top
of the fwath-balk, provincially the beever, which is left. of
extraordinary height, as ten to fifteen inches ; fo that the
wind has a free circulation beneath the {waths. ‘The work-
man, in performing this judicious operation, proceeds with
his right foot forward, entering the point of his fcythe with
a downward ftroke, and raifing it as abruptly out, bringing
the handle round to the left until it forms nearly a right
angle with the line of the fwath, carrying the corn in the
cradle three or four feet behind the place where it grew,
lifting it high and letting it fall on the beever bekind his left
foot, and in the pofition above defcribed.”” But « the dif
advantages of this method are, the lofs of fome ftraw, the
incumbrance arifing from the length of ftubble, and a litue
additional labour; but in a diftrict where cattle are not nu-
merous, the lofs of ftraw is not felt, and in any country,
the principle of laying the heads, inftead of the butts of
the corn upon the fwath-balk, whether left high or low,
might be well adopted.”

MOWLAY, in Geography, a town of Hindooltan, in
Baglana ;. 32 miles N.E. of Baffeen.

MOWRRUD, a town of Candahar; 12 miles S.E. of
Candahar.

MOXA,a Japanefe word, denoting a foft lanuginous fub-
ftance, prepared from the young leaves ofa {pecies of mug-
wort, employed by furgeons on the continent as a means of
forming an efchar, which is ufually made in this country with
cauttic. A little cone of the moxa is laid on the part
which has been previoufly moillened, and it is then ignited
at the top, when it burns down with a temperate glowing
heat, and produces a dark coloured fpot, the exulceration
of which 1s faidto be promoted by the application of a
{mall quantity of garlic. ‘The ulcer 1s kept @pen, or healed,
according a4 the indications of the cafe require. ‘The moxa
ie famous in the Eaft for curing feveral difeafes, and the
French are in the habit of ufing it; but whenever Englith

MOY
furgeons wifh to produce a flough, they prefer cauftice to
a€tual fire. ;

MOXES, or Mosos, in Geogr2phy, a province of South
A-rérica, in the viceroyzlty of Buenos Ayres, fituated be-
tween the diocefe of Cufco and the country belonging to
the Portuguefe, on each fide of the,Marmora or Madeira;
of confiderable extent, inhabited by Indian nations, and
little known. \ :

MOXVAO, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Beira; 40 miles N.E. of Braganca Nova, ;

MOY, a town of France, in the department of the
Ajifae, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of St.
Quentin ; nine miles S.E. of it. The place contains 948,
and the canton 11,518 inhabitants, on a territory of 1374
kiligmetres, in 19 communes. x

Moy, a circar of Benzal, bounded on the N.E. by
Ghidore, on the S.E. by Carrackdeagh, and on the W.
by Ramgur and Bahar.

Moy, a poft-town of Ireland, in the county of Tyrone;
itis fituated on the river Blackwater, which feparates it
from Charlemont in the county of Armagh. Near it is
Clonfeele, the refidence of Dr. Richardfon, the celebrated
advocate of Fiorin culture, which is there extentfively carried
om. Itis 68 miles N. by W. from Dublin, and fix from
Armagh,

Moy, the name of two rivers in Ireland; one rifing in
the county of Sligo, after a winding courfe through that
county and Mayo, forms the boundary between them for
{ome miles, and runs into the bay of Killala; the other is
in the- county of Galway.—Aifo, a town of Scotland, in
the county of Invernefg; nine miles S.E. of Invernefs.

- Moy, a provincial word fignifying muggy or clofe.

MOYA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in New Cattile ;
37 miles E. of Cuenga.—Alfo, a town of Spain, in Cata-
lonia ; eight miles E.N.E. of Manrefa. aw

MOYATTA, a river of the county of Cork, Ireland,
which runs from Sheehy mountain to Bantry bay, into
which it flows near Ballylickey.

MOYE, La, a {mail ifland near the W. coait of Jerfey ;
four miles W. of Noirmont Point. f

MOYENNEVILLE, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Somme, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Abbeville; four miles S.S.W. of-it. The place
contains gos, and the canton 9428 inhabitants, ona territory
of 115 kiliometres, in 14 communes.

MOYLE, Watrer, in Biography, fon of fir Walter
of Cornwall, was born at Bake, near Looe, in 1672, He
was greatly diltinguifhed at {chool by his claffical attain-
ments; from fchool he went to Oxford, and having pur-
fued his ftudies there, he was entered in the Temple, to
obtain that kind of legal knowledge, which it behoves every
gentleman to poffefs. He foon became acquainted with the
wits of the day, and joined fome of them in tranflating
Lucian... He undervook to furnifh verfions of four of that
author's pieces, which he executed with f{pirit and accuracy.
He was warmly attached to the principles of liberty, and
in 1695 he took his feat in parliament for the borough of
Saltath, but probably the routine of the houfe of commons
had no charms for him, and he appears never to have made
any attempt at another feat. He was defirous of confine
ing himfelf to his ftudies, and, at the defire of Dr. Dave-
nant, he tranflated Xenophon's ‘* Dilfcourfe upon improv-
ing’ the Revenues of Athens,’? which was prefixed to the
doGor's work on “ The ‘Trade and Revenues of England,”
which was publifhed in 1697, He next appeared as a ca-
adjutor of Mr. Trenchard in “ An Argument againit a
{tanding Army,’? at that period the great object of the jea-

‘ louly

MOZ

loufy of the friends of liberty. In fupport of the fame
caufe he publifhed at different times eflays on the « Lace-
demonian Government ;”? and on the “ Conftitution of the
Roman Government.” In both thefe he expofed the in-
tolerant tenets of the eftablifhed clergy, and argued in
favour of an univerfal toleration of religious fe&s. He
next publifhed ** A Differtation upon the Age of Philopa-
tris,’ commonly attributed to Lucian. He extended his
enquiries into various departments of natural hiftory, but
the {tate of his health confined him chiefly to purfuits that
could be carried on in the houfe, being unfit to contend
with the changes of the atmofphere. He died in 1721:
his pofthumous works were publifhed in two volumes 8vo. by
‘Thomas Sergeant, efq. in.1726. A third volume was pub-
lifhed in the following year by Anthony Hammond, con-
taining his other writings. He has been juftly ranked with
the mott liberal and learned {cholars of the age in which he
flourifhed. Biog. Brit.

Moye, in Geography, a river of the county of Tyrone,
Ireland, which rifes im the northern part of the county,

affles Newtown Stewart, and flows into the Mourne a
Tittle below Ardiftraw. :

MOYNALTY, a fmall poft-town of Ireland, in the
county of Meath. It is fituated on the river Borora, and
is 35 miles N. by W. from Dublin, and four miles N. from
Kells.

. MOYNE, ariver of Ireland, in the county of Galway,
which joins the river Clare fix miles S. of Tuam.

MOYNOU, in Fortification. See Moineav.

MOYOBAMBA, in Geography, a town of South Ame-
rica, on a river of the fame name, which runs into the
Guallagna; 300 miles N. of Lima. S. lat. 7°. W. long.
"6° sO’.

‘ MOYOMBO, a town of Africa, in Congo; 10 miles
S.W. of Bombi.

MOYOWLA, a river of Ireland, in the county of Lon-
donderry, which runs into the north-weftern angle of lough
Nearh, about two miles from Toome bridge.

MOYS, ariver of Auftria, which runs into the Danube,
two miles above Korn Neuburg. :

MOYSICIEWICZE, a town of Lithuania, in the pa-
latinate of Minfk; 60 miles N.E. of Minfk.

MOZAISK, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Mofcow; 56 miles W. of Mofcow. N. lat. 56° 36’. E.
long. 35° 44. '

MOZAMBIQUE or Mozampico, a kingdom of
Africa, fubje& to the Portuguefe, fituated on the E. coaft,
and on that part of the Indian fea which paffes between
the continent and the ifland of Madagafcar. It takes its
name from that of its chief town, which is feated on an
ifland, the principal of three iflands that form a part of the
kingdom. This ifland is however very fmall, and diftant
about two miles from the continent. The bay is about
three miles in circuit. The other two iflands, viz. St.
George's and St. James's, lie on each-fide of it, facing the
continent. The city of Mozambico/is faid to confilt of
well-built houfes, churches, and converts’; and has a fort or
caftle, about a mufquet-fhot from the town, which is one of
the ftrongeft and belt contrived belonging to the Portuguefe
on this coaft. The foil of thé 1fland is a white barren fand ;
over which an artificial mould has been formed, fo that it
produces very fine citrons, oranges, ananas, figs, and other
fruits ; but their pulfe, roots, and other efculents, are chiefly
brought from the continent, and the town is faid to have
been fupplied with rice, wheat, and other provifions from
Goa. © On the land the foil is fat and fertile in rice, millet,
variety of roots, pulfe, fruits and plants. ‘The natives

MOZ

breed a peat number of cattle, large and fmall, particularly
fheep with large tails. The country fwarms with wild
bealts of various kinds, fuch as elephants, as well as wild
{tags and boars.. In order to preferve themfelves from the
fierce and deltruétive elephants, the inhabitants kindle large
fires round their fown fields, to prevent their being de-
voured by them; nor do they fhift from their habitations
without lighted torches or firebrands to feare them away.
The country has mines of gold, which is wafhed down
their rivers and conftitutes a great part of their commerce.
Ivory, ebony, flaves and cattle are likewife exchanged for
European goods, fuch as little bells, knives, f{ciffors, and
razors. Befides the commodities already mentioned, they
export filver, copper, wax, rice and other provifions. The
kings of Portugal have been at great expence in fortifyin
and garrifoning Mozambico, and providing it with an i
pital for the fick, and a magazine well furnifhed with a va-
riety of ftores for fhipping, &c.. S, lat. 15° 5’. E. long.
41° $!.

MozampiqueE, Straits of, that part of the Indian ocean,
which divides the ifland of Madagafcar from the continent
of Africa.

MOZART, Leororp, in Biography, vice chapel-matter
to the prince archbifhop of Salzburg, violinift, and direG@tor
of his band, was born at Augfburg in 1719, and acquired this
appointment in 1743. He was intended for the law; but’
his paffion for the ttudy of mufic was predominant, and he
became early in life a ufeful mufician, as author in 1757 of a
treatife on the art of playing the violin, and a compofer ;
but what did him moft honour, and will endear his name to
future times, is the being father of {uch an incomparable fon
as Wolfgan, and educating him with fuch care. In 1764 he
fet out on a trading voyage with his children, a fon and a
daughter ; vilited I'rance, England, and Italy. During his
travels with his children to the principal capitals in Europe,
he ufed to accompany them on the violin, the daughter
when the fung, and the fon when he played on the clavichord
or harpfichord. The daughter was the eldeft, and when fhe
fung fhe was not only accompanied on the violin by her father,
but by her brother on the harpfichord, which he was able to
do in a mafterly manner at feven or eight years old. When
this excellent father returned to Salzburg, after travelling
with his children, he was appointed principal concert mafter
to thearchbifhop, and became a voluminous compofer ; a lift
of his works is givenin Gerber. This worthy profeffor died
at Salzburg in 1778. :

Mozarr, Joun Curysostom WoLFGAN THEOPHILUS,
the fon of Leopold, was born at Salzburg in 1756. At
feven years old he went with his father and fifter to Paris, and
the year following came to London; in 1769 he went to
Italy.. In 1770 we met him at Bologna, on his return from
Rome and Naples, when he had aftonifhed all the great pro-
feflors by his premature knowledge and talents. At Rome
he was honoured by the pope with the order of the Speron
d Oro. From Bologna he went to Milan, where he was en-
gaged to compofe an opera for the marriage of the princi-
peflina of Modena with one of the archdukes, T'wo other
compofers were employed on this occafion, each of them to
fet anopera; but that of the little Mozart, compofed at
twelve years old, was the moft applauded.

During his refidence in London we had frequent opportu-
nities of witnefling his extraordinary talents and profound
knowledge in every branch of mufic at eight years old, when
he was able to play at fight in all clefs, to Edit extempore,
to modulate, and play fugues on fubjeGs given in a way that
there were very few matters then in London able todo. But
there is in Phil. Tranf. vol. lx. for 1770, a minute and

curious

MOZ

‘curiaus account of the mufical feats of this child in London,
during 1765, when he was no more than eight years and five
months old, to which we refer our readers. His progrefs in
talents and fame, contrary to all experience, continued to
keep pace with the expectations of the public to the end of
his life. .

He went again to Paris foon after his return from Italy.
But on the death of his father in 1778, he was called to Salz-
burg, and appointed principal concert-matter to the prince
archbifhop, in his ftead ; but he refigned this office in 1780,
and went to Vienna, where he fettled, and was admired and
patronized by the court and city; and in 1788 he was ap-
pointed chapel-mafter to the emperor Jofeph.

His firft opera at Vienna was Die Entfichrung aus Dern
@erail, or the Rape of the Seraglio, in 1752, to German
words. The fecond, ‘* Le Nozze di Figaro,” in four acts.
The third, the “ Schaufpiel DireGtor,’’ or the Manager at
the Playhoufe, in 1786. ‘* Il Don Giovanni,” in 1787.
«La Clemenza di Tito,’’ a ferious opera. ‘* Cori Fan-
tutti,” comic. Die 3auber fflute, or Flauto Magico. ‘ Ido-
meneo,’” a ferious opera, &c.

Tt was not till the year 1782, that he began to compofe
at Vienna for the national theatre; at firft chiefly inftru-
mental mufic; but on its being difcovered how well he
could write for the voice, he was engaged by the nobility
and gentry firft to compofe comic operas, fometimes to
German words, aad fometimes Italian. His ferious operas,
we believe, were all originally compofed to Italian words.

There is a chronological lift of his latter vocal compofi-
tions tillthe year 1790, in Gerber’s Mufical Lexicon.

In England we know nothing of his ftudies‘or produc-
tions, but from his harpfichord leffons, which frequently
came over from Vienna; and in thefe he feems to have been
trying experiments. They were full of new paflages, and
new effects; but were wild, capricious, and not always
pleafing. We were wholly unacquainted with his vocal
mufic till after his deceafe, though it is manifeft that by
compoling for the voice he firft refined his talte, and gave
way to his feelings, as in his latter compofitions for the
piano forte and other inftruments his melody is exquifite,
and cherifhed and enforced by the moft judicious accompa-
niments, equally free from pedantry and caprice.

It fhould be known, that the operas of this truly great
mufician are much injured by being printed in half /cores,
with fo bufy and conftantly loaded a part for the piano forte.
Some of the paflages, we fuppofe taken from the inftru-
mental parts in the full core; but the editor, who, we are
fure, was not the author, has fuch “ a rage for faying fome-
thing, when there’s nothing to be faid,”” (as was remarked
of Dr. Warburton in his notes on Shak{peare and Pope,
by Dr. Johnfon), that there is no contra{t: the piano forte
has a perpetual leffon to play, fometimes difficult, and
fometimes vulgar and common, which, however foft it may
be performed, difguifes the vocal melody, and diverts the
attention from it, for what is not worth hearing. About
the middle of the laft century, Mondonville compofed for
the Concert Spirituel at Paris motets to Latin words for a
fingle voice, accompanied by a very difficult and noify part
for the organ, obligato; and the effect was intolerable,
though the organ part was well played by Balbattre; yet
being a perpetual roullement, which faid nothing to the
heart, it was fo loud, that it obliged mademoifelle Del-
cambre to {cream to the utmolt power of her lungs. There
was neither tafte, grace, folemnity, nor ingenuity to be dif-
covered. Thefe pieces abounded in notes, ef ritn que des
notes, a8 Jean Jaques ufed to fay of French mufic in gene-
mal. Yet thefe performances were not only tolerated, but

6 +

MUA

admired by the friends of the old fchool at Paris. But let
us not level the produétions of Mozart with thofe of Mon-
donville.

In « Jdomeneo,”? which is tull of fine things, the air in
E , at the beginning of the fecond ac, the chorus, «« Alla
Siciliana,"’ in the fame key, and the quartet in the laft
act, &c. are exquifitely beautiful, in different ftyles.- But
a commentary on the works of this gifted moufician would
fill one of our volumes. His reputation continued to
{pread and increafe all over Europe to the end of his life,
which, unfortunately for the mufical world, was allowed to
extend only to 36 years, at which period he died in 1791!

After his deceafe, when Haydn was afked in our hear- -
ing by Broderip, in his mufic-fhop, whether Mozart had
left any MS. compofitions behind him that were worth
purchaling, as his widow had offered his unedited papers.
at a high price to the principal publifhers of mufic through?
out Europe; Haydn eagerly faid; ‘* purchafe them by
all means. He was truly a great mufician. TI have been
often flattered by my friends with having fome genius; but
he was much my fuperior.’”

Though this declaration had more of modefty than truth
in it, yet if Mozart’s genius had been granted as many
years to expand as that of Haydn, the aflertion might per-
haps have been realifed in many particulars.

MOZDOZ, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the go-
vernment of Caucafus, on the Malka; eight miles E. of
Ekaterinograd.

MOZE’, a town of France, in the department of the
Maine and Loire; 15 miles W.S.W. of Angers.

Moze, in Agriculture, a provincial word, fometimes ap-
plied to mofs, or a lake that is overgrown with mofs or
other aquatic plants.

MOZYR, in Geography, a town of Lithuania, in the
palatinate of Minfk ; 112 miles S.E. of Minfk.

S MOZZANICA, a town of Italy ; 12 miles N.N.E. of
odi.

MRAKOTIN, a town of Moravia, in the circle of
Iglau; 20 miles S.S.W. of Iglau.

MRATICK, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Kaurzim; 1o miles §.S.E. of Erle.

MRI, a town of Egypt, on the W. branch of the Nile;
feven miles S. of Faoué.

MRITU, or Mriryu, in Hindoo Mythology, a perfoni-
fication of death, and a name of Yama, the Pluto of the
Hindoos; applied alfo to Kal, or Time, and to Siva, the
deftructive power of the deity. See thofe articles.

MSCHNO, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Boleflaw ; 10 miles W. of Jung-Buntzel.

MSLAVL, or Mscistaw, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Mogilev, on the Lem; formerly the capital
of a palatinate of Lithuania, incorporated with Ruffia in
the year 1773 ; 60 miles E. of Mogilev. N. lat. 53° 54%,
E. long. 31°.

MSTI, a river of Ruffia, in the government of Noy-
gorod, which runs into the Ilmen Jake, near Lipinfkoi,

MSTOW, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Cra-
cow; 44 miles N.N.W. of Cracow.

MTZENSK, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Orel; 24 miles N. of Orel.

MUAKISIN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the go-
vernment of Diarbekir, on the Euphrates; 10 miles W. of
Kerkifieh.

MUANCES, in AMufic, the French term for the
change in the names of the notes of the hexachords in
folmifation, before the admiffion of the fyllable /f. See

Mutation.
MUAR,

MUC

MUAR, in Geography, a river of Malacca, which runs
into the Straits, N. lat..2°6'. FE. long. 102° 27’.

MUASSEM, a town of Arabia, in Yemen; 20 miles
S. of Abu Arifch.

MUBAD, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; 11 miles
W.N.W. of Lucknow.

MUC de /a Voix, Fr. the change or breaking of the
voice of a boy at the time of puberty. Tiffot.

MUCARE, in Geography, atown of Arabia, in Hedsjas ;
80 miles S.W. of Mecca.

MUCARES, a {mall ifland among the Bahamas, fur-
rounded with rocks. N. lat. 22° 13’. W. long. 77° 20!.

MUCCAPET, a town of Hindooftan, in Golconda;

2 miles S.5.E. of Combamet.

MUCH Wentocx. See Wentocx.

MUCHANDERGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Vifi-
apour ; 10 miles S. of Currer.

MUCHAWIEC, a river of Poland, which runs into
the Bog, at Brzefc.

MUCHEIN, or Micuerpa, a town of Saxony, in
Thuringia; 37 miles N.E. of Erfurt. N. lat. 51° 18. E.
ong. 15 55’ :

MUCHIETO, a town of the ifland of Corfica; one
mile N. of Cervione.

MUCHIMA, a town of Benguela, on the Coanza;
76 miles N.N.E. of Old Benguela.

MUCHODER, a town of Arabia, in the province of
Yemen; fituated on a hill and the feat of a Dola, between
Taas and Jerim.

MUCHUNDRUM, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ;
12 miles E. of Bangalore.

MUCIDAN. See Mussipan.

MUCILAGE, in Chemiffry, a name given to an aqueous
folution of the vegetable produ& called gum, and to the
mucilaginous matter extraéted from feveral vegetables, fuch
as the bulbs of the hyacinth, the lichens, and feveral others.
From thefe fources it has recently been employed in calico
printing as a fubftitute for gum arabic, to prevent the
colours frem running.

Dr. Thomfon has tried the effe€&t of a number of me-
tallic folutions upon a folution of gum, few of which ap-
pear to produce any change. Nitrat of mercury produces
a white coagulum, which, however, difappears by thaking,
but returns when the folution is much diluted. Pruffiat of
mercury gives to a folution of gum a flight opaque appear-
atice, but makes no precipitate.

He alfo found that potafh, ammonia, folutions of lime,
barytic and {trontian alum, fulphat of magnefia and
alluminated potafh, had no effe& upon mucilage. Silicated
potafh produced a white flaky precipitate, although the
folution was much diluted. Dr. Thomfon recommends
this fubftance as the beft teft of the prefence of gum. It
muft be remembered, however, that an acid will produce
the fame effect upon filicated potath.

Mucilage is ufed by fome writers to defignate a pe-
culiar principle diftin& from gum. Mucilage, fays M.
Chaptal, appears to conflitute the firft alteration of
the alimentary juices in vegetables. Moft feeds are -al-
moft totally refolvable into miucilage, and young plants
feem to be entirely formed of it. ‘This fubitance has the
greatelt analogy with the mucous fluid of animals. Like
that fluid it is moft abundant in the earlier periods of life,
and all the other principles appear to be derived from it;
and in vegetables, as well as animals, its quantity becomes
jefs in proportion as the increafe of magnitude, or growth
of the individual, becomes lefs, or ceafes. Mucilage is not
only the nutritive juice of plants and animals, but when ex-

Vou. XXIV.

MUC

trated from either, it becomes the moft nourifhing and whole-
fome food with which we are acquainted. It is found in
different ftates in plants: fometimes almoft alone, as in lin-
feed, &c.; fometimes combined with fubftances infoluble
in water, which it keeps fufpended in the form of an emul-
fion, as in euphorbium, celandine, &c. ; fometimes united
with an oil and forming the fat oils ; and frequently it is
united with fugar, as in the gramineous feeds, the fugar-
cane, maize, &c. It is alfo found confounded with the
effential falts, with excefs of acid, as in barberries, tama-
rinds, forrel, &c. Mucilage fometimes conttitutes the per-
manent ftate of the plant, as in the tremella, conferva, &c.
It is alfo feen in this ftate in fome animals, {uch as the me-
dufa or fea-nettle, the holothurion, &c. The chara¢ters of
mucilage are the following: viz. infipidity, folubility in
water, \infolubility in alcohol, coagulation by the aétion of
weak acids, and the emiffion of a confiderable quantity of
carbonic acid, when expofed to the aétion of fire; at the
fame time that it becomes converted into coals, without ex-
hibiting any flame. It is likewife capable of palling to the
acid fermentation when diluted with water. The formation
of mucilage appears to be almoft independent of lizht, for
the plants which grow in fubterraneous places abound with
it: but light is required to enable mucilage to pafs into
other ftates, for without this principle, the fame’ plants
would fearcely obtain any confiftence.

Of the vegetable mucilages the principal are gum arabic,
gum fenegal, and gumtragacanth. The gum arabic comes
dire@tly from Egypt and the Levant, and is obtained in a
fimilar manner with the gum fenegal. The principal marts
for it were formerly Cairo and Alexandria, till the Dutch
introduced the gum from Senegal into Europe about the
beginning of the 17th century, which now fupplies the
greater part of the confumption of this article. ‘The tree
which produces the gum fenegal is a {pecies of mimofa,
which grows in great abundance on the coafts of Barbary,
and particularly about the river Senegal. The trees that
yield it are from 18 to 20 inches high, with thorny branches,
and the gum makes its appearance about the middle of No-
vember; the gummy juice oozing through the trunk and
branches and in about a fortnight hardening into roundifh
drops of a yellowifh-white colour. The quantity an-
nually fold out of the Senegal country for European con-
fumption is about 1,200,000 pounds weight. This gum is
a wholefome nutritious food, thoufands of the Moors fub-
filting upon it during the time of harvelt. About fix ounces
are fufficient to fupport a man for a day, and it is alfo
mixed with milk, animal broth and other victuals. Among
other ufes to which the gum arabic 1s applied, one is that
of giving a fine glofs or glazing to ribbands and filks; for
which purpofe a thin folution is brufhed over the filk, which
rarely wafhes away with water, and occafions the appearance
of {pots in filks after being expofed to rain. See Gum
Arasic, Gum Mucilage, Gum Senegal, and Gum TRraGa-
cantTu. See alfo Mucous Acid and Pyro-mucous Acid,
and SuGar.

Mucmace, Animal. See Animal Mucus.

Muctiace, Mucilago, in Pharmacy, &c. denotes a cer-
tain aqueous folution, which is very thick and adhefive ; fo
called as refembling the mucus of the nofe.

Mucilages are prepared chiefly from roots and feeds,
pounded in a mortar, and infufed in hot water, and ftrained

«through a cloth: and they are the moft relaxing, emollient,

and foftening remedies in medicine.

The roots principally ufed for this purpofe are thofe of
althza, mallows, fymphytum, &c., the feeds are thofe of
quinces, fleawort, &c.

Pp Mucilages

MUC

Mucilages enter the compofition of feveral plafters. ‘They
are fometimes alfo made of gums and fruits ; as figs, quinces,
ifinglafs, tragacanth, &c.

The principal mucilages deferibed in the Pharmacopeias
are the following :

Mucilage of acacia, Mucilago acacie, P. L. 1809, Mu-
cilago arabic! gummi, P. L. 1787, is’ prepared by rubbing
4 0z. of acacia gum, powdered, in half a pint of boiling
water gradually added, until it incorporates into a muci-
lage.

erhicilae of gum arabic, Mucilago mimofe nilotice,
P. E. is formed by digefting, with continual agitation, one
part of gum arabic, powdered, in two parts of boiling
water, until the gum be diffolved ; then {training the muci-
lage through linen.

Mucilage of gum arabic, Mucilago gummi arabici, P. D.
is prepared by digefting, with frequent agitation, 4 02. of
gum arabic, in coarfe powder, in eight pints of boiling
water, until the gum be diffolved, and then {training the mu-
cilage through linen.

This mucilage is moftly impure when firft formed, from
the prefence of extraneous matters which have adhered to
the gum, ‘and therefore ftraining through linen is required.
When thus obtained, it is vilcid, thick, and adhetive ; femi-
pellucid and nearly colourlefs, if the gum be good. It has
a faint, peculiar odour, and is infipid: it may be kept with-

‘out alteration for a confiderable time ; but at length it be-
comes four, and acetic acid is formed. The ftrong acids
a& upon it as they do on gum, but diluted they do not alter
it. Alcohol converts it into a white curd, but proof fpirit
makes fcarcely any alteration in it: fulphuric ether and com-
pound fpirit of ether precipitate a thick, white, tenacious
curd: whilft fpirit of nitric ether produces no change:
tin@ure of muriate of iron, when diluted, converts it into
a brownifh, or orange-coloured, infoluble jelly, and acetate
of lead gives a copious, denfe, flaky precipitate ; but no
change is effected by the following metallic folutions, viz.
fuperacetate of lead, green fulphate of tron, fulphate of zine,
ozymuriate of mercury, and tartarized antimony, nor by the
alkalis or neutral falts.

Mucilage, like gum, ferves to combine refins and oils
with water, for which purpofe, and alfo to give tenacity to
pills, it is much employed in pharmacy. Its properties are
the fame with thofe of gum: it forms the ufual bafis of
demulcent mixtures for allaying the tickling cough that
cccurs in catarrhs and phthifis, and combined with opium
and other narcotics it is ufeful in diarrheea, dyfentery, cal-
culous afleétions, and ardor urine. The dofe of mucilage
may be from f3{s to £4) frequently repeated.

Mucilage of flarch, Mucilago amyli, P. L. E. D. is pre-
pared by rubbing three drachms of ttarch in a pint of water,
gradually adding the water to it, and then boiling untilit in-
corporates into a mucilage. Starch rubbed with cold water
forms a white opague fluid, and this, when heated, forms a
gelatinous liquor, which may be diffufed through more boil-
ing water, but it precipitates after ftanding. Itis infoluble
in ether or alcohol. ‘Thomfon confiders it to be a character-
iftic of this vegetable matter, that it is foluble in infufion
of galls at 120°; precipitates as it cools, and may again be
diflulved by an increafe of temperature : this feems to be the
refult of acombination between ftarch and the tannin con-
tained in the galls. In cafes of phthifis, heétic fever, and
abrafions of the ftomach, this mucilage is given as a demul-
gent by the mouth; but it is more senedly and benefici-
ally exhibited in the form of enema in diarrhoea, dyfentery,
and abrafions of the rectum, It is the common vehicle for
exhibiting opium in the form of enema.

MUC

Mucilage of tragacanth, Mucilago aftragali tragacanthe»
P. E. is formed by macerating for 24 hours 1 ez. of gum
tragacanth in powder, in 8 oz. of boiling water, and
carefully triturating the gum, that it may be diffolved ;
then {training the mucilage through linen.

Mucilage of gum tragacanth, Mucilago gummi fragacanthe,
P. D. is prepared by macerating in a covered vefiel two
drachms of gum tragacanth, in powder, in eight fluid oz. of
water until the gum be diffolved; then ftraining the mucilage
through linen. This mucilage may be ufed in the fame cafes
as that of gum arabic, but it is chiefly employed for making
pills and troches. This is omitted inthe P. L. 1809, becaufe
it feems to poffefs no advantage over that of acacia gum,
and it is more difficultly foluble, and very thick, and apt
to become lumpy in dilution. :

Mucilage of quince feeds, Mucilago feminis cydonii mali,
P. L. 1787, Mucilago feminum cydoniorum, P. L. 1745,
Deco€tum cydoniz, er decoétion of quince feeds, P. L. 1809,
is prepared by boiling over a gentle fire for ten minutes
two drachms of quince feeds in a pint of water, and then
ftraining. This mucilage is coagulated by alcohol, acids,
and moit of the metallic falts: it is more apt te fpoil than
common mucilage, over which it poffefles no other advan-
tage than its being more grateful, and its being fufficiently
thin, without further dilution, to form the bulk of an
liquid medicine. It is, however, often preferred to the other
mucilages as « local demulcent in tenefmus, and in aphthous
affeCtions and excoriations of the mouth. A diluted folution
of it injected beneath the eye-lids is ufeful for obtunding the
acrimony of the difcharge in violent inflammations of the
eye. Thomfon’s Lond. Difpenfatory, 1811.

Mucitace alfo denotes a thick pituitous matter, evacuated
with the urime in the gravel and dyfuria.

MUCILAGINOSA Licamenta, in Anatomy, {mall
membranous folds in the knee-joint, aud the tendinous thece
of the fingers and toes. The term is employed by Weit-
brecht.

MUCILAGO, in Botany, a name under which Micheli
has comprifed fome fpecies of that kind of fungus called
mucor, confifting of {mall bladders or veficles, with feeds
affixed to filaments on the inner part.

MUCIUR, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
Caramania ; 25 miles S.S.E. of Kir-fhehr.

MUCK, in Agriculture, any fort of material, fuch as
dung, ftraw, &c. which has undergone fermentation, or lies
rotting. See Dune and Manure.

Mucx-Midden, a term fometimes ufed to fignify a dung-
hill or compott heap.

Mucx-Weed, the common name of a troublefome weed
in arable land, the common goofe-foot.

Muck, in Geography, a {mall ifland on the eaft coaft of
Ireland, near the entrance to Larne Lough. N. lat. 54°
g3'. W. long. 5° 36’.

Muck, or Muke, one of the fmaller Hebrides, contain-
ing about 1000 acres of land; chiefly arable. N. lat 568
43’. W. long. 6? 12!.

eer See Mock.

UCKDUMPOUR, a town of Hindo ; i
N.E. of Moultan. mage oy

MUCKEARN, a town of Scotland, in the county of
Argyle; 14 miles N. of Inverary.

MUCKISNBERG, a town of Saxony, in the margra-
viate of Mellen; 28 miles N. of Drefden.

MUCKENHAGEN, a town of Pomerelia, on the
Motlaw ; 7 miles S.S.E. of Dantzick.

MUCKENREUT, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Culmbach; eight miles N.W. of Bayreuth.

4 MUCKER,

MUC

MUCKER, a town of Pruffia, in the palatinate of Culm ;
17 miles N.N.E. of Culm.

MUCKEROW Gaus, a mountain of Bahar ; 23 miles
W. of Saferam.

MUCKISH, mountains of Ireland, in the northern part
of the county of Donegal, W. of Sheephaven.

MUCKRAIZ, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Hindia; 17 miles S.E. of Hurda.

MUCKRIS Pornr, a cape of Ireland, in the county of
Donegal, and on the northern coaft of the bay of Donegal,

not far from Tilen harbour. N, lat. 54°35’. W.long.
8° 27!.

MUCKTERPOUR, a town of Bengal ; 33 miles E. of
Calcutta.

MUCKUNDGUNGE, a town of Bengal; 18 miles
N. of Ramgur. N. lat. 23° 57/. E. long. 85° 34/.

MUCOCARNEOUS, an epithet ufed by authors for a
fort of abfcefles, which are partly made up of flefh, and
partly of a thick mucous matter. d

MUCONI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Africa,
in the eaftern part of Mauritania Czfarientis, in the environs
of mount Mampferus. according to Ptoleniy.

MUCOR, in Botany, from muceo, to be mufty or mouldy,
an ancient Latin word, retained by botanilts in its original
acceptation, for that genus of minute and evanefcent fungi,
found on decaying bread, vegetables, &c. known by the
popular name of mould.—Linn. Gen. 569. Schreb. 770.
Perf. Syn. 199. Mart. Mill. Di&. v.3. Hudf. 646. Juff. 3.
Mich. Gen. 215. t.95. Lamarck Illuttr. t. 890,—Clafs and
order, Cryptogamia Fungi. Nat. Ord. Fungi.

Eff. Ch. Head membranous, globofe, ftalked ; at firft
watery and pellucid; fubfequently opaque. Seeds naked,
rather coherent. f

Perfoon enumerates nine fpecies; three of them witha
branched, fix with a fimple, ttalk.—We fubjoin an example
of each.

M. flavidus. Perf.n. 1. Obf. Mycol. fafc. 1. 95. t.6.
f. 5. (Byflus; Schmidel. Ic. 203. t. 52. f. 2.) —Stalk
branched. Heads yellowifh; afterwards grey. — Found in
autumn upon rotten Fungi, efpecially Agaricus piperatus, on
which it forms little indeterminate patches. At firlt this ftands
nearly upright, and is of a fhining yellow; afterwards it
lies down, and aflumes the afpeé of a greyifh afh-coloured
Byffus. The heads are blackifh when ripe, and appear
fomewhat granulated, from the protrufion of the feeds
through the burfting coat. The latter are globular and
whitifh.

M. Mucedo. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1655. (M. vulgaris; Perf.
n. 4, & M. vulgaris, capitulo lucido, per maturitatem
nigro, pediculo grifeo; Mich. Gen. 215. t. 95. f. 1.)—
Stalks fimple, crowded. Heads blackifh—This is the
moft common mould, on all forts of decaying food, vege-
tables, fruits, &c. It is at firit greyifh, with a filvery
fparkling appearance ; but in a few hours turns greenifh,
and finally almoit black, from the copious ripe feeds, which
being gone, leave the expanded coat of the head, or recep-
sacle, in aftar-like, jagged, flat form. This is well repre-
fented in Hook’s Micrographia, t. 12. f. 1, copied in Ster-
Neeck’s Fungi, t. 31.—Perfoon is furely miftaken in confider-
ing as a variety of this, the d/cophora Mucedo of Tode,
fafc. 1. 13. t. 3. f. 22 5 as Albertini and Schweiniz, in their
learned Confpeétus ag ay 356, well remark.

Mucor, a vegetable difeafe fignifying a fort of mould or
mildew. See Movip, Micpew, and the preceding article.

MUCOSA, in Ichthyology, a name-given by the Italians
toa {pecies of the ray-fifh, called by the old authors, /-ioraia,
and bos marinus; and by the later authors, raja, oxyrynchus,

MUC

and /eviraia. It is diftinguifhed by Artedi by the name of
the variegated ray, with ten prickly tubercles on the middle
of the back. See Rasa.

MUCOS Gtranvut®, in Anatomy, two round glands
near the bulb of the urethra, often called Cowper’s glands.
See GENERATION.

MUCOSUM Licamenrum, a name fometimes given to
the ligaments which join the roots of the {pinous proceffes
together. See Spine.

MUCOUS Aci, in Chemifiry, a peculiar acid formed
by the mutual decompofition of the nitric acid and gum
mucilage. This acid is found to be the fame as that dif-
covered by Scheele to be produced by the aétion of nitric
acid on {ugar of milk. When nitric acid is moderately
heated with half its weight of gum arabic, only till nitrous
gas begins to be difengaged, there depofits on cooling a
white powder, which, when colle&ed and wafhed, is the
mucous acid. Its feel is granular, and tafte lightly four.
When heated per fe to decompofition, it gives a red fharp-
tafted oil, much carbonic acid gas, and a portion of it {ub-
limes in brown {cales, {melling like the benzoic acid. The
dry mucous acid is very {paringly foluble in water. The
hot faturated folution depofits on cooling brilliant fealy
cryftals. It decompofes the carbonated alkalies at a boiling
heat, expelling the carbonic acid, and forming perfedily
neutral falts. For a farther account of the properties of
this acid, fee Sacuacric or Sacehola&ic Acid.

Mucous Fevers, a term ufed by medical writers to ex-
prefs thofe fevers in which nature is endeavouring to rid her-
felf of an abundance of pituitous, mucous, aad ferous mat-
ter. The catarrhal fevers of all forts are exprefled under
this denomination. See Fever. q

MUCRO Corps, in Anatomy, the lower or pointed end
of the heart. See Heart.

The word is Latin, mucro, where it properly fignifies the
point of a fpear.

Hence, mucronated is applied to whatever tends to or
terminates in a point, like that of a fpear; as mucronata
cartilago, &c.

MUCRONATUM Os, the fternum. See Lune.

MUCU, in Ichthyology, the name of a Brafilian tifh of
the lamprey- kind; the Tricnurvs /:ptu'vs of Linnzus ;
which fee.

MUCUCHIS, in Geography, a town of South America,
in the viceroyalty of New Granada; 15 miles E. of Me-
rida.

MUCULLAGH Rocks, rocks in Tralee bay, on the
W. coaft of Ireland ; three miles N.N.W. of Fenit ifland.

MUCUNA-GUACLU, the largeft and molt beautiful {pe-
cies of phafeolus growing in Brafil: it grows on a tree of
the fame name : the pod has a black hell, almoft as hard as
a ftone, and covered with foft yellow hair, is a hand’s
breadth long, and three fingers’ breadth wide. When broke
open, it difcovers three or four very beautiful globular
beans, divided by interftices of a fcarlet or red colour, round,
fmooth, and with a large eye, which being macerated in
water, are deprived of fome part of their noxious qualities ;
and being prepared with tipioca de mandihoca, are eaten by
the natives ; io that their poifonous quality does not feem
fo deeply implanted in them by nature, as not to admit of
proper correctives ; for though the interior fubftance of the
bean, by its acrimony and biting property vellicating the
vifcera, excites great perturbations in the body, and purges
violently by itool and vomiting, the cooling and demulcent
medicinal aliment, prepared of the tipioca, ferves as an an-
tidote, and is therefore preferable to other things employed

to correct it. Ray.
Ppz MUCUND,

MD:

MUCUND, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Lahore; 14 miles S. of Lahore. u

MUCUNDNAUT, a town of Lamjungh; 180 miles
N. of Fyzabad. N. lat. 29° 27'. E. long. 83° 307.

MUCUS, Awnmat, or Animal Mucilage, in Chemiftry, a
fubftance obfervable in many animal fluids, refembling vege-
table mucilage, in being foluble in water, not coagulable by
heat, infoluble in alcohol, infipid, and giving a flimy con-
fiftence to the finids with which it is mixed; and on this ac-
count denominated mucus. Animal mucus is confidered by
Mr. Hatchett as merely a modification of gelatin; but
Dr. Boftock has pointed out a very decifive difference be-
tween the two with regard to the manner in which they are
aéted upon by Goulard’s extra&t, a preparation of lead pro-
duced by faturating boiling vinegar with litharge. (See
Leap.) Thisliquor, whenadded to any fluid containing animal
mucus, gives a:copious white precipitate, whereas it 1s not
rendered fenfibly turbid by a folution of pure jelly. The
infufion of galls or tan, which inftantly precipitates jelly,
has no or fearcely any effeQ@ on mucus. Neither gelatin nor
mucus is altered by the folution of corrofive fublimate,
which copioufly precipitates albumen. Confequently, albu-
men, gelatin, and mucus mixed together, may be feparated
with tolerable accuracy by the fucceffive application of cor-
rofive fublimate, infufion of galls, and acetated litharge.
Animal mucus is generally combined with gelatin and albu-
men, and always with fome falts; upon the whole, it is one
of the leaft abundant of the animal fluids. See GrLarin.

Mucus of the Joints, is a mucilaginous liquor, feparated
by its proper glands, conveniently placed in the interftices
of the bones, where thofe glands are gently preffed’by the
motion of the parts; it ferves to make the extremities of
the bones or joints flip more eafily.

Mucus of the Urethra, a vifcous tranfparent liquor, ferv-
ing to line and lubricate the part ; that the feed and the urine
may flip more freely, without either adhering to or lace-
rating the part.

It comes from glands lately difcovered by Mr. Cowper,—

about the penis; and is that, which in women is often mif-
taken for femen.

Mucus of the Noftrils, is a vifcid excrementitious humour,
feparated by its proper glands placed in the internal mem-
brane of thofe parts. It ferves to moiften, lubricate, ‘and
defend the olfaétory nerves; which, being extremely foft
and naked, would, without fuck provifion, be foon fpoiled.
See Nose.

Mucus of Fifh. The bodies of moft of the fithes called
alepidotes by authors, from their having either no feales at
all, or only a few {mall ones, are covered in the place of
fcales with this mucus. It is a tough and thick vifcous
liquor, and fticks firmly to the body, defending the {kin
from injuries from ftones, and the like: it is fecreted from
certain glands placed about the head, and on moft parts of
the body, but particularly in the linea lateralis. Artedi.
See Fis.

MUD, in Agriculture, the fediment depofited at the bot-
tom of rivers, ponds, ditches, &c. As much of this fort
of material fhould be colleéted as poffible, and be thrown
up into heaps, in order to become mellow. © It contains
much carbonaceous matter, and is an excellent manure either
in the fimple or compound ftate. See Dune, and Manure.

Mup-Croom, a provincial term applied to a tool ufed by
water-wo:kers, and farmers. It is a fort of large hook,
with thin flat prongs, and a ftout wooden handle.

Mun-Sheep, a provincial word applied to theep of the old
Tree{water large breed.

Mup J/land, in Geography, a {mall ifland of America, ‘in

MUD

the river Delaware, fix or feven miles below the city of Phi-
ladelphia, on which are a citadel and a fort.

Mup Laée, a lake in the ftate of New York, a little S.
of Crooked lake; it gives rife to a N. branch of Tioga
river.

Mup-Walls, in Rural Economy, fuch as are raifed of
earthy materials. See Fence, ard Watts.

MUDA, a town of Italy, in the Bellunefe; 10
N.N.W. of Belluno.

MUDANIA, or Monpanta, a town of A fiatic Turkey,
in the province of Natolia, fituated in a gulf, in the S.E.
part of the fea of Marmora, and inhabited chiefly by Greeks
or Jews, with fome Turks. Here the archbifhop of Burfa
has a palace. The commerce of this place is confiderable,
and confifts in grain, falt, faltpetre, white wine, a variety
of fruits, and the manufaCtures of Burfa, which are brought
hither for exportation; 15 miles N.N.W. of Burfa. N.
Jat. 40° 14’. E. long. 28° 54/. “

MUDAU, or Munpecu, a town of Germany, in the
circle of the Lower Rhine; 10 miles S. of Miltenberg.

MUDBUNNY, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 30
miles E.S.E. of Battiah, N. lat. 26° 33’. E. long. 85°
16! ‘

MUDD, in Ichthyology, a name given by the Swedes te
the fifh called by Schonefeldt and others aphua or aphya.
See Cyprinus Aphya. :

MUDDAGO, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Fit-
tré; 30 miles W. of Dar-Cooka.

MUDDY Creek, a river of Pennfylvania, which runs
into the Sufquehanna, N. lat. 39° 17! W. long. 76° zo’.
—Alfo, a river of Kentucky, which runs into the Ohio,
N. lat. 36° 44'. W. long. 89° 18'.—Alfo, a river of Ken-
tucky, called «* Pond creek,” which runs into the Ohio,
N. lat. 37° 19’: W. long. 87° 49/.

Muppy Lake, a lake of Upper Canada, fituated be-
tween lakes Huron and George; about 25 or 30 miles long,
and not very wide. On it are feveral {mall iflands, the
principal of which is St. Jofeph’s.

Munppy Point, acape on the W.coaft of Africa. S. lat.
11° 4o'. -

MUDEN, a town of Perfia, in Segeitan; 110 miles
N.W. of Zareng.

MUDERER, a town of Hindooftan, in the gulf of
Cutch; 18 miles S.E. of Boogebooge.

MUDERIS, in the’ Ottoman court. See CapILESCHER,

MUDERNI, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natelia;
24 miles S.W. of Boli.

MUDGURRY, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 10
miles N.W. of Burwah. ; ;

MUDJEA, a town of Bengal; 25 miles E. of Rogo-
natpour. N. lat. 23° 32/. E. long. 87° 26’.

MUDNAGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; 16
miles E. of Bahraitch.

MUDNISKA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Irkutfk, on the Lena; g2 miles N.E. of Kirenfk.

MUDO, Hernanpez EL, in Biography, whofe real
name was Juan Hernandez Navarete, was a native of Lo«
gronno, whofe ingenuity in the art of painting acquired for
him the honourable title of the Spanifh Titian. Velafco fays,
that he was born deaf and dumb, and, therefore, had the ap-
pelletion of El Mudo, by which he was moitt generally
known. He made himfelf matter in the principles of his art
by going to Italy, and ftudying there fome ume the works
of the great men who then adorned it, particularly of ‘Titian
and the Venetian fchool, After shis return to Madrid, he
was in 1568 nominated painter to the king, and was em-
ployed by him to paint eight large pictures forthe E{curial,

6 of

miles

MUF

of which the moft ftriking was the Decollation of St. James.
He painted alfo for the cities of Valencia, Salamanca, and
Eftrella; but his lait and belt work, was of Abraham re-
ceiving the three Angels, and which was alfo depofited at
the above-mentioned palace. He died at the age of little
more than 40, according to P. Velafco, in the year 1572.

MUDWORT, in Botany. See Limoseta.

MUEHRAQUD, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Stiria, on the Muehr, which divides it into two parts, de-
fended by a citadel, fituated on an eminence; 32 miles W.
of.Judenburg. N. lat. 47° 7'. E. long. 13° 52'.

MUEL, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of Aragon ;
12 miles §.S.W. of Saragoffa.

MUENELUNA, a town of Mexico, in the province
of Guaxaca; 60 miles S. of Nexapa.

MUERAGAUT, a town of Hindooltan, in Oude;
54 miles W.N.W. of Lucknow.

MUERDUM, among the Turks, an officer belonging
to their mofques, who with his voice calls the people to
prayers; thereby fupplying the want of bells, which the
Mahometans will not ufe. See Bett and Mosque. r
* MUERTZENSCHLAG, in Geography, a town of the
duchy of Stiria; 23 miles E. of Pruck.

MUEZIMS, officers of the mofques among the Muf-
fulmans, whofe bufinefs it is to afcend five times a day to
the minaret, there to proclaim aloud the profeffion of faith
of Mahomet, invite the Muffulmans to prayer, and fing, on
feftivals, different hymns. In the little mofques, the mue-
zims {weep and arrange the carpets, light the lamps, &c.
But this funtion in the great mofques is referved for other
young ones, ca.led ‘ cayims.””

MUFFLE, in Metallurgy, is an arched cover, refilting
the ftrongelt fire, and made to be placed over copels and
teits in the operation of affaying, to preferve them from the
falling of coals or afhes into them; though at the fame time
of fuch a form, as not to hinder the ation of the air and
fire on the metal, nor prevent the infpeétion of the affayer.

The muffles may be made of any form, fo that they have
thefe conditions ; but thofe ufed with copels are commonly
made femi-cylindrical, or when greater veflels are employed,
in form of a hollow hemifphere.

The muffle muft have apertures, that the affayer may
look in, and the fore-part of it mutt always be quite open,
that the air may a€@t better in conjunction with the fire, and
be inceffantly renewed ; for without this, fcarcely any fumes
are to be preduced, and without thefe, the vitrification of
lead is fearcely praéticable ; for when the air is once filled
with a certain quantity of vapours, it fcarcely admits any
more afterwards; and for this reafon a conftant fueceffion
of frefh air is neceflary. The apertures in the muffle ferve
alfo for the regimen of the fire; for the cold air rufhing
into the larger opening before, cools the bodies in the veflel;
but if fome coals are put in it and its aperture before be
then fhut with a door fixed to it, the fire will be increafed to
the higheft degree, much more quickly than it can be by
the breathing-holes of the furnace. Another ufe of thete
apertures is alfo, that the arfenical vapours of lead and anti-.
mony, pafling through the holes in the back part cf the
muffle, may not be offenfive to the affayer, whe ftands
before it.

As to the height, length, and depth of the muffles, thefe
mutt be proportioned to the fize and number of the veflels
they are intended to cover; and care mult be taken in this,
that all parts of the inner furface of thcfe veffels muft be
withimthe reach of the affayer’s eye. The moft frequent fize
of the muffle, however, is four inches high, fix or eight inches

MUF

long, and four or fix inches broad. The fegments cut off
at the bafes, for the leffer holes, mutt be of fuch a pro-
portioned height, that the leaft veflels put under it, may
not be. in the way of coals or afhes falling into them, for
that always hinders the vitrification of lead, and the deftruc-
tion of the other metals and femi-metals, and wil! fometimes
entirely reduce them again when already deftroyed; and the
{corie, foftened by afhes, foften and retard the operation.

Wooden moulds of a proper fhape are moft convenient
for the making of thefe muflles, and the matter of which
they are made is the fame with that of the German clay-
tefts ; this is, either a pure native clay, of a condition to
bear the fire, which will be known upon the trial; or
fyh clay hardened by a mixture of the powder of {tones :
and in order to the forming of thefe, the mafs muft be
made tolerably foft and pliant. Knead a fufficient quan-
tity of this mafs with your hands upon a flat {tone ; fpread
it out evenly into a thin cake or plate, fomewhat longer
and broader than you intend the muffle to be made; and
fo thick, that two or more thin plates or lamina, of about
two lines thick each, may be cut off from it. This is
eafily done by rolling the mafs on the {tone with a roll-
ing pin, ftrewed over lightly with afhes, or powder of
chalk.

When the cake is thus rolled out, with a thin, fine, and
perfeGtly ftraight brafs-wie, cut off from the cake one
thin plate; this mult be done with great caution left it
fhould break: take this up, and rubbing it over with oil
or fat, lay it over the mould; then cut out a femicir-
cular piece from the mafs, of the fame thicknefs with the
former, and with this cover the back plane, or farther end
of the mould, joining the edges of this plate to thofe of
the former, clofely and perfeétly, by wetting them well with
water.

Next cut off from the cake another thin plate, to be the
bottom of the muflle; this may be either left loofe for the
muffle to be placed on it occafionally, or the bottom edges
of the already formed muffle may be joined to it all round
by means of water, as the back was before jointed to the
arched part of the muffle. But whether it be intended that
the bottom fhould be thus fixed on, or left loofe, it mutt
be half an inch broader every way than the bottom of the
muffle, that this may ftand the more fure and firm upon its
bafis.

When the muffle is thus made, wet your hand, and rub
it carefully all over, that the fmall, and perhaps invilible,
cracks and chinks in the plates may be clofely joined, and
the whole matter of it applied perfectly clofe to the fur-
face of the mould.

When the muffle has been fome time expofed to the air,
and is fomewhat dried, and hardened on the mould, cut
cut two or three hemifpherical pieces on each fide, to
make the holes before defcribed, at the bafis and back,
and then draw away the mould from within it ; for if
the muffle is fuffered to dry perfectly on the mould, it
always cracks. When the whole is perfeétly dry, let it
be baked in a potter’s kiln, or in the aflayer’s oven;
but without great care in the latter method, and light-
ing the fire at top at firlt, it is apt to crack ; fo that
the potter’s kiln, where at hand, is much the better way
of baking it.

If there be adapted to the formerly defcribed convex-
mould, another concave one nearly fitting it, only leaving
room for the thicknefs of the muffle between them, and the
clay be placed between them, and formed by this means
into its exat fhape, by a ftrong and every way equal pref-

fure,

MUG

fure, this will make muffles not only with much lefs trouble,
but they will be much ftronger, lefs apt to crack, and more
capable of refifting the fire, than thofe made by the hand in
the other way.

The only cautions neceffary for making thefe, are, that
the clay bea little drier than when it is to be worked by the
hand; that the fides, both of the inner and convex mould,
and of the outer concave one, be thoroughly oiled or greafed,
and the preffure on the furface of the outer or concave
mould be as ftrong and equal as may be. There is no clay
better for making thefe muffles than the Windfor-loam, an
earth well known among the chemifts and glaflmen, and
always to be fold in London ; and rubbing the infide of the
mould with black lead in fine powder very well fupplies the
place of greafing them, to prevent the matter from {ticking
to them.

Thefe are the muffles ordinarily ufed in affaying ; but
when very large tefts are to be covered, they ufe large
{pheroidal raffles, made of cait iron, or fometimes of the
fame clay, and wrought in the fame manner, only made
upon proportionably larger moulds. The clay is ufually,
for thefe large ones, only laid in a lump on the top of the
mould, and with wet hands fpread all over it to the bot-
tom, and by this means a muffle is made with little trouble.
Cramer.

MUFTI. See Mupntt.

MUGA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the province
of Catalonia; 21 miles N. of Gerona.

MUGALNOOR, a town of Hindooftan, in Coimbetore ;
nine miles E. of Daraporum. ‘

MUGARDOS, a town of Spain, in Galicia ; feven miles
W. of Betangos.

MUGDOOMPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ;
30 miles N.E. of Monghir.

MUGDUMPOUR, atown of Bengal; 22 miles N. of
Boglipour.—Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 37
miles $.S.W. of Patna.

MUGELN, New, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Leipfic ; 25 miles E. of Leipfic. N.lat. 51°15’. E. long.

re. G7

M ccc Old, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Leipfic ;
two miles N.W. of New Mugeln.

MUGERES Isvanps, called alfo Men-caters, or Women-
caters iflands, are iflands fituated in the bay of Honduras ;
ro leagues S. of Cape Catoche, on the E. coaft of the
ssittnfi of Yucatan. On one of them to the S., towards
the land, is good anchorage in a depth from feven to ten
fathoms, and clear ground.

MUGGENT, in Ornithology, the name of a fpecies of
frefh water wild duck, called by many authors the mu/-
caria, from its catching flies that play on the furface of the
water.

It is about the fize of the common tame duck; the beak
is (hort and broad, and is of a faffron-colour : it is all over
of a mottled colour, like that of the partridge, made up of
black, whité, brown, and grey, fo oddly mixed together, as
to fhew neither feparate ; the crowa of the head is black,
and the feet are yellow.

Mr. Ray fufpeéts this not to be different from our com-
mon wild duck. See Duck.

MUGGLETONIANS, in E£cclefiaftical Hiflory, a reli-
gious feét, which arofe in England about the year 1657,
fo denominated from their leader Lodowick Muggleton, a
journeyman taylor.

Muggleton, with hie affociate Reeves, fet up for great
prophets ; and, it is faid, pretended to an abfolute power of

MUG

faving and damning whom they pleafed; giving out that
they were the two laft witneffes of God, that fhould appear
before the end of the world.

MUGGUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Oude; 15 miles W. of Gooracpour. N. lat. 26° 44!. E.
long. 83° 34’.

MUGIA, a town of South America, in the province of
Popayan ; 36 miles from Santa Fé de Antioquia.

MUGIL, the Mullet, in /chthyology, a genus of fifhes
of the order Abdominales ; of which the generic character
is, lips membranaceous, the lower one carinate inwards ; it
has no teeth ; above the angle of the mouth there is a hard
callus; gill-membrane with feven curved rays; the covers
{mooth, and rounded ; the body is flefhy and whitifh ; the
fcales are large and the dorfal fins two. There are five
{pecies, according to Gmelin, but Dr. Shaw has enumerated
nine ; of thefe one only is found in our feas.

Species.

* CépHALUs; Silvery-grey Mullet. With dufky back, and
fides ftriped with longitudinal blackifh lines. Its fpecific
character is, that the firft dorfal finis five-rayed. This fifh,
the mugil and mugilis of the ancient Romans, is a very
common inhabitant of the Mediterranean and Northern feas,
frequenting chiefly the -fhallow parts near the fhores, and
feeding on worms, fea-infeéts, and vegetables. It frequently
enters rivers; back dufky, varied with blue and green;
fides filvery, with broad dufky parallel lines reaching from
the head to the tail; belly filvery ; {cales arranged” in pa-
rallel rows. The head is almoft {quare, flat on the top;
nofe blunt; lips thick ; in the upper jaw a {mall rough-
nefs; pupil black, encircled with a {mall filvery line, iris
above hazel, below filvery, firft dorfal fin near the middle
of the back ; tail deeply forked. It is found in the Indian
and Atlantic, as well as in the European feas: it is obferved
to aflemble frequently in {mall fhoals near the fhore, in queft
of food, burrowing into the foft mud, and leaving the trace
of its head in the form of a roundhole. In the {pring the
mullet, like the falmon, afcende rivers to a confiderable dif-
tance, and when preparing for thefe expeditions is obferved
in fhoals near the furface of the water, at which time the
fifhermen endeavour to avail themfelves of the opportunity
of furrounding them with their nets. The mullet, though
not all fafhionable in this country, is faid to be an excellent
fifh. The {pawn is often prepared into an inferior kind of
caviar, called botargo, by drying and falting it.

Acsuta ; Silvery-white Mullet. With four rays in the
firft dorfal fin; very much refembles the cephalus, and ie
faane in the American feas, particularly about the Bahama
iflands.

Crenivasis; Whitifh Mullet. With brownih ftripes,and
crenated lips, has the firft dorfal fin with four flexible rays ;
the rays of the fecond are unarmed. Gmelin mentions
three other varieties of this {pecies. 1. Lefs than the lait,
lips not crenate; this is called /e4cii. 2. Both lips ciliate,
the lower fingly carinate ; this is named our. 3. Upper
lip very finely ciliate, the lower fingly carinate; this is
named tude. ‘This {pecies inhabits the Red fea. It is about
a foot long, the fcales are broad, with a longitudinal brown
keel in the middle.

CuiLensis. This has a fingle dorfal fin, and a fimple tail.
It inhabits the fea round Chik, and the rivers which empty
themfelves into it; it is twelve inches long, and in fhape
and fcales it refembles the M. cephalus.

Cuanos. This has been called Forfkal’s mullet.; it has
a dorfal fingle fin, and a tail furnifhed with two wings or

proceffes

MUG

proceffes on each fide. By Forfkal it is called the angi
magnus, or great mullet, as being much larger than the
common mullet. By him it was firft obferved in the Red
fea, of which it is a native. [tis a yard long; body ob-
long and filvery, with foft cirri, but without teeth; fcales
are broad, rounded, finely ftriate. According to Gmelin
a variety has been found nearly as large again. ‘The head
is narrower than the body ; crown flat, glaucous, naked,
upper lip longer, notched in the middie ; lateral line re-
curved near the head and afterwards firaight, nearer the
back; tail much forked, and furnifhed towards the mid-
dle with two membranaceous wing-like appendages on each
fide.

Marasaricus; Grey Mullet. With large ciliated fcales,
and the firft dorfal and anal fin falcated. It is about two
feet long; head fmall; nape finking in a little before the
rife of the back; fcales large and ciliated, both on the
body and gill-covers ; thofe on the head fomewhat {maller.
It is a native of the Indian feas. y

Tan; Silver-grey Mullet. With yellowifh longitudinal
ftreaks, and fcalelefs gill-covers, ‘This is not more than a
foot long; isa native, of Guinea, inhabiting frefh waters,
called by the natives ‘ang, and regarded by them as excel-
lent food. Of this fpecies there is a fuppofed variety, in
which the gill-covers were fcaled, the colour of the fith
brighter, the eyes more vertical, and the head fmaller.

Prumiert; Yellow Mullet. With wide mouth, and both
dorfal fins fpiny. This is of the fame length and fhape of
the other, but has a very large head, wide mouth, and flefhy
lips, which appear befet with a row of very {mall teeth
round the edges. It is anative of the American feas, and
was firlt noticed as an obje@ for claffification in natural
hiftory by Plumier.

CaruLeo-MAcuLAtTus ; Blueifh-brown Mullet. With fil-
very abdomen, nine rays in the dorfal fin, and a blue fpot
in the pectoral fins. ‘This is the fize of a common mullet,
and is a native of the Indian feas.

Mucit Americanus. See Gosius Gronovit.

MUGKOVSKOI, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, on
the river Mezen ;_ 190 miles E. of Archangel.

MUGLATORE, a town of Hindooitan, in the circar
of Rajamundry ; 35 miles E.S.E. of Rajamundry.

MUGLEE, a fort of Hindcoftan, in a pafs of the
Eaftern Gauts, between the Carnatic and the Myfore; 12
miles W. of Chittore.

MUGLIA, or Mucria-Nuova, a {mall town of Iftria,
with a harbour for barges, on the gulf of Triefte, about
two miles N. of Capo d’I{tria, and about 10 miles S. of
Triefte.

Mueuia Vecchia, a town of Iftria; 2 miles E. of the
former. ;

MUGLIANO, a town of Etruria; 24 miles N.W. of
Sienna.

MUGLITZ, or Mouetnice, a town of Moravia, in the
circle of Olmutz; 15 miles N.N.W. of Olmutz N. lat.
49° 49’. E. long. 16 46’.

MUGORA, a town of Arabia; 35 miles N.N.E. of
Ghezan. :

MUGRA, atown of Africa, in the kingdom of Algiers ;
$0 miles S. of Algiers.

MUGRON, a town of France, in the department of the
Landes, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri€& of Saint-
Séver ; 6 miles W. of it. The place contains 2135, and
the canton 9182 inhabitants, ona territory of 1324 kilio-
metres, in 13 communes,

MUGROOR, a town of Hindooltan, in Berar ; 30 miles
N.W. of Notthegong.

MUH

MUGUL, a town of Nubia; 50 miles S. of Sennaar.

MUGWORT, in Botany. See Artemisia.

Mucwort, the common name of a very trouble-
fome weed, the reots of which creep far under the furface
of the ground, fo as foon to overfpread a large fpace, if
they are not topped. Its feeds are light, and eafily carried
to a diftance by the wind, producing numbers of new plants
the next f{pring. It has plain cut leaves, ending in many
points woolly underneath, and fingle {pikes of pale yellow
oval flowers, which blow in June or foon after.

MUHES, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Eaft
Bothnia, on the Ulea; 20 miles S.E. of Ulea.

MUHKA, a town of Bengal; 13 miles W. of Toree.

MUHL, or Muu, a quarter or divifion of the archduchy
of Auttria.

MUHLBERG, a town of Germany, in the territory of
Erfurt; 12 miles S.W. of Erfurt.—Alfo, a town of Saxony,
in the margraviate of Meiffen, feated on the Elbe ; contain-
ing five churches, a caflle, and a cottage ; 32 miles N.W.
of Drefden. N. lat.g1° 25’. E. long. 13” 15'.

MUHLBURG, a town of Baden; 6 miles W. of
Durlach.

MUHLDORF, or Mieresporrs, a town of Saxony, in
the Vogtland; 8 miles W.N.W. ot Plauen. N. lat. 50°
27’. E. long. 12°.—Alfo, a town of Germany, in the
principality of Culmbach; 5 miles S.S.W. of Hof.

MUHLENBERG, a county of Kentucky, bounded N.
and N.E. by the county of Ohio, N.W. by Henderfon,
S.W. and S. by Chriftian, and S.E. by Logan; 48 miles
long, and 31 broad. It is watered by Green and Muddy
rivers, with their branches, and contains 1517 people, 116
being flaves.

MUHLENBERGIA, in Botany, a genus of American
grafles, named by the late illuftrious profeflor Schreber, in ho-
nour of his and our fagacious and liberal correfpondent, the
Rev. Henry Muhlenberg, D. D. of Lancafter, in Pennfyl-
vania, who difcovered the genus in queition, and who has alfo
greatly enriched the Species Mu/fcorum of Hedwig by his
communications. ‘This gentleman is the author of a treatife
on North American Willows, in Sims and Konig’s Annals
of Botany, v. 2.62. His name occurs frequently as the
contributor and defcriber of new plants, in Willdenow’s
Species Plantarum.—Schreb. Gen. 44. Willd. Sp. Pl.
v. 1,320. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 3. —Clafs and order, Triane

dria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Gramina.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Glume of one valve, minute, lateral,
emarginate. Cor. of two nearly equal valves ; the outermo/?

lanceolate, long, acute, angular, awned, hairy at the bale,
embracing in its cavity the inner one, which is rather fhorter
and narrower, linear, fharp-pointed. Neétary of two fmall,
ovate, gibbous, obliquely truncated leaflets. Stam. Filae
ments three, capillary, fhorter than the corolla; anthers
linear. Pi. Germen fuperior, ovate; ttyles two, capillary ;
ftigmas feathery. Peric none, except the corolla, in which
the feed is enclofed. Seed folitary, oblong, pointed.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of one vaive, lateral, minute. Corolla
of two valves. :

1. M. diffufa. Spreading Mublenbergia. Schreb. MSS.
Willd. n. 1.—Stem diffufe, branched. Leaves linear-awl-
fhaped.—Native of Pennfylvavia. Root perenmal. Stems
{preading, partly procuanbent, much branched, leafy, {lender,
comprefled, {mooth, with frequent joints, Leaves tolitary
at every joint, flightiy fpreading, linear-lanceolate, or fomne-
what awl-fhaped, an inch or two long, and a line broad,
taper-pointed, flat, entire, minutely downy,- very finely
ftriated, furnifhed with one or two lateral ribs at each fide
of the mid-rib ; fheaths about as long as the leaves, clofe,

ftriated,

MU J

ftriated, fmooth, the lower ones moft compreffed. Stipula
{mall, membranous, crowning the contrafted orifice of the
fheath, accompanied by a tuft of fine fhort hairs. Panicles
terminal, ere&, much branched, clofe, three or four inches
long, pale green; their ftalks and branches triangular, finely
downy. | Flowers fmall, refembling thofe of an Agroffis at
firft fight, each about half a line long without the aw,
which is ftraight, rough, and about twice the length of the
flower. Glumes of the coral/a with a few briftles at the bafe,
angular, and ftrongly keeled ; their keels rough. Anthers
dark purple. ,

2. M. creda. Upright Broad-leaved Muhlenbergia.
Schreb. MSS.—Stem ere@t, fimple. Leaves broadly lan-
ceolate, many-ribbed.—Native of Pennfylvania. Sent by
Dr. Muhlenberg with the foregoing, from which it differs
widely in appearance and characters, though there is the
flri@eft coincidence in the ftruGture and habit of the
fructification. Root perennial, tufted, hard, and rather
woody, its buds invefted with imbricated, polifhed, pale,
ftrongly-ribbed {cales. Stems two féet high, erect, flender,
unbranched, leafy, angular, jointed, {mooth, except a few
denfe deflexed hairs under each joint. Leaves rather
f{preading, three or four inches long, and half an inch or
more in breadth, flat, taper-pointed, rounded at the bafe,
fuenifhed with a mid-rib, and about four fmaller mbs on
each fide of it, which laft are finely hairy underneath ; the
intermediate /frie of the leaf are {Hill more minutely rough
or downy. Panicle ftraight, erect, clofe, of much fewer
flowers than the firft {pecies, but thofe are ten times as large,
refembling fome Bromus or Fefluca in habit. Their glumes
are hairy at the bafe, ftrongly fringed, and all the angles
are rough. S.

MUHLHAUSEN, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in
the province of Oberland ; 46 miles S.W. of Konigfberg.
N. lat. 54°10’. E. long. 19° 4o!.

Muuinausen, or Mulbaufen, a city of Saxony, in Thu-
ringia, on the Unitrutt ; free and imperial till the year 1802,
when it was affigned to the king of Pruffia, and by him
ceded to the kingdom of Weftphalia at the peace of Tilfit.
It is divided into the Upper and Lower Towns, and con-
tains two Lutheran churches, and a Roman Catholic etta-
blifhment of Auguftine nuns; 50 miles S. of Goflar. N.
lat. 51° 10’. E. long. 10° 32’.

Muntnausen, or Mulhaujfen, a town of France, in the
department of the Upper Rhine, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftri& of Altkirch ; 20 miles S. of Colmar. The
town contains 6615, and the canton 14,701 inhabitants, on
a territory of 120 kiliometres, in 14 communes. N. lat.
47°45 E. long. 7 25'.—Alfo, a town of Bavaria, in the
principality of Aichitatt ; 7 miles S.E. of Aichtftatt.—Alfo,
a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Schlan, on the Muldau ;
10 miles N. of Prague.

Munuausen, or Milefkow, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Bechin ; 9 miles N.N.W. of Bechin. N. lat. 49°
28'. E. long. 14° 13’.

MUHOW, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Leit-
meritz; 13 miles W. of Leitmeritz.

MUHR, a town of Germany, in the margraviate of
Anfpach, on the Altmuhl,

MUHRAU. See Mucurav.

MUHRECK, a town of the duchy of Stiria, on the
Muehr; 12 miles N. of Pettau.

MUJACO, a kingdom in the interior part of Africa, N.
of Anziko, and about 450 miles from the fea.

MUJAXAR, or Muxacnra, a fea-port town of Spain,
in the province of Granada, fituated on a fmall bay of the

\

MU L

Mediterranean ; fuppofed to be the ancient ‘ Murgis ; 35
miles N.E. of Almeria, N. lat. 37° 5’. W. long. 2° 1!,

MUID, a large meafure, formerly in ufe among the
French for dry commodities: as corn, pulfe, falt, lime,
coals, &c.

"The muid is no real veffel ufed as a meafure ; but an efti-
mation of feveral other meafures, as the feptier, or fetier,
mine, minot, bufhel, &c.

At Paris the muid of wheat, pulfe, and the like, is com-

pofed of twélve fetiers, each fetier making two mines, the
mine four minots, the minot three bufhels, or boiffeaux,
the bufhel four quarts, or fixteen litrons. A muid of wheat
weighs about 2880 poids de marc ; anda fetier 24olbs. The
muid of oats is double that of wheat, containing 24 fetiers.
The boifleau is a cylinder 8 inches 24 lines in height, and
Io inches in diameter; its contents are, therefore, 644
French cubic inches, or 780 Englifh: hence r1 fetiers of
Paris = 6 Englifh quarters, and 11 boifleaux = 4 Englifh
buthels. A muid of falt contains 12 fetiers, and a fetier
4 minots, 16 boiffeaux, 256 litrons, or 4096 mefurettes,
weighing in all about 4oolbs. poids de marc, or 432lbs.
avoirdupois. A muid of charcoal contains 20 mines, 40
minots, or 320 boiffeaux.
_ Murm is alfo one of the nine cafks, or regular veffels ufed
in France, to put wine and other liquors in. The muid of
wine divided into 2 demi-muids, 4 quarter-muids, and 8
half quarter-muids, contains 36 fetiers, each fetier '§ pintes,
Paris meafure ; fothat the muid contains 288 pintes, but only
280 pintes without the lees. The pinte contain 2 chopines,
4 demi-fetiers, or 8 poiffons, in all 472 French cubic inches,
or 57: Englifh; hence a French pinte is nearly equal to an
a ah quart; and a muid of wine contains 713 Englifh
gailons.

MUIR, in Agriculture, aterm ufed in the northern parts of
the kingdom to fignify moor. It is the common term in
Scotland.

MUIRKIRK, in Geography, a town of Scotland, in the
county of Ayr ; in which are manufactures of iron and of
coal tar; 20 miles E. of Ayr.

MUIS, Simon pg, in Biography, a native of Orleans, was
born in the year 1587. He was educated for the church,
and received promotion from Lewis XIII. who alfo nomi-
nated him profeffor-royal of the Hebrew language at Paris.
He is confidered {till as one of the ableft Hebrew feholars
that France ever produced. He was diftinguifhed likewife
as a commentator on the Scriptures. He publifhed a
« Commentary on the Pfalms,” which is thought to be one
of the beft critical illuftrations of that portion of the Bible.
He died in 1644, leaving behind him many very learned
works that do honour to his induitry, talents, and erudition,
the titles of which are enumerated in Moreri, and in the
Gen. Biog.

MUKAR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Bahar ; 23 miles N.E. of Chuprah. N. lat. 25° 57’. E.
long. 85° 13’.

MULA, a town of Spain, in Murcia, celebrated for its
baths ; 20 miles W. of Murcia.

MUL, a word ufed by fome medical writers to exprefs
ei on the fkin, which are owing to extreme heats, or to
cold.

MULANGER, in Geograp/y, a town of Hindooftan, in
Tellingana; 32 miles W. of Warangole.

MULATAS, a clutter of {mall iflands in the Spanifh
main, near the ifthmus of Darien. N. lat. 9° 20! to 9° 35/.
W. long. 78° 5' to 78° 30!,

MULATRE Porn, a cape on the E. coaft of the ifland
of Dominica. N. lat. 15°25’. W. long. 61° 17'.

MULATTO,

MUL
MULATTO, a name given in the Indies to thofe who

are begotten by a Negro man on aw Indian woman ; or an
Indian man on a Negro woman.

The word is originally Spanifh, mu/ata, formed of mula,
a mule, as being begotter of two different {pecies.

Thofe begotten of a Spanifh woman and an Indian man,
are called metis ; and thofe begotten of a favage by a metis, are
called jambos.. Thefe are all very different in colour, and in
their hair.

Mutarrto Point, in Geography, the S. cape of the port of
Ancon, on the W. coaft of South America; 16 or 18 miles
N. of Cadavayllo river.

MULAZZO, a town of Genoa; 15 miles N. of Spezza.

MULBERRY Tres, in Botany. See Morus.

Mutzerry-Tree, in Agriculture, the common name of a
tree of which there are feveral fpecies, but thofe generally
cultivated, are the white or filk-worm mulberry. For the
cultivation of the mulberry-tree, fee Morus.

The ripe fruit of this tree abounds with* a deep violet-
coloured juice, which in its general qualities agrees with that
of the other acido-dulcesy allaying thirit, partly by refrige-
rating, and partly by exciting an excretion of mucus from
the mouth and fauces; a fimilar effe@ is alfo produced in
the ftomach, where, by correéting putrefcency, a powerful
caufe of thirt is removed. This is more efpecially the cafe
with all thofe fruits in which the acid much prevails over the
faccharine part, as the currant, which we have already no-
ticed ; and to which the medicinal qualities of this fruit may
be referred ; but both thefe, and moft of the other fummer
fruits, are to be confidered rather as articles of diet than
of medicine. The London College directs a fyrupus mori,
which is an agreeable vehicle for various medicines.

The bark of the root of the mulberry-tree has an acrid
bitter talte, and poffefles a cathartic power. It has been
fuccefsfully ufed as an anthelmintic, particularly in cafes of
tenia. The dofe is half adrachm of the powder. Wood-
ville Med. Bot.

The more general cultivation of mulberry-trees in Eng-
land might be of greater ufe than is at prefent fuppofed in
many refpeéts. In Devonfhire they have a way of mixing
mulberry-juice with their cyder in the making, and this
makes the very beft of all Englifh vinous liquors.

Andas to the great article of breeding filk-worms, though
a recommendation from the crown could not bring about the
planting thefe trees in fufficient number for it in James the
Firlt’s time, yet the trees have been found to flourifh every
where with us when properly planted, and the worms feed
very kindly and work very well with us. When this ma-
nufacture was firft attempted, the people of many parts of
England, nay, and in fome parts of the dampeit places in
Ireland, tried it, and always with fuccefs. The only thing
that ftopped the progrefs of fo valuable a thing at that
time, was the want of a fufficient quantity of mulberry-
trees, and the fcheme has been neglected ever fince. Phil.
Tranf. N° 133.

The tree was always efteemed by the ancients for its deli-
cious fruit, before the ufe of its leaves was ever found out.
The Romans, in the height of their luxury, preferred it
before all the foreign fruits; and Columella and the other
ancients are very exprefs in the methods of propagating it.

The fuftick-wood, which grows plentifully at Campeachy,.

and is-exported from Jamaica, is a {pecies of the mulberry :
as is alfo the China and Japan mulberry-tree, of. the bark of
which the inhabitants make paper ; and infome of the iflands
of the fouth fea a kind of cloth is made of it,
Mucperry-Blite, See Burrum.
Mucsenry-Cyder, a.name given by the people of Devon
Vor. XXIV,

MUL

thire, and fome other parts of England, to a fort of cyder
rendered very palatable by an admixture of mulberry-juice
in the making ; they choofe for this purpofe the ripeft and
blackeft mulberries, and prefling out their juice and mix-
ing it with a full-bodied cyder at the time of the grinding
and prefling, give juft fo much of it as adds a perceptible
flavour. It is very worthy the attention of people who
live in other counties, where itrong and good cyder is made,
that this renders it a fort of wine much more agreeable than
any other Englifh liquor, and might be brought into ge-
neral ufe, to the great advantage of the dealer. The colour
of this liquor refembles that of the brighteft red wine, and
flavour of the mulberry never goes off, Phil. Tranf,

o 133.

Steere a a fpecies of dolium.

Mutnerry-J/land, in Geography, a {mall ifland in James
river, Virginia. N. lat. 37° 6’. W. long. 76° 32!.

MULCH, in Gardening, a term made ule of to fignify
fuch itrawy dung as is fomewhat moift but not rotted. It
is found ufeful for protecting the roots of new-planted choice
trees or fhrubs from fevere fro{t in winter, and from being
dried by the fierce fun or drying winds in {pring and fum-
mer, before they are well rooted; in which cafes it is {pread
evenly on the furface of the ground round the ftems of the
trees, as far as the roots extend, about three or four inches
thick, but which fhould be augmented in winter, when the
feverity of the froft renders it neceffary. It may alfo be
employed for many other purpofes of a fimilar nature.

MULCOM, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Warme-
land ; 13 miles N.E. of Carlftadt.

MULCT, Mutcra, a penalty, or fine. of. money, ims
pofed for a fault or mifdemeanor.

MULDA, in Geography, a town of Saxony, in the cir-
cle of Erzgebirg ; 8 miles $.S.E. of Freyberg.

MULDAU, or Motpau, a river which rifes: near the
mountains between Bohemia and Bavaria, S.W. of Pracha-
titz, paffes by Budweifs,, Teyn, Prague,.aud joins the Elbe
a little above Melnik.

MULDENHAMMER, a town of Saxony, in the cir.
cle of Erzgebirg;. 6 miles W. of Schwarzennberg.

MULDONICK, or Derr-Iszanp; one of the {mall
weltern iflands of Scotland. N. lat. 56° 53/. W. long. 7?
25te

MULDOREF, a town of the archbifhopric of Salzburg,-
on the Inn, ceded.to the ele¢tor of Bavaria in 1802; 36
miles N.W..of Salzburg. N. lat. 48°12’. E. long. 12°
a7.

MULDSCHEN, a town. of Pruffian Lithuania; 16
miles S.W. of Infterburg.

MULE, in Zoology, in Equus: Afinus Mulus y of Lin-
nus, the Op:v; of Ariftotle, the Mulas or Mula of Pliny,
Gefner, Aldrovandus, Jonfton, Sloane, and others: The
Ajinus biformis of Klein, and the Grand Mulet of Buffon, is
the hybrid produce of a jack-afs with a mare: having a
large clumfy head, long ereé ears, a fhort mane, and a thin.
tail. The £quus Afinus Hinnus 2, called Bardeau by Baffon;
is the hybrid produce between the fhe-afs and a ftallion :
the head is long and thin, the ears are like thofe of a horfe,
the mane is fhort, and the tail is well filled with hair. This
is the Tivo; of Ariftotle, the Hinnus of Pliny, Gefner, Al-
drovand, Joniton, Ray, &c. and the Petit Mulet of Buffon.

The former, or Mule commonly fo called, is much valted
for the faddle and for drawing carriages in Spain, Portugal,
Italy, and the Eaft, and in the warmer. parts of America.
In thefe countries, where great attention is paid to the
breed, it is as tall as the horfe, exceedingly well limbed,
but not fo handfome, efpecially about the head and tail:

QOq thife

MULE,

thefe animals are moftly fterile ; fome indeed have thought
that they are altogether incapable of producing their kind;
but fome few inftances have occurred, in which female
mules have had foals, and in which even the male has
impregmated females both of the afs and horfe fpecies,
though fuch inftances are exceedingly rare. The mule called
the Bardeau, is much fmailer, and lefs ufeful, as well as
lefs common, than the mule, and of a more reddifh colour :
its ears and tail have a fimilar refemblance to thofe of the
horfe, but the mane is fhort like that of the mule: it is,
however, little known, being feldom cultivated defignedly,
Decaufe it is lefs hardy and lefs fitted for the various pur-
pofes of life, than the horfe, the afs, or the mule.

Mules have been reckoned a kind of monfters, and it has
been generally thought that they do not propagate their
breed. And yet the ancients mention a fort of mules, that
were prolific in Phrygia, Syria, Cappadocia, and Africa.

Witnefs Ariftotle, Hift. Anima. lib. vi. cap. 36. Varro
de Re Ruftica, lib. ti. cap. r. Columella, lib. vil. cap. 36.
‘Theophrattus, and, after him, Pliny, lib. vin. cap. 44.

‘Steno, examining the tefticles of a mule, found ova
therein, with a fort of placenta about them; which per-
fuaded him, that mules might engender without any miracle.
But the cbfervation has been thought fanciful, and the con-
clufion feemed unworthy of fo able a naturalift.

This is a fubje& that has engaged the particular attention
of the ingenious naturalift Buffon. With a view of diftin-
guifhing the relative influence of males and females in the

roduét of generation, he has inveltigated the differences
which fubfifl between the two animals above briefly charac-
terifed. The bardeau, he fays, is much {maller than the
mule, and feems to preferve the dimenfions of its mether, the
fhe-afs; and the mu/e retains the dimenfions of the mare.
Hence, he concludes, that, in the mixed {pecies, the fize
of the body appears to depend more aot the mother than
the father. Thefe two animals alfo differ in figure. The
neck of the bardeau js thinner, the back fharper, and the
crupper more pointed; while the forehead of the mule is
better fhaped, the neck more beautiful, the fides rounder,
and the crupper more “plump. Hence both thefe animals
retain more of the mother than of the father, not only in mag-
ritude, but in figure of body. But this remark does not
apply to the head, limbs, and tail. The head of the bardeau
is longer, and not fo thick in proportion as that of the afs ;
and the head of the mule is fhorter and thicker than that of
the horfe: fo that in the figure and dimenfions of the head,
they have a greater refemblance to the father than to the
mother. The tail of the bardeau is parnifhed with hair
nearly in the fame manner as that of the horfe; and the tail
of the mule is almoft naked, like that of the afs. In this
extreme part of the body, therefore, the fimilarity to the
father predominates. The ears of the mule are larper than
thofe of the horfe; and the ears of the bardeau are fhorter
than thofe of the afg. ‘The limbs of the mule are hard and
limber, like thofe of the horfe; and the limbs of the bardeau
are more flefhy. Hence it appears, that thefe two animials,
in the form of the head, limbs, and other extremities of the
body, have a greater refemblance to the father than to the
mother. From various experiments on the he-goat and ewe,
the dog and fhe-wolf, and the goldtinch and canary bird,
our author infers, as a certain faét, that the number of
thales, which is,always greater than that of females in pure
fpecies, is flill greater in mixed {pecies} avd hence he con-
cludes, that the male, in general, has a greater influence in

the produce of generation than the female, becatle he trinf-
mits his fex to the greatelt number, and béeaufe the number
of males is augmented, in proportion to the remoterefs of

the feecies which intermix. He alfo obferves, that in
croffing the remoteft of different races, we fhall pro cure not
ouly the moft beautiful produGions, but the greateft number
of males ; and he adds, that crofling the breed, bo th in man
and in other animals, is the only mode of ennobling and pre-
ferving the perfeG&ion of the fpecies. To thefe fas and
experiments he f{ubjoins the teftimony of the ancients in re-
ference to this fubje&. Arriftotle (whom we have already
cited) fays, that the mule engenders with the mare, and
that the junétion produces an animal which the Greeks call
‘chinnus,? or * ginnus.’? He alfo remarks, that the mule
eafily conceives, but feldom brings the foetus to perfeétion.
OF *.efe two faéts, fays M. Buffon, the fecond is more rare
than the firft; and both happen only in warm climates. In
fuch climates, however, faéts juftify the affertion, that the
female is not only capable of conception, but of bringing the
feetus to full maturity. Such cafes occur in Spain and Italy,

but much more frequently in the Welt Indies. Upon the
whole it muft be admitted, as an eftablifhed fa@, that the

he-mule can generate, and the fhe-mule produce. Like
other animals, they have a feminal liquor, and all the or-
gans neceflary to generation. But mongrel animals are al-
ways lefs fertile, and more hardy than thofe of a pure

fpecies. Befides, mules have never produced in cold cli-

mates, feldom in warm regions, and fill more feldom in

temperate countries. Hence their barrennefs, without being

abfolute, may be regarded as pofitive; fince their produc-

tions are fo rare, that few examples only can be collected.

The facts, neverthelefs, are fufficiently numerous to expofe

the error of adopting falfe names, and applying them, with-

out fufficient dif{crimination, to all animals of a mixed {pecies.

Thus the word mu/e, in its original acceptation, included

the idea of barrennefs common to the animal proceeding

from the afs and mare; and hence the idea of barrenne!s has

been conveyed to all beings who have the denomination of
mules, that is, to quadrupeds, birds, fifhes, and plants.

Buffon’s Nat. Hilt. by Smellie, vol. viti. 8vo,

Mules have been much employed both in ancient and
modern times. The Roman ladies had equipages drawn by
mules, as appears from the medals of Julia and Agrip-
pina. And at this day, ih Spain, the coaches of the no-
bility, and even of princes, are ufually drawn by no other
than mules.

We are affured, that M. de Thou, firft prefident of tlie
parhament, had the fourth coach in France, in 1585, till
which time every body rode to court, parliament, &e. on
mules,

Thefe animals are very hardy. Savoy produces very large
ones, but the fineft are bred in‘ Spain.

Mules are chiefly ufed in countries where there are rocky
and flony ways, as about the Alps and Pyrenees, &e.
Great numbers of them are kept in thefe places: they are
ufually black, and are trong, well-limbed, and large, being
moftly bred out of fine Spanifh mares.

The mules are fometimes fifteen or fixteen hands high,
and the helt of them are worth forty or fifty pounds a-piece.
No creatures are fo proper for large burdens, and none fo
furtfooted. ‘They are much ftronger for draught than our
horfes, and are often as thick-fet as our dray-horfes, and
will travel feveral months together, with fix or eight hun-
dred weight upon their backs. It is a wonder thot thefe
creatures are not more propagated in England, as they are
fo much hardier and ftronger than horfes, and are lefs fub-
ct to difeates, and will live and work to twice the age of a
iorle.

Thofe that are bred in cold countries are more hardy and ,
fit for labour than thofe bred in hot; and thofe which are

hight

MUL

light made are fitter for ridmg than horfes, as to the walk
and trot; but they are apt to gallop rough, though thefe do
it much lefs than the fhort-made ones.

They take fo much after the mare from which they are
bred, that they may be procured of any kind, light or
flrong, as the owner pleafes. The general complaint we
make again{t them is, that they kick, and are ftubborn;
but this is only owing to our negle& in the breeding of them,

for they are as gentle as our horfes in countries where they .

are bred with more care.

Mules generated between the horfe and a the-afs are the
lealt valuable. They are commonly very dull, and take
after the afs, and are not large; the other breed between
an afs and a mare ts, therefore, what is propagated chiefly

in all countries where mules are ufed. The he-afs muff j

be procured for this breed; and in Spain, where mules are
greatly elteemed, they will give fifty or fixty pounds fora
fine he-afs, only to be kept asa ftallion. They breed with
this creature out of the fineft and largeft mares they haye,
giving the afs an advantage of height of ground, and putting
the mare into a narrow pit, railed on each fide.

_ If the afs defigned to be bred on is-fuckled by a mare, or
the mare fuckled by an afs, it makes them much more fa-
miliar than they would otherwife be; and this may always
be done, by taking away the colt that belongs to the dam,
and putting the other inits place, keeping them in the dark
ten days or a fortnight. However, the fuccefs in breeding
of thefe, as well as mot other animals, depends in a great
degree upon the manner of keeping them while young.

In refpe& to the fhe-affes, they fhould be well fed, and
be kept in good order, both before they drop their foals,
and afterwards while they fuckle. And the foals, when
weaned, fhould be carefully fed, and defended from the cold
in the winter feafon; fufficient exercife in the open air being
allowed every day, when the weather is fine.

_ It is well known, that in the Weft Indies much of the
labour on the plantations is performed by thefe animals.
And Mr. Carpenter remarks, that mules ufed in agricul-
ture on light foils, and particularly in fome fituations, are
very ferviceable, though not very common in thefe parts.
He knows but of two teams in which mules do all the work
a the farms: the one belongs to Samuel Skey, efq. of
Spring Grove; the other Mr. Teverel’s, near Worcelter,
coslifting of feven handfome mules, and bred by the former
gentleman, who breeds and keeps a confiderable number,
many of them fifteen or fixteen hands in height, and fome
ef a milk-white colour. The moft beautiful of the white
mules Mr. Skey referves for drawing his carriage, for which
be has been offered a very high price. They are bred from
grey or white mares, and a white and fpotted foreign aff,
which curious animal he has had poffefion of many years.
Mr. Carpenter has very Jately feen Mr. ‘TeVerel’s males at
work, and afterwards in the itable, where they are fed with
gocd itraw; and he was aflured that ftraw was their only
food, it being then winter. heir hardinefs is certainly a
valuable property, as thefe mules, though kept to hard
work, looked remarkably fleek and well. Their longevity
is alfo a very confiderable advantage. Mr. Skey remarked,
that two working mules in Shropfhire had arrived to the
age of feventy years each; and he has been informed, by a
perfon who has taken much notice of this breed, that though
they will perform a deal of werk when only two or three
years of age, they do not arrive to perfection till about
thirty.

Bat when three years old, mules are proper for ufe, or
being employed as ftallions,

MUL

_ And in the breeding of thefe animals, mares that are of a
very large breed and well made fhould be employed. They
fhould be young, full of life, large barrelled, but {mall
limbed, with a moderate fized head, and a good forehead.
It is found of advantage to have the foals, from the time of
their being dropped, often handled, to make them gentle:
it prevents theit hurting themfelves by fkittifhnefs and fud-
den frights; and they are much eafier broken at the proper
age, and become docile and harmlefs, having nothing of that
vicioufnefs which is fo commonly complained of in thefe
animals. They may be broken at three years old, but
fhould never be permitted to do much hard work till four;
as they are thus fecured from being hurt by hard labour, till
they have acquired {trength enough to bear it without in-
ury.

It was found by an expert breeder of thefe animals, that
by feeding them too well while young, though it made them
very fat, it was far from being any advantage to them ; as it
was not only incurring a much larger expence than was any
ways necefiary, but alfo made them wonderfully nice and
delicate in their appetites ever after, and alfo, by increafing
their weight of flefh, rendered them more fubje& to ftrains
and horts in their morning gambols. He therefore con-
tented himfelf with giving them food enongh to prevent
their lofing flefh, and to keep up their growth, without
palling their appetites with delicacies, or making them over
fat. He alfo took care to defend them from the injuries of
the weather, by allowing them ftable room, and good litter
to fleep, on, befides caufing them every day to be well
rubbed down with a hard wiip of ftraw by an aétive groom.
This was {carcely ever omitted, particularly in cold, raw,
wet weather, when they were leaft inclined to exercife them-
felves in a proper manner.

Mors. inthe Maaufa&ures. See Ciotu, and Cotton Ma-
NUFACTURE.

Mutes, among Farriers. See ScRaTCHES.

‘ Mea Fairchild’ s, in Botany, See Dianruvs,and Mugs,
elow.

Mutes’s Fern. See Hemronitis.

Mutes, among Gardeners, denote a fort of vegetable
moniters, produced by putting the farina feecundans of one
{pecies of plant into the piltil, or utricle, of another.

The carnation and f{weet-william being fomewhat alike
in their parts, particularly their flowers; the farina of
the one will impregnate the other; and the feed fo en-
livened will produce a plant differing from either. An
inftance of this we firlt had in Mr. Fairchild’s garden at
Hoxton ; where a plant was feen neither {weet-william nor
carnation, but refembling both equally: this was raifed
from the feed of a carnation that had been impregnated
by the farina of the {weet-william. Thefe couplings be-
ing not unlike.thofe of the mare with the afs, which
produce the mule, the fame name is given them; and
wes ave, like the others, incapable of multiplying their
pecies.

This gives us a hint for altering the property and tafte of
any fruit, by impregnating one tree with the farina of an-
other of the fame clafs; ¢.gr. a codlin with a pear-main,
which will occafion the codlin fo impregnated to lat a
longer time than ufual, and to be of a fharper tafte. Or,
if the wioter fruits be fecundated with the duit of the fum-
mer kinds, they will ripen before their ufual time. And
from this accidental coupling of the farina of one with
nother, it may pofhbly be, that in an orchard where there
is a variety of apples, even the fruit gathered from the fame
tee differ in theix flavour, and in the feafon ef maturity.

Qq 2, It

MUL

‘it is alfo from the fame accidental coupling that the number-
lefs varieties of fruits and flowers raifed every day from feed
roceed.

MULELACHA, in Ancient Geography, atown of Africa,
in Mauritania Tingitana, on a promontory which extended
into the Atlantic, according to Pliny.

MULETA, La, in Geography, a town of Naples, in
Calabria Citra; 16 miles E.S.E. of Scalea,

MULRBTS, in Commerce, fines laid on fhips or goods,
and applied to the maintenance of confuls, garrifons, &c.

MULEVO, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Viatka, on the Kama; 16 miles S. of
‘Sarapul:

MULFINGEN, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg ;
31 miles E. of Wurzburg.

MULGOM, a town of Hindooftan, in Baglana; 47
miles S.E. of Saler-Mouler.

MULGRANOG, in Jchthyology, an Enghifh name for a
{mall fea-fifh, caught on the Cornifh and other fhores, the
alauda non criflata of Rondeletius, the dlennius pholis of Lin-
neus, and the galeetto of other authors.

MULHARGUNGE, in Geography, a town of Hin-
dooftan, in the circar of Gohud; 11 miles S. of Lahaar.

MULHAUSEN. See Muntuausen.

MULHEIM am Ruhr, atown of the duchy of Berg,
on the Ruhr; 14 miles N. of Duffeldorp.

MULIER, in Law, fignifies lawful iffue born in wed-
lock, but begot before.

If aman have a fon by a woman before marriage, which
is a ‘baftard and illegitimate; and he afterwards marries
the mother of the baftard, while with child of another, and
they have another fon; this fecond fon is called mulier, and
is lawful, and fhall be heir to his father. Thefe sve fome-
times alfo find with the additions dafard eigne, and mulier

uifne.

: “Some derive the word from the Latin melior, or French
mvilleur, better ; in regard the condition of a fon born thus
is better than that of an elder brother born before wedlock.
Though, according to Glanvil, the lawful iffue is rather
edlled mulier than melicr, becaufe begotten on mulieres and not
on concubine ; for he calls {uch iffue filies mulieratos 3 oppof-
ing them to baftarde. Agreeable to which, Briton has frere
muliere, i.e. the brother begotten of the wife ; in oppofition
to frere baflard.

The like feems to obtain in Scotland, where, according
to Skene, mulieratus filius is a lawful fon, begot of a lawful
wife.

Mutter was alfo anciently ufed as an addition for a wife ;
fometimes alfo for a widow. According to Coke, virgin is
alfo included under the name multr.

MULIERTY, the being or condition of a mulier, or law-
ful ifie. Co. Litt. 352.

MULINAZZO, in Geography, a town of Sicily, on
the S. coaft, at the mouth of the river St. Croco; 18 miles
W. of Modica.

MULINGEN, Gross, a town of Germany, inthe duchy
of Anhalt Zerbit; 14 miles W. of Zerbtt.

Mutinoen, Kiein, a town of the duchy of Anhalt
Zerbit ; 12 miles W. of Zerbit.

MULIVADDY, one of the principal rivers in Ceylon,
takes its rife at a {mall diftance from that of Malivagonga,
at the foot of Adam’s Peak, a high mountain in the 8. W,
of Candy, and runs towards the W. coalt.

MULKAPOUR, a town of Hindooltan, in Golconda ;
ao miles S.E. of Hydrabad.

MULKEE, a town of Hindooftan, in Canara; 16 miles

7

MUL
N.N.W. of Mangalore; ceded, in 1799, to Great Bri-

tain.

MULL, a large ifland fituated on the weftern coaft of
Scotland, and included within the county of Argyle, from
the main land of which it is feparated on the north-eaft by
a narrow channel, called the Sound of Mull; and on the
fouth-ealt by the large bay opening from the fouth into the
Linnhe-loch. On the weltern parts, and on the fouth, it is.
wafhed by numerous bays formed by the Atlantic ocean,
and every where interfperfed with {mail iflands, of which
the celebrated Icolm-kil is the moft remarkable. This
ifland meafures from} eaft to weft about: twenty-four miles,
and from north to fouth nearly the fame extent, and com-
prehends three parochial diftri&s; Kulfinichen, Kilninien,
and Torofay. Its'fuperficial contents, however, are by no
means equal to a fquare of that magnitude, owing to the
many indentations of the fea, particularly on its weitern fide.
The coaft here is, for the moft part, bold and rocky ; and
the face of the country generally exhibits a feries of moun-
tains, fome of them rifing to a confiderable height. The
moft elevated are the “* Bien-More,”’ or the ‘* Great Moun-
tain ;’”’ and ¢ Bientalindh,” or « Profpect Mountain ;’? both
of which command very extenfive fea-views.

In this peculiarity of country, as may be fuppofed, agri-
culture 1s little attended to, and indeed almoit the only
parts of the ifland under cultivation, are fome detached
itrips of land near the fhore. Some of the mountains form
excellent fheep-walks, and to this purpofe they are accord~
ingly applied. All the other portions of the ifland, not
covered with wood or f{wampy morafles, are devoted to the
feeding of cattle, of which great numbers are annually
reared and exported, Thefe cattle are chiefly, if not en-
tirely, of the black native fpecies; and the fale of them
conftitutes the principal mode whereby the tenants are ena-
bled to procure money for the payment of their rents.
Such of them as are unable to effect that obje& in this
way are generally compelled to leave their homes, after they
have fown their little arable fpots, to feek work in the more
fouthern diftriéts, whence they return before harvett, with
a trifling pittance faved from their hard-earned wages. As
there are few inclofures in the ifland, either to feparate the
grazing farms from each other, or to protect the arable
fields from the depredations of the cattle, a number of
perfons are neceflarily employed in the capacity of herds,
who lead a life of great floth and inactivity. They are,
neverthelefs, a hardy and vigorous race, much attached
to their native foil, and furnifh many excellent foldiers for
the royal fervice. The only kinds of corn fown here are
oats and barley ; the former affording very indifferent crops,
and the latter much more luxuriant ones than is ufual in the
weitern iflands. The oats are generally made into meal ;
but the greateft part of the barley is diltilled into whifkey,
in fpite of the conftant efforts of the excife to prevent its
manufacture. Sea-ware and fhell-fand are much ufed as
manure, and are carried to the fields on the backs of horfes
in bafkets, and in creels. All the implements of hufbandry
are extremely rude, and probably the fame that have been
employed during feveral centuries paft ; for as there are no
pegalay pingh or harrow- makers in the ifland, each farmer
conftruéts his own, after the manner of his forefathers.

OF the villages in Mull, the only one worthy of notice is
Tober-Moray, which ftands clofe to the fhore, near the
northern extremity of the Sound. This village was built by
the Britith Society for the Encouragement of the Fitheries,
in 1788, and might foon be improved into one of the chief
fea-ports on the weftern coaft of Scotland, as it poffefles a

fine

MUL

fine bay completely fheltered from the ocean by the {mall
ifland ‘of Calve ; and lies dire&tty in the track of the nu-
merous veflels which pafs from the more fouthern ports to
the northern countries of Europe. At prefent, however,
it does not contain above thirty houfes built of ftone and
‘lime ; befides, perhaps, nearly double that number of fmall
thatched huts. The inhabitants principally either hold fitu-
ations in the pott-office or cultom-houfe, or are employed
in fome capacity connected with, or dependent on, the her-
ring fifheries.

Of the landed property in Mull, the greater proportion
belongs ‘to the reprefentative of the ancient family of the
M‘Leans, but a confiderable part of it is likewife in the
pofleffion of the duke of Argyle. Toorloigh, the refidence
of Mr. M‘Lean, is the only manfion of note in the whole
ifland. Caftle-Duart, the feat of his powerful anceftors,
which flood on a bold head-land projeéting into the fea, is
now wholly in ruins; as is alfo Ca{tle-Aros, or Aras, faid
to have been long the refidence of the M‘Donalds, lords
of the ifles.

But what chiefly demands attention in an account of this
ifland, is its mineralogy. The fubftratum, throughout a
great extent, is a mafs of whin-ftone, only different from
bafaltes, which alfo frequently occurs, in the greater coarfe-
nefs of its grain. Some of the bafaltes afflume a regular
columnar form. Near Aros are fome rocks of white lava,
and apparently of the fame kind with that defcribed by
M. Dolomieu, in his “ Memoires fur I'Ifle de Ponces.”
Lime-{tone is extremely abundant, and in fome places is of
fo fine a quality as to refemble marble, and to be capable of
a fine poiifh. Coal has been difcovered in confiderable
quantity, but fo fituated as to render it impraéticable to be
worked with any profpeét of advantage. Hence the invef-
tigation of the ftrata of the ifland is more an obje¢t of
curiofity to the mineralogift, than of utility to the practical
ininer. In one fpot a ftratum of coal is difcovered imme-
diately “¢ under bafaltes; and. in another bafaltes incum-
bent on that mineral; perhaps the only inftance of the kind
in the worid.””, The mountain called Ben-Enich contains a
very uncommon mineral fubftance, a zeolite, or compound
filiceous {par impregnated with petroleum. Sand-ftone, and
granite of an excellent grain, are very plentiful, and the
fhore abounds with pebbles of great variety and beauty.
At Balphetrith is the celebrated ‘¢ Ringing Stone ;’’ which
meatures feven feet long, by fix broad; and is four and a
half feet in thicknefs. ‘This ftone is of a dark grey co-
lour, fpotted with ftars of black mica, and totally different
from the furrounding rocks. It is fo hard, that any attempt
to break off the fmalleft fragment by the moft vigorous
itrokes of a common hammer would be entirely vain ; and
when fo ftruck it yields a found like brafs, or caft iron.
The mineral properties of this curious ftone, we believe,
have not yet been afcertained. ‘The other mineralogical cu-
riolities in Mull are its caverns, which, though fome have
guettioned the opinion, are, doubtlefs, natural excavations.
Of thefe, two in the diftri€t of Airdmeanach are particularly
deferving of notice. One, called ** Ladder-Cave,"’ is capa-
ble of containing about eighty men, and has a brea{t-work
built at its entrance, to which a paffage leads up the rock,
where two men only can walk abreaft. In this cave, tra-
dition fays, that the inhabitants anciently took fhelter in
times of danger. The other, called “ M‘Kinnen’s Cave,’’
is much more capacious than Ladder-Cave, and is commonly
Suppofed to have taken its defignation from a gentleman
named M‘Kinnen, who went to explore it, and was never
afterwards heard of. At that time it was generally thought
to reach quite acrofs the country ; but this idea has been

MU LY

long fince found to be erroneous, every part of it having
been examined, and its dimenfions determined by fucceeding
adventurers. If, therefore, there is any truth in the ftory
of M‘Kinnen, he muft either have perifhed from fome
accidental caufe, or have been murdered by perfone who
had taken fhelter in the cave, and confidered him as a dan-
gerous {py or intruder.

The common language of Mull is the Gaelic, or Erfe,
but a number of perfons alfo {peak Englifh, and, no doubt,
if proper encouragement was given to the parith {ehools, the
latter would foon become almoit univerfal, Unhappily, how-
ever, it happens here, asin many other highland diftriéts, that
the ftipend of a f{choolmafter is fcarcely equal to the wages
of the meanett labourer ; and hence it may be conjectured,
that few perfons of any ability will devote their time and ac-
quifitions to fuch unprofitable employment, as taking the
charge of education ina country, where their utmoft efforts
are inadequate to afford the moft ordinary fuftenance of life.
The ftated ferries to this ifland are two in number: oue to
Morven, and the other from Auchnarraig to Kernera, and
from thence to the mainland near Oban.

Mullhas, no doubt, been the fcene of fome fevere con-
fliéts in ancient times, which, however, for the molt part,
were of too little general importance to find a place in the
page of Scettifh or Englith hiltory. Bloody-bay, accord.
ing to tradition, is fo called from a fea-fight between a
M‘Donald of the ifles, and his fon. The father was fup-~
ported in this contelt by the brave HeGtor Obhar M‘Lean,
who afterwards died fo glorioufly in the field of Flodden,
covering his monarch, James 1V., from the arrows of the
Englifh archers. In 1588, the Florida, one of Philip’s in-
vincible Armada, was blown up in “ Tober-Moire’’ bay,
after the difperfion of the fleet, as fome aflert, by the def-
perate refolution of a Scotchman ; and in the fame bay did
the unfortunate earl of Argyle effect his firlt landing, at-
tended by a few friends, when he invaded Scotland, with the
view of fupporting the caufe of the duke of Monmouth,
Beauties of Scotland, vol. v.8vo. Penuant’s Tour in Scot-
land, vol. ii. gto.

Mutt of Galloway. See Gattoway.

Mutt Sound, a narrow fea between the ifland of Mull
and the continent of Scotland.

Mutt of Kinho, the S. extremity of the ifland of May.
N. lat. cee W. long. 6° 9’. : :

MULLA, a town cae in the government of
Abo; 56 miles S.E, of Biorneborg.— Al fo, a town of Hin-
dooftan, in Lahore ; 24 miles N.W. of Rotas.

MULLAGHCARN, a mountain of Ireland, in the
county of Tyrone, a few miles north of Omagh, the county-
town.

MULLALA, mountains of Ireland, in the county of
Leitrim, W. of lough Macnean, and on the border of the
county of Fermanagh.

MULLAOW, atown of Hindoo'tan, in Guzerat 3 ten
miles N. of Champaneer.

MULLARGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar
of Chanderee; 15 miles N.W. of iKimlaffa,

MULLAVELLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ;
taken by the Britifh under the marquis of Cornwallis, :

MULLAWAR, atowr of Hindooftan, in the circar
of Bilfah; 35 miles N.W. of Bilfah.

MULLEIN, in Botany and the Dfateria Medica.
VERBASCUM.

Mutvein, the common name provincially applied ta a
biennial plant, which perifhes {oon after it has perfected its
feed, ‘The leaves fpread on the ground are nine or ten inches
long, and fix broad, very woolly, of a yellowifh-white co.

lour,

See

MUL

Jour, and very little footftalk. The ftem rifes four or five
feet high, and the upper part of it is garnifhed with yellow
flowers, which fit very clofe, and form a thick fpike.
Thefe fiowers have an agreeable odour, appear in July, and
the feeds ripen in autumn. It commonly grows on the fides
of roads, and on banks; but when it once gets into the
fields in a warm expofure, and is fuffered to feed there, it
foon over-runs the whole ground. It may be eafily deftroyed
by cutting off the ftem, when it is in a flowering {tate.

MULLEN ’s Bay, in Geography, a bay on the coak of
Yucatan. N. lat. 18°15’. W. long. $9? 17’.

Mutten’s J/land, a {mall ifland in the guif of Mexico,
near the coalt cf Eaft Florida. N. lat. 28°1'. W. long.
82° 55/.

MULLER, Anprew, in Biography, a celebrated Ger-
man writer, a native of Pomerania, was born in 1630. At
the age of fixteen he was fent to the univeriity of Roftock,
aud became ina fhort time diftinguifhed.for his compofitions ia
the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin poetry. After this he ftudied at
Konigfberg and Wittemberg, and became fo completely maf-
ter ot the Oriental languages, that he was invited to England
by Walton, to affiit him in his famous Polyglott bible, on
which, and on Caftelli’s Lexicon, he laboured with incredible
diligence for the {pace of tet years. After his return to Ger-
many, he became infpector at Bernau, and provoft at Ber-
lin. He found the duties of thefe offices incompatible with
his oriental ftudies, refigned them in a fhort time, and de-
voted himfelf wholly to his favourite purfuits. At Stettin,
whither he retired, he publifhed, with obfervations, fpeci-
mens of the Lord's Prayer, in fixty-fix alphabets. He was
intimately acquainted with the Chinefe, and promifed to
draw up a Clavis Sinica, which he thought would enable a
perfon of ordinary capacity to read Chmefe and Japanefe
books inthe courfe of a few months. This work never ap-
peared, and it is believed he burnt the MS., with many
others, during a fit of ficknefs attended with delirium. He
died in 1694, and by his la(t will bequeathed his Chinefe
printing materials to the library at Berlin. He was author of
many very learned works; of thefe the titles of the follow-
ing may be noted: * Abdal'e Beidavei Hiftoria Sinenfis
Perfice et Latiné cum notis:” « Monumentum Sinicum
cum Commentario novenfili;?? “ Hebdomas Obfervationum
Sinicarum ;”” “ A®conomia Bibliothece Sinice ;’’ «¢ Symbo-
la Syriaca, cum duabus Differtationibus.”” Some of his
works were colleted together and publifhed in 1695, with

the title of « Mulleri Opufeula nonnulla Oriental.’ It,

is recorded of him that he was fo attached to his books,
that he would not leave them for a moment to witnefs the
great cavalcade, on the entry of Charles II. into London,
that pafled by his window. We have heard of a fimilar in-
itance in two philofophers, who refufed to crofs the room to
behold a much more {plendid, and to Englihmen interefting
{peétacle, viz. the funeral of the immortal Nelfon. Gen-
Biog.

Murer, Geruarp-Freperic, a celebrated German,
known as well for his travels as his writings, was born in 1705,
in Herforden, in Weltphalia, where he received the early
part of his education under his father; at the age of feven-
teen le was fent to the univerfity of Rinteln, where he re-
fided ayear, and then removed to Leipfic. Here he fo dif-
tinguifhed himfelf, that he was recommended by profeffor
Mencke as an adjunct in the hiftorical clafs of the acade-
demy founded at Peterfburgh by Peter the Great. He ac-
ras 2 fet ont for that city, and was fome time employed
in teaching the higher claffes in the Latin language, geogra-
phy, and Inftory : he was then appointed affiltant fecretary to
the inftitution ; in 1723 he was made under librarian to the

MU L

imperial library, and in 1730 he was chofen profeffor of hif.
tory. He now applied for leave of abfence, in order to gre«
tify his with of feeing foreign countries, In the year 1731
he vifited London, and was elected a fellow of the Royal
Society, and on his return to Peterfburgh, he read lectures
privately, till he was appointed to accompany Gmelin and
De VIfle de la Croyere on their travels through Siberia,
The bufinefs affigned to Muller in this expedition was to
colle& every fact new and curious relating to the geo-
graphy and antiquities of the country, as well as the hif- -
tory of the different tribes by which it is inhabited. On his,
return, he wrote an accurate account of his journey ; traced
out their various routes ; wrote geographical, hiftorical, and
political defcriptions of all the towns; examined their re-
cords, and took extraéts from them, which formed 50 vols.
folio. He iikewife ated as fecretary to the expedition, and
affifted Gmelin in collecting objeéts of natural hiftory, They
fet out on their travels in Augu{t 1733, and did not return
till February 1743, during which time they had travelled
80 German miles, or more than three times that number
of Englifh miles. An account of their travels was publifh-
ed by Gmetiy (fee his article, vol. xvi.) in four volumes,
8vo. After this, Muller, who was not rewarded in any de-
gree equal to the labours and fufferings which he had under- .
gone, remained in Ruflia, ftruggling with poverty and other
evils neceffarily attached to untoward circumftances. e
undertook, at the defire of prince Jufupof, ‘* A Differtatioa
onthe Trade of Siberia,’’ which, though written, or at leatt
begun, in 1744, wasnot publifhed till 1750, and then on!y
the firlt part. In 1747, he was appointed hiftoriographer
cf the Ruffian empire, and in 1754 he was nominated by
the prefident to be the fecretary of the Academy of Sciences,
and was employed in fuperintending the publication of their
tranfaGtions, and in other literary undertakings. In 1763, -
he was appointed direGior of the fchool for foundlings, efta-
blithed by Catharine at Mofcow, andin 1766, he was ap-
pointed keeper of the archives in that city, now (1813
alas! no more, with an additional falary of 1000 roubles.
From this peviod tili his death, which took place in 1783, he
devoted himfelf entirely to the purfuits of literature, havin
been previoufly raifed to the rank of counfellor of flate, ace |
invelted with the order of Wladimir. Mr. Coxe, in his Tra-
vels, vo]. i. in {peaking of Muller, who was then living, fays,
« He colle@ed during his travels the moft ample materials
for the hiltory and geography of this extenfive empire,
which was {earcely known to the Ruffians themfelves before
his valuable refearches were given to the world in various
publications. His principal work is ‘ A Colleétion of Ruf-
fian Hiftories,’ in nine volumes octavo, printed at different
intervals at the prefs of the Imperial Academy of Sciences.
The firft part eame out in 1732, and the laftin 1764. This
ftorehoufe of information and literature in regard to the an- ”
tiquities, hiftory, geography, and commerce of Ruffia, and
many of the neighbouring countries, conveys the moit indif-
putable proofs of the author’s learning, diligence, and fidelity.
To this work the accurate and indefatigable author has fuc-
ceffively added many other valuable performances upon fimi-
lar fubjeéts, both in the German and Roffian languages,
which elucidate various parts in the hiftory of this empire. —
“« Mr. Muler {peaks and writes the German, Koffian,
French and Latin tongues with furprifing fluency ; and reads
the Englihh, Dutch, Swedifh, Danifh, and Greek, with
great facility. His memory is {till furprifing ; and his ac-
curate acquaintance with the minuteft incidents of the Ruf
fan annals almoft furpafles belief. His collection of ftate pa-
pers and manutcripts i¢ invaluable: they are all arranged in the
exactelt ovder, and clafled into feveral volumes, diltinguifhed
by

MUL

by the names of thofe illuftrious perfonages to whom they
rincipally relate ; fuch as Peter I., Catharine I., Menzi-
Roe, Ofterman, &c.”

Mutter, Jonn, commonly known by the name of Regio-
montanus, from Mons Regius, or Konigherg, a town in
Franconia, where he was born in 1436. Having acquired
a good claffical education in his own country, he was ad-
mitted very young into the academy of Leiplic, where he
formed a {trong attachment to the mathematics, and thofe
other branches of knowledge connected with them. At this
early period he felt that the affiltance he obtained at Leipfic
was not equal to his expectations, and he removed at the age
of fifteen to Vienna, to ttudy under the famous Purbach. A
itrong attachment was formed between thefe two, and Muller
made fuch arapid progrefs in the fciences, that he was foon
able to affift his mafter, and become the companion of his
Jabours. They {pent ten years together in elucidating ob-
fcurities, obferving the metions of the heavenly bodies, aud
comparing and correéting the tables of them. While they
were thus employed, cardinal Beffarion applied to Purbach to
tranflate the Almage(t of Ptolemy into the Latin language,
which with the affittance of Muller he began: before, how-
ever, they had proceeded far in their labours, Purbach died,
and the whole tafk fell upon his pupil, companion, and affoci-
ate, which he completed at Rome, whither he accompanied
the cardinal. While inthe metropolis of the ancient world
he applied himfelf with great diligence to the {tudy of the
Greek language, and examined the rich ftores of learning in
the public libraries. He did not, however, negleé his ma-
thematical purfuits, and continued with great eagernelfs his
aftronomical obfervations. In 1463 he went to Padua, be-
came a member of the univerfity there, and delivered a courfe
of leGtures to avery numerous auditory. In the following
year he removed to Venice, and wrote his “ Treatife of
‘Triangles,’ and a refutation of the quadrature of the circle,
which cardinal Cufan thought he had demonftrated. The
fame year he returned with Beffarion to Rome, where he
eopied feveral books which, from their high coft or great ra-
rity, he could not purchafe, meaning hereafter to tranflate and
publifh fome of them in Germany. Having finifhed what
he intended to do in this way he returned to Vienna, and
performed for fome time the duties of his profefforfhip.
After this he went, at the invitation of Matthias, king of
Hungary, to Buda, and from thence to Nuremberg, where
he fixed his refidence, and fet up a printing-houfe, in order
to print and publifh his own works, in which he was aflifted
by the celebrated Bernard Walther. Here he publifhed the
“*New Theories’? of Purbach; the ‘“ Aftronomicon’? of
Manilius; his own ‘Calendar; ‘* Ephemerides,”’ &c.
‘He likewife prepared a new verfion of Ptolemy’s Cofmo-
graphy ; and publifhed Commentaries on the Almagelt,

which cardinal Beffarion faid was worth a whole province.
_ Having had good opportunities for making obfervations on
two comets in 1471 and 1472, he publithed a treatife, enti-
tled “Concerning the true Place and Magnitude of
Comets.” In 1474 pope Sixtus LV. conceived a defign of
reforming the calendar, and fent for Regiomontanus to
Rome, as the molt able perfon to accomplifh his purpofe.

‘The philofopher was exceedingly unwijling to leave his own fj

purfuits, but having received the moft magnificent promifes
from his holinefs, who alfo nominated him bifhop of Ratifbon,
he fet out, and arrived at Rome in 1475, but died the fol-
lowing year, at the age of forty. He was buried in the
Pantheon, and his memory was celebrated by the beft poets
of thetime. It may be obferved that Purbach was the firit
(mathematician who reduced the trigonometrical tables of
fines to the decimal fcale. This project was perfected by

MUL

Regiomontanus, who not only extended the fines te every
minute, the radius being 600,000, as defigned by Pur-
bach, but afterwards computed them to the radius of
1,000,000 for every minute of the quadrant. He alfo in.
troduced the tangents into trigonometry, and euriched
this part of {cience with many theorems and precepts. His
*'Preatife on plane and {pherical Trigonometry’’ confilts
of five books ; in the fifth are various problems concerning
rectilinear triangles, fome of which are refolved by means of
algebra. Regiomontanus was author of ‘other works befides
thofe already mentioned’; and of his mechanical projeéts, we
are told by Peter Ramus, that in his workfhop at Nurem-
berg there was an automaton in perpetual motion; that he

made an artificial fly, which toking its flight from his hand,

would fly round the room, and at laft return to his matter’s

hand: that he fabricated an eagle, which, on the emperor’s

approach to the city, he fent out, high in the air, a con-

fiderable diitance to meet him, and that it kept him company

to the very gates of the city. ‘ Let us no more wonder,’’

adds Ramus, “at the dove of Archytas, fince Nuremberg

can thew a fly and an eagle armed with geometrical

wings.”

Mutxer, Henry, a learned German Lutheran divine
and profeifor, was born at Lubeck in 1631. He began the
ftudy of Oriental literature and philolophy at Rottock,
and in 1647 he was fent to the univerfity of Grypfwalde, in
Pomerania, where he continued three years. In 1651 he
was admitted to the degree of matter of philofophy, after
which he fpent about two years in augmenting his {tock of
knowledge at the univerfities of Leiplic and Wittemberg.
In 1653 he came to Roftock, and was promoted by the fe-
nate to the dignity of archdeacon. Six years after this he
was appointed Greek profeffor in the univerfity, and in 1660
he received the degree of doétor of divinity at Helmitadt. In
1662 he was chofen paftor of St. Mary’s Hamburgh, and
nominated profeffor of divinity in that city, an’office which
he held with great reputation about eight years. At
Rotftock he thrice filled the poft of rector of the univerfity.
He died at the age of forty-four, in the year 1675. His
principal works are, “* Harmonia Veteris et Novi Tefta-
menti;’ ‘*Theologia Scholaftica;’”? ‘ Orator Ecclefiafti.
cus.” Betides thefe he publifhed feveral others, controver-
fial, practical, and devotional. Moreri. :

Mutter, of Mullar, denotes a ftone flat and even at
bottom, but round at top ; ufed for grinding of matters on
a marble.

The apothecaries ufe mullers to prepare many of their
teftaceous powders ; and painters for their colours, either
dry or in oil. ;

Mouzverrisan inftrument ufed by the glafs-grinders: being
a piece of wood, to one end of which is cemented the glais
to be ground, whether convex, ina bafon ; or concave, ina
{phere or bowl.

The muller is ordinarily about fix inches long, turned
round: the cement they ule is compofed of afhes and pitch.
See GrinpING. :

Mutter, in [chthyology, a name ufed by fome for the fith
called in Latin the cataphradus, and.in Englifh the mailed
b, or pogge.

MULLERA, in Botany, received its name from the
younger Linnzus in honour of Otho Frederick Muller, au-
thor of the J cra Fridrichfdalina, and continuator of the
Flora Danica after its original author, Oeder, declined it.
Muller furnifhed various traéts on natural hiftory for the
Danifh Society’s Tranfactions, and died at Copenhagen in
1784, at the age of 54.—Linn. Suppl. 3. Schreb. 499.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 1128. Mart. Mill. Dia V3. Juff, 352.

6 (Coublandia ;

MUL

(Coublandia; Aubl. Guian. 937. Juff.. 3 52.)—Clafs and
order, Diadelphia Decandria. Nat. Ord. Papilionacee, Linn.
Leguminafe, Jul. ;

Gen. Ch. Cad. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, bell-fhaped,
compreffed, truncated, and flattifh at the bafe, with four
teeth; the uppermoft obliterated, rarely cloven ; the two
lateral ones more diftant, acute; the lower more produced
and more awl-fhaped. Cor. papilionaceous ; ftandard re-
flexed, heart-fhaped, ovate, entire, obtufe, flat, with a
flattith claw {carcely longer than the calyx, remote from the
wings and keel ; wings oblong, clofe, gibbous at the bafe,
unguiculated ; keel fhorter than the wings, compofed of
two, diftin@, clofe, unguiculated petals, forming an oblong,
comprefled, ftraight fheath. Stam. Filaments ten, united
‘into a compreffed fheath, broader at the bafe; anthers
ovate. iff. Germen fuperior, linear, compreffed ; ftyle
fhort; ftigma acute. eric. Legume bead-fhaped, com-
poled of three, four, or five globules, which form a fort of
chain, and are firm, fingle-feeded, of one cell and one valve,
the lowermoft gradually larger. Seeds folitary, compreffed,
kidney-fhaped, {mooth.

Eff. Ch. Calyx four-toothed. Legumes elongated, of
feveral, fing!e-feeded, flefhy, globular cells, connected by
thread-fhaped portions. ;

1. M. moniliformis. Beaded Mullera. Linn. Suppl 329.
Merian. Surinam. t. 35. (Coublandia frutefcens; Avubl.
Guian. t. 356.)—Native of Surinam and Cayenne, in moilt
fituations, where it isin ower and fruit nearly throughout the
year. The trunk of this tree rifes to the height of five or fix
feet, with rufty-coloured, fomewhat warty branches. Leaves
alternate, pinnate, compofed of two pairs of leaflets with
an odd one; leaflets oppofite, on ftalks, ovate-oblong, like
thofe of Privet, entire, acute, fmooth above, filky beneath,
flat, veiny. Flowers in axillary and terminal, fimple cluf-
ters, nodding, pink-coloured, the fize of Laburnum blof-
foms, 5

The fruit of this plant, which the younger Linnzus
has defcribed as very wonderful, is nearly allied to fome
plants that have been confounded under Sophora,- par-
ticularly the EpwarpsIa of Mr. Salifbury; fee that
article.

MULLET, in Geography, a peninfula of Ireland, in the
county of Mayo, on the weltern coalt. It is about nine miles
long from Urris Head to Blackfod Point, and in general
about two wide, though in fome parts it is not a quarter ofa
mile acrofs. Dr. Beaufort fays that it is reported to be
fertile, pleafant, and well inhabited; but no good account
of it has been yet publifhed. ‘ ‘ ,

Mutter, in Ichthyology, a name given in England, in-
determinately, to feveral kinds of fith, of different genera ;
put the proper fenfe of the word is the fame with that of the
mugil, or cephalus, of the generality of authors ; the cepha-
lus of Ariftotle and the Greeks ; and the ceftreus or ceftrea
of Oppian and others. See Muaiv.

Mullets are found in great plenty on feveral of the fandy
coafts of our ifland, and haant in particular thofe {mall bays
that have influxes of frefh water. They come in great fhoals,
and keep rooting like hogs in the fand or mud, leaving their
traces in form of large round holes. They are very cun-
ning: and when furrounded witha net, the whole fhoal fre-
quently efapes by leaping over it 5 for when one takes the
lead, the others are fure to follow. ‘This fifth was fometimes
made the inflrument of a horrible punifhment for unfortunate
gallants ; and was in ufe both at Athensand Rome. ‘ Le-
gibus Athenienfium adulteri » rey» deprehenfi pana fuit
upsrlvox. Raphani loco utebantur nonnunquam mugile
piice, interdum fcorpione,”” Caufabon, Animady, in Athe-

MUL

nzum. lib. i, Juvenal. Satire’x. v. 316. and Horace Satire ii.
lib. i. v. 132. refer'to this punifhment. Pennant.

Mutter, Black, mugil niger, a name given by authors to
a fifh of the mullet kind, but all over black, more ufually
known by the name of the gortius pifcis.

Mutter, Winged, mugil alatus, a name given by fome
authors to the hirundo pifcis, or {wallow-fih, as, excepting
its wing-fins, it very much refembles the mullet in fhape.
See Fryincfi/p.

Mutter, in Ornithology, a name by which the people in
fome counties of England called the anas arica Clufti. See
Duck.

Mutter, or Mollet, in Heraldry, a bearing in form of
a flat, or rather of the rowel of a {pur, which it originally
reprefented.

The mullet has but five points; when there are fix, it is
called a fiar. Though others make this difference, that
the mullet is, or ought to be, always pierced, which a ftar ~
is not. ;

The mullet is ufually the difference, or diftinguifhing mark
for the fourth fon, or third brother, or houfe. }

Though it is often alfo borne alone, as coat-armour:
thus, ruby on a chief pearl, two mullets diamond, was
the coat of the famous lord Verulam, firft fir Francis
Bacon.

MULLICKPOUR, in Geography, a town of Bengal,
16 miles E. of Heogly.—Alfo, a town of Bengal, 25 miles
N.E. of Calcutta.

MULLICO Hitt, a town of America, in Gloucefter
county, New Jerfey ; 163 miles from Wafhington.

MULLICUS Riven, a {mall river of America, in New
Jerfey, upon which are many mills and iron-works, empty
ing itfelf into Little Egg harbour bay,. four miles E. of the
town of Leeds, and navigable 20 miles for veffels of 60
tons.

MULLIEBANG, a town of Bengal, on the-left bank
of the Ganges, oppofite to Hoogly. :

MULLINCOTTA,-a town of Hindooftan, in the Car-
natic; 15 miles S.E. of Tinevelly.

MULLINGAR, a poft-town of Ireland, in the county
of Weltmeath, of whichit is the fhire town. It isa large
well-built town, fituated on a river iffuing out of lough
Hoyle. There isa wool fair held here, but it is not as
much frequented as formerly, in confequence of that held
at Ballinafloe. It formerly returned two members to. par-
liament, but this privilege ceafed at the union. Mullingar
is 38 miles W. by N. from Dublin. N. lat. 53° 31'. W.
long. 7? 18'.

MULLIONS, in Pointed Archite@ure, are all thofe parts
of windows which divide the light into compartments, and
are either curved or ftraight. Sce Gornic Architedure.

Vertical mullions are called munions ; and thofe which run
horizontally are called ¢ranfoms. The whole of the mullions of
a a ae above the {pringing of the arch is called the dead-
qvork.

MULLOCK, in Agriculture, a provincial term applied
to dirt or rubbifh of any kind.

MULLOOIAH, Muttovvia, anciently Malva, Afolo-
chath, or Mulucha, in Geography, a river of Africa (fee
Mauritania), which rifes at the foot of the Atlas, between
Morocco and Sugulmeffa, and runs into the Mediterranean.
N. lat. 34° 55’. W. long. 2° 6’. It feparates Morocco
from the province of ‘T’remecen, and in its whole courfe runs
from S. to N. about 200 miles, and is nawgable only for
{mall veflels.

MULLUNG, a town of Bengal ; eight miles S. of Rung

pour.

MULLUS,

———

MUL

MULLUS, the Surmullet, in /chihyology, a genus of
fihes of the order Thoracici, of which the generic character
is, head compreffed, floping, fcaly ; eyes oblong, approxi-
mate, vertical, furnifhed with a nictitating, membrane ; nof-
trils double, minute ; jaws and palate armed with {mall teeth ;
tongue fhort, narrow, fmooth, fixed; gill-membrane three-
rayed ; the covers of three pieces, very finely ftriate ; body
round, long, red, coated with large {cales, eafily dropping
off, Gmekn mentions fix fpecies only, but Dr. Shaw de-
feribes thirteen ; we fhall firft notice thofe given by the
former, and then briefly {peak of the others.

Species,

* Barsatus, called alfo Mullus Ruber, or the red fur-
mullet, has its lower jaw with two cirri; its body is red ; it
is principally found in the Mediterranean and Northern feas,
where it comes to the length of 12 or 15 inches. Its co-
lour is an elegant rofe red, tinged with olive colour on the
back, anda filvery caft towards the abdomen ; the {cales are
thin, and ealily feparated, and when rubbed off, the {kin is
fill of a brighter red than it was before. It is ftrong and
a@tive, and feeds chiefly on the {maller fifhes, worms, and
fea-infe&ts. It is faid nothing can exhibit a more beautiful
fight, than the colours of this fifh when it is in the at of
dying, and its flefh is efteemed very delicious ; the Romans
held at in fuch high repute that prodigious {ums of money
were given for them.

* SurmvuLetus; Striped Surmullet. This fpecies has
likewife two cirri, and the body is marked with four longi-
tudinal lines. It inhabits the European, American, and
Mediterranean {eas ; it is found of all fizes, from four inches
toa foot long; the fcales are filvery, ftreaked with tawny ;
it feeds on other fifhes, teftaceous animals, crabs, and dead
carcafes, is gregarious, and approaches the fhore in the
{pring, for the purpofe of fpawning: as an article of food
it is equally efteemed with the other.

Jaronicus ; Japanefe Surmullet. Yellow without itripes ;
the tail is forked, and it has two cirri. It is, as its name
imports, found in the feas about the ifland of Japan, is about
fix inches long, and can fcarcely be diftinguifhed from the
M. barbatus. The jaws are without teeth.

AvuRIFLAMMA; Oriflamme Surmullet. Twocirri, white ;
each fide has a tawny ftripe; tail is yellow. It inhabits the
Red fea: the feales are membranaceous at the edge. It is
about ten inches long; the colour is a gilded brown, paler
beneath, with a longitudinal {tripe on each fide the body of
an oriflamme or fulvous tint, fituated above the lateral line,
and accompanied by a dufky fpot near the bafe of the tail,
which, together with the dorfal fin, is yellow ; the other fins
are whitifh.

Virrarus ; Banded Surmullet. Two cirri; body with
two brown and three yellow itripes.on each fide; the tail is
obliquely brown. Itinhabits the Red fea; the body is lan-
ceolate white; fcales finely toothed, with obfolete , elevated
rivulets. ‘The jaws are crowded with teeth at the edges.

Imeerzis; Beardlefs Surmullet. Lower jaw without
cirri; a native of the Mediterranean, particularly near the
ifland of Malta. The mouth is wide; it differs from the
reft of the genus in wanting the cirri beneath the lower lip.

Inpicus; Indian Surmullet. The body above purple,
whitifh bekow, and marked on each fide by two fpots. Its
fize and habit are the fame as thole of the red furmullet: in
the living fifth the colour is extremely beautiful, but it fades
very quickly after death; the upper part of the head, and
back, dark changeable purple, growing faint on the fides,
which are marked by a few longitudinal azure and golden

Vou, XXIV.

MUL

lines, and by two oblong {pots on each fide. It is a native
of the Indian feas, was obferved by Dr. Ruffell near Vifga-
patam: as food it is much inferior to the M. barbatus.

Banpi. Whitith, with two longitudinal yellow bands on
each fide; it is about fix inches long ; the body is white,
with two yellow fillets on each fide from the gills to the
tail; breaft and belly greenifh-white ; dorfal and caudal fin
{lreaked obliquely with yellow and dufky lines; ventral and
anal greenifh-white ; inhabits the river near Vifgapatam.

Trirasciatus. With three tranfverfe brown bands on
each fide. It is a native of the Indian feas, and poffeffed
of habits fimilar to thofe of the reft of the genus.

Birasctatus. With two tranfverfe brown bands on each
fide. Body marked by two deep or dufky tranfverfe bands,
each terminating in a point towards the abdomen ; its beards
are rather fhort ; inhabits the Indian feas.

Macuratus; Spotted Surmullet. Body marked on
each fide by three rounded black fpots; fhape, rather more
in length than in the relt of the genus; colour of the whole
fifh bright red, with three large round black fpots along
each fide. It is a native of the Brafilian feas.

Rapiarus. The orbits radiated with yellow, and a deep.
yellow {pot towards the end of the back; the feeond dorfal
and anal fins are marked with oblique yellow freaks ; it is a
native of the Indian feas.

Aursgovirratus ; Gold-firiped Surmullet. The body
brownifh-blue above, whitifh beneath, and marked on each
fide by a longitudinal gold-coloured line ; the tail and tips of
the dorfal fins are yellow ; it is a native of the Indian feas.

MULLYNE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Oude ; 42 miles W.N.Weof Lucknow. N. lat. 27° ro’.
E. long. 80° 31.

MULNA Suappy, a town of Candahar; 35 miles
E.N.E. of Suffa.

MULNAPOUR, a town of Bengal; 25 miles S.E. of
Purneah.—Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; 15 miles
S.W.of Goorackpour. N. lat. 26° 38'.. E, long. 83° 28’.
i MULNITZA, a town of Croatia; 10 miles N. of Bi-

acs. ;

MULOSLAVSKICH, atown of Ruffia, in the go-
vernment of Irkutfk, onthe Angara; 36 miles N. of Bala-
ganfkoi. :

MULREA, mountains of the county of Mayo, Ireland,
north of the Killeries, and about 23 miles S.W. from Caftle-
bar.

MULROSE, a town of Brandenburg, in the Middle
Mark, feated on a canal made from the Spree to the Oder ;
nine miles S.W. of Francfort. N. lat. 52° 17'. E. long,
TAmeeit
MULROY Bay, a bay on the north coat of Treland,
in the county of Donegal. It has water fufficiently deep in
the anchorage for the largeft fhips, and is well fheltered there
from all winds; buta part of the cliannel that leads to it is
narrow and difficult, and therefore not fit for large {hips that
cannot be eafily managed. Lough Swilly, which is very
near it, is fo much fuperior asa harbour, that Mulroy is not
much ufed.

MULSUM, Mutszg, a liquor made of wine and honey ;
or even of honey and water. See Hypromet. :

MULTA, Mutrura, epifcopi, a fine or final fatisfac-
tion, anciently given the king by the bifhops, that they might
have power)to. make their lait wills; and that they might
have the probate. of other men’s, and the granting of ad~
miniftrations. :

MULTANGULAR, in Geometry, a figure or body,
which has many angles, i
Rr MULTENEN,

MUL

MULTENEN, in Geography, atown of Prufiia, in the
province of Natangen ; 40 miles S.E. of Konigtberg.

MULTIFERNAN, or Muttirarnnam, a village of
the county of Weltmeath, Ireland, on the river Gaine, and
near lough Derveragh, where there was a celebrated mo-
naftery. Some ruins of the abbcy {till remain. It is feven
miles N. from Mullingar, and 45 W.N.W. from Dublin.

MULTIFIDUS Srinz, in Anatomy, a muicle of the
vertebral column, the tranfverfaire epineux cf Winflow,
tranfverfo-fpiniens of Dumas.

[t isa mufcle of an elongated figure, placed at the fide of
the {pinous procefles, in immediate contaét with the vertebra,
and contributing to fill up the channel left on each fide of
the fpine at its pofterior afpe&. It contifts of a feries of
mofcular fafciculi of unequal length, placed one above the
other, extending obliquely from the tran{verfe to the fpinous
proceffes, from the facrum to the fecond vertebra of the
neck, and differing in volume in the different regions of the
fpine. The length of its fibres is not at all equal to the
length of the mufcle ; as the former pafs from the tranfverfe
to the {pinous procefies of the neighbouring vertebrz ; but
they are continuous throughout the whole iength, fo as to
compofe one mufcle.

In the facral and lumbar regions it arifes, in the firft, from
the inequalities of the pofterior furface of the facrum by
fhort aponeurofes, and from the common aponeurofis, which

ives origin to the facrolumbalis and longiflimus dorfi ;_ in the
coud, from the articular proceffes by long and diftin@ apo-
neurotic lamine. The flefhy fibres are direGted upwards
and inwards, and are inferted, thofe of the firft origin, in the
f{pmous proceffes of the laft lumbar vertebre, thofe of the
fecond, in the fame proceffes of the upper lumbar and lower
dorfal vertebre, by a mixture of aponeurotic ard flefhy
fibres. he fuperficial fafciculi go from a tranfverfe procefs
to the points of the {pinous procefs of the third or fourth
vertebra above it; the more deeply feated, which become
fhorter and fhorter, pafs from one vertebra to that imme-
diately above it, towards the bafe of the {pinous procefs or
the plate at its root.

The mufcle is flender in the back, and confifts of long
fuperficial fafciculi, which afcend from the eight or nine
Jaft dorfal tranfverfe proceffes, to the points of the eight or
nine upper fpinous proceffes of the fame region ; and of
fhorter deep-feated fibres, which are extended from the roots
of the traniverfe to the bafesand laminz of the fpinous pro-
cefles. ‘They arife and are inferted by aponeurotic fibres.

In the cervical region we meet, firft, with a very long, dif-
tin@, and often almoft ifolated fuperficial fafciculus, com-
pofed of others, which arife from the fuperior dorfal tranf-
verfe procefles, are inferted into the fix lait {pinous procefles,
and end in a point at the vertebra dentata. Under this are
fhorter fafciculi, paffing from the bafes of the tranfverfe
proceffes of the upper dorfal, and from the articular proceffes
of the five lower cervical vertebra, to the bafes and laminz
of the cervical {pinous proceffes. Diftin€& aponeurofes are
obferved at the origin and infertion of each fafciculus.

This mufcleis in contact with the fpinous proceffes, and
moreover with the interfpinales mufcles in the neck, the in-
terfpinal ligaments in the back and loins, on the infide ; in

front with the lamine of the {pinous procefles, with the
yellow ligaments uniting there, with the articular and tran{-
verfe proceffes, which are points of attachment for it ; be-
hind, with the complexus and tranfverfalis colli in the neck,
the longiffimus and f{pinalis dorfi in the back and loins.

In this defcription are included, with the multifidus fpine,
properly fo called, the a colli and femifpinalis

ot

MUL

dorfi; the diftin€&tions between thefe three mufcles cannot
be eftabhithed without cutting very freely through the fibres,
The former includes the longer fuperficial ftructure, which
we have mentioned im the neck; and the latter the corre-
{ponding part in the back.

The aétion of the multifidus {ping is that of extending the
vertebral column, and moving it laterally. ‘The former
effect is produced, when the right and left mufcles aét to-
gether; the latter, when they are exerted feparately. As
all the fibres are oblique, they draw the fpine, when they
contract, towards their own fide ; now, as the force drawing
to the right is equal to that which pulls to the left, thefe
balance and mutually deftroy each other, and that motion
only is produced, in which both the mufcles concur; viz.
extenfion, or motion backwards. When the {pine has been
inclined forwards, either in its whole length, or in any par-
ticular region, this mufcle affiftsin reftoring the trunk to the
ere attitude; and it is conftantly exerted in maintaining
the body in this attitude. The lumbar and facral portions
fix the lumbar vertebra on the pelvis; this region of the
{pine, being rendered fteady, affords a fixed point for the
action of the multifidus {pine in the lower part of the back,
which fixes that part of the back on the loins ; and the fame
obfervation holds good of the higher portions fucceflively
to the top of the {pine. Thus the feries of {mall mufcles,
which form the multifidus, having its firft fixed point in the
pelvis, which is immoveable, aés fucceflively in fuch a man-
ner, that each vertebra is the point in which the contraétions
of an inferior fafciculus end, and from which thofe of a
fuperior one begin. The fuperficial fibres muit have more
power than the deep-feated ones, as they are longer, and far-
ther removed from the centre of motion.

If the mufcle of one fide ats feparately, it will incline
the fpine laterally, by drawing the {pinous towards the tranf-
verfe proceffes. The whole will produce this lateral inclina-
tion in the entire vertebral column; but any part may a@
feparately on its own region of the {pine.

MULTIFORME Os, the os cuboides, one of the bones
of the tarfus. See ExTREMITIES.

MULTILATERAL, in Geometry, is applied to thofe
figures which have more than four fides or angles, more
ulually called polygons.

MULTINOMIAL, or Mutrinominat Roots, in Al-
gebra, are fuch as are compofed of many names, parts, or
members; as, a + 64 c+ d, &c.

For railing an infinite multinominal to any given power, or
extracting any given root out of fuch a power, fee a method
of M. de Moivre, in Phil. Tranf. N° 230.

MULTIPLE, Mutrievex, in Arithmetic, a number
which comprehends fome other {feveral times.

Thus 6 is a multiple of 2, or, which is the fame, 2 is a
quota part of 6; 2 being coatained in 6 three times. And
thus 12 is a multiple of 6, 4, 3, and comprehends the firlt
twice, the fecond thrice, the third four times, &c.

Muttirte Ratio, or Proportion, is that which is between
multiple numbers.

If the lefler term of a ratio be an aliquot part of the
greater, the ratio of the greater to the lefs is called multiple 5
and that of the lefs to the greater, fub-multiple.

A fub-multiple namber is that contained in the multiple.

Thus, the numbers 1, 2, and 3, are fub-multiples of 6
and 9.

Duple, triple, &c. ratios; as alfo fub-duples, fub-triples,
&e. are {fo many fpecies of multiple, and fub-multiple
ratios.

MvtirLe Superparticular Proportion, is when one number

or

MUL

or quantity contains another more than once, and a certain
aliquot part ; as 33 to one.

MULTIPLE Superpartient Proportion, is when one number or
quantity contains another diverfe times, and fome parts
befides; as 4, to I.

Mutriete Echo. See Ecno.

MULTIPLICAND, in Arithmetic, is one of the fa&ors
in the rule of multiplication, being that number which is
given to be multiplied by another called the multiplicator, or
multiplier.

ULTIPLICATION, the a& of multiplying, or in-
creafing the number of any thing.

Accurately fpeaking, in every multiplication, the multi-
plicator muft always be confidered as a number; and it is
eafy to conceive a quantity of any kind multiplied by a num-
ber. But to talk of a pound multiplied by a pound, a debt
by a debt, and aline by aline, &c. is unintelligible. How-
ever, by analogy, in the application of algebra to geometry,
we meet with fuch expreflions, and nothing is more common
than to find AB x BC, to denote the

rectangle A BC D, the length of which D Cc
is A B, and the breadth BC. But this

is only to be underftood by analogy ; be- | |
caufe, if the number exprefling the mea-

fure of the fide A B was multiplied by A B

the number exprefling the meafure of
BC, the product would exprefs the meafure of ABCD.

The fign of multiplication moft commonly ufed among al-
gebrailts, is x. But the Germans, after Leibnitz, only
make ufe of a point placed between the quantities multiply-
ing each other, thus: a. 4 is the fame asa x 6 and AB.BC,
the fame as A B x BC, or the rectangle of A B into BC,
that is, the rectangle ABCD.

When the quantities to be multiplied are complex, they
place them between a parenthelfis inftead of drawing a line
ever them, as we commonly do.

Thus they write (a2 + 4) . (c + d) infteadofa +b x
¢ + d, for the produ& of a + bintoe +-d. Sometimes
the point is omitted, thus: (2+ 4) (c+d) =a+4
x e+ d.

An old ftatute fays, it is ordained and eftablifhed, that
none from henceforth {hall ufe to multiply gold or filver,
nor ufe the craft of multiplication ; and if any the fame do,
he fhall incur the pain of felony. Stat. 5 Hen. IV. cap. 4.

The ftatute was made on prefumption that fome perfons,
fkilful in chemiftry, could multiply or augment thofe metals
by elixirs, or other ingredients; and change other metals
into very gold and filver. Under Henry VI. letters patent
were granted to certain perfons (who undertook to perform
the fame, and to find the philofopher’s ftone), to free them
from the penalty in the faid ftatute. But the ftatute has
been fince repealed. 1 Will. & Mar. cap. 30.

Mu tierication, in Arithmetic, the a& or art of multi-
plying one number by another to find the produ&.

Multiplication, which is the third rule in arithmetic, con-
fiits of finding fome third number, out of two others given ;
in which one of the given numbers is contained as often as
unity is contained in the other.

Or, multiplication is the finding what will be the fum of
any number added to itfelf, or repeated, as often as there
are units inanother. So that the multiplication of numbers
is 2 compendious kind of addition.

Thus, the multiplication of 4 by 5 makes 20, i. ¢. four
times five amounts to twenty; which algebraifts exprefs
thus, 4 x 5 = 20.

In multiplication, the firft faftor, 7 ¢, the number to be

MUL

multiplied, or the multiplicand, is placed over that by which
it is to be multiplied ; and the faétum or produét under
both.

An example or two will make the procefs of multiplica-

tion eafy. Suppofe I would know the produét of 269 mul-
trplied by 8, or 8 times 269.
Multiplicand . - 269
Multiplier A : s
Factum, or produ& - ) 2152

The faétors being thus difpofed, and a line drawn under-
neath (as in the example), I begin with the multiplicator
thus: 8 times 9 make 72, fet down 2, and carry 7 tens,
as in addition : then 8 times 6 make 48, and 7 I carried, 55 ;
fet down 5, and carry 5; laftly, 8 times 2 make 16, and,
with 5 I carried, 21, which I put down: fo that coming to
number the feveral figures placed in order, z, 1, 5, 2, I
find the prodn& to be 2152.

Now fuppofe the fa&tors to exprefs things of different
{pecies, viz. the multiplicand men, or yards, and the multi-
plier pounds; the produé will be of the fame {pecies with
the multiplicator. Thus the produét of 269 men or yards,
multiplied by 8 pounds or pence, is 2152 pounds or pence ;
fo many of thefe going to the 269, at the rate of 8 a-piece.
Hence the great ufe of multiplication in commerce, Kc.

If the multiplicator confifts of more than one figure, the
whole multiplicand is to be added to itfelf; firft, as often as
the right-hand figure of the multiplicator fhews, then, as
often as the next figure of the multiplicator fhews, and fo
on. Thus 421 x 23 is equal to gat x 3, and alfo 4zt X
20. The produé& arifing from each figure of the multipli-
cator, multiplied into the whole multiphicand, is to be placed ~
by itfelf in fuch a manner, that the firft or right-figure
thereof, may ftand under that figure of the multiplicator
from which the faid produé arifes, For inilance ;

Multiplicand - - 421
Multiplicator - - 23
Particular produ& of 421 x 3. 1263
Particular produét of 421 X 20 842

The total produ = - ey 9682

This difpofition of the right-hand figure of each produét
follows from the firft general rule: the right-hand figure of
each produét being always of the fame denomination with
that figure of the multiplicator from which it grifes.

Thus, in the example, the figure 2 in the produ& 842 is
of the denomination of tens, as well as the figure 2 in the
multiplicator. For 1 x 20 (that is, the 2 of 23) = 20, or
2 put in the place of tens, or fecond place.

Hence, if either of the factors have one or more cyphers
on the right-hand, the multiplication. may be performed
without regarding the cyphers, till the product of the other
figures be found ; to which they are to be then affixed on the
right. And if the multiplicator have cyphers intermixed,
they need not be regarded at all. Initances of each

follow;
12 355] 10 24'00 8013
bas) 6\000 1/0 3| 0 5006
1z0 2148 000 1090 8692000 48078
40065

40113078

Rr 2 Thus

MULTIPLICATION.

Thus much for an idea of multiplication, where the mul-
tiplicator confifts wholly of integers ; inthe praxis of which,
it is fuppofed, the learner is apprifed of the produ& of any
of the nine digits multiplied by one another, eafily learnt
from the common table, or otherwife. Its table is here
annexed.

4
45

56 | 63 | 70
56 | 64 72 | 80

355) 42 49 |

48

77

c

——

40
45 | 54
5@ | 60
55

60

66
72

here are alfo fome abbreviations of this art. Thus, to
multiply a number by 5, you need only add a cypher to it,
and then halve it. To multiply by 15 do the fame, then
add both together. The fum is the product.

Expedients for the more eafy and expeditious multiplying
large fums are Sliding Rules, and Neper’s Bones. (See thefe
articles.) The want of which may be fupplied by tabulating
the multiplicand.

Where the multiplicator is not compofed wholly of inte-
gers, as it frequently happens in bufinefs, where pounds are
accompanied with fhillings and pence; yards with feet and
inches ; the method of procedure, if you multiply by a fingle
digit, is the fame as in fimple numbers, only carry from one
denomination to another, as the nature of each {pecies re-
quires. £. gr. to multiply 123/. 14s. gd. 3g. by 5: fay,
5 X 3g- = 159. that is, 3d. 39. write down the 3g. and
proceed, faying 5 x 9 = 45d. thatis, 3s. gd. to which add
3d. fet down o, and proceed in the fame manner through
the reft. ‘

If you multiply by two or more digits, the methods of
procedure are as follow: fuppofe I have bought 37 ells of
cloth at 13/. 16s. 6d. per ell, and would know the amount
of the whole. I firft multiply 37 ells by 13/. in the common
method of multiplication by integers, leaving the two pro-
duéts without adding them; then multiply the fame 37 ells
by 16s. leaving, in the like manner, the two produéts without
adding them. Laftly, I multiply the fame 37 by the 6d.
the produét of which is 222d. which, divided by 12 (fee
Division), gives 18s. 6d., and this added to the products
of the 16s., the fum will be 610s. 6d. the amount of 37 ells
at 16s. 6d. the ell. Liaaltly, the Gros. 6d. are reduced into
pounds by dividing them by 20 (fee Repucrion): upon
adding the whole, the amount of 37 ells at 13/4 16s. 6d.
will be found as is the following:

37 ells 37 ells 37 ells ~” |
At 13 pounds. At 16 fhillings. At 6 pence.
111 222 222 ;
37 37
30 10 6 18 6
Produ& 511 10 6 610 6

Or thus: fuppofe the fame queflion ; reduce the 13/. 16s.
into fhillings, the amount will be 276s. reduce 276s. into
pence, adding 6, the amount will be 3318d¢. Multiply the_
37 ells by 3318, the amount will be 122766d., which divided
by 12, and the quotient 10230s. 6d. reduced into pounds, by
cutting off the laft figure on the right, and taking half of
thofe on the left, yields 511/. 10s. 6d. the price of the 37 ells,
before. ; ¢

Though by thefe two methods any multiplication of this
kind may be effeéted, yet the operations being’ long, we fhall
adda third much fhorter. Suppofe the fame queftion: mul-
tiply the price by the fattors of the multiplicator, if re-
folvable into faGtors: if not, by thofe that come neareft 1t :
adding the price for the ‘odd one, or multiplying it by what
the faétors want of the multiplier. So the work will ftand
thus: 37 ells at 13/. 16s. 6d. 6 x 6 = 36 + I = 37.

Therefore
SZ TO” 7
497 14 0°
13 16 6
Bien G

the price of 37 ells. :

But the moft commodious is the fourth method, which
is performed by aliquot and aliquant parts; where you are
to obferve by the way, that aliquot parts of any thing are
thofe contained feveral times in it, and which divide without
any remainder ; and that aliguant parts are other parts of the
fame thing compofed of feveral aliquot parts.

To multiply by aliquot parts, is, in efiect, only to divide a
number by 3, 4, 5; &c. which is done by taking a 3d, 4th,
5th, &c. from the number to be multiplied. Example: To
multiply, v. gr. by 6s. Sd. Suppofe I have 347 ells of
ribband at 6s. 8d. pervell. jm

Multiplicand - - 347 ells.
Multiplicater - - , 6s. 8d.
Produ& - -

1152. 135. 4d.

The queftion being itated, take the multiplicator, which,
according to the table of aliquot parts, is the third; and
fay the third of 3 is 1, fet down 1; the third of 4 is 1, fet
down 1, remains 1, that is 1 ten, which added to 7 makes
17; the third of 17 is 5, remain 2 units, i. ¢. two-thirds,
or 13s. 4d., which place after the pounds. Upon num-
bering the figures 1, 1, and 5, integers, and 13s. 4d. the
aliquot part reniaining, I find the fum ri5/. 135. 4d.

For Multiplication by aliquant Parts. Suppofe 1 would
multiply by the aliquant part rgs. I firit take for ros, half
the multiplicand; then for 5, which is the fourth, and
lattly for 4, which is the fifth. The products of the three
aliquot parts that compofe the aliquant part, being added
together, the fam will be the total product of the multi-
plication, as in the following example; which may ferve
as a model for multiplication by any aliquant part that may
occur,

Multi-

MUL

Multiplicand = =
Multiplier - -

356ells
195.

178/. for 10s.
Sol. pa
711. 4s. for 4s.

Product - ~ 33S). 45.

Mutrtiruication, for the Proof of. The operation is
right, when the product, divided by the multiplier, quotes
the multiplicand; or divided by the multiplicand, quotes
the multiplier. A readier way, though not abfolutely to
be depended on (fee Anvpirion), is thus: add up the
figures of the factors, cafting out the nines; and fetting
down the remainder of each; thefe multiplied together,
out of the faétum caft away the nines, and fet down the re-
mainder: if this remainder agree with the remainder of the
faGtors of the fum, after the nines are ca{ft out, the work is
right.

ee ate Crofs, otherwife called Duodecimal
Arithmetic, is an expeditious method of multiplying things
of feveral fpecies, or denominations, by others likewife of
different {pecies, &c. e. gr. fhiilings and pence by shillings
and pence; feet and inches by feet and inches. This 1s
much ufed in meafuring, &c. The Boyes

method is thus: Suppofe 5 feet 3 Pe.
inches to be multiplied by 2 feet 2-4
4 inches: fay, 2 times 5 feet is 10

feet, and 2 times 3 is 6 inches: 10 6
again, 4 times 5 is 20 inches, or ie
1 foot 8 inches; and 4 times 3 is O, I
12 parts, or r inch: the whole fum

makes 12 feet 3 inches. In the fame EZ¥3

manner you may manage fhillings and
pence, &c. :

Mutrierication, in Algebra. To multiply algebraic
quantities, we muft attend not only to the quantities them-
felves, but alfo to their figns.

The general rule for the figns is, that when the figns of -

the faGtors are like, (ze. both + or both —,) the fign of
the product is + ; but when the figns of the factors are un-
like, the fign cf the product is —.

Then, if the quantities to be multiplied be fimple quan-
tities, find the fign of the product by the laft rule; after it
place the produ& of the coefficients, and then fet down all
the letters after one another, as in one word. ¢

If the factors be compounded quantities, multiply every
part of the multiplicand by all the parts of the multiplier
taken one after another, and then colle& ail the produéts
into one fum; which willl be the product required. See
Maclaurin, Saunderfon, Hammond, or any other elementary
writers.

The reafon of the rule here given for the ‘figns of the
product, viz. that + by +, or — by — give +, and that
+ by —, or — by + give —, is apt to perplex beginners.
But if it be confidered, that in all multiplication the multi-
plicator is, ftri€tly {peaking, a number, the difficulty foon
vanifhes: for, 1. When any pofitive quantity + a is mul-
tiplied by any pofitive number +x, the meaning is, that
+a is to be taken as many times as there are units in 2,
and therefore the produét is evidently + 2@ or na, the poli-
tive fign being omitted.

2. When —a is multiplied by x, then —a is taken as
often as there are units in 2, and the product mutt be
—na

3- «\s multiplication by a Banas number implies a re-

1

MUL

peated addition, multiplication by a negative implies a re.
peated fubtraction : fo that when + a is to be multiplied by
—n, the meaning is, that + @ is to be fubtraéted as often
as there are units inn; therefore the produ@ mutt be nega-
tive, being — na.

4. When —a is to be multiplied by — 2, then —a is to
be fubtra&ted as often as there are units inn; but by the
rules of fubtraction, to fubtra& —a is equivalent to adding
+ a, and confequently the produ& is + na.

The fecond and fourth cafes may be thus illuftrated : by
the import and meaning of the figns + and —, +a—a
muft be = 0. Therefore if we multiply + a—abyn, the
produé muft yanifh, or be nothing; becaufe the faGor
a—a=o. The firft term of the product is + na by cafe 1.
Therefore the fecond term of the produ& muft be —na,
which dettroys + na; fo that the whole produ& mutt be
+na—na=o. Therefore —a multiplied by + » gives
—na.

In like manner, if we multiply + a—a by —a, the firft
term of the produé being — za, the latter term of the pro-
duét muft be + na, becaufe the two together muft deftroy
each other, or their amount be o, fince one of the faGors
a—a=o. Therefore —a multiplied by —n, muit give
+ na. See Maclaurin’s Algebra, part i. chap. 4. Saun-
derfon’s Algebra, vol. i. p. 57. And Barrow’s Eucl.
Schol. Prop. i. Elem. 2.

Examples. P
Mul. +2 —24a + 6x —S8x +3ab
By * +6 +46 —J5a —4a —5ac
Products +ab —8ab —30ar +32ax —r5a‘bc
a+é 2a—3b 2a—a4b
ath 4a+ 5b 2a+ 4b
a +ab Sa*— 12a 4a°—8ab
+ab+h + 10ab —1 56> +8ab— 163%
a@+2ab+6* = 8a°—2ab—151* 4a°— 165*
a —ax a+ ao bo
wta a—b
wi ax a'+tab ab
+ ax*—a'x —@b—abh—B
xi—ary a—b

See Exponent.

MourtieLicarion, in Geometry, or in lines, is effeGed by
fuppofing a line ab (Plate X. Geometry, fig. 6.), called the
deferibent, moving perpendicularly along another 4c, called
the dirigent.

For, by this means, the defcribent forms the reGtangle
adcb}; andif it be divided, together with the dirigent, into
any number of equal parts, it will, by its motion, defcribe
as many little rectangles as the units in the deferibent and
dirigent will produce, when multiplied into one another,
viz. 21. For when the line a4 hath moved over one part
of ad, it will, by its three parts, have defcribed the three
little reGtangles in the firft column; when it comes to two,
it will have defcribed three more; and this is the reafon why
multiplication, in the Latin tongue, is ufually exprefled by
the word duda, drawn; (and from hence alfo comes pro-
dud) as if ab were multiplied by dc, they fay ab du@a in
bcs becaufe the defcribent is led, as it were, or carried

along

MUL

along in an exact pofture upon the dirigent, and by that
means defcribes the re€tangle; fo that the reCtangle and
produé are the fame in geometry.

Now, as in all multiplication unity is to one fa&tor as the
other is to the produ&, multiplication in lines may be per-
formed thus. Let ab (fig. 7-) be to be multiplied by ad.
Make any angle at pleafure ; on one of the legs fet off au =
to unity, and on the fame leg fet off ud, the multiplicator
(3) 5 then fet the multiplicand a6 (2) from a on the other
leg of the angle; draw wb, and parallel to it, through d,
draw de (6), I fay, dc, or 6, is the produ; forau:
ad:zzab:da

Moutrretication of Plants, in Botany.
and PLANTS.

MULTIPLICATIVES. See NumErALs.

MULTIPLICATOR, a number multiplying another
called the multiplicand.

The largeft number is ordinarily made the multiplicand,
and placed above the fmaller, or multiplicator ; but the refult
is the fame, which foever of the numbers be made multipli-
cand or multiplicator; 4 times 5, and § times 4, making
the fame fum.

MULTIPLIER, in Arithmetic, the number multiplying,
er multiplicator.

MULTIPLYING, in the Ancient Economy, the pro-
ducing of one’s like.

Mankind multiplied at a prodigious rate before the flood.
Rabbits, fifh, and moft infe&ts, multiply increcibly; the
fingle milt of a cod, examined with M. Leewenhoeck’s mi-
crofcope, was found to contain more ova than there are
animals on the face of the earth. See Fecundity of Fisn.

M. Dodart has feveral difcourfes on the multiplication of
plants, in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences.
He has examined the beech-tree, particularly, with this
view, and found its increafe to furpafs all imagination.

MuttivLyinG, in Arithmetic, is the finding a number
which contains the multiplicand as often as there are units in
the multiplier.

The rule of three confifts in multiplying the third term
by the fecond, and dividing the product by the firlt. See
Rute of Three.

Muttiptyinc-Glafs, a lens or glafs, in which objects
appear increafed in number.

A multiplying-glafs, called alfo a polyhedron, is a glafs
formed or ground into feveral planes, or faces, making angles
with one another; through which the rays of light, iffuing
from the fame point, undergo different refra¢tions, fo as to
enter the eye from every furface in a different dire€tion ; as
if they came from feveral points.

And thus the fame point is feen in feveral imaginary foci ;
and therefore appears multiplied. For the phenomena and
laws of mutiplying-glaffes, fee PoLyuEpRON.

MULTISILIQU, in Botany, the twenty-fixth among
the Natural Orders of Linnawus, fo termed becaufe the fruit
confilts of feveral aggregate feed-veflels, which have the ap-
pearance of pods. It 18 divided into four feétions, the firft
confifting of Paonia, Aquilegia, Aconitum, Delphinium, to
which Linnaeus afterwards added Cimicifuga and Adea:
the fecond compofed of Didamnus, Ruta, and Peganum ;
the third of Nigella, Garidella, Ifopyrum, Trollius, Helle-
borus, Caltha, Ranunculus, Myofurus, Adonis; and the latt
of Anemone, Atravene, Clematis, Thalidrum, and originally
of Ada. The fecond fe&ion contains the very diftinét
order of Rutacea, of which Linnaeus, and even Juffieu, had
very flight and imperfe& knowledge as a matural aflemblage.
Vhofe require to be removed from hence. ‘The remainder

See FrcunDITY

MUM

agree in their acrid qualities, and are kept together by
Jeffieu, under the title of Ranunculaceae.

MULTITUDE, Motrirups, an affemblage, or col-
letion, of a great number of things, or perfons.

Multitude is properly the ab{traé&t whereby things are faid
to be many.

In which fenfe, multitude may be confidered as number 3
and ftands oppofed to unity.

In law, fome will have multitude to imply at leaft ten per-
fons; but fir Edward Coke fays, he could never find it
reftrained, by the common law, to any certain number, but
always left to the difcretion of the judges.

MULTIVALVES, in Natural Hiffory, the name of a
general clafs of fhell-fith, diftinguifhed from the univalves,
which confift of only one fheil, and the bivalves, which confift
of two, by their confifting of three or more fhells. See
ConcHoLocy. :

MULTO, in Geography, a town of Hindooltan, in the
circar of Bickaneer; 16 miles W. of Bickaneer. ;

A Mutto Fortiori, or a minore ad majus, is a way of ar-
gumentation often ufed by Lyttleton ; whofe force is thus :
if it be fo in a feofiment pafling a new right; much more is
it for the reftitution of an ancient right.

MULTONES Aurkrt, in our Ancient Writers, an old coin
of gold, having an Agnus Dei, fheep or lamb, on the one
fide, and from that impreffion called multones. This coin
was moft common in France, and fometimes current in
England. Patent 33 Edw. I., cited by the learned Spel-
man.

MULTUM, in Arithmetic. If A be one, Bcne, C one,
D one, &c. and B, C,and D, be not the fame with A ;
A, B, C, and D, are multa, or plura, many. Wolfius.

MULTURA Episcorr. See Murra.

MULUCHA, in Geography. See MuLxooran.

MULUD, in the Materia Medica, a word ufed by Avi-
cenna and Serapion to exprefs a fort of litharge, called by
the Greeks molybdites, as feeming to partake of the nature
of lead alone, not of gold or filver, or any other metal, as
they thought the argyrites and chryfites did. This mulud,
or molybdites, was the leaft in efteem of all the kinds of li-
tharye, and was of a dufky greyifh-white colour. It feems
to be the fame that Diofcorides means by pelia and polia, and
fometimes by lithargyrus Sicilicus, from the place whence it
was brought.

MULUPGUNGE, in Geography, a town of Bengal;
23 miles S.E of Dacca.

MULWAGGLE, a fort of Hindooftan, in Myfore; 22
miles E. of Colar.

MULYGUNGE, a fort of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 60
miles S.S.E. of Durbungah, N, lat. 25° 53’. E. long.
87° 13'—Alfo, a town of Bengal; 20 miles N.N.W. of
Purneah. ‘

MUM, a wholefome kind of malt liquor chiefly prepared
in Germany.

The eds of making mum, as recorded in the towne
houfe of Brunfwick, the place of moft note for this liquor,
is as follows:

Yake fixty-three gallons of water that has been boiled
to the confumption of a third part; brew it with feven
buthels of wheaten malt, one bufhel of oat malt, and one
bufhel of ground beans: when it is tunned, let not the
hogthead be too full at firlt; and as foon as it begins to
work, put into it of the inner rind of fir three pounds,
tops of fir and birch each one pound, carduus benediétus
three handfuls, flowers of rofa folis one handful or two ;
burnet, betony, marjoram, avens, pennyroyal, wild thyme,
of each a handful aad a half; of eldecdeveed éwo hand.

fuls,

ni al eee

MUM

fals, or more; feeds of cardamom bruifed thirty ounces,
barberries brvifed one ounce: put the herbs and feeds
into, the veflel when the liquor has worked a while ; and,
after they are added, let the liquor work over the veffel
as little as may be; then fill it up. Laltly, when it is
ftopped, put into the hogfhead ten new-laid eggs un-
broken or cracked, flop it up clofe, and drink it at two
years end.

Our Englifh brewers ufe cardamom, ginger, and faflafras,
inftead of the inner rind of fir; and add alfo walnut-rinds,
madder, red fanders, and elecampane.

MUMBACUM, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the Carnatic ; 15 miles S. of Arcot.

MUMBLE Pont, a rock in the Briftol channel, at
the entrance into Swanfea bay. N. lat. 51° 37’. W. long.

ov!
StUMBOLE, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ;
20 miles S.W. of Nellore.

MUMBOS, a country of Africa, N.W. of Mocaranga.
The inhabitants of this country are a race of cannibals, who
have been accuftomed to devour their captives and flaves,
and who, with the Zimbas and Jagas, have defolated a
great part of fouthern Africas The Jagas, of whofe fa-
vage conduct we have given an account under that article,
feem to have been the Tartars of central Africa, confifting
chiefly of wandering tribes who range from the fouth of
Abyflinia to the confines of Congo W. and of Moca-
ranga E.

MUMMERS, from Mummerie, Fr. or from the Teu-
tonic, mummen, to mimic; or rather it is a corruption of
mimers, from pantomime, antic diverfions in the Chriitmas
holidays, to get money or good cheer.

MUMMY, Mumia, a carcafe, or body, embalmed or
dried in the manner of the ancient Egyptians.

Menage, after Bochart, derives the word mummy from
the Arabic mumia ; of mum, wax: Salmafius from amomum,
a kind of perfume ; though others hold, that, inthe Arabic
tongue, the word mumia fignifies a body embalmed, or aro-
matized. -

Properly fpeaking, mummy is not the flefh of the de-
ceafed, but the compofition with which it is embalmed ;
but, in common acceptation, mummy 1s alfo ufed for the
body.

The preparation of mummy is of fo old a ftanding, that
it was in ufe in Egypt before the time of Mofes. The
coffin in which the mummy is contained was to be of fyca-
more wood, which is found to keep found for the {pace of
3000 years; but the tree, properly thus called, was very
different from our fycamore.

Mumny is {aid to have been firft brought into ufe in me-
dicine by a Jewith phyfician, who wrote, that flefh thus
embalmed was good for the cure of divers difeafes, and
particularly for bruifes, to prevent the blood gathering and
coagulating. The Turks prevent the exportation of mum-
my into Europe as much as poffible.

There are two kinds of bodies denominated mummies.
The firft are only carcafes, dried by the heat of the fun,
and by that means kept from putrefa¢tion: thefe are fre-
quently found in the dry fands of Lybia. Some fay, they
are the bodies of deceafed people buried there on purpofe,
to keep them entire without embalming ; others, that they
are the carcafes of travellers, &c. who have been over-
whelmed with clouds of fand raifed by the hurricanes fre-
quent in thofe defarts. Be that as it will, thefe mummies
are of no ufe in medicine, and are only preferved as cu-
riofities.

Mummies of the fecond kind are bodies taken out of

MUM

the pits or catacombs near Cairo, in which the Egyptians de-
polited their dead after embalming. ‘Thefe con{titute the
mummy once fo much valued, and to which fuch extraordi-
nary virtues are afcribed. See EMpatmine.

It is faid, that all the mummy fold in the fhops, whether
brought from Venice or Lyons, or even dire&tly from the
Levant by Alexandria, is fatitious, and the work of cer-
tain Jews, who knowing the value the Europeans fet on
the Egyptian mummy, counterfeit it by drying carcafes in
ovens, after having prepared them with powder of myrrh,
caballine aloes, Jews’ pitch, black pitch, and other coarfe
cr unwholefome drugs.

The French charletans, it feems, had likewife got the
art of preparing mummies. ‘Their method was fimple
enough : out of the carcafe of a perfon hanged, they take
the brain and entrails, and dry the reft in an oven, fteeping
it in pitch and other drugs; and this they fell for right
Egyptian mummy. |

There have been found in Poland a kind of natural mum-
mies, or human bodies, preferved without the affiltance of
art. Thefe lie in confiderable numbers in fome of the vaft
caverns inthat country. They are dried, with the flefh and
fkin fhrunk up almoft clofe to the bones, and are of a blackifh
colour. In the wars which feveral ages ago laid waite that
country, it was common for parties of the weaker fide to
retire into thefe caves, where their enemies, if they found it
ont, fuffocated them by burning ftraw, &c. at the mouth of
the cavern, and then left the bodies ; which, being out of
the way of injuries from common accidents, have lain there
ever fince.

Parzus has a very curious treatife of mummies, in which
he fhews the abufes of them; and makes it appear, that they
can never be of any real medicinal ufe.

Matthiolus is of the fame opinion, after Serapion. Both
thefe authors take even the Egyptian mummies to be no more
than bodies embalmed with piffafphaltum.

Mummy, Mumia, is more particularly ufed for the liquor
or juice oozing from human bodies aromatized and embalmed,
gathered in the fepulchres. This is the mummy chiefly
{poken of among the ancient writers.

Mummy, Mumia, alfo denotes a medicinal drug, ora
vifcous compofition, partaking of bitumen and pitch, found
in the-mountains and forefts of Arabia, and other hot
countries in the Eaft; much ufed in embalming of dead
bodies.

Diofcorides fpeaks of mummy found on the fea-coalt
near Epidaurus, brought thither by the torrents from the
Ceraunian mountains, and there dried by the fun into huge
mafles.

It {mells like bitumen mixed with pitch. The people
thereabouts call it mineral wax. . In Latin, or rather Greek,
it is called piffafphaltus.

/This fubftance is found in Khorafan, and in the deferts
of Kerman, in Perfia, and derives its name from the Perfian
word moum, fignifying wax, gum, or ointment. It was
formerly {uppofed to proceed from the human body; but,
according to Chardin, it is a fingular gum which ditlils from
rocks; and the mines of the precious mattic, as he calls it,
are carefully fealed for the royal ufe. It is, probably, a kind
of afphaltum ; but feems to be a variety which has efcaped
the notice of mineralogifts.

Mummy, Mumia, is alfo ufed, by fome phyficians, for a
fuppofed implanted fpirit, found chiefly in carcafes, when
the infufed f{pirit is fled.

The infufed fpirit is fometimes alfo called mummy in liv-
ing fubjeéts ; and both the one and the other are fuppofed
to ferve in tranfplantation.

A plant,

MUN

A plant, for inftance, bringing this mumia from one fub-
je& to another, the mumia joins and unites itfelf immedi-
ately with the mumia or {pirit of the new fubjeét ; and from
this union arifes a natural and common inclination between
the two fubjeéts. And on this principle they account for
fympathetic or magnetic cures. But this whole doctrine is
now defervedly ridiculed and exploded.

Mummy is alfo ufed, among Gardeners, for a fort of wax
ufed in the planting and grafting of trees.

Agricola dire&ts the preparation of it as follows: take
one pound of common black pitch, and a quarter of a
pound of common turpentine ; put them together in an
earthen pot, and fet them on fire in the open air, having a
cover ready to quench the mixture in time: the matter isto
be thus alternately lighted and quenched, till all the nitrous
and volatile parts be evaporated. To this a little common
wax is to be added ; and the compofition is then to be fet by
for ufe.

To apply it in the drefling of roots of trees, melt it, and
dip in the two ends of the pieces of root, one after another 5
then put them in water, and plant them in the earth, the
{mall end downward, fo that the larger may appear a little
way out of the earth, and fo may have the benefit of the
air; then prefs the earth hard down upon them, that they
may not receive too much wet. Miller.

MUMPS, in J\edicine, the popular appellation of that
form of quinfy, which is accompanied with inflammation
and {welling of the parotid glands. In Scotland the difeafe
is called the branks. See CYNANCHE parotidea.

MUMRAH, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 38 miles
N.N.W. of Midnapour. E

MUNARI, Petieerino pa, in Biography, a painter who
had the happinefs to be fcholar and affiitant to Raphael, in
executing the works for the chambers of the Vatican. His
real name was Pellegrino Munari, but being born at Modena,
he moft ufually bore the name of his native city. He poffefied
confiderable talents, aud, according to M. Fafeli, refembled
his malter more than any of his contemporaries in the airs of
his heads, and the graces of attitude; but he lived too fhort
a time to have much to teftify the truth of this affertion,
dying at the early age of 38, in the year 1523. :

MUNCARA, in Geography, a town of Bengal; fix
miles S. of Coflimbazar. ;

MUNCER, Tuomas, in Biography, a famous. fanatic,
was born at Zwickaw, a town of Mifnia, in Germany, pro-
bably towards the clofe of the fifteenth century. He was
educated to the church, and became a difciple of Luther,
whofe tenets he propagated fume time with great zeal and
fuccefs in Thuringia. He conneted himfelf with Nicholas
Storck, a leader among the Baptifts, who’ pretended to have
communications with the Almighty, and to hold greater
purity of doétrine than the relt of the party. Muncer was
a convert to his notions, and became ardent in making pro-
felytes, He maintained that for men to avoid vice, they
mutt praétife perpetual mortification. They muft put on a
grave countenance, {peak but little, wear a plain garb, and
be ferious in their whole deportment. Such as prepared
their hearts in this manner, might expec that the Supreme
Being would direét all their fteps, and by vifible figns dif-
cover his will to them; if. that ulumination be at any time
withheld, he fays we may expoftulate with the Almighty,
and remind him of his promifes. ‘This expoftalation will be
acceptable to God, and will at Jalt prevail on him to guide
us with the fame unerring hand which condugied the patri-
archs 6f old. He alfo maintained, that all men were equal
in the fight of God, and that, therefore, they ought to have
all things in common, and fhould on no accolint exhibit any

MUN

marks of fubordination or pre-eminence. Thefe notions, fo
flattering to the feelings of the mafs of the people, {pread
rapidly among the peafants of Thuringia, and produced the
molt /erious tumults and commotions in that and fome other
parts of Germany, which in the end brought on their own
deftruction, and that of their leader. This occurred about
the year 1526. Moreri. Robertfon’s Hift. of Charles V.

MUNCERA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Baglana; 10 miles N- of Junare.

MUNCEY, a town of America, in Lycoming county,
Pennfylvania; 231 miles from Wafhington. ab tit

MUNCHAURACH, a town of Germany, in the prin-
cipality of Culmbach; 13 miles E. of Neuttatt. :

MUNCHAUSIA, in Botany, a fuppofed genus, ‘dedi-
cated by Linneus to the honour of baron Gerlach Adol-
phus von Munchhaufen, governor of Hanover, who greatly
improved the botanic garden at Gottingen, and alfo of the
baron Otho von. Munchhaufen, minifter there, a diftin-
guifhed pra¢tical botanift and raral economift. This genus
however is now funk in the more ancient one LaGer-
STROEMIA ; fee that article.

MUNCHBERG,, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the principality of Culmbach ; iix miles S. of Hof.

MUNCHENBERG, a town of Brandenburg, in the
Middle Mark ; 19. miles W. of Cufirin. . N. dat. 52° 30’
E. long. 14° 35/.

MUNCHHAUSEN, 2 town of Bavaria; x2 miles W.
of Vilzhoven. _ ; .

MUNCEK, Joun, in Biography, acelebrated Canifh navi-
gator, who flourifhed in the early part of the feventeenth
century: on account of the difcoveries of Hudfon in 1610,
Munck was ordered by his fovereign to purfue the fame
route, to determine if it were poffible te proceed to India
by anorth-welt paflage. ‘Two fhips were equipped for this
expedition, and in May 1619, Munck: fet fail from the
Sound. © He pafled through Hudfon’s ftrait, and difcovered
an ifland in latitude 60° 20! north, to which, on account of
the rein-deer found on it, he gave the name of Deer Ifland-
He alfo gave the name of Mare Novum to the fea that
wafhes the coaft of Labrador, and the appellation of Mare
Chriftiaznum, or Chriftian’s Sea, to the part adjacent to
Greenland. In the latitude where he was, he met with fo
much ice, as rendered it imspraéticable for him to advance
farther north; he therefore directed his courfe to Churchill’s
river, where he landed, and where he found the ice to be
more than ene hundred yards thick. Here he and his crew -
were attacked molt feverely with the feuryy, which was
followed by a dyfentery, and when he was a little recovered,
he found only two men of his fhips companies alive, though
the crews of the two fhips had amounted to fixty-four.
Thefe two, it may be eafily imagined, were overjoyed to fee
their commander, and the three afforded to each other every:
affiftance in their power. As foon as the ice diflolved, and
their health was pretty well reftored, they left the two vefleis
in the river, giving it the name of Munck’s harbour, and fet
out in a {malles one toreturn. Misfortune, however, feemed
to follow them, they broke their rudder, and for a time
loft their boat; but in ten days they recovered it, and
after encountering a violent ftorm, which fhattered their
matt and carried away their fails, they reached a harbour in
Norway, and in a few days after arrived at Copenhagen.
After this, Munck was employed by his fovereign in the
North fea, and in the Elbe, in the years 1623, 1625, and
1627. He died in the month of June 1628, Gen, Biog,

MUNDA, Monpa,y in Ancient Geography, a town of
Spain, in the S.W. part of Boetica, famous for a battle
fought in its vicinity, between Ccefar and the fons ef Pom-

Peya

;

MUN

pey, in the year of Rome 708, in which the former was
victorious, and the latter loft 3000 men.

MUNDANAGOODY, in Geography, a town of Hin-
doottan, in Golconda; fix miles N. of Rachore.

MUNDANDIS Picis et Venellis. See Victs.

MUNDAPUM, in Geography, a town of Hindooltan,
in Marawar; 16 miles E. of Ramanadporum,

MUNDATORY, the cloth or napkin ufed in wiping
the facerdotal chalice.

MUNDE, in Geography, a town of Pomerelia, on the
Frifch Nerung ; five miles N. of Dantzic.

MUNDELLA, a town of Hindoottan, in the country
of Gurry Mundella; 40 miles S.E. of Gurrah. N, lat. 23
45'. E. long. 80° 57!.
~MUNDELLSVILLE, a town of America, in Shenan-
doah county, Virginia; 114 miles from Wafhington.

MUNDEN, or GemunpenN, a town of Wettphalia, in
the principality of Calenberg, at the conflux of the Warra
and the Fulda, containing two Lutheran churches, an ele-
gant building for the worfhip of the Calvinifts, an hofpital,
and barracks for a double garrifon. ‘The goods brought
hither by land and water are fent down the Wefer, and other
goods in return are brought hither by the fame mode of
conveyance, No foreigner or non-freeman of Munden is
allowed to trade here, but is required to confign his goods
toa faétor of the town; 13 miles S.W. of Gottingen. N. lat.

1° 26", | E. long. 9°35".

MUNDER, a town of Weftphalia, in the principality
of Calenberg, on the Hammel, near which is a falt-work.
N. lat. 52°11’. E. long. 9° 24'.

MUNDERAR, a province of Candahar, in the northern
part of Cabul.

MUNDERKINGEN, a town of Wirtemberg, ceded to
it in 1805 by Auttria, fituated on the Danube; nine miles
N. of Bachau. N, lat. 48° 14'. E. long. 9° 4o’.

MUNDI Anima. See Anima.

MUNDIBURDUS. See Apvocate.

MUNDIC, a name for marcafite; a kind of mineral
glebe, found in the tin-mines, and elfewhere; fometimes
white, yellow, or green; and fometimes of a dark brown
colour, -[t is of am arfenical nature. See Geoffroy, in
Mem. Acad. Scienc. 1738, p. 107. edit. Par. It is fre-
quently called maxy. ,
~ ‘The mundic ore is eafily diftinguifhed by its glittering,
and fometimes by its difcolouring the fingers. Some fay, it
feeds the tin; and yet they allow, that where there is much
mundic there is little or no tin.

What is called mundic in Cornwall, frequently contains
a large portion of copper.

The tteams of the mundic are very troublefome to the
miners; yet it is found a good vulnerary ; and the miners
ufe no other remedy for wounds, but wafhing them in water
that runs from the mundic ore. See MARCASITE.

MUNDIFICATIVES, or Munoiriers, in Medicine,
denote cleanfers, purifiers, or detergents.

Mundificative plalters, or unguents, are fuch as. deterge
and dry; dnd thus cleanfe ulcers’ of two kinds of matter,
viz. pus and fanies.

The chief ingredients in mundificative unguents are, gen-
tian, ariftolochia, enula, campana, and the vulnerary herbs.
* MUNDINUS, in Biography. See Monpino.

MUNDU, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
country of Malwa, formerly its capital; 32» miles S.W: of
Indore. N. lat; 22° 45! -Es long. 75° 40%.

MUNDUS Parens, among the Romans, a folemnity per-
formed in a little temple of a round form; and dedicated
to Dis, and the infernal gods.

* Vor. XXIV.

MUWN

It was opened ouly three times in a year, viz. on the day
after the Vuleanalia, the fourth of October, and the feventh
of the ides of November, during which days the Romans
believed that hell was open; and therefore they never offered
battle on thole days, lifted no foldiers, never put to fea, nor
married.

MUNDY, Joun, in Biography, in 1594, gentilman, ba-
chiler of muticke, and one of the organifts of his majefty’s
free chapel of Windfor, publifhed Songs and jPfalmes com-
pole® into three, four, and fibe parts, for the ule anv delight of
ail {uch as either love ov trarng MPuticke. Thefe are dedicated
to the unfortunate earl of Effex, with all the punning,
quibbling, and efforts at wit, which the talte of the times
encouraged, and indeed required.

MUNERARIUS. See Drsianaror.

MUNGALOVA, in Geography, a town of Rufiia, in
the government of Irkutik; at the union of the rivers Ona
and Uda.

MUNGAN, a town ot Hindcoltan, in the circar of
Bopal; 20 miles S.E, of Bopaltol.

MUNGARVA, a town of Africa, in Nigritia.
11° 42", 0E, long.23° 45/.

MUNGLA, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 33 miles
S.W. of Patna.

MUNGLAPET, a town of Hindooflan, in Myfore;
five miles N. of Dalmachery.

MUNGLORE, a town of Candahar; 25 miles W. of
Cachemire. _N. lat. 34° 15!.. E. long. 71° 15'.

MUNGO, in Zoology, the name of an American animal,
of the ferret kind, called by authors viverra Indica grifeo-~
rufefcens, or the reddith-grey Indian ferret. Some call it
alfo mungathia. See VivERRA.

MUNGRAR, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 12
miles S.S.W. of Curruckpour.

MUNGULHAUT, a large manufacturing town of
Hindooitan; 12 miles from Calamatty, fituated on the S.
fide of the river Durlah, which divides the diltri& of Cooch
Bahar from that of Rungpore. The inhabitants of this
town pay a greater attention to the comforts and commo-
dioufnefs of living, than thofe of any other town which
captain Turner vifited in India. Their houfes, compofed
of mats inferted between frames of bamboo, are neatly
thatched, and each had a portion of land encircled with a
bamboo palifade. The ftreets are fpacious; and boats of
large burthen upon the river, added to the neatnefs and regu-
larity of the town, give it an air of induttry and traffic.
The ftaple commodity conlitts of cotton, cloths, which fur-
nifh the moit confiderable part of the large returning cargo,
which is carried by the Bootan caravan annually from Rang,
pore. ‘Turner’s Embaily to Tibet, p. 7.

MUNHAY, a county of Africa, dependent on Moca-
ranga.
MUNI, in Aindoo Mythological Hiflory, is a name applied
on a variety of occafions, and with teeming confufion and
contradiction.. Mr. Colebrooke, the worthy fucceffor of tir
William Jones in the chair of the A{fiatic Society of Bengal,
gn, the authority of the Puranas, feems to identify the
Rifhis and Munis. He calls them ‘the virtuous fages, who
delight in protecting the people; the mighty fages.” Af.
Rel. vol, ix. p. 358. (See Risui.) Some authorities enus
merate twenty of thefe perfonages, who are fometimes
called, ** in{pired writers.’’,, Sometimes they appear as an-
chorets or alcetics. ‘In the midit of a wild and dreary
foreft, flourifhing with trees of {weet-icented flowers, and
abounding in fruits and roots, infefted with lions and tigers,
deititute of human fociety, and frequented by the Munis,
refided Budha, the author of happinefs, and a portion of
Si Narayana.”

N. lat.

MUN

Narayana.” This paffage is from an in{fcription on a itone
found in Bengal, tranflated by Dr. Wilkins. (Af. Ref. voli.)
‘The appellation is fometimes given to Budha or Boodh,
(fee Boopu,) who is ca!led Budha Muni. Both words
feem to mean wi/dom, more efpecially divine wifdom, or
theology: and Muni may perhaps be traced to the fame
root with Menu, to men or man, the mind. See Menu.

In that curious work of Anquetil du Perron, which he
ftiles Qupnekhat, (fee UpryisHap,) the following paflage
occurs, tranflated from one of the Puranas: ‘* Brahm faid,
Rife up, O Rudra (or Siva), and form men to govern
the world. Rudra immediately obeyed: he began the
work; but the men he made were fiercer than tigers, hav-
ing nothing but the deftruétive quality in their compofi-
tion: and they foon deftroyed one another ; for anger was
their only paflion. Brahma, Vifhnu,and Rudra, then joined
their different powers and created ten men, whofe names
were Nareda, Daktha, Va/fi/sta, Brighu, Kritu, Pulaha,
Pulaflya, Angira, Atri, and Marichi; (that is, Reafon,
Ingenuity, Emulation, Humility, Piety, Pride, Patience,
Charity, Deceit, Morality:) the general name of whom is
the Munis. Brahma then produced Dherma, or Jultice,
from his breaft; Adherma, Injuitice, from his back ;
Labha, Appetite or Paffion, from his lips; and Kama,
Love or Defire, from his heart. The laft was a beautiful fe-
male, and Brahma !ooked upon her with amorous emotions ;
but the Munis telling him that fhe was his own daughter, he
fhrunk back, and Ladja, Shame, a blufhing virgin (fee
Lapsa,) fprung from him. Brahma, deeming his body
defiled by its emotions towards Kama, purified himfelf by
partially changing it into ten females, who were refpectively
efpoufed by the Munis.”’ Farther notice of thofe perfon-
ages whofe names in the above quotation are diftinguifhed
by italics, will be found under thofe articles.

In the Gita (fee Manaparat), Krifhna, amplifying
himfelf by comparifon with many pre-eminent perfons and
things, or rather identifying himfelf therewith, fays, ‘ I
am Muni Kapila among the Saints.’’ (See Karma.) It
is faid, however, that the philofopher juft referred to is not
the Kapila of the Gita. The Hindoo books abound with tto-
ries of the potency of thefe devotees, under the names of
Rifhis, or Munis. ‘On one occafion, Kapila having been
rudely difturbed while at his devotion, * filled with exceflive
anger, uttered from his noftrils a loud found, and initantly
by him, of immeafurable prowefs, were all the fons of Sa-
gara (60,000 in number) reduced to afhes.”? This is froma
long and extravagant, but poetical, ftory related in the firft
book of the Ramayana. On another occafion, as related in
the Sanfcrit book, entitled Maha-kala-fanhita, Mahadeva, or
Siva, who was rambling over the earth naked, chanced to
pafs near the fpot where feveral Munis were performing
their devotions: Mahadeva laughed at them, and infulted
them in very provoking and indecent terms, enforcing his
abufe by fignificant figns and geftures. The offended
Munis eurfed him; and the Linga or PWallus fell to the

ound. (See Lica.) | Mahadeva, in this ftate of muti-
Eos travelled over the world bewailing his misfortune ;
his confort, too, gave herfelf up to grief, and followed him
m a flate of diftraétion, finging mournful fongs. In this
legend, Mr. Wilford (Af Ref. vols. 11, and iv.) finds the
Grecian ftory of the wanderings of Bacchus, and the lamen-
tations of Dematur. It may be here noticed, that the names
of Bacchus and Dematur, (or Dimeter, having two mothers)
may be recognized in Baghefa and Devimatri, names of
Siva and his reputed, many-mothered, for Kartikya. (See
Kanttcva.) In the article juft referred to, it is noticed
how the reputed fon of Baghefa, or Siva, claime alfo a fiery

MUN

parentage, through the inftrumentality of Agni. (See
PavakKa.) Hence he is alfo called Agni-bhuva, and
Agnija, born from fire: Pyrigenes is a Greek name of
Bacchus, of a like derivation. Thefe analogies: are not
confined to names, but extend to a¢tions and attributes, in
reference as well to the deified perfonages immediately
under difcuffion, as to many others common to Grecian,
Egyptian, and Indian mythology. See Mytrerocy of
the Hindoos.

MUNIANEN, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the
circle of Natangen; 36 miles S. of Konigfberg. ;

MUNIC, Burcuarp CHRISTOPHER, Count, in Bio-
graphy, a celebrated general, was born of a noble family in
the county of Oldenburgh, in the year 1683. He was well
educated, and {fo advantageoufly did he improve his time
and his talents, that at the age of fixteen he had made fuch
a progrefs in the fciences, and.m the languages, that he was
deemed qualified to undertake a tour in France, where he
made great advances in various branches of learning, and
applied -himfelf particularly to engineering and fortification.
By Lewis X1V. he was-appointed an engineer in the French
army, an office in which he did not long continue, on ac-
count of his unwillingnefs to ferve againft the empire: he
accordingly returned to Germany, was made a captain, and,
with his troops, was prefent at the fege of Landau. After
this he entered into the fervice of the prince of Hefle-Caffel,
and had an opportunity of improving himfelf in the art of
war under the duke of Marlborough and prince Eugene.
On account of his great bravery at the battle of Malplaquet,
he was raifed to the rank of lieutenant-colonel. At the
battle of Denain, in 1712, he was dangeroufly wounded, aad
taken prifoner by the French, but being liberated the fol-
lowing year he was promoted to the command of a regiment.
After this he was employed in high civil and military pofts
by Auguitus II. king of Poland, and by the Ruffian Peter
the Great. In 1723 he was entrufted with the conftru@tion
of the famous canal of Ladega, (fee CanaL,) which he
completed with fo much {kill and alacrity, that the czar, as
a mark of his fatisfagtion, admitted him a member of his
council. The emprefs Catharine conferred on him the order
of Alexander Newflki; in the year 1727 Peter II. made
him commander-in-chief, and in 1728 raifed him to the rank
of count. Under the emprefs Anne, he, in the courfe of
a few years, became prelident of the college of war, general
field marfhal, chief of the new corps of noble land cadets,
and knight of the order of St. Andrew. He was appointed
commander of the Ruffian troops in Poland, and reduced,
Dantzic: in 1735 he defeated the Tartars of the Crimea,
and made himfelf mafter of fome very {trong towns, but
with the heavy lofs of 30,009 men: for this, though his
enemies did ail in their power to undermine his reputation,
the emprefs rewarded him with the grant of a confiderable
eftate in the Ukraine. In the year 1737 he took Oczacow by
florm, and, after an almoft uninterrupted feries of victories,
reduced Choezim in 1739, and {fubjecied the greater part of
Moldavia to the Ruffian dominion, After the death of the
emprefs Anne, his great ambition was to be appointed gene-
raliffimo of the naval and land forces, and being difap-
pointed, he refigned his various eyployments. On the ac-
ceffion ef Elizabeth he was arrefled, under the pretence
that he had perfuaded the emprefs Anne to nominate Ivan
as her fucceflor, but the real caufe of this ttep was, that by
order of that emprefs he had taken into cuftody one of
Ehizabeth’s favourites, whofe turn it now was to take
revenge.

Munic was brought before a committee appointed to
examine flate prifoners, or rather appointed to execute the

orders

MUN

orders of the court. Being fatigued with an almolt endlefs
repetition of queftions, and perceiving that his judges were
' determined to find him guilty, he faid to them, « Dictate the
anf{wers you wifh me to make, and I will fign them.” The
judges, to their difgrace, immediately wrote down a con-
fefiion of feveral a&ts with which they chofe to charge him,
and which being fubfcribed by the count, the mock trial
ended. He was now condemned to fuffer the penalties at-
tached to the crime of high treafon: thefe were afterwards
commuted to perpetual imprifonment. For the {pace of
twenty years he was confined at Pelim, in Siberia, in a pri-
fon furrounded with palifadoes, of which he had himfelf
drawn the plan, meaning to confine in it his enemy Biren.
‘The place of his imprifonment was an enclofure of about
170 feet {quare, within which was a wooden houfe, inhabited
by him, his wife, and a few fervants. He was allowed for
his maintenance 12s. a-day, which he increafed by keeping
cows, and felling part of their milk, and by occafionally in-
ftruGting young people in geometry and engineering. Be-
fides the culture of his little farm, and the hours which he
fpent in giving inftruction te the young, he found fufficient
time for tranflating feveral pfalms and prayers into German
verfe, and for writing a treatife upon the art of war; but in
the laft year of his imprifonment he was obliged to dettroy
all his writings, which had been the folace and amufement of
fo many years. He bore his imprifonment with refignation,
tranquillity, and cheerfulnefs, and was accuftomed to have
prayers regularly in his family twice a-day. He had always
lived in the expeétation of recovering his liberty at the
acceffion of Peter III, but he was no fooner informed
of that event, than with the utmoit agitation he began
to dread that his expeCtation was ill-founded. He fuf-
fered, during feveral weeks, the moft painful anxiety, be-
tween the paflions of hope and fear, and was often heard
to declam, that thefe few weeks appeared to him much
longer than all the former years of his confinement. At
length, on the rth of February 1762, the meffenger
arrived from Peterfburgh with the order for his releafe.
Upon being informed of the fact he fainted away, but
on his recovery he fell down upon his knees, and offered
his moft grateful thanks to Almighty God for this change
in his fituation. He did not leave Pelim till the rgth, and
on the 24th of March he reached Peterfburgh, in the fame
fheep-fkin drefs which he had worn during his long imprifon-
ment. On the 31/t he was admitted to an audience by the
emperor: Peter, after hanging round his neck the order of
St. Andrew, and reftoring him to his ancient rank, faid to
him, “I hope that your advanced age will {till permit you
to ferve me.’’.—‘* Since your majetty,” replied the count,
«has raifed me from darknefs into light, and recalled me
from Siberia to prottrate myfelf before your throne, I fhall
always be moft willing to expofe my life in your fervice.
Neither a long banifhment from the court, nor the climate
of Siberia, have been-able to damp, in the fmallett degree,
that fire which formerly fhone with fuch luftre for the in-
tereft of the Ruffian empire and the glory of its fovereign.’’

Munic died in OGober 1767, at the age of eighty-five: he
was a man of great talents, and pofleffed many and diitin-
guifhed virtues, but he,was not without his defects. His
faults, however, fearcely injured any but himfelf, but his
excellencies were of vait benefit to Ruflia, He favoured
literature, and frequented the company of learned men. He
was acquainted with the arts, for which he had a confider-
able tafte, but he diftinguifhed himfelf moft as a general,
and by his knowledge of taétics:-he has, however, been
accufed of exerciling too much feverity to thofe who were

MUN

placed under his command. Coxe's Travels into Ruffia,
vol. iii.

MUNICH, in Geography, a city of Bavaria, feated on
the Ifer, the capital of the kingdom and royal refidence,
This place, on account of its itraight and broad fircets,
and fine buildings, is reckoned one of the handfomekt cities
not only in Germany, but in Europe; and the number of
its inhabitants is faid to be 40,000. Its palace, ereéted by
the emperor Maximilian I., is an elegant and f{pacious edi-
fice; and the city abounds with a variety of curious antiqui-
ties. Munich has manufactures of velvet, filk, wool, and
tapeftry. It was taken by the French in 1796, who, accord.
ing to their ufual pra€tice, levied upon the eleétor a con-
fiderable contribution; and in 1800 it was taken by them
again; 29 miles S.E. of Augfburg. N. lat. 48°6'. E.
long. 11° 32!.

MUNICHE, a town of South America, in the audience
of Quito; 60 miles S. of St. Jago de la Laguna.

MUNICIPAL, Municipauis, or Municeps, compound-
ed of munus, office, and capio, I take, or hold, an appella-
tion given to the inhabitants of the municipia, or municipal
cities.

In the Roman law, municipal denotes a perfon vetted with
the rights and privileges of a Roman citizen.

This title the Romans frequently beftowed on foreign
cities and people; and, in effect, it was little more than 2
title.

Municipan Cities, municipia, were thofe whofe inhabitants
were capable of ‘civil offices in the city of Rome.

Thefe, however, according to Mariana, came fomewhat.
fhort of the privileges of the colonies. They were towns
or cities, which had the citizenfhip of Rome beftowed upor
them, and yet {till lived according to their own laws and
conititutions ; whereas the colonies were governed by the
Roman laws.

They had no fuffrages, or votes, at Rome, but were left
to be governed by their own laws and magiltrates. It is
true, fome few municipal cities, by particular merit, &c.
obtained the liberty of votes; which occafioned that re-
ceived diftinétion of municipium fine fuffragio, F municipium
cum fuffragio.

They were fo called, becaufe muneris hujus honorarit par~
ticipes ; but by munus honorarium was meant no more than
the bare appellation of a Roman, whereby they were priyi-
leged to fight ina legion, as denizens; and not in auxiliary
bands, as aflociates. The firft who had this honour were
the Ceerites.

MoniciPaL, among us, is now applied to the cuftomary
laws that obtain in any particular city or province, and
which have no authority in the neighbouring places. See
Law.

Municipat Officers, are thofe ele&ted to defend the
interefts of cities, their rights and privileges, and to main-
tain order and good policy: as mayors, fheriffs, confuls,
bailiffs, &c. :

In Spain, the municipal offices are bought; in England,
they are obtained by eleétion.

MUNIE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
circar of Hiffar; 15 miles N. of Hiilar.

MUNILLA, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile; 8 miles
S. of Calahorra.

MUNIMENTS, or Minimenrs, the evidences, or writ-
ings, whereby a man is enabled to defend the title of his
eftate.

Wrangford fays, the word muniment includes all manner
of evidence, deeds, charters, &c.

Sf{2 Mvus1-

MUN > :

© Moniursr-houfe, a little ftrong apartment in cathedral
and collegiate churches, caftles, colleges, or the like, def-
fined for keeping the feal, evidences, charters, &c. of fuch
church, colleges, &c. called muniments, or miniments.

“ MUNIMINA, formed of the Latin munio, J defend or

Sfrengthen, the grants or charters of kings and princes’ to
churches: fo called, becaufe cum eis muniuntur again{t all
thofe who would deprive them of thofe privileges.

MUNIONS, in Archite@ure. See MuLuions.

Munrons, or Muntons, the pieces that divide the flern and

uarter calleries in a fhip.

_ MUNITION, or Ammunition, the provifions with
which any place is furnifhed, in order for defence, or with
which a veffel is ftocked for a voyage: or thofe that follow
a camp for its fubfiitence. See AMMUNITION.

Monition-Bread is the proportion of bread diftributed
every day to the foldiers of a garrifon, or army. Each officer
is allowed fo many rations of munition-bread.

Monirtion-Ships, in the Navy, thofe which have ftores
on board, to fupply the neceffaries to a fleet of men of war
at fea.

In the time of an engagement, all the munition-fhips and
vidtuallers attending the fleet are to take their places and
proper ftations in the rear of all the reft, and not engage in
the fight, but attend fuch direétions as fhall be fent unto
them, at all times, by the admiral. :

MUNKATZKOE, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in

the government of Kolivan, on the Torn; 180 miles E. of ,

Kolivan.. N. lat. 54° 52’. -E. long. 86° so’.

MUNKHOLM, a town of Norway, in the province
of Drontheim; 3 miles N. of Drontheim.

MUNKOES, a town of Hungary, the cattle of which,
feated on a fteep rock, and artificially fortified, is deemed
impregnable. The town is fituated on the river Latortza,
and it is the refidence of a Greek bifhop, united with the
Roman church, and a convert of the order of St. Bafil;
52 miles E.S.E. of Cafkau. N. lat. 48° 29'. E. long. 20°

14’.
+ MUNKORP, a town of Sweden, in Weftmanland; 7
miles W. of Stroemfholm.

MUNKY, a town of Hindooftan, in Canara; 7 miles
from Onore.

MUNNERSTADT, a town of the duchy of Wurtz-
burg, on the Louer; g miles N. of Schweinfurt. N. lat.

o° 18! E. long. 1o° 24’.

MUNNY-Sue iter, in Natural Hiflory,a name given by
the natives of the Eaft Indies to a fpecies of red orpiment,
which they have plentifully there. It isof a glowing co-
Jour, and has a great many. fhining fpangles in it. They
give this in fevers, after it has been calcined; it firft melts
in the fire, and them emits copious white fumes, {melling
like thofe of arfenic. Thefe are fuppofed to contain the
poifonous parts of it, and it then becomes a fafe internal
medicine, and is given with great fuccefs.

MUNNYPOUR, or Munnepoora, in Geography, a
town of Atia, capital of Caffay ; 264 miles N.N.E. of
Aracan. N. lat. 24° 40'. E. long. 95°.

MUNOOCORY, a town of Hinrdoottan, in the Carna-
tic ; 7 miles S.W. of Arnee.

MUNOZ, Jenome, in Biography, a Spanifh mathema-
tician, and oriental fcholar, was born at Valencia, but at
what period we cannot tell. He flourifhed in the fixteenth
century, and rofe firlt into famein Italy, as ateacher of the
Hebrew language at Ancona, where he was highly applauded
on account of his intimate knowledge of the facred tongue :
nor was he lefs efleemed for his protean {kill in the Greek

MUN

language, polite literature, and the mathematical feiences.
He was next invited to undertake the profefforfhip of He-
brew and the mathematics, at the univerfity of Salamanca,
where he {pent the remainder of his days: he was author of
feveral works, of which the following are the principal ;
«« Inititutiones Arithmetice ad percipiendam Attrologiam
et. Mathematicas Facultates neceflarie ;” ‘ Alphabetum
Hebraicum cum ratione legendi cum pundiis;”’ ** Lectura
Geographica.’’ Moreri.

MUNRY, or Muwreeg, in Geography, a river of Ire-
land, in the northern part of the county of Mayo, which
runs into Tullaghan bay, onthe north of Achillifland.

MUNSALU, a town of Sweden, in the government of
Wala; 15 miles S. of Jacobftadt.

MUNSAPETTA, a town of Hindooftan, in the Car-
natic ; 5 miles N. of Tritchinopoly.

MUNSEN, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of
Viliapour ; 27 miles N. of Poonah. ;

MUNSHOLYM, a {mall ifland of Denmark, in the Great
Belt ; 1o miles N.N.W. of Corfoer.
long. 11° 6/.

MUNSINGEN, a town of Wurtemberg ; 26 miles
8.S.E. of Stuttgart. N. lat. 48° 25'. E. long. 9° 33/.

MUNSTER, Sesastian, in Biography, a diitinguifhed
mathematician and linguilt, was born at Ingelheim, in the
Palatinate, in 1489, and after fuitaining fome time the
character of a Francifean monk, quitted that order, and
embraced the reformed religion., He became profeffor of the
Hebrew language and theology at Heidelberg, whence he
afterwards removed to Bafle to hold the like offices, where
he died of the plague in.1552. He was one of the firft
among the German literati who attempted to improve
the icience of geography, and compofed a book entitled
* Cofmographia Univerfalis,’’ which was printed in 1550,
and tranflated into the Italian and other languages. A
French edition was publifhed at Paris in 1575, in two vols,
folio, with correGtions and additions. He was fo celebrated
as a geographer, and alfo for his knowledge m theology,
that he was ityled the Strabo and Efdras of Germany.
He conilruéted a map of the territory of Bafle, and an-
other of Germany, which was corrected and enlarged by
Tilleman Stella in 1567. Muntter was likewife great as a
mathematician and attronomer. Montucla {peaks of a trea-
tife of geometry written by him, entitled “ Rudimenta Ma-
thematica,”’ and he compofed another on gnomonics, which
the fame author fays is the foundation of the modern art of
dialling. It was printed at Bafle, under the title of ‘* Com-
politio Horologiorum.’? In’ addition to thefe works, an-
other is mentioned, viz. ‘* Organon Uranicum,’’ in which the
author gives a theory of the planets, with their various mo-
tions, for more than 100 years. Asa linguift, the follew-
ing works are mentioned ; “ A Latin Tranflation of the
Hebrew Bible ;’ ‘* Grammatica Hebraica;’’ * Did.
Hebraice Chaldaico-Latinum;’’ ‘* Calendarium Hebrai-
cum;"’ ‘ Grammatica Chaldaica ;”? ‘* Tabule nove ad
Geog. Ptolemai,’’ &c. Gen. Biog.

Munsrer, in Geography, a bifhopric of Germany, bound-
ed onthe N. by Friefland and Oldenburgh, on the E. by the
bifhopric of Ofnabruck, and counties of Diepholz, Teck-
lenburg, Lingen, and Ravenfberg, on the S. by Weitpha-
lia, the counties of Mark and Recklinhaufen, and duchy
of Cleves ; and on the W. by Holland, and tne county of
Beatheim. ‘Che country is level, having only a few emi-
nences, but no mountains. Its heaths, which are extenfive,
ferve for the breeding of cattle. It has fruitful plains, fine
woods and turf, with good quarries of ftone, Its rivers

abound

N, Jat. 55° 29, E.

—

; MUN

abound with fifh. Of thefe the moft remarkable are the
Embs, the Lippe, the Vecht, and the Berkel. Between
the bifhopric and the county of Diepholz lies the “« Dum-
mer” lake, one German mile long, and half a league broad,
At the commencement of the reformation, the Lutheran
doétrine was received by many perfons in this bifhopric ; but
it was afterwards fupprefled. In 1802, the bifhoprie was
fecularifed, and given to the king of Pruflia, but at the peace
of Tilfit it was ceded tothe kingdom of Weltphalia.

* Munsrex, the capital of the above-mentioned bifhopric,
is fituated in a fruitful and agreeable {pot, on the river Aa,
not far from the Embs. It was in the eleventh century that
it obtained the name of Muntfter, from the collegiate church
founded by Charlemagne. It is environed by double ditches
and ramparts, and contains a citadel, called the ‘ Brille.”
Among other churches is that of St. Lambert, on the
tower of which were fufpended, in iron baflcets, John of Ley-
den, leader or king of the Anabaptilts, and alfo both his
princes. Thiscity, which has undergone, in a fucceffion of
years, various calamities, is famous for a treaty of general
peace, fettled in the year 1658, and fometimes called the
treaty of Muntter, and alfo the treaty of Weitphalia, be-
caule the plenipotentiaries were divided, and laboured at
the fame time at two places ; the Swedes at Ofnabruck,
andthe French at Muniter. {n 1802, it was given to the
king of Pruffia, with part of the bifhopric, as an indemnity
for his lofs of Cieves, Gueldres, &c.; but at the peace of
‘Tilfit it was furrendered to Weitphalia; 65 miles N.N.E.
of Cologne. N. lat. 51° 49’. E.long. 25~ 6'.

Munster, atown of the duchy of Wurzburg; 11 miles
E.N.E. of Schweinfurt.—Alfo, a town of France, in the
department of the Upper Rhine, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diitri€&t of Colmar; 3 miles W.S.W. of Col-
mar. ‘The place contains 2442, and the canton 11,351 inha-
bitants, ona territory of 160 kiliometres, in 14 communes,

. —Alfo, a town of the county of Tyrol; 2 miles S.W. of
Rattenburg.—Alfo, a town of the Grifons, from which is
derived the name of a valley called ‘* Muniterthal,”’ in the
league of God’s Houfe ; 15 miles N. of Bormio.— Alfo, a
town of the principality of Hefle; 4 miles S.S.W. of
Butzbach.

Munster, the fouthern of the four provinces into which
Ireland is divided, which comprehends the counties of Clare,
Limerick, Tipperary, Waterford, Cork, and Kerry.

Muwysrer-£ifel, a town of France, in the department of
the Roer; 24 miles S.E. of Julers. N.lat. 50°38’. -E.
long. 6 41’.

Munster-Meinfeld, a town of France, in the department
ef the Rhine and Mofelle and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrict of Coblentz ; 11 miles W.S.W. of it. The place
contains 760, and the canton 4779 inhabitants, in 25 com-
munes.

MUNSTERBERG, a principality of Silefia, encom-
paffed by the principalities of Schweidnitz, Brieg, and Neiffe,
and thecounty of Glatz. The foilis good, and yields, be-
fides flax, hemp, and wood, all forts of grain, and in the
vicimity of the capital, great quantities of hops. It affords
alfo large breeds of good horned cattle and fheep._ To the
well and fouth it is mountainous, the Bohemian chain ending
near the county of Glatz, and the Moravian chain com-
mencing. ‘This principality contains three boroughs; and
one market-town. In 1653, Munfterberg, with the diltrict
of Frankenftem, was conferred by the emperor Ferdinand,
as‘a fief, on John Weichard of Auerfberg, by whofe de-
fcendants it is ftill enjoyed. Its capital, of the fame name,
ts fituated on the Ohlau; its inhabitants are chiefly em-
ployed in the culture of hops; 31 miles S. of Breflau. N.

MUN

lat. 51° 26. E. long, 16° 56'.—Alfo, a town of Pruffia,
in the province of Oberland; 18 miles E.N.E. of Marien-
werder.—Alfo, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Pome-
relia; 12 miles N.N.W. of Marienberg.—Alfo, a town of
Pruffia, in the province of Ermeland; 16 miles S.W. of
Heillperg.

MUNSURABAD, a town of Hindooftan, in Allaha-
bad ; 12 miles N.W. of Allahabad.

MUNTER, Barruasar, in Biography, a celebrated Ger-
man divine, was born, in 1735, at Lubeck, where his father
refided as a merchant. He was well educated, and obtain-
ed a high reputation at fchool, as well by his German poe-
try in general, as by two odes in praife of the Deity, which
were regarded as happy prefages of that celebrity to which
he afterwards attained in facred poetry. In 1754, he went
to ftudy at Jena, and in 1757 became a private teacher in phi-
iofophy. He-entered his new career with great fuccefs, and
the {eantinefs of his means induced him to make great exer-
tions. He devoted himfelf to the church, acquired much
popularity by his fermons, and was foon patronized by the
duke of Gotha, who appointed him dean of the court. He
now diftinguifhed himfelf in print by fome volumes of fer-
mons, and by a treatife «* On the Tree of Knowledge,” which
was written in anfwer to an accufation made again{t him for
herefy. He was next appointed fuperintendant at Tonna,
and in a fhort time he accepted an invitation to become paf-
tor of a German congregation at Copenhagen. Here he
publifhed his ‘ Converfations of a refleéting Chriftian with
himfelf, on the Truth and Divine Origiu of his Belief,’
a work which was extremely well received, even by thofe
who thought differently from him in regard to many con-
troverted points. He was exceedingly attentive to the reli-
gious inftrution of youth, and compofed a treatife exprefsly
with this view, emitled «An Introdu@tion to the Know-
ledge and Praétice of Religion,’ which was faid to be dif
tinguifhed for its perfpicuity and practical utility. In the
year 1772, he attended the unfortunate count Struenzee
during his imprifonment, and revived in his mind thofe fen-
timents of religion which he had imbibed in his youth, and
which had not been entirely eradicated by a life of vicious in-
dulgence. Munter publifhed an account of Struenzee’s
converfion, which bears the Itrongeft marks of the moft dif-
interefted attachment, and no work of modern times was
read with fo much avidity: it was circulated with the ut-
moit zeal in foreign countries, and tranflated into the
Danith, Swedifh, French, and Dutch languages. In the
year 1786, Munter fuftained a fevere itroke by the lofs of
his fecond fon, who had been brought up to the fea-fervice,
and who was drowned in the harbour of Bordeaux: he died
himfelf in 1793, leaving behind him the charaGter of an ex-
cellent hufband, an affectionate father, and a fincere friend.
Modeity and benevolence were the moft firiking features in
his character. Gen. Biog.

MUNTERKINGEN, in Geography, atownof Wur-
temberg, on the Danube ; 16 miles S.W.of Ulm.

MUNTERLONEY, moustains of Iretind, inthe coun-
ty of Tyrone, feparated by a vz!ley from the’ Cuirntogher
mountains, which border on Londonderry. ;

MUNTINGIA, in Botany, named by Plumier. in ho
nour of a celebrated botamlt, Dr. Abraham Munting, whe
fucceeded his father, Dr. Henry Munting, in the botanical
profefforfhip at Groningen. This gentleman is known from
various publications, but is more efpecially eminent for his
treatife * De vera antiquorum herba Britannica,” which he
confiders as a fpecies of water-dock. He died, at the age
of 57, in 1683.—Plum. Gen. 41. Linv. Gen. 264. Schreb,
351- Willd. Sp. Pl, v. z, 1149. Mart. Mill. Dic. v. 3.

4 Swartz.

MUO
Swartz. Obf. 211. Jacq. Amer. 166. Juff. 291. La-
marck Iluftr.t. 468. Gertn. t.59.—Clafs and order, Po-
lyandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Columnifere, Linn. Tilia-
cee, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Gal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, concave at the
bafe, deciduous, deeply cloven into five, lanceolate, acute,
large fegments. Cor. Petals five, roundifh, {preading, infert-
edinto the calyx. Stam. Filaments numerous, capillary, very
fhort, inferted into the receptacle ; anthers roundith. Py).
Germen fuperior, globofe, clothed with foft hairs; ftyle
none; ftigma capitate, five-fided, radiated, permanent.
Peric. Berry globofe, umbilicated with the ftigma, of five
cells. Seeds numerous, roundifh, very {mall, imbedded in

ulp.

' Obt. Gertner fays that the berry has frequently more
than five cells.

Eff. Ch. Corolla of five petals. Calyx deeply five-cleft.
Berry with five or more cells, each containing many feeds.

1. M. Calabura. Villofe Muntingia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 728.
Plum. Ic. t. 205. Jacq. Amer.t. 107.. (Calabura alba ;
Pluk. Phyt. t. 152. £4. Loti arboris folio anguitiore, ru-
bi flore, fractu poly{permo umbilicato; Sloane Jam. v. 2.
80. t. 194. )—Swartz fays that it is a native of calcareous
hills in Jamaica, flowering in the fpring: According to
Jacquin, however, who reports that it 1s common in the
damp woods of St. Domingo, it flowers in the autumn.—
This tree generally rifes to the height of ten or fifteen feet,
and, according to Sloane, even to thirty. The trunk is
much branched, and covered with a fmooth, dark purple
bark. Branches irregular, {preading, long, hairy. Leaves
alternate, on fhort hairy ftalks, ovato-lanceolate, pointed,
. rather unequally ferrated, flat, {preading, green and hairy
above, hoary and vifcid beneath, four or five inches long,
unequal at the bafe. Stipulas folitary, thread-thaped, fur-
nifhed with glandular hairs like the leaves. Stalks two to
four, cluftered, fingle-flowered. Jacquin remarks that they
fucceflively turn the flower, when it is about to expand, to
the face of the leaf, which before was reflexed to the back.
Flowers without fcent, but handfome, refembling thofe of the
bramble. Berry rofe-coloured, with a tinge of yellow ; when
cut in a tranfverle direGtion, it feems to be one-celled, but if the
pulp and feeds be gently preffed out in water, it appears very
clearly to be five-celled. Seeds whitifh, or pale ftraw-co-
loured. Sloane fays the fruit is as big as acherry, and
Miller, that it is as large as that of the cock{pur hawthorn ;
of adark purple colour when ripe.

Linnzus, in his Syft. Veg. ed. 14. 490, has very unac-
countably quoted Mallam-taddali, Rheed. Hort. Mal. v. 4.
t. 40, a3 a fynonym of JZ. Calabura, with which indeed it
has nothing in common, except a flight refemblance in the
leaves.

MUNTISSUR, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 20
miles N.E. of Burdwan.

MUNYCHIA, Mowe, in Antiquity, an anniverfary fo-
lemnity at Athens, upon the fixteenth of the month Mu-
aychion, in honour of Diana, furnamed Munychia.

MUNYCHION, Mevvyiov, in Chronology, the tenth month
of the Athenian year. It contained twenty-nine days, and
anfwered to the latter part of our March and beginning of
April. See Monvu.

It had its name from the feltival Manychia, kept in it.

MUNZENBERG, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the county of Hanau Munaenberg ; 19 miles S.E. of
Wetzlar.

MUODGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Cicacole; 18 miles N.N.W. of Ganjam.

MUONILO, a river which rifes in the mountains of Nor.

8

MUR

way, and paffing foutherly through Swedifh Lapland, joins
the Tornea in N. lat. 67° 12’.

MUPHTI, Murer, or Shaik-iflam, the chief or pa-
ear of the Mahometan religion, refiding at Conitanti-
nople.

‘The muphti is the fovereign interpreter of the Alcoran,
and decides all queftions of the law: his decifions are called
“ fetfas.” "The fultan has cecourfe to him in all difficult and
intricate cafes, and he promulgates no law, makes no decla~
ration of war, nor eftablifhes any impoft, without having ob-
tained a fetfa.

He takes place of the bafhaws; and his authority is often
terrible to the grand fignior himfelf. It is he who girds on
the {word to the grand fignior’s fide on his acceffion to
the throne, which ceremony an{wers to the coronation of our
kings; reminding him at the fame time of the obligation of
defending the religion of the prophet, and of propagating
his creed.

This eminent place might ferve, without doubt, as a coun-
terpoife to the almoft abfolute and unlimited authority of
the fovereign: it might even frequently paralyfe it, if the
fultan had not the power of appointing the mufti, of de-
pofing him, of banifhing him, and even of putting him te
death after having depofed him ; and, indeed, 1t feldom hap-
pens that a mufti oppofes the will of the fultan and his mi-
nilters. His fetfas are forced from him by the with of
preferving his place, and by the fear of death; neverthelefs,
more than once, religious zeal and probity have induced
fome to prefent themfelves to the fultan, and to make to him
obfervations and remon{trances : fome even, more fanatic
and more courageous, braving every danger, have refufed
to condefcend to his wifhes. Hiftory affords various ex-
amples of fultans and vizirs killed or depofed through the
great influence of the muftis on public opinion: but it
likewife prefents more muftis who have been victims of
their zeal for religion, and of their attachment to the in-
teréefts of the people. The mufti is much refpected by the
fultan, and alfo by the people, who fubmit blindly to his
fetias.

According to the eftablifhed order the mufti muft be
chofen from among the kadilefkers of Romania, and thofe
who have occupied that employment; and he remains in
place as long as it pleafes the fultan to keep him there. In
public ceremonies the mufti and the grand vizir are in the
fame line ; the grand vizir on the right, and the mufti on the
left. When the latter is difgraced, he is not permitted to
remain in the capital. ‘The fultan fears the influence of a
man whom the people are accuftomed to regard as the
oracle of religion. He is banifhed to fome ifland of the
Archipelago, or to fome houfe fituated on the Bofphorus,
with a prohibition not to ftir out of it, to receive any of the
principal officers of the empire, or to correfpond with them.
For an account of the kadilefkers, or cadilefchers, fee Ca-
DILESCHER, and of the ftambol-effendi, fee SramBoL-
EFFENDI.

MUR, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Northern Coalts, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftri&t of Loudéac ; 9 miles W. of it. The place
contains 2096, and the canton 5248 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 130 kiliometres, in 5 communes.

Mur-de-Barres, a town of Trance, in the depart-
ment of the Aveyron, and chief place of a canton, in the
ciftri& of Efpalion ; 30 miles N.E. of Rhodez, The place
contains 981, andthe canton 7421 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 1874 kiliometres, in 19 communes. N, lat. 44° 51,
E. long. 2° 44/,

MURA,

MUR

MURA, a river of en alga runs into the Tun-
ufka, nearly oppofite to Mureka. ;
? Mura, a awit Sicily, in the valley of Noto; 15 miles

S. of Modica. ¥

MURABA, in Biography, a Brahman of the city of
Poona, the capital of the Mahratta empire, in whofe per-
fon and defcendants is exhibited an extraordinary inftance
of prieftcraft and {uperftition. He was of the feét of Guf-
fain, or more correctly Gofwami ; and is reported to have
been fo pious that the god Ganefa rewarded him by incar-
nating himfelf in his perfon, and covenanting that the di-
vinity fhould defcend to his children to the feventh genera-
tion : empowering the incumbent to work miracles, and, in
a limited degree, to look into futurity. With this divine
patrimony is inherited the guardianfhip of a facred ttone, a
type of the Deity. In the year 1800, the venerated in-
cumbent was vilited by lord George Beresford, field-mar-
fhal Beresford, and Mr. Moor, the author of the Hindu
Pantheon. The latter furnifhed a detailed account of this
perfon, family, and vilit, to the Afiatic Society, which is
publifhed, art. xiv. inthe 7th volume of their Tranfations,
under the title of |‘ Account of an hereditary living deity,
to whom devotion is paid by the Brahmans of Poona, and its
neighbourhood.” ‘The incarnation is reprefented to have
taken place about the year 1640, and at the period of the
above vilit five generatious had paffed away. Gabaji Deva,
that is, the Lord, or Divine Gabaji, was the then incum-
bent. He has fince died, and it is agreed by the Brahmans,
that the avatara, or manifeitation (fee Maya,) will end
with the life of the next infpired portion of carnality, un-
lefs perpetuated or renewed by a farther miraculous inter-
polition of the divine will. Great refpedt, indeed adora-
tion, is paid by the Pefhwa, (fee Psnwa,) and of courfe
all other Brahmans about Poona, to this fanctified inheritor
of the gift of prophecy, as related at length, with many
other particulars of grofs {uperftition, in the article above
referred to. :

Lord Valentia has more recently vifited this venerated
perfonage, who refides in the abode of his anceftors at the
town of Chinchur, about a dozen miles from Poona; and
has given the particulars of his vifit in the fecond volume of
his Travels, p. 156; together with fome refpeéting the
family and perfon of the Deo (or Lord,) differing from the
information received by the preceding author.

The Hindoo deity Ganefa, thus incarnated, is the god of
prudence and policy : he is otherwife called Pollear, under
which article fome notice of him will be found.

MURACH,, in Geography, a town with a caftle of
Bavaria, in the Upper Palatinate; 7 miles E. of Nabburg.

MURZENA; the Eel, in Jchthyology, a genus of fifhes
of the order Apodes, of which the generic charaéter is ;
head {mooth ; noftrils tubular; gill-membrane with ten rays 5
eyes covered with a common {kin ; body round, fmooth,
mucous ; caudal, dorfal, and anal fins united; {piracle be-
hind the head or pectoral fins.

This genus feems to make a very near approach to the
reptile cals for in the eel, as in reptiles, the body is long,
flender, and flexible ;. and excepting the {mall pair of pec-
toral fins, it may be faid to be without fins, inafmuch as the
dorfal, anal, and tail fins are united in one web, which fur-
rounds a large portion of the body. he apertures of the
gills are {mall, and placed behind the peétoral fins. The
eel differs from almoft all other fifth of that order in the
mode of generation, and ftands at the top of it in almott
all claffifications. It is viviparous, and is impregnated in
the fame manner as obtains among the cartilaginous tribes.
The ancients entertained very extravagant ideas refpecting

MUR

the generation of thefe animals: fome of them afferted that
in the eel tribe there were neither male nor female, hence it
was inferred that they {fprung from the mud, or that the
incruftation feraped from their bodies received animation.
This opinion was rafhly adopted from having obferved that
they were generated in pools, from which all the mud and
water had been fome time drawn off. This was a pheno-
menon, for which they could not account otherwife than by
admitting the fpontaneous generation of eels ; but later and
more accurate obfervations have fhewn, that ponds are fre-
quently fupplied with thefe fith, in the fame manner that
vegetation is fpread, by tranfporting the feeds of plants.
It has been thought that the heron and other water fowl
may drop the eel, when carrying it to its young, or if
f{wallowed by them alive and uninjured, the digeftive facul-
ties having no power over them, may be ejected from its fto-
mach, as the feeds of plants are voided by land animals,
without being in the {malleft degree affected by the procefs.
In their habitation, the fifhes of this genus are full more
fingular, than in the mode of propagating their young.
They can refide either in falt water or in trefh, and what
is ftill more {urprifing, they are, in fome meatfure, independ-
ent of either; for they have been known not unfrequently
to leave their native element, and wander, during the night,
along the moift meadows, not only for an exchange of habi-
tation, but, it is believed, in queft of prey. Of thefe nightly
excurfions, the {nail and the flug are the viGims, being de-
voured by eels as they pafs along. In the water no anima!
is more vivacious than the eel, and even when taken from its
natural element it clings to life moft tenacioufly : it will fur-
vive blows that would deprive animals ten: times its fize of
life in an inftant : after it is fkinned, and even cut to pieces,
it exhibits figns of life fome time. It is, however, eafily
affected, and deltroyed by cold, of which it is fo well aware,
that to avoid its effects, it beds itfelf deep in the mud, and
continues in a torpid {tate during the winter. Though fond
of hiding themfelves in the mud to anfwer their own pur-
pofes, they are faid to be incapable of living long in thick
turbid water ; and hence, when a river is diiturbed by land
floods, they are frequently fuffocated by the impurity of the
ftream. This genus includes nine fpecies according to:
Gmelin, but Dr. Shaw defcribes eleven,.of which the follow-
ing is an account.

Species.

Hevena, or Romana; the Roman Eel:

No: pectoral
fins ; the body is variegated

3 there is a variety {potted with
black and green... This fifh,, the celebrated favourite of the
ancient Romans, is found in great plenty about the coatts
of the Mediterranean. Its colour is a dufky greenifh-brown,
thickly variegated on all. fides with dull yellow marks or
patches ; the head is vather {mall ; the mouth moderately
wide, and the teeth fharp ;. the dorfal and caudal fins, which
are fhallow, and covered by the common {kin, are united, in
the fame manner as in the eel, and are of a dufky colour
with whitifh fpots. The ancients, who kept it in refervoirs
appropriated for the purpofe, are faid to have tamed it to
fuch a degree,’ as to come at a call to receive its food.
It inhabits other European feas befides the Mediterranean.
and fome American feas 5, it is exceedingly voracious, and.
bites dangeroufly, See Gymnoruorax.

Cotusrina.; Snake Eel. No pestoral fins; body al-
ternately annulate, with yellow and black bands: a varie
of this {pecies is diitinguifhed by brown irides with blac
fpots. This is a native of the Indian feas, particularly
about the coaft of Amboina: it is about two feet long ;
the colour is pale or yellowith-white; marked throughout

by

MUR

by numerous equidiftant widifh bands of black or brown,
paffing through the fins; the body, when examined with
magnifiers, is found to be covered with very fmall feales ;
the fnout is fharp-pointed, and the eyes are very fmall.

Merraeris ; Speckled Eel: Body blackifh, thickly
fpotted with white: it is about two feet long, of a deep
brown colour, thickly befet on all parts with almoit innu-
merable {mall white round fpots, which are lefs regular,
or mére confluent on the head and breaft than elfewhere.
The eyes of this fpecies are fmall; the mouth is wide; and
the teeth fharp and numerous. It is a native of the fouthern
ocean.

* Opus ; Spotted Sea-Serpent. Body flender, {potted ;
tail round, fpear-fhaped, naked. This {pecies grows to the
length of between three and four feet; it is found in Eu-
ropean feas ; the body is {mall in proportion to its length ;
the moutb is large ; teeth pointing inwards; back {potted
with white ; belly and fins whitith.

Srerpens; Serpent Eel. Tail naked, pointed ; body
round. It inhabits the fouthern European feas; the pecto-
ral fins with about twenty-fix rays.

* Ancuitta; Common Eel: In this fpecies the lower
jaw is the longer ; and the body is of onecolour. In maddy
waters it is black, beneath yellowifh; in gravelly, clear
waters, it is green or brownifh ; beneath filvery, fometimes
varied with brown lines ; the head is fmall, and narrowed on
the fore-part ; the mouth is large ; beneath the eye is a {mall
orifice, and at the end of the nofe two others, fmall and
tubular; the teeth are {mall, fharp, and numerous; the eyes
are {mall, near the end of the nofe; aperture ‘of the gills
femilunar; body a little compreffed ; lateral line ftraight,
dotted with white ; fkin covered with foft oblong fcales ;
the pectoral fins are fmall, round, paler, with about nineteen
rays, dorfal, caudal, and anal fins united, frequently edged
with white. It is found almoft every where in frefh waters,

ows fometimes to the length of fix feet, and has been
known to weigh as much as twenty pounds: in appearance
and habits it refembles the ferpent tribe: during the night
it wanders into meadows in fearch of {nails and worms,
buries itfelf deep in the mud in winter, and continues in a
ftate of reft: it is impatient of cold, and tenacious of life:
the flefh of thofe that live in running ftreams is very good :
it is viviparous, producing the young during the decline of
fummer, which at their firft exclufion are very {mall. In
fore parts of Europe the eel-fifhery is of furprifing mag-
nitude. Dr. Bloch fays, that in fome places near the
mouths of the Baltic, fo great a quantity is taken, that
they are falted for exportation, and conveyed by waggon-
loads into Saxony, Silefia, &c. Two thoufand have been
taken in Jutland at a fingle {weep of the net: and in the
Garonne 60,000 are faid to have been taken ina day by a
fingle net.

* Myrus; Flat-tailed Sea-Serpent. Fin furrounding the
lower part of the body white, edged with black; a va-
riety of this fpecies is entirely cinereous. It is found in
European feas; the head is narrowed on the fore-part; two
fhort tentacula on the upper lip; back dark olive fpotted
with white; body comprefled. The fecond variety has
been fufpeted of being poifonous.

* Concer ; Conger Eel. Lower-jaw rather fhorter than
the upper; nofe with two tentacula ; lateral line whitifh,
with a row of fpots. It is found in European feas and
rivers ; is extremely voracious, feeding on other fifh, crabs
in their foft ftate, and particularly on carcafes, grows as
long as from four to ten feet ; fome fpecimenr, we are af-
fured, have been found to weigh a hundred pounds. A
fifhery of congers, at Mount’s-bay in Cornwall, forms a

MUR

confiderable artiele of commerce. They are annually ex-
ported, in a dried ftate, to Spain and Portugal, where-
being reduced to powder, they are ufed for enriching
foup.

Gutrata; Spotted Murena. Glaucous fpeckled with
black, with a larger fpot each fide near the head. It is
found in the Arabian feas; it has a callus between the
eyes, gold-coloured irides; the upper lip is fhorter than’
the lower, and the dorfal and anal fins are united at the
tail,

Such are the fpecies defcribed by Gmelin in the Murzna
genus ; fome later naturalilts have given a diftin@ genus,
called the AnGuiLLA, including with the common eel, the
conger, the ophis, the ferpens, and the mytus. Thefe
perfons give in the Murena genus the following fpecies,
viz. the catenata; reticulata; africana; zebra; and
echidna ; which have been defcribed under the word Gym-=
NOTHORAX.

Muranya ts ufed by Albertus for the common {mall lam-
pern, the /ampetra parva fluviatilis of authors. This is one
of the petromyza of Artedi, and is diflinguifhed by the hav-
ing only one row of very imall teeth in the verge of the
mouth, befides the larger lower ones.

MURAGE, Muraetum, in our Cu/loms, a reafonable
toll to be taken of every cart or horfe coming daden
into a city or town, for the building or repairing the walls
thereof.

MURAJAMA, in Geography, a town of Japan, on the
W. coalt of Niphon ; 60 miles S. of Achita. j

MURAKWA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Braclaw ; 28 miles W. of Braclaw. ‘ .

MURAL, fomething belonging to a wall; which the
Latins ca!l mxrus. :

Murat Crown, among the ancient Romans. See Crown.

Murat 4rch is a wall, or walled arch, placed exaély in
the plane of the meridian, i.e. upon the meridian line,
for the fixing of a large quadrant, fextant, or other inftru=
ment, to obferve the meridian altitudes, &c. of the heavenly
bodies. ; 7

Tycho Brahe was the firft who ufed a mural arch in his
obfervations ; after him Hevelius, Mr. Flamfteed, ‘De la
Hire, &c. ufed the fame means. See a defcription of the
mural arch at Greenwich, conftraéted by Mr. Graham, in
Smith’s Optics, book iii. e. 7. with the improvements of
Mr. Bird, in the Method of conftruéting Mural Quadrants,
publifhed by the commiffioners of longitude, 1768: and for
thatof Mr. Troughton, fee QUADRANT. ire

MURALT, Joun, in Biography, ad intelligent and in-
duttrious phyfician, was a native of Zurich, and defcended
from an ancient family in that city. He commenced" his
ftudies at Montpellier, and afterwards went to Leyden and
to Paris, in which capital he attended chiefly to midwifery!
and anatomy, under the tuition of Mauriceau and Gayant.’
On his return to Zurich, he prattifed all the branches of the:
healing art ; and alfo gave lectures in natural philofophyy
anatomy; and furgery. He was initrumental in ettablifhing
an anatomical theatre in this city, and frequently gave de=
monttrations, by difle€tion, both in human and comparative
anatomy. He acquired a general reputation and elteem
among his fellow citizens, nit died much regretted in 17330
He was author of a contiderable number of papers, printed’
in the A&a Academie Nature Curicforum, of which fox
ciety he was admitted a member, under the name of Aretzus.
Thefe memoirs relate principally to comparative anatomy.
He likewife publifhed the following works. ** Vade mecum
Anatomicum, five, Clavis Medicine,'’ "Tigur..1677; which’
was reprinted in Amiterdam, in 1688, under the titlesof

“ Exerci-

MUR

“ Exetcitationes Anatomice obfervationibus et experimentis
anatomicis mixte.’? The experiments and obfervations re-
late to the chyle, milk, lymph, bile, blood, and other hu-
mours, and fome of them are original; but he claims other
difcoveries which have not been allotted to him. « Colle-
gium Anatomicum,” Nuremb. 1687; “ Zoologia,” Tigur.
1709; ‘* Phyfices {pecialis quatuor Partes, five, Helvetie Pa-
radifus,”” ibid. 1710. This work contains a catalogue of
the plants that grow on the mountains round Zurich, many
of which had not been defcribed before ; but he was not
always correét in his nomenclature. Eloy Did. Hitt. de la
Med. Gen. Biog.

Murat, Beat-Louts pr, a native of Berne, after tra-
velling with a penetrating and philofophical eye through fe-
veral parts of Europe, made himfe’f known by his « Lettres
fur les Francois et furles Anglois,”’ in two fat 12mo. He
wrote alfo fables, and other works, which, though not
very excellent, fuited the tafte of the times, and were much
read.

MURANO, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the gulf of
Venice, with a town of the fame name, which is the fee of
abifhop. and contains 1¢ churches; N. of Venice.

MURARAT, a mountain of Tranfylvania, on the
borders of Servia; 48 miles S. of Hunyad.

MURARI, a name af the Hindoo deity Krifhna, or
Vithnu ; which fee.

MURASZERDA, in Geography, a town of Hungary,
on the river Muhr; eight miles N.N.E. of Cfakathura.

MURAT, a town of Farce, and principal place of a
diftri&, in the department of the Cantal; feven miles W.N.W.
of St. Flour. The place contains 2557, and the canton
13,000 inhabitants, ou a territory cf 3024 kiliometres, in 12
comnunes. N lat. 45° 7', E. long, 2° 56'.—Alfo, atown
of France, in the department of the Tarn, and chief p'ace
of acanton, in the diftri&t of Caftres; nine miles E. of La
Canne. The place contains 3024, and the canton 4116
inhabitants, on a territory of 165 kiliometres,. in two com-
munes.

MURATORI, Lopovico Antueyto, in Biography,
a learned Italian writer, was born at Vignola, in the duchy
of Modena, in the year 1672. He was obferved, even in
his infancy, to have a paffion for reading, which was imbibed
from perufing the romances of Madame Scudery, which by
accident, at that early period, fell in his way. At the age
of 13 he was fent to the Jefuits’ fchool at Modena, where
he daily ftole from his fleep feveral hours to allot to his
iludies, and from this time to his dea:h he reftri&ted him-
felf to feven hours reft out of the 24. At his own defire
hie was devoted to the fervice of the church, and received
the tonfure from the bifhop of Modena in his 16th year.
Having completed his courfe at fchool, he entered upon the
ftudies of the univerfity, and cultivated with great eager-
nefs polite literature and poetry; and in a fhort time after-
wards made great proficiency in the ftudy of the Greek.
In 1695 he was appointed one of the prefeéts of the Am-
brofian library at Milan, having previoufly received the de-
gree of doétor of laws at Modena. He was foon after
ordained prieft, and, in a mannef, fhut himfelf up amidit
the treafures of that celebrated repofitory. His refearches
enabled him to make thofe colleétions of curious literature,
which he afterwards gave the world under the titles of «« Anec-
dota Latina,’’ and «* Anecdota Greca.”? At this time he
began to make a colle&ion of inedited infcriptions, and
other remains of antiquity ; and for the purpofe of pro-
moting philofophy and letters, he procured the inftitution
of an academy in the Borromean palace. While thus em-
ployed, he was called by the duke of Modena to return

Vor. XXIV.

MUR

thither, and take the office of keeper of the archives of
the houfe of Efte, to which, at his own delire, was added
the office of ducal librarian. He returned in the year 1700,
and in two years his labours were interrupted by the wars
in Italy, and it was thought neceffary to remove the archives
to a fafer place on the approach of the French, who {oon
made themfelves mafters of Modena. ‘They treated Mura-
tori with refpet, and offered him the office of royal libra-
rian, which he refufed. In 1714, 15, and 16, he took feveral
journies into Italy for the purpofe of collecting new ma-
terials for memoirs of the houle of Efte, and that of Bron&
wick, which derives its origin from it. Ina this bufinefs he
was engaged as well by king George I. of Great Britain,
who furnifhed him with letters of commendation, as by
the duke of Modena. On his return he received the bene-
fice of provoft to the church of St. Maria Pompofa, in
Modena, and in the difcharge of the duties attached to this
office, he conduéted himfelf fo as to afford a model for

* parifh prielts, m aéts of kindnefs and charity to all thofe

who were the objeéts of them. He inftituted a fociety for
the proteétion of the widow, the orphan, and the dettitute,
and at his death bequeathed a large fum for its fupport.
So benevolent was he on every occafion which he thought
demanded pecuniary aid, that it was found after his death he
had given away to the poor, and expended upon his churches
much more than he had received from all his benefices
conjointly. Thefe offices of duty and kindnefs naturally at-
tached him to the place of his refidence, and no offers, how-
ever {plendid, of which he had many, could tempt him to
quit Modena, where he lived in high efteem. Of his la-
bours in the caufe of literature we have the teftimony of
Gibbon, who acknowledges Muratori to have been “ his
guide and matter in the hitory of Italy.”?—« His country,
and the public,”’ fays the hiftorian, ‘are indebted to him for
the following works on that fubjeét. 1. Rerum Stalicarum -
Scriptores (A. D. 500—1500) quorum potiffima pars nunc pri-
mum in lucem prodit, &c. 28 vols. in folio, Milan, 1723—
1738, 1751. A volume of chrono ogical and alphabetical
tables is {till wanting as a key to this great work, which is
yet ina diforderly and defective ftate. 2. Antiguitates Italie
medi /Evi, 6 vols. in folio, Milan, 1738—1743, in WS
curious differations on the manners, government, religion,
&c. of the Italians of the darker ages, with a fupple-
ment of charters, chronicles, &c. 3- Differtationi fopra le
Antiquita Italiane, 3 vols. in 4to, Milano, i751, a free ver-
fion by the author, which. may be quoted with the fame
confidence as the Latin text of the Antiquities. 4. Annali
@’ Italia, 18 vols. in o€tavo, Milan, 1753 - 1756, a dry
though accurate and ufeful abridgment of the hiftory of
Italy, from the birth of Chrift to the middle of the
eighteenth century. 5- Del? Antichita Efienfee et Italiane,
2 vols. in folio, Modena, 1717—1740. In the hiftory of
this illuitrious race, the parent of our Brunfwick kings, the
critic is not feduced by the loyalty or gratitude of the fub-
je&. In all his works, Muratori approves himfelf a dili-
gent and laborious writer, who afpires above the prejudices
of a Catholic prieft.” It was an early idea of our author
to inftitute a literary republic in Italy, which fhould affoci-
ate all the men of letters into one body; for this purpofe,
he wrote various addrefles to the public, under the fiGtitious
name of Lamindo Pritanio, in which he propojed his plan,
and pointed out the advantages that would probably refult
from fuch an inftitution. The fubject was amply difcuffed,
but the idea was never realized. In 1706 he publifhed a
work, entitled ‘* Della perfetta Poefia Italiana,” in two
volumes, which gave rife to a confiderable controverfy, as
might be expected, in a country in which different poets of
Dit high

MUR

high celebrity had formed different fchools of admirers,
punils, and imitators. In 1735 Muratori wrote a treatife
on “ Moral Philofophy,” which was feveral times reprinted.
It was followed by a treatife on the powers of the human
mind, intended as an anfwer to Huet’s tract on the weaknefs
of the human mind. He carried his enquiries into medical
-fubjeGts, and on the appearance of a peitilential diforder in
Germany in 1713, he publifhed a work, entitled «« Governo
della Pefte,” in which he treated on the office of the magif-
trate, the phyfician, and the divine, during the awful vifita-
tion of the plarue. To a new edition of this work in
1721 was added arelation of the plague of Marfcilles. In
1742 he publifhed a curious work, ‘ Dei Difetti della
Guurifprudentia,” which was connected with his purfuits in
hiftory and antiquities, and, thefe were the objects of his
favourite ftudies. As a theologian he raifed a formidable
form againft himfelf in controverfial divinity, the ground
of which was the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary.
He endeavoured to moderate the zeal of the combatants,
and in fo doing he acquired the reputation of a heretic, and
found it neceffary to write an epiftle in his own vindication
to Benedi@& XIV. Muratori was author of another celebrated
but obnoxious work, entitled * Della Regolata Divozione
dei Chriltiani,”” printed in 1747, under the feigned name of
Lamindo Pritanio. In this he wentas far ashe durit in
avowing himfelf hoftile to vulgar fuperttition, and on that
account made himfelf many enemies. Muratori was au-
thor of many other works befides thofe that have been men-
tioned above, particularly of lives of eminent perfons, as
of Petrarch, Paolo Segneri, &c. ; and of various differta-
tions on antiquarian fubjeéts. His reputation as a writer
extended throughout Eurone, and he was, by means of a
good conflitution and excellent health, enabled to continue
his various labours till a very advanced period of life. He
died in January 1750, in the feventy-eighth year of hisage,
and various tributes of high refpeét were paid to his memory,
by perfons of all parties of different countries. Gibbon.
Gen. Bioz. :

MURAWA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Bahar; 36 miles S.W. of Arrah.

MURCA pe Punoya, a town of Portugal, in the pro-
vince of Tras los Montes; 12 miles S.S.W. of Mirandela.

MURCH, atown of Hindooltan, in Bundeleund; 45
miles N. of Callinger.

MURCHA, a town of Bengal; eleven miles N.E. of
Muoocrthedabad:

MURCHAPOUR, atown of Hindoottan, in the circar
of Ellichpour; 20 miles N.E. of Akowla.

MURCIA, in Botany, (or Myncta, for it is printed
both ways within two pages of each other,) a name pro-
pofed by Linnwus, for feveral fpecies of Myrtus, in his
Flora Zeylanica, p. 81—83, which he fufpec&ted might con-
flitutey an intermediate genus between A/yrtus and Caryo-
phyllus ; but he has indicated no fufficient character to dif-
tinguiffrit, nor has he, or any one elfe, fubfequently efta-
dlifhed this fuppofed genus. See Myxrus.

Muncia, in Geography, one of the {malleft provinces of
Spain, though called a kingdom, is about 30 leagues from
tlie N.W. to the S.E., and 20 from the S.W. to the N.E.,
and is bounded by the kingdom of Valenciaon the E., La
Mancha and New Caflile on the N. and W., the kingdom
of Juan on the W., thatof Granadaon the W. and 5, and
the Mediterranean fea on the E.and S.E. Itis adry, hilly
country, almolt covered with mountains of various e/evations,
which are feparated. ia fome parts by dry parched up vallics,
and elfewhere by others of more than common beauty and

fertility. It contains a bifhopric, a cathedral chapter, a

MUR ,

collegiate chapter, fix commanderies of miktary orders,
ninety-one’ convents, twelve hofpitals, two afylums, three
colleges for the education of youth, two military govern-
ments, one of the three grand departments of the royal navy,
an intendant of the province, an intendant of the navy, fix
cities, fixty-four towns, feven villages, and fome hamlets. It
has two ports in the Mediterranean, the fmallef being that of
Las Agailas, and the other the largeft and moft important
in the whole of Spain, which is Carthagena. Its principal
towns, belides Murcia, the capital and epifcopal fee, are
Carthagena, a fortified town and formerly an epifcopal fee,
Lorca, Chinchilla, Albacete, Villena, and Almanza. This
province is watered by two ftreams, the Benamor and the
Guardavar, and by two rivers, the Segura and the Guada-
lentia. The molt remarkable of its mountains, which are
branches of the Montes-Orofpedani, are the Sierra of Penas,
Pinofa, Lofillas tothe W., that of Chinchillato the N.W.,
thofe of Montes Agudo, Covatellos, and Orihuela to the
N.E., the Sierra of Almanzato the N., that of EI Cano
vas S.; of Efpana to the S.W., and of Carafcoy to'the
The kingdom of Murcia was the firft part of Spain that
was occupied bythe Carthaginians, who formed in it their
firit colony, and built a town, the foundation of which is
afcribed to Afdrubal, A. U. C. 562; and it is now called
Carthagena; which fee. This country was afterwards
wrelted from the Carthaginians by the Romans, of whofe
poffeffion there remains the evidence of a military road,
called by the people of the country the road of Hercules.
Being afterwards taken from the Romans by the Goths,
this country formed a part of the monarchy which the latter
eftablifhed in Spain ; but it was laid walte by the Vandals, .
who completely dettroyed Carthagena, which was afterwards
rebuilt on account of its harbour. By the revolution which
happened in 552, the maritime part of the kingdom of
Murcia feil under the empire of the Greeks, who retained
poffeffion of it until the year 624, when it reverted to the
Goths. The Arabs in their turn feized this province, and
became matters of it by a treaty of peace figned in 715.
In 1144, Murcia was annexed to the kingdom eftablifhed
by the Moers, the capital of which was Granada; but in
1221, it became fubjeét to the kings of Cordova, and
formed a feparate ftate. In procefs of time, Alphonfo X.
re{tored it, to the king of Cattile, having difpoffefled Aben
Hudie!, to whofe fovereignty it was fubjected by the diffolu-
tion of the kingdom of Cordova in 1236. Alphonfo tran{-
ferred the title and honour of king to Mahomed, the Moor,
who was the lalt who held that appellation in Murcia.
Since that time this country has belonged to the crown af
Cattile, and has been under the fame government and laws
with the other provinces of this crown. This province has
neyer been thoroughly re-peopled fince the exputfion cf the
Moors. According to the enumeration in 1787 and 1788,
its population confifted of 337,686 inhabitants; a number
very~inadequate to the extent of the province, which is
about 1100 fquare leagues. The land is divided into
Campo, meaning dry land, Huerta or watered land, both
of which are plains, and a third portion which comprehends
mountains and vallies. The Huerta is uncommonly fertile,
and well cultivated; the Campos have as good foil, but
want irrigation. The chief production of Murcia is corn,
confilling of wheat and rye. Kal is an object of no
{mall importance ; there are alfo vineyards, which yield a
coufiderable quantity of wine. Spart is alfo cultivated,
chiefly in the country about Carthagena, and furnifhes an
article of exportation, Saffron is alfo an, object of fome
importance. Olive and mulberry trees are common. The
hemp

MUR

hemp is of a fuperior quality ; but it is not much cultivated.
This province poffeffes the raw materials of feveral manu-
faétures, as of linen and filk; but the manufaCtures are in
a low ftate. Other articles, fuch as foap, earthen-ware,
cutlery, and brandies, are too inconfiderable to deferve par-
ticular mention. ‘The commodities of Murcia are too few
and infignificant to fupport a foreign commerce of any great
extent. There are three great fairs every year in this pro-
vince, viz. at Albacete, Lorca, and Murcia, which laft
feveral days. Murcia prefents an extenfive field for natural
hiltory. Of lead, copper and filver mines there are various
traces. The province affords fulphur, nitre, alum, bole,
rock-cryltal, marble, and various mineral waters. |The cli-
mate of this province is much commended ; the atmofphere
is feldom cloudy, fogs are unknown, and rain is very rare.
The arts and {ciences are little encouraged in this province.
The dittinguifhing chara¢ter of the inhabitants ts indolence.
Muacia, the capital of the kingdom or province of the
fame name. ‘This town is of late origin, as it dues not ap-
pear in hiltory till the beginning af the eighth century,
from which time it frequently changed its matters, until the
year 1265, when Alphonfo X., king of Cattile, having
taken pofleffion of it, fortified it, and peopled it with Cata-
lonians, Aragonefe, and principally with French. Two
circumiftances give it fome degree of celebrity.» When it
was befieged. in 734 by Abdelazis, a Moorifh general, it
was in want of men to defend it. On this cccafion, the
women, habited like men, were placed by the governor upon
the ramparts, and obtained an honourable capitulation. In
1706, this town held out for Philip V.; but 1t was oper
and defencelefs; but its bifhop aflembled, and roufed the
people of the neighbourhood, placed himfelf at their head,
and prepared to defend it; but {till dreading the force of a
large army, he opened the refervoirs, cut the canals, turned
the river Segura; and thus inundated the whole furrounding
country. Haviog thus fecured Murcia, the bifhop with his
army marched againit Carthagena, and compelled’it to fur-
render. For this exploit, he was created a cardinal.
Murcia is fituated in a large and beautiful valley, watered
by the river Segura; its population is computed at 60,000
perfons, including thofe who inhabit the Huerta, or neigh-
bouring country dependent upon it, who are fuppofed to
amount to a third part cf the whole. It is the fee of a
bifhop fuffragan to the archbifhop of Toledo, which fee was
removed hither from Carthagena in 1291. Its diocefe in-
cludes almoit the whole pretent kingdom of Murcia; and
the revenue of the bifhop is equal to 22,916/. 13s. 1d. fter-
ling. The town has 11 parifhes, 10 convents of monks,
nine convents of nuns, three colleges for the fecular clergy,
two hofpitals, and an afylum or penitentiary houfe. It has
generally a garrifon of two {quadrons of cavalry, and is the
chief place of an intendant of the whole kingdom of Murcia.
Its public eltablifhments are a cultom-houfe, a board of pub-
lic economy, two public libraries, a curing-houfe for falt-
petre, gunpowder mills, fome filk manufaétories, and a con-
fiderable eltablifhment for {pinning and twilting filk. It
was formerly fortified, but is no longer walled. Its fuburbs
are pleafant, communicating with the town by two bridges.
Vhe houfes, beinz badly built, exhibit an indifferent ap-
pearance; many of them are ancient, loaded with ornaments
of architeciure and {culpture in bad tafte. Its fquares are
numerous, it has miny churches, and its cathedral is mag-
nificent. ‘The. promenades of Murcia are four; viz. the
Arfenal, the Botanic garden, the Alameda, and the Malecon;
but they are of little ufé, 4s the Murcians feldom waik, but
itay at home, {moking cigars, and fleeping. In Murcia
there are three colleges for education, and two public libra-

MUR

ries. Its manufaétures are fuch as have been mentioned m
the preceding article ; and it merely fhares in the commerce
of the province. Ignorance and floth, fays M. de Laborde,
render the manners of this town difagreeable ; prejudices rur
high, and the inhabitants are extremely litigious. The

urcian women, however, are mild and affable, and would
be fond of fociety, if their liberty were not reftrained by
the authority and difpofitions of their hufbands. For want
of lamps, it is dangerous to perambulate the ftreets at night.
In fummer the heat is extreme, Fahrenheit’s therm. being
often at 99°; and in winter it is hardly ever neceflary to have
recourfe for warmth to the fire. The complexion of the
Murcian, indolent, as we have already faid, in his habits, is
often livid; he is fad, gloomy, choleric, hy pochondriacal,
and fubjeét to difeafes of the liver. At Murcia there are no
inns, the want of which is a ferious inconvenience on the
road from Madrid to Carthagena, and on that from Cata-
lonia and the kingdom of Valencia, into Andalufia; 96 miles
S.S.W. of Valencia. N.lat. 37° 57!. W.long. 1° 20’.

Murer, in Mythology, the goddefs of Sloth, who dif-
pofed her votaries to indolence. Her temple, according to
Fetus, was upon the Aventine mount.

MURCIELAGOS, in Geography, two fmall Philippine
iflands, near the N. coait of Mindanao, N. lat. g’ 13!.
Ex long. 122? 28’. ‘

MURDER. See Murruer.

MURDERER’s Bay, in Geography, a bay on the W.
coalt of New Zealand; fo called by Taiman in commemora-
tion of fome of his crew being murdered there by the natives,
in December 1642; between Cape Farewell and Rocky
Point. S. lat. 40° 40'.

MURDERING Barrery. See Barrery.

MURDGUR, in Geography, a town of Hindcoflan, in
the circar of Cicacole; 18 miles N.N.W. of Ganjam.

MURDGURRY, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore;
20 miles E.S.E. of Sirpy.

MURE, a cape on the W. coatt of the ifland of Corfica;
13 miles S.S.W. of Ajazzo.

Mure, La, a town of France, in the department of the
Ifére, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri€& of Gre-
noble; 18 miles S. of it. The place contaihs 1686, and
the canton 8309 inhabitants, on a territory of 1824 kilio-
metres, in 20 commures.

Mure, in Rural Economy, a term applied to the cakes of
apples, grapes, &c. left in the prefs, after extracting the
uices.

; Mure, Counter. See CouNTER-mure.

MUREKA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Tobolik, on the Tungufka; 192 miles E.
of Enifeifk. N. lat. 58° 30’, E. long. 98° 14!.

MURENGERS, two officers of. great antiquity in the
city of Chefter; being two of the priucipal aldermen chofen
yearly to fee the walls kept in good repair, and to receive a
certain toll and cuftom for the maintenance thereof.

MURENZKOI, in Geography, an oftrog of Ruffia, in
the government of Irkutfk, on the Lena. N. lat. 60" 31!
E, long. 114° 5o!.

MURES, a town of Spain, in Afturias; 17 miles N.N.W.
of Oviedo.

MURET, Marx-Antnony, or Munetvs, in Biography,
an eminent claffical fcholar, was born in 1526, at a town of
the fame name as that by which he is known, near Limoges.
With but little affittance, in the way of a preceptor, he
acquired the Greek and Latin languages at an early age,
and in his eighteenth year he went to'Auch to read leGures
on Cicero and Terence in the archbifhop’s femimary. He
vilited the famous Julius Czfar Scaliger at Agen, by whom

Lt 2 he

MUR

he was recommended to the magiltrates at Bourdeaux, where
he taught the belles lettres in 1547. He left that city
for the capital, where he was made one of the profeffors in
the college of St. Barbe, and acquired fo much reputation
by his leGtures, that the king and queen came to hear him.
From Paris he went to Touloufe, where he ftudied the civil
law, and explained its elements. He had been driven from
the metropolis by the imputation of a crime, which in very
few countries meets with any quarter; the charge followed
him to Touloufe, and obliged him haftily to remove to
Venice. That the accufations were unfounded, kas been
inferred from the favourable reception which he met with
in [taly, even from popes and cardinals; and alfo from the
regularity of his life in that country, which was his. prin-
cipal refidence from the year 1554. At Venice he taught
publicly, at a very confiderable falary, and from thence he
was fent to Padua, to inttru& the Venetian youth in claffical
Siterature, and there he contracted an intimacy with Bembo,
Manuzio, and other eminent Italian fcholars. In 1560, he
was invited to Rome by cardinal Hippolito d’Efte, whom
he accompanied in his legation to Paris. Here he printed
his edition of Cicero’s Philippics, and on his return to the
capital he continued to refide with the cardinal, who en-
gaged him, in 1563, to write commentaries upon Arittotle’s
morals, which he performed during four years, with great
applaufe before avery numerous audience. He afterwards
gave le@tures on the civil law; and at the defire of pope
Gregory XIII., explained feveral of the principal claffical
authors. In +976, though at the age of fifty, he took holy
orders, after which, Stephen Battori, king of Poland, in-
vited him to his kingdom upon very advantageous terms, but
Gregory, at the earneft requett of the confervators of the
Roman people, having doubled his appointments, the lite-
rature and fociety of Rome turned the fcale, and’ he declined
accepting the offer. He died at Rome in 1585, and was
buried with extraordinary funeral honours. Muret was one
of the molt elegant Latin writers of his time; he was like-
wife a man of general erudition, and well verfed in that fort
of knowledge which is reqnifite for a.critic on the writings
of antiquity. It is to his difgrace, that he wrote in praife
of the horrible maffacre of St. Bartholomew, publhfhed in
his panegyric of the hateful Charles 1X. His works were
publithed colle€tively at Verona in 1727—39, in five volumes
ofavo. They confift of notes on various authors, orations,
letters, poems, difputations, &c. His place is rather
among men of letters, than men of genius.

Murer, in Geography, a town of France, and prin-
cipal place of a diitrict, in the department of the Upper
Garonne, feated on the Garonne ; nine miles S. of Touloufe.
‘The place contains 3141, and the canton 12,562 inhabitants,
on a territory of 227% kiliometres, in 19 communes. N.
lat. 43° 27’. E.long. 1° 25".

MUREX, in Natural Hiflory, a genus of the clafs
Vermes, and order Teflacea. ‘he generic character is ;
animal a limax; fhell’ univalve, fpiral rough, with mem-
branaceous futures; aperture oval, ending in an entirely
ftraight or fightly afcending canal. ‘This genus is feparated

into fix diftinét divifions, containing in the whole more than
180 fpecies, {cattered through the different feas of the
globe: of thefe, feven or eight only are common to our own
coalls.

A. Spinous, with a produced Beak.
Species. ’

Flaveretienm. Shell ovate tuberculate, with a long
fubulate muricate beak. ‘There is alfo a variety of this

MUR

{pecies. It is found in Afia, America, and in the Red feas
it varies much in the colour and length of its tubercles on
the beak; the aperture is rounded, generally rofy, the
mouth is fometimes white, fometimes blueith.

Trisutus; Thorny Woodcock. Shell ovate, with a
triple row of fetaceous fpines, the beak elongated fubulate,
with fimilar fpines. Of this fvecies there are two varieties ;
1. With {pines fhorter than the beak. 2. With {pines as
long or longer than the beak. It inhabits the fame feas as
the lait, but israre. The fhell is whitifh or reddifh, tranf-
verfely itriate.

Coxsutus. Shell roundifh, and furrounded with fubu-
late oblique {pines, beak long fubulate ftraight, with a few
fhort fpines. Itis found on the fouthern coafis of Africa,
but is not frequently met with. “The fhell is eight inches
long, tranfverfely ftriate, white, yellow, or pale chefnut,
within it is rofy; {pines are two inches long, the whorls
rounded and inflated.

Branpanis. Shell fub-ovate, furrounded with ftraight
{pinis; beak moderately long, fubulate ftraight, and ob-
lique y furrounded with f{pines. It inhabits che Mediterra-
nean and Adriatic feas; the fhell is white, cinereous, or
brownifh, with a triple row of {mail fpines, the third row
fhorter, rarely a fingle row with the beak unarmed.

TruncuLus. Shell ovate, knotty, and furrounded with
{pines on the fore-part; heak fhort, perforate, and trun-
cate. Found in the Mediterranean and in Jama‘ca; the fhell
is variable in colours, fometimes barred and tranfverfely
eK beak fometimes ftraight, fometimes bent to the
eit.

Pomum. Shell ovate, knotty, with protuberances from
three to feven; the beak is broad. It inhabits the eaftern
fhores of Africa; is coarfe and pondercus.

Decussatvus. Shell ovate, tranfverfely grooved, with
convex ribs, crofled by perpendicular knots; beak imper-
forate. Found on the eaftern coalts of Africa. The mar-
gin of the lip cf this fpecies is membranaceous; the {pire
has feven diitin&t whorls.

Trracantuus. Shell turgid, knotty, tranfverfely
ftriate, with a triple row of fpines. Found in a foffile
{tate ; fhell fhaped like a fig, with five or fix horizontal
belts croffing the ftrie; beak above an inch long; the
three outmoit whorls knotty, and a little prominent.

Meranamatuvs. Shell tranfverfely ftriate, with eight
rows of hollow black fpines; fpire a little knotty and
prickly ; beak fubulate. ‘The place of its habitation is not
known.

Raprx. Shell white, with numerous rows of frondofe
block undulate {,-nes; this is extremely rare, and its habi-
tation not afcertained.

Canxpipugs. Shell white, with rows of {pines, and very
fhort beak. The fheil is about two inches long, and fome
of the {pines are black.

Fascratus. The hell of this fpecies is inflated, with
rows of [pines, white barred with brown; the {pire has
four diftingt turgid whorls. .

B. Sutures expanding into crifped foliations; the beak is aB=
breviated —Punrura ; that ts, the /pecies of this divifion cons

Jlitute the trike of purple-fi/b properly fo called.

Species.

Ramosus. Shell with a triple row of foljations and con.
tiguous fpire; beak truncate, The fhell is tran{verfely
{lviate, varying very much in fhape, colour, and appearance
of the foliations.

FouArus. Shell with a triple row of foliations; aper-

ture

MUREX.

ture one-toothed. It is found on the eaftern fhores of North
America.

Scorrio. Shell with four rows of feliations ; {pire capi-
tate; beak truncate. Inhabits the fouthern dittrits of
Afia; is extremely rare and valuable. The fheil is white,
brown, or black; aperture orbicular; one of the whorls
turgid, and larger than the ref.

Saxatinis. Shell with five rews of foliations and con-
tiguous fpire; beak abbreviated. Found in the Mediterra-
nean, and on fome of the coalts of Afia.

Dravuanus. Shell white, diaphanous, with fix rows
of foliations; foliations are tipt with black.

Cicnoreum. Shell ochraceous, tranfverfely ftriate, with
numerous rows of foliations, but the foliations are neither
very prominent nor crifped.

Versicocor. Shell varied with white and red, with flat
acute foliations, pointed with black. s

* Eniacevs. Shell fub-angular; the whorls crowned
with tubular and fub-fpinous raifed feales or points; beak
fhort and covered. It inhabits the European feas, and is about
two ches long. The hell is extremely rugged, furrounded
with tubular ribs, each rib ending with its mouth on the
angle; aperture extremely oval, {pire pointed, with fix
whorls ;' the lip is broad and crenate.

Srriatus. Sheil with feven rows of
with elevated tranfverfe brown itrie.
has a fvire with feven whorls.

Trierexus. Shell elongated, triangular, with membra-
naceous foliations at the angles; it is found in Campania ;
the fhell is fnowy, tranfverfely wrinkled ; the wrinkles are
crofled with longitudinal {trie ; aperture oblong ovate, gra-
nulate ; the fpire has feven whorls, granulate between the
futures.

Sacettum. Shell umbilicate, with muricate ribs; the
whorls flartifh above, with acute margins; lip crenate; beak
ftraight afcending ; it inhabits Nicobar.

Moracitta. Shell triangular, knotty, tranfverfely

ounded, a triple row of tubercles; the beak is long,
ubulate, ftraight; mouth white. Found in India.

TriqveteR. Shell long, fubulate, triangular, with reti-
culate ribs, and a Hraight clofed beak. The fhell is white
{potted with red ; the aperture is elliptic; the lip crenate ;
{pire pyramidal, with fix whorls.

C. With three protuberant rounded futures ; chiefly of
the Eaflern or Pacific feas; fome of the fpecies are mere
ffi

foliations $ white
It inhabits India, and

Species.
Lyratus. Shell with protuberances croffed by fmooth
belts ; aperture ovate. It is found in George’s bay.

Rana. Shell rough, with oppofite impreed protube-
rances, and a muricate belt or two; aperture commonly
toothlefs and ovate. Found on the Afiatic fhores; the
fhell is white, grey, or brown, with elevated tranfverfe
{trie, which are fometimes granulate.

Gyarsus. Shell with oppofite continued protube-
rances, and barred with tuberculate dots; aperture orbi-
cular. Found in the Merjterranean and Atlantic ; alfo on the
fhores of America and India. The fhelk iy fmall, white or
brown, with alternately lefs bands of elevated dots.

Aveinis. Shell turgid, with oppofite continued pro-
tuberances; {pire pointed; the whorls furrounded with a
crown of tubercles, the outmolt glabrous. Firft whorl of
the foire with a triple or quadruple crown of round tuber-
cles.

Lampas. The fhell of this {pecies has nearly oppofite
protuberances, gibbous, the protuberances longitudtaally

tuberculate. It inhabits India, and is from 4 to 14 inches
long. The fhell is of a red or chefnut, colour, and rough
with minute tubercles ; aperture oval, toothed on each fide,
whitiffi flefh-colour, with an orange oval coloused border
within.

Oxrrariuem. Shell with alternate protuberances, and
numerous tubercles ; back unarmed behind and ftriate; the
aperture is toothlefs. It inhabits the Mediterranean and
African feas. :

Femorace. Shell with decuflate protuberances, trian-
gular, wrinkled, ard knotty on the fore-part; aperture
ovate, toothlefs. Inhabits Afia, Guinea, and America;
it is from five to feven inches long. The fhell is brown,
with tranfverfe ribs which are white towards the aperture,
with intermediate grooves tran{verfely ftriate; beak turned
inwards, ;

Curacevus. Shell witha fingle protuberance, angular,
and a little wrinkled with knots ; aperture toothed ; pillar
perforated. It inhabits Barbary, Guinea, and South Ame-
rica; is three inches long ; fhell brownifh, with a tinge of
bloom or white, with perpendicular undulate lines.

Lorortum. Shell with decuflate protuberances, angular,
with longitudinal tuberculous knots; beak flexuous ; aper-
ture toothed. It inhebits the Mediterranean.

Piteare. Shell with decuflate protuberances, and 2
little wrinkled with knots; aperture toothed; beak fub-
afcending, Found in the Mediterranean.

Buronius. Shell with fix oppofite, continued, vaulted
protuberances and knotty belts; beak oblique.

Pyrum. Shell varicofe, ovate, tranfverfely grooved,
and knotty, with along flexuous fubulate beak. It inha-
bits the Indian ocean, in numerous varieties; the fhell is
white, fometimes varied with brown, or chefnut, or yellow-
ifh-brown ; angular, longitudinally ftriate, and tranfverfely
grooved ; aperture oval, toothed ; pillar fometimes toothed,
fometimes toothlefs.

CaupaTus. Shell thin, tranfverfely ftriate, browa
varied with white; beak fubnlate; fpire a little promi-
nent, and tipt with brown, the whorls grooved, the firft
gibbous. uJ

Rusecuta. Shell with decuffate protuberances, ob-
tufe with knotty wrinkles; belly equal; aperture toothed.
Inhabits Africa, India, and South America; it is very
rare. The fheil is red or yellow, and barred.

Scrosicutator. Shell with nearly oppofite, hollowed
protuberances ; {mooth ; aperture toothed. It inhabits the
Mediterranean,

Rericutaris. Shell with nearly oppofite protuberances,
reticulate, with tuberculate {pots ; pillar almoft toothlefs,
beak afcending. Inhabits the Mediterranean and America;
is fix inches long. Sheil tranfverfely ribbed, and longitu-
dinally {triate, with party-coloured knots in the angles of
the fection ; aperture with a red border ; lip toothed.

Lamettosus. Sheli with membranaceous protuberances
continued through the {pire, and terminated with a fpine.
It inhabits the Falkland iflands.

Noparus. Whorls knotty; beak ftraight ;. aperture
violet ; lip toothed. It inhabits New Holland.

Anus. Shell with a dilated membranaceous protube-
rance and lips, gibbous and reticulate, with tubercles; aper-
ture finuous; the beak is ereét. Inhabits the Mediterra-
nean and Afia; is three inches long, and the fhell is gene-
rally brown, with white bands and fub-triangular aperture.

Micianis. Shell varicofe, with tuberculate belts; aper-
ture a little toothed; beak elongated; whorls ventricote ;
the fhell is of a cinereous greenifh colour ; the tubercles
fometimes black, rarely rufous,

6 SENE-

MUREX.

SENEGALENSIS. Shell tranfverfe ftriate, with fpinous
“protuberances, the fpines decreafing towards the head.
“This {pecies inhabits Senegal ; is about 2% inches long; the
fhell with nine tubercles, alternately lefs; each of them
armed with eight fpines; the {pire with eight whorls.

“* Carinatus. -Shell ventricofe, with five or fix whorls
forming angular ridges; aperture femi-circular; beak a
‘little’ refleG&ed. It inhabits Europe. :

D. More or lefs fpinous, and without manifeft beak.

Species.

‘Ricryvus. -Shell obovate, with fubulate {pines ; aper-

ture and lip toothed.

‘14 inch loug. The {pines are difpofed in rows; the {pire
prominent ; mouth violet colour.

Nopuvs. Shell obovate with conic fpines ; lip toothed ;
pillar fmooth and coloured; fhell is leis than that of the
Ricinus; the aperture is of a flefh colour.

Nerirorpevus. Shell with numerous rows of knots; lip
with pointed angles; pillar flattifh. It inhabits India, and
refembles a Nerita. The fhell is fometimes white with
black tubercles and violet mouth, or yellowifh-brown with
brown tubercles and yellow aperture; firft whorl with
four rows of tubercles on the’ back; lip armed with three
or four {pines ; pillar with from two to four teeth.

Fucus. Shell coarfe ventricofe, ftriate tranfverfely, with
four rows of knots; pillar impreffed, and with the outmott
whorls flattifh. This is a rare fhell; the pillar is marked
with two or three black dots.

Loco. . Shell obovate and knotty on the fore-part; aper-
ture toothlefs and fub-orbicular. It inhabits the Chinefe
Shores ; fhell four or five inches long; the inhabitant is eaten
by the natives, and contains a purple juice in the veficle on
the neck.

Hystrix. Shell fub-ovate, with acute {pines ; aperture
toothlefs, repand. The fhell is fometimes of a bay colour,
waried with white or yellowifh-brown, with or without
{pots; the {pines are in four rows; the aperture wide.

Mancinetxa. Shell ovate, with obfolete {pines; aper-
ture toothlefs; pillar tranfverfely ftriate.

‘Hippocastum. Shell ovate {ftriate, with from three
torfive rows of obtufe fpines or tubercles, aperture tranf-
werfely ftriate. Inhabits Gpinea, India, and the iflands of
the Indian ocean. The fhell is tranfverfely ftriate on the
back, and armed with rows of obtufe {pines or tubercles
varying in numbers ; whorls of the {pire diftant.

Senricosus. Shell a little tapering, longitudinally
ribbed, and tranfverfely cancellate; aperture ftriate. Found
in the Indian ocean; about two inches long; the fhell is
yellowifh, with a brown band on each of the whorls, the
ribs prickly ; aperture oblong; pillar with a fingle plait ;
{pire pointed with diftant whorls.

Mutoncrkra. Shell obovate glaucous, with a fub-fpi-
nous whorl rather prominent f{pire, and fmooth aperture.
found in India and America in great varieties ; the {pect-
mens are generally about 54 inches long, The fhell is gene-
rally brown, barred with white; aperture oval, large; {pire
with knotty whorls, rarely {mooth 5 the firft very large and
turgid, and moltly furrounded with fpines.

Consus. Shell thick, ventricofe, white, “tran{verfely
grooved and knotty ; aperture rey and, ovate; lip finuous,
plaited inwardly, and denticulate. It inhabits India.

Lina. Shell byown, fub-ovate, and flightly beaked,
with crowded nodulous paler belts. Found in George's
bay.

E. With a long flraight fubulate clofed beak, and unarmed

; .
mith /pines.

Inhabits the Afiatic ocean, is about

Species.

Curtosus. Shell without beak, flightly plaited, ovate,
pointed; tip carious. Found in the aquedu& at Seville;
fize of a bean; the fhell is oblong, pointed cinercous, fub-
Haphynetly longitudinally grooved, and emarginate at the

ale.

Banyzonsus. Shell tapering, with acute {potted belts,
and ftraight tail; upper lip cleft. It inhabits India and
the American iflands ; is about ‘four iuches long, and the
fhell is furrounded with white belts, and marked with fquare
brown or black {pots.

Javanus. Shell tapering, with immaculate knotty belts;
the lip has a feparate fcoop. It inhabits India; refembles
the Babylonius, but is white, immaculate, and {ometimes
varied with yellowifh-brown rays; beak longer or shorter;
whorls carinate or tuberculate, and fub-ftriate. :

Stnensis. Shell ventricofey pointed, with a cancellate
refleGed beak ; aperture oval; whorls with tranfverfe gra-
nulate ftriza; bafe crowned with {pines. It inhabits Senegal;
the fhell is fpotted, and has a fingle plait on the pillar.

SrRAMINEvS. Spire with elevated wings, the interftices
filled with fhort ftraw-like projeGions; all the whorls
crowned with tubercles at the bafe; aperture violet ; lip
undulate, and with the pillar {mowy. Inhabits the fouthern
ocean. Sheil ftraw-colour ; it is three inches long.

Austrauis. Shell ovate; longitudinally ftriate; lip
undulate; whorls caniculate; the firit turgid and fourt
plaited ; the next three-plaited. It is found m the South
fea, and is 24 inches long. The thell is of a ftraw-colour,
with a yellow pillar and {nowy lip.

Uncinatus. Spire pointed, and tranfverfely ftriate ;
the four firft whorls with a callus, armed with hooks in the
middle, the fifth and fixth ribbed; the reft glabrous. The
fhell is not above an inch long; the aperture is oval; lip
toothed ; {pire with nine whor's.

Turnis. Shell tapering, the whorls crowned with tu-
bercles, and furrounded with a granulate belt, the firft very
finely ftriate tranfverfely. ‘The fhell is white, with a red-
difh band; this alfo bears a {trong refemblance to the Baby-
lonius, but the lip is entire. ,

Cosratus. Beaka little refleéted, and obliquely ftriate ;
the three firft whorls of the {pire ribbed ; the other four
cancellate, the firft obconic; the pillar has a fingle plait.
It is found in a foffile ftate in Campania; the ribs of the
firft whorls terminating in {pines above.

Asper. ‘The fhell of this is longitudinally plaited, and
tranfverfely ribbed; the {pire is a little prominent ; the
aperture ovate ; lip crerulated.

Co.us. Shell tapering, ttriate, knotty, carinate, with
a long itraight beak ; lip crenulate. Found in the Indian
ocean. The {hell is white, tranfverfely ftriate, round, or
angular; whorls feparated by a groove, and crowned with
knots; the upper ones brown; the beak is nearly three
inches long, and beneath it is brownifh.

Mono. Beak dilated; fhell black, with a white band;
whorls a little knotty; pillar wrinkled. Found in divers
parts of Africa, and is about fix inches long ; the fhell is
brown or cincreous, and tran{verfely itriate.

Cocuuipium. Beak dilated; whorls of the fpire flat
above. It inhabits the Indian ocean.

Spiritus. Shell with a long beak ; {pire mucronate;
the whorls convex above. Inhabits Tranquebar;_ refembles
the Caniculatus, (below,) but the whorls are not fepa-
rated b) fhell ventricofe beneath; convex above,
{pire with a prominent obtufe knob in the centre, the whorls
furrounded with an acute margin above; the beak is fub-

cylin-

a groove ;

MUREX.

cylindrical, and not dilated towards the aperture of the
belly ; pillar witha tranfverfe wrinkle.

Canicutarus. Beak dilated; whorls of the fpire fe-
parated by a {mail canal. “It inhabits Canada and the Fro-
zen fea; the fhell is brown, fometimes larger and uniform,
fometimes lefs and radiate, fmooth or tran{verfely ftriate ;

Margin of the back knotty. j

Ticus. Beak dilated; fhell ftriate, the whorls feparated
by a {mall canal; the outer ones brown, the firft crowned
with knobs at the bafe.

Carica. Beak dilated; thell tranfverfely ftriate ; {pire
a little prominent ; the whorls crowned with fpines at the
bafe. It is about eight inches long ; the pillar is plaited.

Rapa. The fhell of this fpecies is folid umbilicate, with
a triple row of knots, and tranfverfely ftriate; the aper-
ture large and {ftriate.
Bulla rapa.

Niveus. Beak dilated ; fhell fnowy diaphanous ; whorls
of the {pire feparated by a {mall groove; the firfl with
tranfverfe carinate ribs. It inhabits the feas about Brazil.

Granum. Sheil hemifpherical, glabrous, diaphanous, with
aipreading ftraight beak, crown capillary. ound in North

America. The whorls are convex, and growing gradually
lefs towards the tip.

Axvanvs. Beak dilated, {pire crowned with fpines.
~ {t inhabits New Guinea; fhell coarfe ponderous, black or
blueifh, furrounded with rings; aperture angular; beak ra-
ther long ; {pire mucronate.

Perversus. Beak dilated andrepand; {pire turned the
contrary way, and flightly crowned. It inhabits the Ame-
rican ocean ; this {peciesis exceedingly rare; the {pines are
fomewhat pointed, fometimes more obtufe.

* Antiquus. Beak dilated; fhell oblong, with eight
round whorls; the firlt ventricofe. Itinhabits the European
and Frozen feas, and is from four to fix inches long. The
fhell is dark and of a dirty yellow, very finely ftriate, tranf-
verfely or longitudinally plaited ; whorts of the {pire fepa-
rated by a groove, the middle one fometimes crowned with
tubercles, rarely turned contrary.

Despectus. Beak dilated; thell oblong ftriate, and
fomewhat rugged ; it has eight whorls, with two elevated
lines. Itinhabits the European feas, and is about five inches
long. The fhell is coarfe white, with a glofly orange-yellow
aperture ; the animal is fometimes eaten, but is more fre-
quently ufed’as a bait for cod and ray-fifh.

Fornicatus. Beak dilated; fhell ovate oblong; the
whorls ventricofe, longitudinally ftriate, and a little angular.

t inhabits the Greenland feas. The fhellis more than three
inches long, fub-diaphanous, fmoothifh and yellow, within
white glabrous; there are feven whorls; with wide tranf-
verfe {triz. -

Incrassatus. Shell oblong, tranfverfely wrinkled, and
Jongitudinally ftriate ; lip denticulate within, and thickened
without. 7

*Truncatus. Shell oblong, longitudinally ribbed ; beak
a little refleted, emarginate, truncate. This is the Murex
coftatus of Pennant. -It inhabits European coafts, is very
Mmioute, with fix whorls.

* Acuminatus. Shell narrow, oblong, ribbed, with a
pointed fpire. It inhabits England.

Arcus. Shell gibbous, with tranfverfe tuberculate ribs ;
brown, with darker bands, within white; aperture ovate.
Itis foundin India, and inthe Friendly and Society iflands.

Macutosus. Shell cancellate, yellow, with alternate
white bands and chefnut patches ; {pire with eleven round

6

whorls,

It inhabits India, and refembles the .

Macettanicus.. Shell ‘ventricofe, umbilicate, tranf-
verfely ftriate, cinereous within violet; whorls of the {pire
with parallel ribs, the firft very large. ;

CancetLatus. Shell ovate, folid, opaque, cinereous ;
whorls of the {pire cancellate, and feparated by a groove,

Scoropacevs. Shell brown; whorls furrounded with
grooves, and withtubercles above ; tip of the tubercles and’
aperture white. There is a variety which is more elongated,
and of a dirty yellow ; with an obfolete band on the whorls,
the tubercles more globular. 5

Lirreratus, Shell ventricofe, tapering, {potted with
black ; pillar with a fingle plait; beak hort; fhell fhowy,
with a wide aperture ; {pire with eight prickly whorls.

Triconus. Shell fub-triangular, cancellate; {pire with

inflated contiguous whorls, the firft with alarge diftin® tu-
bercle. It is found in Senegal. The fhell is two inches
long; fpire with feven whorls.
- SemiLunaris. Shell longitudinally ribbed, and very
finely ftriate tranfverfely; fpire with flattifh diftant
whorls, with rows of tubercles ; aperture femilunar. This
is found in Senegal; the fhell is about an inch long, the
whorls with a fingle row of tubercles, the fecond with a
double or triple row ; the firft with fix or feven rows.

Costatus. Shell with annular ftrie, and inflated round
whorls, each of them with nine rounded, parallel, fpinous
pe Inhabits Senegal. The fhell is about 24 inches
ong.

Sureatus. Shell rounded, with annular grooves ; aper=
ture oval ; firlt whorl of the {pire turgid. Found in Sene-
gal; fhell 13 inch long, with nine contiguous whorls, which:
are fometimes inflated, fometimes flattifh.

Fustrormis. Shell elongated, with numerous rows of”
very minute crowded tubereles. This alfo inhabits Senegal ;
the fhell 1s fix lines long, with about eight whorls ; the firft
with from twelve to Bieri rows of tubercles, the fecond '
with five.

Trironis. Shell ventricofe, oblong, fmooth, with
rounded whorls to the aperture, and fhort beak. Inhabits
India and the South feas; there isa variety found in the
Mediterranean ; the fhell is full fixteen inches long, white,
and appearing as if covered with brown, yellow and black
feales; the pillar is white, with tranfverfe black ftrie ;
whorls of the {pire feparated by a nodulous future, the firft
marked with ftriate grooves. This fpecies is ufed by the
natives of New Zealand as a mufical fhell, and by the
Africans, and many nations of the Ealt, asa military horn.

Tuipa. Sheil ventricofe, oblong, fmooth; whorls round-
ed, with a double future ; pillar with two plaits ; beak dilated,
itriate. It inhabits South America; the hell generally
{potted and clouded, within tranfverfely ftriate ; whorls with
rarely a fingle future.

Craturatus. Shell oblong, beaked and grooved, with
longitudinal fub-membranaceous plaits: This fpecies is
found in Iceland; it refembles very much the Turbo cla-
thratus, to be defcribed hereafter, but it has a fhort beak,«
and numerous ereét compreffed plaits.

Nasso. Shell folid, black or pale brown, with a white
fub-diaphanous band ; whorls knotty ; piliara little plaited.
This is thought to be a fpecies between the Voluta and
Murex.

Puicatus. Whorls of the fpire plaited and knotty. . It
is found, though rarely, in India.

ScaLa. Shell umbilicate, with diftant wedged, ribbed,
and tran{verfely flriate whorls ; aperture‘ heart-(haped’; the
fhell is reddifh-white, fometimes yellow, with pale brown
bands. .

Fiscettux,

MUREX.

‘Fiscettum. Shell angular, longitudinally plaited, and
tran{verfely ftriate; lip toothed; mouth violet; beak
ftraight, fhort. Inhabits China.

Corona. Shell faftigate, with brown and yellowifh
bands; whorls aboye flattifh, with waved imbricate fcales ;
beak itraight, entire. It inhabits Mexico,

Dorartum. Beak dilated, fhell ovate, with a few ele-
wated obtufe belts on the whorls. ‘This, which is about the
fize of a walnut, inhabits the ocean; fhell horny, tapering
both ways, furrounded with numerous obtufe, and very
much raifed belts, two on the whorl; pillar perforated ;
aperture ovate, a little tranfverle forwards, excavated at the
outer margin, and tapering behind into a hardly manifeft and
lightly emarginate canal. F

Corneus. Shell oblong, flender, white, the margins of
the whorls complicated, the tip tubercular; aperture tooth-
lefs;-beak a little afcending. It inhabits the Britifh and
Worth feas ; three inches long. ‘he thell is white, cover-
ed with a brown ‘kin, tranfverfely {triate ; {pire with eight
round whorls.

Licxartus. She!l oblong, coarfe, with obtufely knotty
whorls ; aperture toothlefs ; beak (hort, ftraightith. Found
in divers parts of the ocean ; about three or four inches long.
Shell fmooth, coarfe, with a fingle row of knots on the
whorls.

Traresium. Shell oblong, obtufely angular, with
flightly knotty whorls; aperture toothed ; beak fhort and
ftraight. It inhabits the Indian ocean ; it is frequently feen
above fix inches long.

Vespertixio. Shell folid, ventricofe, fmooth, with an
oblong oval aperture; beak and crowned fpire ltriate; the
outer whorls caniculate. It is found in the Indian ocean, and
is full four inches long. The fhell on the outfide is of a
chefnut colour, but within it is of a flefh colour.

Scotymus. Shell thin, diaphanous, ventricofe, and
tranfverfely {triate, the middle of the back {mooth ; fpire
with obtufe undulate knots; pillar three-plaited ; the fhell
is white, with nine or ten whorls on the fpire; the tubercles
are hollow within, and the beak is annulate.

Harps. Shell is ventricofe, longitudinally ribbed, the
ribs tran{verfely ftriate; {pire a little prommeat, the whorls
diftant. ; ;

Tusa. Shell fufiform, traufverfely ftriate, white, with
a brown tip tothe {pire ; whorls diflant, and crowned at the
bafe with knots. It is found in China, and is nearly fix
inches long. Beak is rather long; the {pire has eight
whorls.

Syracusanus. Shell oblong, with ftriate plaited
whorls, covered with tuberculate ridges ; aperture toothlefs ;
beak fhort. It inhabitsthe Mediterranean, but is extremely
rare. ‘The whorls are teftaceous, with white divifions ;
beak moderately long, obliquely ftriate outwardly.

Craricucatus. Shell oblong, with rounded, plaited,
and iran{verfely sreticulated whorls ; aperture toothed, beak
fhort. Itinhabits the Mediterranean. Shell whitifh, flightly
plaited longitudinally, with elevated ferruginous angles ;
whorls with elevated ftriz ; aperture flriate within.

Scriprus. Shell nearly without beak, fufiform, {mooth,

pale. with longitudinal brown ftriz ; lip toothed. It inha-
bite *:¢ Mediterranean, and is not much larger than a grain
of barley. The hell is oblong, with fubpiceous flexuous
firia.
» Teanatanus. Shell tranfverfely ftriate, with diftant,
undulate tuberculate whorls; aperture oblong; beak
ftraight, longifh. It inhabits the Ternate ifland 3 18 yellow,
and bout four inches long.

IxFrunpisutum. Shell umbilicate, undulately knotty,
with elevated brown ftrie ; perforation funnel-fhaped ; pillar
two-plaited. This i8avery rare fhell, about four inches
long, with nine whorls. “i

Potyconus. Shella little ventricofe, undulate, with tu-
bercles ; riate, grooved, and obtufely angled ; black, with
an oval aperture and fhort beak. It inhabits the Indian
ocean; fhell is fometimes umbilicate, fometimes not; pillar
with or without plaits.

Iscanvicus. Shell tranfverfely flriate, {nowy, covered
with a brown fkin; {pire papillous at the tip, with round
whorls, the firlt very large and ventricofe. it is found in
Iceland. The fhell is about five inches long, wath from fix
to nine whorls; the aperture is oblong; the beak fhort, lip
acute ; pillar {mooth.

Lzvicatrus. Shell fufiform; fpire tranfverfely ftriate,
with dittant flattifh whorls, the firf round and fmooth ; the
beak rather long. It has been found in the fofiile itate in
Campania, and is 3} inches long. ‘The aperture is oval,
and the beak fometimes a little bent.

Fossiris, fo called on account cf its being found in
Campania, only in the foffile flate ; fhell fufiform, thin,
cancellate, with a long béak. It is an inch and a quarter
long ; the whorls are more or Jefs diltant; piliar plaited or
{fmooth. ;

Canpinus. Shell faowy, tran{verfely firiate ; {pire with
diftant whorls, carinate in the middle, and crowned with tu-
bercles ; aperture oval; lip grooved within, and denticulate
atthe margin. The fhell is between nine and ten inches
long.

Ree Shell brown, tranfverfely ftriate ; fpire mu-
cronate, the whorls diftant, convex and knotty at the bafe ;
beak long.

Unpatus. Shell folid, ventricofe, with waved angles, and
very finely ftriate tran{verfely ; {pire mucronate, the whorls
knotty at the bafe ; lip denticulate. It. inhabits India; is
eight inches and a half long, aud ponderous; fhell white,
with fourteen whorls, and a flightly incurved beak.

Loneissimus. Shell thin, ilriate, with an obtufe knotty
{pire and long ftraight beak. It inhabits India; is nine
inches long; fhell white with ten whorls. ;

Lancea. Shell narrowed; whorls of the fpire tranf-
verfely ribbed and longitudinally crenate ; aperture ovate,
ribbed with white within, and toothed at the margin; the
pillar is two-plaited. Itinhabits Amboina; fhell exceed-
ingly thin anc narrow, the younger ones reddith, the adult
ones white, interftices of the ribs and aperture violet; the
{pire has eleven or twelve whorls.

Aneustus. Shell narrowed; firft whorl of the {pire
longitudinally plaited and tran{verfely ribbed, the others
{mooth and round; beak tranfverfely. ribbed. .

VenrstcoLor. Shell fubcylindrical with an, obtufe fpire,
the whorls round and ftriate, the lower ones moftly gla-
brous. It inhabits India; fhell brown variegated, with nine
whorls.

Verrucosus. Shell umbilicate, and furrounded with belts,
the middle ones more raifed ; whorls crowned with tuber-
cles which are {potted with brown; beak infle&ted. Inha-
bits the Red fea.

Srriarucus, Shell thin, tranfverfely ftriate ; fpire mu-
cronate ; the whorls round; beak long 5 aperture ovate ;
lip erenulate. This fhellis about four inches long, covered
with a brown fkin.

Panvatus. Shell rounded, white with violet fpots, lon-
gitudinally ribbed and tranfverfely flriate; {pire obtufe ;
beak long.

GiGas,

MUREX.

’ Greas. In this fpecies the whorls of the fpire are tur-
gid, gibbous, nodulous, and annulate ; beak refleted ; lip
denticulate beneath. This fhell is twenty-one inches long.

Lienosus. Shell whitifh; fpire obtufe, the whorls
flightly crowned with unequal tubercles; beak tranfverfely
ftriate. It is about one inch and a half in length.

Gissutus. Shell tapering, orange ; {pire obtufe, the
whorls diftant, with longitudinal ribs and flexuous tranfverfe
ftriz ; the beak is fhort.

Granvutanris. Shell tapering, fpire with contiguous
whorls feparated by a flexuous line, the firft ventricofe,
Found in the Adriatic. ;

Vexittum. Shell tapering, tranfverfely ribbed ; whorls
convex ; aperture oval; lip denticulate ; beak fhort. The
fhell is of an orange colour with brown belts.

Vuvrinus. Shell oblong, ventricofe ; the whorls with a
ftriate margin ; aperture glabrous ; beak fhort and bent out-
wards. The fhell of this fpecies is middle-fized, tawny, with
eight whorls.
. Arer. Shell ovate, tranfverfely ftriate; {pire with flat-
tifh whorls crowned with a row of tubercles. The fhell is
one inch anda half long, fulvous or white varied with brown;
it has nine whorls.

Campanicus. Shell ventricofe; {pire obtufe, cancellate,
with carinate whorls, the firft ventricofe and {mooth; beak
long and {mooth. It is found foffile in Campania, and is three
inches long.

Arenosus. Whorls of the fpire with decuffate ribs;
the firft very large, the three outmoft fmooth; beak acute;
aperture oval ; lip toothed outwardly. It inhabits the fandy
fhores of India; very {mall.

Marcewnsis. Shell narrow, brownifh, tranfverfely ftriate ;
{pire mucronate, with diftant, contrary, round, longitudinally
ribbed whorls; beak prominent ; aperture oval.

Liyeatus. Shell oblong, whitifh with tranfverfe ftriz ;
beak fhort, ftraight.
land.

PERRON.
above, margined and flattened ; beak long, ftraight.
habits the Southern ocean.

Larva. Shell cylindrical ; {pire with a crenate callous
belt, the upper whorls with plaited knots; lower ones flat-
tifh ; beak itraight, fhort, emarginate.

Neriroipeus. Shell folid, thick, coarfe; {pire exferted;
the whorls tranfverfely ftriate ; aperture femiorbicular, and
ftriate ; beak ftraight and fhort

Prismaticus. Shell ovate angular, iridefcent, longitu-
dinally grooved and plaited; beak fhort; lip denticulate.
{t inhabits India and the South feas.

Cotumparium. Shell with longitudinal plaited ribs, and
tranfverfely grooved, angular, {pinous, carinate, alternately
varied with white and brown; whorls leffening {uddenly ;
beak fhort, ftraight; mouth violet. It inhabits Pulo
Condore.

Asperrimus. Shell ribbed, varied with brown, yellows
and white ; whorls oblique, with a tuberculate margin, and
brown band in the middle, and another white one ; beak
dilated, afcending ; fhell nearly two inches long.

Unputatus. Shell white, undulate with bay, with
grooves marked with raifed ftrie ; the whorls, at the mar-
gin, nodulous ; beak ftraight. Found in the Red fea, and
is about four inches long.

F. Tapering, fubulate, with avery fhort beak.

Vertracus. Whorls of the {pire plaited above; beak
afcending ; me plaited within ; it inhabits India, is about
three inches long, with fifteen or more round whorls fepa-
. VoL. XXIV.

Shell a little tapering ; the whorls carinate
It in-

Found on the fhores of New Zea-

rated by a groove; the lower ones fmooth on one part g»
beak very fhort.

Axuco. Whorls of the {pire tuberculate with a fpi-
nous ftreak in the middle ; pillar with a fingle plait, beak
afcending. Itis found in the Southern and Atlantic oceans,
alfo in the Red fea; and is about four inckes long; whorls
generally whitifh, fprinkled with blucifh or brownifh dots ;
whorls tranfverfely ftriate ; lip round; aperture oval.

Awnutanis. Whorls farrounded with longitudinal]
brite belts, the firft whorl tran{verfely ftriate; beak ale
cending.

Pied Shell ventricofe, with a tranfverfely ftriate
{pire, the whorls with longitudinally knotty plaits ; aper-
ture oval. The fhell is yellowifh, with white plaits ; {pire
with eight whorls ; pillar with a fingle wrinkle.

Sorvipus. Shell ventricofe, tranfverfely ftriate, and
crowned with black knots; lip dilated. The fhell is ge
nerally blueifh, with a very trifling prominent beak ; this is
thought by fome to be a variety of the Strombus tuber-
culatus.

Crycuratus. Spire tranfverfely ftriate and grooved s
the whorls furrounded with three rows of granulations, the
firft alittle knotty. It is found in Tranquebar.

Fuscus. The fhell of this fpecies is rounded ; firft whorl
of the fpire is gibbous; the following ones varicofe ; the laft
with numerous {pines.

Fasciatus. Shell tranfverfely ftriate ; the {pire cgowned.
This is found in the rivers of America.

Fruviatitis. Shell brown; firft whorls of the {pire
anaes with {pines, the other with knots; aperture re.
pand,

Atatus. Shell reticulate; fpire mucronate, the firft
whorl grooved and tran{verfely itriate ; lip winged ; {pire
annulate, with nine whorls furrounded with a ftriate band.

Noputosus. Shell tran{verfely ftriate, and alternatel
barred with brown and white ; {pire mucronate, the cate
diitant with undulate knots. Shell with a flightly promi-
nent lip.

TEREBELLA. Shell with a triple moniliform belt on each
fide the whorls ; aperture oval, with curved ftriz within.
The fhell is from an inch to two inches and a half long; in
colour it is a fort of chefnut brown ; fometimes uniform, or
chefnut with white belts, or white with chefnut coloured
belts ; aperture often varied with blue and white.

Fuscatus. Spire with crenulate whorls, the upper {trie
denticulate. It inhabits the Mediterranean ; the fhell is co-
vered with a brown fkin, the bafe obtufe; whorls with a
knotty belt in the middle, and a band on each fide, one of
them granulate, the other crenulate.

Torotusus. Whorls of the {pire with a flightly knotty
zone above; beak fhort.. In colour it is white, fmooth, or
marked with obfolete longitudinal ftrie ; the tip plaited ;
zone of the whorls elevated, gibbous, obtufe.

Reputa. Whorls of the fpire tuberculate, with a dou-
ble row of punétured ftrie. It inhabits Africa; fhell red-
difh or brown; tubercles often tipt with white; the aper-
ture is oval.

Asper. Whorls of the {pire grooved, tranfverfely ftriate
and muricate; beak afcending; it inhabits Guinea; the
fhell is of a milk-white, with rows of brown dots; folid,
with from twelve to fourteen longitudinal grooves ; aperture
fub-oval; pillar with a fingle plait.

Granucatus. Shell rough with decuffate tubercles ;
beak acute, afcending; it is found in India; the fhell is
about two inches long, white; the whorls are longitudinally
ribbed and tran{verfely ftriate ; aperture oval ; pilar with a
fingle plait.

Uu DecoL-

MUR

* Decortatus. Whorls of the fpire with Jongitudinal
plaited grooves, the tip appearing as if the point of it were
broken ‘off. It inhabits the European feas ; refembles the
Helix decollatus, but is emarginate at ‘the bafe; aperture
obovate ; upper margin of the whorls tapering - with longi-
tudinal {trie and imbricate plaits; the grooves are opaque
black.

Moruccasvs. ‘Shell ftriate ; whorls of the fpire tranf-
verfely grooved with undulate Jongitudinal plaits; lip di-
late crefulate, beak tubular. It is found ameng the marfhes
of the Molucea iflands.

Minius. Shell with tranfverfe undulate ftriz, croffed
by longitudinal lines; aperture orbicular. Found in Ja-
maica.

Srricitatus. “Shell longitudinally ftriate ; whorls un-
divided, with afnowy belt at the future fpotted with ru-
fous. :

TusercuLatus. Shell tranfverfely {triate and furrounded
with glabrous knots; lip thickened. The fhell of this fpe-
cies is folid, a little gibbous, obtufe ; the knots black tipped
with white.

Grszosus. Whorls of the fpire margined; belly gib-
bous ; lip cleft denticulate; beak fhort. Spire with nine
ftriate otae and longitudinally plaited ; beak itraight and
fhort ; fhell with reddith fpots.

Arratus.. ~Shell black, the whorls tranfverfely ftriate
and ‘tubterculate ; pillar with a fingle plait; beak ftraight.
The fpire has ten whorls ; lip crenulate.

Contrarivs. Shell with four contrary: whorls marked
with double ftrie, beak dilated. -It inhabits the. European
and North feas.

Ercrnevs. ‘Shell contrary, hyaline, with fix very fine
creaulate whorls.
Coxpitus. Shell tapering, very rough, with granula-

tions; lip doubled, emarginate each fide, and toothed within ;
aperture oval, ftriate.

Ciava. Shell tranfverfely ftr.ate and {potted ; whorls
with plaited knots; beak afcending ; lip doubled, dilated,
pillar-lip replicated and. glabrous. {t inhabits Pulo Con-
dore.

Hexaconvs. Shell yellowith, hexagonal, with tranfverfe

ranulate ftriz ; firft whorl tuberculate ; aperture roundih ;
hp dilated. It is found in the South fea, and fpecimens of
it are frequently feen foffile.

Mixvrissimus. Shell with five fpirally ftriate whorls
and remote ribs; beak clofed. It inhabits the Welfh coafts;
the fhell agreeing with its name is exceedingly minute, ele-
gant, and pellucid.

Murex Mutiani, in Conchology, a name given by fome
authors to the genus of fhells, known at this time under the
name of porcelains and conche venerce. See Porce.arn-
bell.

f Murex, among the ancient Romans, a caltrap, or iron
inftrument, with fharp points every way, ufed asa defence
againtt the enemy’s horfe.

“MURFA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Bun-
delcund ; 15 miles E.N_E. of Callinger.

MURFRERSBOROUGH, a polt-town of America,
in North Carolina, and capital of Gates’ county; fituated
on Meherrin river, and containing a few houfes, a court-
houfe, gaol, and tobacco warehoufe, and carrying on a
{mali trade with Edenton, and the other fea-port towns ;
three miles from Princetown.

MURG, a river of Germany, which rifes about two
miles 6.5.E. of Oppeniv, runs §.§,E. about fix miles to
lake Elp, near which it is joined by the Lorbech, when it
runs northward to Gerfpach; and having pafled this town

MUR

ie ‘ing N.W. by Kapperheim, Raltadt, &c. into the
ine.

MURGA, Morea, a river on the coaft of Chili, in
South America, S. of the fouth point of Quintero bay, and
not far from the entrance into-Chili river.

MURGAH, a town of Hindooltan, in Gurry Mundella;
25 miles E. of Mundella.

MURGAW, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Gohud; .10 miles-S. of Calpy.

MURGENTHAL, a town of Switzerland, in the cane
ton of Berne; 15 miles E. of Soleure. :

MURGIAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Comis ; 30 miles E. of Damegan.—Alfo, a town of Perfia,
in the province of Kerman; 50 miles ‘N. of Sirgian.

MURGLOOR, a town of Hindooltan, in Golconda;
25 miles 5.S.E. of Combamet.

MURHARD), a town of Wurtemberg, on the Muhr ;
22 miles N.E. of Stuttgart. N, lat. 48°56’. E. long. g?

39".
MURIALTO, a town of France, in the department of
the Stura, on the Bormida ; five miles E. of Ceva.

MURIATE of Jron, in Agriculture, a {alt which feldom
occurs in nature. It has been fuppofed highly inimical to
vegetation. It is decompofed by fixed alkalies, lime, and
magnefia, forming digeftive falt, fea-falt, muriate of lime,
and muriate of magnetia.

Muriare of Lime, an earthy falt which. confifts of the
muriatic acid and lime. It is found native in the fea-
water, and in the mother-water of culinary falt. It is
likewife obtained either by dire& combination,-or by the
decompofition of fal ammoniac by quick lime. Lord
Dundonald fays, that it “ is very foluble, and, when mixed
with dung, its effects in promoting vegetation will pro-
bably be found fimilar to thofe of the muriate of magnefia,
It is decompofed by fixed alkalies, forming therewith
muriate of pot-afh, or digeftive falt of Sylvius, and muriate
of foda.”’

Muniate of Magnefia, an earthy falt which confilts. of
the muriatic acid and pure magnelia. It is found in the
mother-earth of nitre manufaGiories, and may be produced
artificially both by direét and indirect combination. .Ac-
cording to lord Dundonald, it is found in great abundance
in fea-water, conftituting upwards of one-fourth of the
faline matter it contains. It may be procured in great
quantities from the bitter refufe liquor which at prefent
runs to wafte at the falt-works, - [t isa falt very deliquef-
cent, and of difficult cryftallization ; its acid is capable, in
a great meafure, of being expelled by heat, and very con-
fiderable benefit has been experienced from its ufe in pro-
moting vegetation, when mixed. with dung or compoit dung-
hills. It feems to poflefs, when applied in moderate quan-
tities, the feptic powers of fea-falt, and thus to promote the
complete putrefaction of dung. It is decompofed by fixed
alkalies and lime,'forming therewith digeftive falt of Sylvius,
fea-falt, and muriate of lime. With ammoniac, or volatile
alkali, it forms a triplicate falt of eafy cryftallization.

Murtate of Soda, a neutral faline fubftance, confifting
of a muriatic acid and foda, or the fixed mineral alkali. It
has received various denominations, according to the ftate in
which it is found in nature, as rock-falt, which is dug cut
of the earth in folid maffes, bay-falt, formed by the evapo-
ration of fea-water, and river-falt obtained from falt {prings.
But none of thefe falts is pure, they are always mixed with
fome heterogeneous parts ; thus rock-falt contains cypfum,
bay-falt, a great deal of muriate of magnefia, and mver-falt,
frequently both. Sometimes they contain by accident bitter

y | falt,

MURIATIC ACID.

falt, alum, amimoniacal falt, &c: Tt may probably be ufe-
fulas:a manure. See Sea-Saut.

MURIATIC Acip, in Chemi/try, a fubftance which,
although it has. not as yet been decompofed, is prefumed to
be a compound of fome inflammable body with oxygen,
and, in confequence, has been clafled with the other acidu-
lous oxyds. Our ignorance of its conitituents does not
admit of its procuration by fynthefis, It is, however,
found in great abundance in nature, being a component part
of muriate of foda (common falt), and fome others, It is
obtained by the following procels » ;

Let equal parts,.by weight, of fulphuric acidand muriate
of foda, be put into a glafs retort, or common gas bottle.
Let the beak of the retort be placed in'a mercurial trough,
below the furface, under a jar filled’ with mercury. An
elattic fluid will be difengaged, which will afcend into the jar,
difplacing as much ofthe mercury. If a {mall lamp be now
applied'to the retort, the gas will be rapidly fet free, and
will foon fill the jar with a gas having all the appearance of
common air, but, as we fall foon notice, is pofleffed of very
different properties! This product is called muriatic acid
gas, and has till lately been generally held to be the muriatic
acid in a ftate of purity. Ithas a difagreeable {mell, and is
exceedingly fuffocating. Jt is almoft inftantly fatal to ani-
mals, when taken into the lungs.

The fpecific gravity of muriatic acid gas is to that of
hydrogen as 15.3 to 1, and 100 cubic inches of it weigh
39-5 grains. ‘ ‘

This gas is rapidly abforbed by water, producing much
heat. Under the average preffure and temperature, water
abforbs more than four hundred: times its bulk. This con-
ftitutes the liquid muriatic acid, formerly called {pirit of falt,
The following isa table of the per centage of acid, in the
liquid acid, of different {pecilic gravities.

Real Acid PE Real Acid p

Specific |, i i Boiling | Atoms of Acid
Cink. hd Aka by “ast Point.’ Water.
Weight. 3
E.5 47-8 77 60° E+ 3
40-7 ilieen tess
35°), Sa ie)
314 r+ 6
28.2 r+ 7
3.199 25.6 30.5 Igo? {| zy 4+ ' 8
1.88 23-4 27.5 Dt iat nels Taal,
1.166 21.6 25.2 170 I+ 10
.154 20, 23.1 190 rf. i
1.145 18.7 21.4 212 E+ £2
1,136 17:5 19-9 217 r+ 13
3,127 16.4 18.5 222 Bip rg
I.Y2r 15.5 17-4 228 i ane 1 ~
1.094 12.1 13.2 232 I+ 20
3.075 9-91 10.65 228 I+ 2
8.064 8.4 8.93 225 r+ 30
1.047 6.4) 6.78 222 I+ 40
1.035 5-21 5-39 219 I+ 50
1.018 2.65 2.7 216 I + 100
1.009 1.36 1.37 214 I + 200

From the preceding table it will appear, that the {pecific
gravity of liquid muriatic acid is in the direét ratio of the
combined gas, fo long as it retains the liquid form. Whether
it is combined with water in its gafeous form, is a matter not
yet decided. On this point we fhall make fome obfervations

in the courle- of this article. The condenfation of the two
bodies; with the evolution of heat during combination, are
proofs of their great attraGtion for each other. Wo) liquid
acid appears. to be capable of exifting when the proportion
of gas is much more than four or five hundred, times, the
volume of the water. At this ftrength it appears to con-
tain about 48 per cent. of the acid gas. Its {pecific gravity
is u.5, and its boiling point 60°. Me Dalton is of opinion
that it confilts of 3x 8 + 22, or 3 atoms of water, andi
of acid,

Its boiling point gradually lowers with a lefs proportion
of gas, as may be feen in the table, till it gets to the propor-
tion of 12 ye cent. of gas, under which it boils. at 232’.

Mr. Dalton; very juttly, obferves, that when the acid gas
is in greater proportion,. the gas efcapes to, bring it to that
ftandard. When, however, it is. ina lefs; proportion, the
water evaporates tillit arrives at the fame flrength.

The methods of afcertaining the ftrength of a given acid
are various. et a given meature, or weight, of the avid be
faturated with cryftallized carbonate of lime in powder, and
let the carbonic acid be carefully colleted. For every 19.4
by weight of carbonic acid, allow 22, of real muriatic acid,

To agiven weight of the liquid acid, let nitrate of filver be
added, till no more precipitation takes place. Colleé the
muriate of filver and dry it. For-every 100 grains of this
muriate allow 17° of muriatic acid.

The procefs for obtaining liquid muriatic acid confifts of
the molt convenient means of prefenting the gas to water
intended to abforb it.. The common falt is put into a retort:
of glafs in the fmall, and) of iron in the large way. The gas
is then received into a fet of Woulffe’s bottles. (See Laro-
RAToRy.)) This. gas is. to. be fupplied tll no more is
abforbed.

This liquid is generally of a yellow. colour,. which is faid
to be owing to a {mall portion of iron, fince the pure acid is
without colour.

The prefence of muriatic acid, in the gafeous form, is
eafily afcertained by ammonia. The two gales combine,
forming denfe white fumes, which, when condenfed, form
muriate of ammonia. .

The acid in any liquid is deteGed with great fenfibility
by fulphate of filver :. the acid forms with it a heavy white
precipitate, which turns purple by expofure to. light. This
is the muriate of filver.

Muriatic acid, which has. been confidered a compound of
fome inflammable body with oxygen,.combines with an addi-
tional portion of oxygen, forming the compound called oxy-
muriatic acid, This fubftance was difcavered by Scheele,
and is obtained by adding oxyd of manganefe to liquid
muriatic acid : by applying heat a gas comes over exceed-
ingly acrid and pungent to the {mell, having at the fame time
a difagreeable effect upon. the lungs. When it is collected
in a glafs jar, it appears of a greenifh colour. Its fpecttic
gravity is greater than that of muriatic acid gas, being to thar
of hydrogen as 30.75 to 1: 100 cubic mches weigh 76
grains.

It is much lefs abforbable by water than muriatie acid
gas, the water taking up not more than double its volume,

lt fupports combultion with: molt of the inflammable
bodies. Several of the metals, as zine, bifmuth, copper,
arfenic, and antimony, take fire when introduced to this gas
in the ftate of thin foil or fine powder, This gas, when ac-
companied with moifture, deftroys the colours of vegetable
fubftances, and hence is employed for bleaching linen and
cotton.

Chemifts are at prefent divided refpeCting the nature of
this fubftance, as well as the muriatic acid. In all proba.

Uu a bility

‘

MURIATIC ACID.

bility the difputed point may be fettled ina fhort time, fo that
we may be able to give a more fatisfaftory account of it under
Oxymurtiatic Acid. We hall here give a brief detail of
the fats and reafonings which have led to fome new con-
clufions, but which we fhall not venture to adopt, till we are
in poffeffion of an experimentum erucis which fhall leave but
one opinion on the fubjec. }

Since the celebrated difcovery of potafium by fir Hum-
phry Davy, the French chemifts, Gay Luflac and The-
nard, have made fome experiments upon muriatic acid gas,
with a view to afcertain the component parts of theacid. In
all thefe experiments, they were obliged to adopt one of the
following conclufions, namely, that muriatic acid gas is either
a compound of real acid combined with about one-fourth of
water, or that the acid is a compound of hydrogen with
oxymuriatic acid, the latter being regarded as a fimple body
ofa nature fimilar to oxygen.

The following are the experiments which led to thefe
conclufions. By pafling muriatic acid gas over litharge, mu-
riate of lead was formed, and a quantity of water produced.
The fame took place when oxyd of filver was fimilarly em-

loyed. The water was equal to about one-fourth the
weight of the gas. Conceiving, from thefe fatts, that
muriatic acid gas was a compound of three-fourths of the
real acid with one-fourth of water, they next made fome
experiments with a view to obtain the acid free from water.
For this purpofe, they applied the dry vitreous fuperphof-
phate of lime, and afterwards the vitreous boracic acid, to
the dry muriates ; but although they expofed them to a high
temperature, no muriatic acid could be difengaged. If,
however, a few drops of water were added, the muriatic
acid inftantly feparated in the form of gas. Hence they
found, ‘that muriatic acid could not be feparated from its
compounds without the prefence of water.

Their next obje& was to attempt to feparate the oxygen
from the oxymuriatic acid, and by that means get the
muriatic acid free from water, as they had reafon to believe
that the former did not contain water. This objet, how-
ever, they found of no lefs difficulty than the laft. Metallic
fubftances were ineffectual for this purpofe, in confequence
of their combination with the acid they wifhed to obtain.
When they employed fulphur, they obtained a peculiar
compound with the acid, and the fulphur which had before
been difcovered by Dr. Thomfon, under the name of the
fulphuretted muriatic acid. Phefphorus alfo combined with
the acid, forming a peculiar fubftance. Their next expe-
riment was to pafs oxymuriatic acid gas over red-hot carbon :
at firft fome muriatic acid was formed, but ultimately they
found that carbon had no effe& upon oxymuriatic acid when
no moifture was prefent. ‘They further found, that when the
oxymuriatic acid was brought in contaét with fulphurous acid
gas, with nitric oxyd, or with carbonic oxyd, no decom-
sofition took place, except with the prefence of water or
fie dbiien, In the whole of thefe experiments, the two
hypothefes above-mentioned were equally applicable to ex-
The above chemilts, however, were

plain the phenomena.

more inclined to give preference to the idea that muriatic
acid gas is a compound of real acid with water, than that
oxymuriatic acid 18 a fimple body, which, when combined
with hydrogen, conftituted muriatic acid.

Sir Humphry Davy, who has made fome experiments,
has explained the faéts by the latter hypothefis, and appears
fo confident of its trath, that although few chemifts of emi-
rience are as yet decided on the fubjeé&t, he has adopted it
in his n work, with new nomenclature relative to
oxymuriatic acid and its compounds. The fubftancs

which is fuppofed to unite with hydrogen to form muriati

acid, is the fame with oxymuriatic acid, and is called by
fir Humphrey Davy chlorine, He reprefents it as a fub-
ftance poffefling many of the qualities of oxygen, particularly
in its attraétion for inflammable bodies. All thofe bodies
which are deemed compounds of muriatic acid with the differ-
ent faline bafes, and free from water; or, in other words, all
the dry muriates, are deemed by the above chemift compounds
of chlorine with the inflammable bafes. When muriatic acid
gas is heated with a metallic oxyd, he concludes, that the
oxygen of the oxyd unites with the hydrogen of the acid,
forming water, while the chlorine thus liberated combines
with the metal.

The compounds of chlorine with different inflammable
bodies, have been named by fir Humphry Davy agreeably
to the names of the different bodies combining with chle-
rine. Its compound with fulphur he has called fulphurane ;
the fame termination ‘‘ ane’’ being applied to the name of
the bafe in the other compounds of chlorine. The com-
pounds which contain the fecond proportion of chlorine are
named by the termination ‘‘ana’’ to the bafe, as ‘* phofpho-
rana,” the fecond compound of chlorine with phofphorus.

It would be worfe than ufelefs to give a further view of
this theory. Its rejetion or final adoption will, in all pro-
bability, take place before we come to the article OxymMuri-
atic acid. Before, however, we quit the fubje&, we will
make a few obfervations upon the relative grounds on which
the two theories ftand. This we will fhew by explaining feve-
ral prominent faéts on both principles. , Sir Humphry Dayy
burnt eight grains of potafium in 22 cubic inches 8.69 grains
of muriatic acid gas, which produced eight cubic inches
(.2 grains) of hydrogen. Now the.2 grains of hydrogen were,
according to the new hypothefis, fet free from the 8.69
grains of muriatic acid, hence the proportions in which they
united are 43.1 by weight. Sir Humphry has fince
ftated that this compound confilts of equal volumes, or, ac-
cording to the fpecific gravity of the gafes given by this che-
mift, 33.1 by weight. But, according to the authority of
Dalton, it would be 30 of oxymuriatic acid, and 1 of hy-
drogen.

In the above experiment, if we confider the .2 grains of
hydrogen, produced by burning eight grains of potafium in
muriatic acid gas, as refulting from water, it will follow
that the oxygen which had been taken from the water by
the potafium, was 1.4 grains. This would give 1.6 of water.
lf we confider potafh as the protoxyd of potafium, then an

35)

7
= a fo that there is a difference of .2 grains of oxygen

1.6
between the calculation and the experiment. Sir Humphry
does not appear to have been correé in the experiment above
given: ‘The muriatic acid is in too great proportion for the
exact formation of muriate of potafh. Since, however, the
fame quantity of hydrogen would refult from this or any
greater proportion of acid, the quantity of hydrogen to
the metal is nearly correé.

If muriatic acid gas be a compound of the real acid with
water, the proportions cannot be lefs than 1 atom of acid to
1 of water, or 22 + 8 = 30. In order, therefore, that the
potafium may be in fuch proportion to the acid gas that every
thing may be faturated, the atom of potafium, which is
35, fhould be added to an atom of acid gas, 22 + 8 = 30.
‘Phe oxygen of the water 7 will unite with 35 of potafium,
forming 42 0f potafh. This uniting with 22 of acid, forms
64 of muriate of potafh, while 1 of hydrogen will be fet free
from the atom of water. Ifthe above numbers be confi-

dered

atom of potafh will be 35 + 7 = 42, and we fhall have

MUR

dered grains, the volume of the hydrogen will be equal to
go cubic inches. Comparing this with theabove experiment,

35

~ we fhall have
40

idea that the acid gas contains an atom of water, 8 grains
of potafium would afford 9.1 cubic inches of hydrogen,
which is more by 1.1 cubic inch than in the experiment.
Agreeably to this calculation, the quantity of muriatic acid
gas to have been taken up exaétly by 8 grains of potafium,
would be about 17.4 cubic inches, or 6.86 grains. This
would confit of 5.031 of acid, and 1.829 of water ; 1.6004
of oxygen from the latter would combine with eight grains
of potalium, forming 9.6004 of potafh, while .2286 or 9.144
cubic inches of hydrogen will be evolved. The 9.6004 of
potath will combine with 5.031 of real acid, forming 14.6314
of muriate of potafh. This added to .2286 of hydrogen gives
14.86 grains, the original weight.

The above will very nearly agree with fir Humphry
Davy’s account of the proportions of hydrogen and chlo-
rine to form muriatic acid. In the laft {tatement the acid
is 6.86, confifting of 5.031 of real acid, and 1.829 of water.
When the hydrogen, which is .2286, is feparated, the 5-031
of real acid will combine with 1.6004 of oxygen, forming
6.6035 of oxymuriatic acid; the volume of which is 8.77.
The volume of hydrogen in the fame is 9.144 cubic inches.
Sir Humphry ftates them to be equal volumes, which is not
far from the above numbers. ii

From thefe ftatements it will appear that both opinions
agree in the faét, that an atom of oxymuriatic acid, and an
atom of hydrogen, form an atom of muriatic acid gas It is
from this circumftance that the two explanations fo exaétly

in all the experiments hitherto made.

The only thing in difpute as to real fact is, whether water
is or is not acomponent part of muriatic acid gas. If the
latter is not the cafe, the oxymuriatic acid is a fimple body,
and the view taken of it by fir Humphry Davy mutt be
adopted. If, on the contrary, the acid gas bea compound
of an atom of water with an atom of real acid, then the oxy-
muriatic acid will as ufual be confidered as an atom of real
muriatic acid with an atom of oxygen; or an atom of the acid
gas with an atom of hydrogen, abitracted from the atom of
water which it contains. When muriatic acid combines with
any faline bafe, both parties would agree that a quantity of
water would be the refult, and the fame quantity would be
admitted by each. Thofe of the new opinion would fay that
the water refulted from the hydrogen of the muriatic acid,
and the oxygen of the faline bafe, Thhofe of the old opinion
would account for the water from the acid gas giving its
water when the real acid combined the oxyd.

In all attempts to extract oxygen from the muriatic acid,
the muriatic acid itfelf either difappears, or the oxymuniatic
acid remains unchanged. Sir Humphry explains this fact
by not allowing the exiftence of oxygen in oxymuriatic acid.
Thofe who hold oxymuriatic acid to be a compound, would
fay that the muriatic acid would not give up its atom of oxy-
gen, excepting an atom of water were prefent, to which the
acid owes its gafeous form, * —

The only experiment in which the refult can be unequi-
vocal is, in uniting muriatic acid to ammonia, fince the latter
is thé only faline bafe which does not combine with oxygen.
If the gafes do not contain’ free moifture, the muriatic acid
ought to combine with the ammonia, while the water of the
acid gas is liberated. This experiment was made by Mr.
Murray, in which he afferts that water is feparated. The
experiment has been repeated by fir Humphry Davy, with-
ont producing any water, when the falt was not expofed to

= fo that by calculation, on the

a

MUR

the air before examination. Mr. Murray*has fince made a.
fecond trial, with the caution of baking the falt formed by
the gafes from the atmofphere. Mr. M. ftill infitts that
water is obtained from the falt by diftillation. We hope by
the time we have occafion to refume this fubjeét, the experi-
ment will have been made upon a larger fcale, which will
fettle the point in difpute.

Dr. Henry has, on feveral occafions, tried the effe& of
ele&tricity upon muriatic acid. Traces of hydrogen gas
have been frequently found to be the refult. This ingenious
experimenter, from fome recent experiments, has concluded,
that when the gas is completely free from hygrometric moif-
ture, no hydrogen gas is produced. If, therefore, the mu-
rlatic acid contains water of combination, it is not within the
influence of electricity.

MURJATTAH, in Geography, ariver of Bengal, which
runsinto the bay of Bengal, N. lat. 21° 43’. E. long. 89°

8’.

MURIC, atown of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ; 75
miles S.W. of Meaco.

: MURICHOM, atown of Bootan; 48 miles N. of Bey-
ar.

MURICIA, in Botany, fo denominated by Loureiro,
from Murex, the celebrated purple-dyeing fhell-fith of the
ancients, in allufion to the purple colour, and muricated
figure, of the fruit. Loureir. Cochinch. 596. Clafs and
order, Monoecia Syngenefia, Lour. (rather Moncecia Polya-
delphia.) Nat. Ord, Cucurbitacee, Linn. Juff,

Gen. Ch. Male, Cai. the outermoft a large, inflated, ob-
tufe, fingle-flowered fheath. Perianth in five deep, awl-
fhaped, itriated, coloured, {preading, equal fegments. Cor.
bell-fhaped, of five ovato-lanceolate, ribbed, {preading petals.
Stam. Filaments three, fhort, thick, triangular, dilated and
connected at the bafe ; anthers three, or rather five, thofe on
two of the filaments being double, with two divaricated
lobes, auricled at the bafe, the third fimple, all diftin@, with
a pollen-bearing line at the ontfide.

Female, on the fame plant, feattered. Cal. and Cor. as
inthe male. Pi/?. Germen between the fheath and perianth,
oblong-ovate, villous; ftyle round, thick, as long as the
ftamens, flightly three-cleft at the top ; itigmas three, hori-
zontal, arrow-fhaped. Peric. Berry large, ovate, muricated,
of one cell. Sveds numerous, large, orbicular, reticulated,
tuberculated at the edge.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx in five deep fegments. Petals five.
Filaments three.

Female, Calyx in five deep fegments. Petals five. Style
nearly fimple. Berry muricated, of one cell. Seeds orbi-
cular, tuberculated.

1. M. cochinchinenfis. Native of China and Cochinchina.
A large climbing /brub, with a thick, woody, branched fem,
Tendrils folitary. Leaves ftalked, alternate, five-lobed,
{mooth, veiny, finely toothed ; the three upper lobes pointed,
two lower (or lateral) ones bluntifh and fhort. Flowers
lateral, folitary, pale yellow, on long ftalks. Berries of a
reddifh purple both within and without, rather flefhy, with
brown feeds, imbedded in the pulp. Perianth black. Sheath
green. he fruit has an infipid tafte, and no fmell. Tt is
ufed to colour wafers, cakes, or other eatables, of a fine
purple. The feeds and leaves are reported by Loureiro to
have an opening and cleanfing quality, removing obi{truétions
in the liver and fpleen, &c.

MURILLIO, Don Barrotome Estivay, in Biogra-
Ay, one of the mott pleafing painters Spain ever produced.
He was born at Pilas, near Seville, in 1613, and having ex-
hibited very early an inclination for the art, became a difciple
of Juan del Caftillo, whofe favourite fubjects were fairs and

3 markets ;

MUR

markets; of which Murillo painted many pidtures before he
left him to go to Madrid. There he became known to, and
favoured by, Velafquez, who enabled him to fee the works
of Titian, Rubens, and Vandyke, which were in the royal
palaces, and the houfes of the nobility. Of thefe he copied
many, under the aufpices of his friend, and having very much
advanced himfelf in the knowledge and praétice of his art,
he returned to adorn the city of Seville with his per-
formances.

This juftly efteemed artift never went to Italy for his im-

rovement, and the Spanifh authors boalt of this, forgetting
that if Murillio did not vilit that feat of the arts, at lealt he
derived much of the excellence he pofleffed from the works
of its profeffors ; he does not appear to have had fo high a
ftamp of genius as to have advanced fo far as he did without
their affiftance.

He was employed upon his return to Seville to paint for
mott of the principal churches there, and the pictures he
produced, which were of fubjeéts collected from holy writ,
and the legends of the Romifh calendar, were remaining in
their original {tations when the French fo bafely took pof-
feffion of Spain. They, at leaft many of them, are molt
probably too good to have efcaped tranfportation to Paris,
that grand depot of plunder, where they cannot fail to re-
ceive their jult portion of applaufe.

The ftyle of Murillio is his own. He copied his objeéts
from nature, but combined them ideally ; that 1s, his back-
grounds are generally confufed and indiftinét, and the parts
¥ery much blended together, witha loofe pencil and indeter-
rminate execution; but moft of them have a very pleafing
effeé, and perhaps the principal objects acquire a degree of
finith and beauty from this very circumftance. An inftance
may be recollected in his very plealing picture of the good

fhepherd, an excellent copy of which is at the marquis of
Stafford’s gallery.
~ Tt was in {mall pictures of familiar life that this artift molt
completely fucceeded, although the pictures above-men-
tioned in the churches of Seville are exceedingly large, 16
or 18 feet high fome of them, and containing an immenfe
number of figures, as is required in {uch fubjects, as Chrilt
feeding the Multitude, St. John preaching, St. Thomas
iving alms to the Poor, &c. &c. In thefe piétures, fkil-
Fully wrought as they are, he does not appear to have pene-
trated the arcana of grandeur or ftyle; even his expreflions
are often of a mean charaéter in the mott dignified perfonages ;
but in the amiable and tender fentiments, which are expreffed
by the filent actions of the human features, he was eminently
fuccefsful. His piétures captivate very much by the gentle-
nefs and fuayity of their colour, and the foftnels of the exe-
cution.

It was not only at Seville that Murillio’s talents were
called into aétion, Granada, Cadiz, and Cordova, each con-
tained altar-pieces of his painting, and his {maller works were
widely difperfed through the country. He enjoyed his re-
nown to the advanced age of 72, when he died, univerfally
Jamented by thofe who felt any intereft in the arts.

MURILLO, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the pro-
vince of Aragon; 16 miles S. of Jaca.

MURINA, or Murixes, pugins ones, in Antiquity, a
delicious {weet wine, medicated with fpices. It was a kind
of hippocras, and the ufual drink of the ladies.

MURING, the walling, or raifing the wall of a building.
Sce WALL.

MURIPADOO, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in the circar of Cicacole; five mies N, of Tiakely.

MURIS, Joun pr, in Biography. See De Muris.

MUR
MURITZ; in Geography, a lake of Mecklenburg, S. of

Wahren.

MURKAH, a town of Hindooftan, in Allahabad, on
the Jumna; 50 miles W.N.W. of Allahabad.

MURLAVADDY, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ;
21 miles S. of Bangalore. ” f

MURLIDUR, or Muruinuer, a name of the Hindoo
deity Kristina, of whom an account is given under that
article : and under Murty, the fuppofed origin and mean
ing of the name.

MURLY, or Murer, a name given in the Eaft Indies-
to bands of females retained in eminent temples as chorif-
ters. The word feems defcriptive of their mufical avoca-
tion, as it means, in a dialeét of the country, a flute or
pipe. Hence Krifhna, the Apollo of India, when feen with
the pipe in his hand as he is in Sonnerat, Maurice’s In-
dian Antig., and in feveral plates of the Hindoo Pantheon,
is called Murlidur, or Mudlidher ; more correétly, perhaps,
Murlidhara, meaning pipe-bearer ; as Siva is in like manner
furnamed Gangadhara, from bearing the river Ganga, or
Ganges, mythologically, on his head. Under the article
Jesury, notice is taken of the numerous bands of Murlis
kept in that fplendid temple. At the conclufion of that
article they are faid to bethere called AZurty, andireference ig
made to that word; but it was by miltake: Murly is the
word, and this the article intended.

MURMANSKOF Benes, in Geography, the N.E. coaft
of Ruffian Lapland, in the government of Archangel, be-
tween N. lat. 68° and 69°. :
MURNAU, atown of Bavaria; 10 miles S. of Weil-
heim.

MURNIG Ser, a lake of Carinthia; 10 miles N.W. of
Welach.

MURO, a town of Naples, in the province of Otranto >
fix miles N.N.E. of Aleffana.—Alfo, a town of Maples,
in Bafilicata, the fee of a bifhop, fuflragan of Conza; 13
miles S.E. of Conza. N. lat. 40° 47’. E. long. 15° 32's
Alfo, a town of Majorca, containing a convent, a good
hofpital, and feveral chapels; abounding in all forts of
grain, fruits, vegetables, and a number of cattle. —Alfog
a mountain of Portugal, which forms a weftern boundary
to the province of ‘Tras los Montes. :

MUROR, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Ma-
har ; 38 miles N. of Neermul.

MURORUM Domesticus. See Domesticus.

MUROS, or Munoz, in Geography, a {mall fea-port
town of Spain, in the province of Galicia, fituated between
Bayona and Corunna, upon the N. bank of a {mall gulf,
formed by the mouth of the Tambra: on the other fide is
“ Nbya”’ and its fertile plain, where is one of the beautiful
dock-yards of Galicia for the conttrustion of fhips.

MURPHY, Anrruur, in Biography, a confiderable dra-
matic writer, was born, according to his own account, which
he extracted from his mother’s prayer-book, at Clooniquin,
in the county of Rofcommon, in Ireland, on the 27th of
December, 1727. His father, Richard Murphy, who was
a merchant, failed, in 1729, in one of his own trading-
veflels for Philadelphia, but the woyage was truly difattrous 5
the hip was loft, probably in a violent ftorm, and neither
matter nor one of the fhip’s company were ever afterwards
heard of. From this time the care of the fubje& of the
prefent article devolved upon tis mother, In 1735 the
removed, with her children, to London, Arthur did not
remain long in the metropolis, he was fent for to Boulogne
by his aunt, Mrs, Plunkett, his mother’s filler, At ten
years of age he was placed in the Englifh college at St.
Omer’s, where he remained fix years ; and wae in 1744 dil-

mifled

MUR

miffed to London, being then feventeen years olf. In
{peaking of his college exercifes, he fays from the middle

of the-fecond year he obtained the firft place, and, except-

- heart.

ing three times, maintained his ground through five fuc-
ceflive years. In the middle of the year in poetry, the
oung {cholar ftood a public examination of the /Eueid by
The ‘Jefuits were arranged in order; the rector of
the college examined his pupil, and never once found him
at fault: at the end of half an hour, the reétor took a pen
to write Murphy’s eulogium. The fcholars all went by
affumed names, Murphy changed his to Arthur French ; in
reference to this, the words of the reétor were, “ Gallus
nomine, Gallus es, qui fimul ac alas expandis, ceteros
fupervolitans.’’ -«¢ This,’”’ fays Mr. Murphy, towards the
clofe of his life,-* at the time filled me with exultation, and
even now 4s remembered by me with a degree of pleafure,

iI often look back with delight to my fix years’ refidence in

the college of St. Omer’s. During that time I knew no
objet of attention but Greek and Latin, and I have thought,
and ftill think it, the happieft period of. my life.’’ On his
return to England, he refided with his mother till Augult

1747, when he was fent to Cork, to an uncle, in whofe

counting-houfe’ he was employed till April 1749. After
this his uncle, Jeffery French, would have fent him to Ja-
maica to overlook a large eltate which he pofleffed in that
ifland, but having very little tafte for that fort of bufinefs
he returned to his mother in London. This was in the
year 1751. He foon became acquainted with the wits of
the day, and in OGober 1752, he publifhed the firft num-
ber of « The Gray’s Inn Journal,’’ a weekiy paper, which
he continued for two years. On the death of his uncle,
Jeffery French, he was much difappointed in not finding: his
name mentioned in his will, and the more fo as he had con-
tracted debts, in faith of a good legacy, to the amount of
300/, In this embarraffed ftate, at the advice of the cele-
brated Foote, he went on the ftage, and appeared for the
firit time in the character of Othello. In one feafon, by the
help of ftri€t economy, he paid off his debts, and had at
the end of the year 4oo/. in his pocket. With this fum he
determined to quit the dramatic line.

In 1757, he offered himfelf as a ftudent in the Middle
Temple, but was refufed admiffion, on the ground that he had
been on theftage. He was at this time engaged in a weekly
paper, called “ The Teft,”’ undertaken chiefly in favour of
Mr. Fox, afterwards lord Holland, which ceafed on the
overthrow of the admini!tration to which his lordfhip was
attached. Mr. Fox interefted himfelf very much in the
favour of Marphy, {poke in his behalf to lord Mansfield,
and he was admitted, through his means, as a itudent in the
Society of Lincoln's Inn. This was inthe year 17573; he
now attended the law in conjunction with other tubjects
more adapted to his tafte, and which proved more profitable
tohim. In the beginning of 1758, he produced the farce
of « ‘Phe Upholiterer,” which was very fuecefsful, and
which he mode(tiy fays owed its ars wee {uccefs to the
a&ting of Garrick, Yates, Woodward, and Mrs. Clive.
Before the end of the fame year he finifhed «* The Orphan
of China,’’ which is founded ona dramatic piece, tranflated
from the Chinefe language, in Du Halde’s “* Hiltory of
China.” The reprefentation of this play gave Mrs. Yates
the firft opportunity of difplaying her theatrical powers,
and confirmed her reputation as one of the moft excelient
attrefles who have trod the Englifh ftage. His “ Defert
Ifland,”’? a dramatic poem, and his “ Way to keep Him,”
a comedy of three aéts, afterwards enlarged to five acts, the
mott popular of all his dramatic compolitions, appeared in

the year 1760. After Mr. Murphy had been called to the

MUR

bar, he occafionally went the circuit, but not making the
profeffion the objeé&t of-his life, he never obtained much
practice. A variety of other dramatic pieces, conlifting of
tragedy, comedy, and farce, fucceflively proceeded from
his fertile pen. For the ground-work of thefe he was ge-
nerally obliged to a foreign original, but he never {pared
pains to fit them for the Englifh theatre. To this fort of
bufinefs he refers in his prologue to his «* Zenobia.”

‘© Not to ¢ran/late our bard his pen doth dip,
He takes a play, as Britons take a fhip ;
They heave her down ; with many a fturdy ftroke
Repair hér well, and build with heart of oak ;
To every breeze fet Britain’s ftreamers free,
New man her, and away again to fea.”

_ This,”” fays one of Mr. Murphy's biographers, is an
ingenious illuitration of the bufinefs of dramatic alteration,
but cannot elevate it to the rank of original compofition,
Mr. Murphy’s plays generally aéted well, and had tempo-
rary fuccefs, but they made little addition to the true
theatrical {tock of the country.” His farces {till are aéted,
fo alfo are his “* Way to keep Him,” and the ** Grecian
Daughter.” At one period of his life, as we have feen,
he engaged in the field of political warfare > he publithed
feveral occafional poems, and gave Latin verfions of fome
bapa Englith poems; by the latter he obtained great
credit as an elegant fcholar. In 1786, he publifhed his
works colle@ively, in feven volumes, octavo. In 1792, he
appeared as one of the biographers of Dr. Johnfon, in
** An Effay on his Life and Gems ;” and in the following
year he publifhed a tranflation of Tacitus, in four volumes,
quarto, dedicated to the late Edmund Burke. To this
work, which is done in a refpectable and even matfterly
manner, he has added ‘¢ An I’ flay on the Life and Genius oft
Tacitus ;’’ alfo, hiftorical fupplements and frequent anno-
tations and comments. Mr. Murphy continued to write to
an advanced age, and in 1798 he publifhed his « Armi-
nius,’’ intended to excite the nation to meafures of war,
which he thought, to ufe the cant of politicians, “ to be
jut and neceflary.” ‘Through his intereft with lord Lough-
borough, he obtained the office of one of the commiflioners
of bankrupts, to which, during the laft three years of his
life, was added a penfion of 200/, a-year. Mr. Foote has
given an interefting account of the clofe.of Mr. Murphy’s
hfe, from which it appears he had perfectly reconciled his
mind to the flroke of death: when he had made his will,
and given plain and accurate dire@tions re{pecting his funeral,
he faid, ** J have been preparing for my journey to another
region, and now do not care how foomI take my departure.’”
On the day of his death, which was on the 18th of Juney
1805, he frequently repeated the lines of Pope:

« Taught, half by reafon, half by mere decay,
To welcome death and calmly pafs away.”

Befides the works already mentioned and alluded to,
Mr. Murphy was author of the Life of Garrick ; and a
tranflation of Salluft, from his pen has appeared as a poft-
humous work. He was a man of great urbauity of man-
ners, and much regarded by his friends, whom, to the latt,
he ufed to entertain with anecdotes of the literary acquaint-
ance of his younger years, related with humour and vivacity,
Foote’s Life of Murphy. Gent. Mag. Monthly Mag.

MURR Istanps, in Geography, a clutter of {mall iflands,
near the S. coalt of Labrador. N. lat. 50° 32'" W. long.

9 8.

MURRA, a town of Arabia, in the province of Yemen ;
10 miles N.W. of Zebid,

Murra,

MUR

Murra, among the Aneients, a foffile fubMance, found in
Parthia and Carmania, of a fine {mell, and beautiful variety
of colours.

It was thought to be fome humour condenfed in the earth
by the heat of the fun. See MurruINE.

Murra was likewife a dry perfume, made of the murra
reduced to powder.

MURRAIN, Garctg, a mortality, or contagious difeafe
among cattle.

Morrains are occafioned various ways, but principally
by a hot, dry feafon; or rather by a general putrefaction
of the air, which begets an inflammation in the blood,
and a {welling in the throat, with other fymptoms : the
difeafe foon proves mortal, and is communicated from one
to another.

The fymptoms are, generally, a hanging down, or fwelling,
of the head, rattling in the throat, fhort breath, palpitation
of the heart, ftaggering, abundance of gum in the eyes, &c.
breath hot, and tongue fhining.

The moft remarkable murrain we hear of, is that men-
tioned in the Philofophical TranfaGtions ; which {pread itfelf
through Switzerland and Germany, into Poland, &c. Sce
Mist.

MURRAY, Witiay, earl of Mansfield, in Biography,
a diftinguifhed lawyer and judge, the younger fon of David
vifcount Stormont, a peer of Scotland, was born at Perth,
onthe fecond of March, 1704—5, and at the age of three
years was removed to London, where he received his early
education. He was admitted a king’s {cholar at Weftmin-
fter in the year 1719, and in a very fhort time diftinguifhed
himfelf by the excellence of his declamations, which were
regarded as prognoftics of that eloquence for which he was
afterwards fo much celebrated at the bar, and in both houfes
of parliament. He was admitted a ftudent of Chriftchurch,
Oxford, on the 18th of June, and in about four years he
took his firft degree, and in 1730 his degree of M.A., at
which period he Ach the univerfity. He had fupported his
claffical reputation at college by a copy of Latin verfes on
the death of George I., and an elegant Latin oration in
praife of Demofthenes. From Oxford he went to the con-
tinent, and {pent fome time in a tour through France and
Italy, after which he entered himfelf at Lincoln’s Inn, and
engaged ferioufly in the ftudy of the law. From the moment
that he was called to the bar, he feems to have {corned the
idea of rifing by the flow drudgery of common practice. He
cultivated the talent and graces of fine elocution. In con-
fequence of a difplay of his abilities in an appeal caufe be-
fore the houfe of lords, he rofe rapidly into fame and bufi-
nefs. So fudden was the change, that he has been heard to
fay, he fearcely knew an interval between the want of
employment and the receipt of 3000/. per annum. Mr.
Murray at a very early period engaged the friendfhip of
Pope, who left behind him feveral teitimonies of his fingular
affeétion for this rifing lawyer: he addrefled to him an
imitation of the firft ode of the fourth book of Horace, in
which he paints his friend as

** Noble and young, who ftrikes the heart
With every f{prightly, every decent part.”

The nataral and acquired advantages which characterized
the eloquence of Mr. Murray were fo con[picuous, even
on the {pur of an occafion, and his perception fo quick, as

to enable him to fhine upon any emergency ; a circumi{tance
of this kind occurred in 1737, when he was junior counfel
in aconfiderable caufe: his leader was fuddenly feized in
court with a fit; the duty of courfe fell to the lot of the

junior, who wifhed to decline it for want of time to make

MUR

himfelf mafter of the cafe. The court adjourned for an
hour, and with this fhort preparation Mr. Murray made fo
able and eloquent a defence, as not only to reduce the da-
mages to amere trifle, but to gain the reputation of a moft
prompt, perfpicuous, and eloquent pleader. In 1738, there
were fifteen or fixteen appeals heard and determined in the
houfe of lords, in eleven of which Mr. Murray was en-
gaged. Among the everal interefting caufes in which he
was employed, one of great importance was that in the cafe
of the provoft and corporation of Edinburgh, for the punifh-
ment of whom, on account of mifconduét in the cafe of
captain Porteus, an a¢t of parliament was framed. Mr.
Murray, their counfel, oppofed it in all its ftages, and in
both houfes, and for his exertions he was prefented with
the freedom of the city of Edinburgh in a gold box. The
chancery-bar was that to which he had hitherto confined his
practice; but in 1742, his being raifed to the office of
folicitor-general, gave a wider fcope to his profeffional
talents. In this fame year he took his feat in the houfe of
commons as reprefentative for Boroughbridge, and from this
time he became the ftrenuous defender of the duke of New-
caftle’s miniftry, and was frequently the {peaker oppofed to
Mr. Pitt, who then began to diftinguifh himfelf in parlia-
ment. In 1746, he was called upon to take an aétive part
againft the rebel lords, and exerted all his talents onthe
occafion, particularly in the impeachment of lord Lovat,
whofe guilt he proved, but in fo candid a manner, that he
received the acknowledgments of the culprit himfelf. In
1754, Mr. Murray was promoted to the office of attorney-
general, and in 1756, on the death of fir Dudley Ryder,
he was raifed to the high dignity of lord-chief juftice of
the court of king’s bench, and at the fame time was ad-
vanced to the peerage by the ftyle and title of baron Manf-
field of the county of Nottingham. From this period lord
Mansfield may be confidered as at the head of the judicature
in this kingdom; ‘and although,’’ fays his biographer,
“his condu& and principles have undergone fevere cenfure
in the violent party contentions which have agitated the na-
tion during the greater part of the prefent reign, yet his
charaéter feems permanently eftablifhed, as one of the moft
able, the moft eloquent, the moft enlightened, and, in his legal
capacity, feparated from his political, the moft upright judges
who have ever occupied the bench. His behaviour towards
the sage #8 of the bar, and the fuitors to the court, was
equally courteous, obliging, and dignified, and no man was
more attentive to the public.accommodation in his difpatch
of bufinefs. His quicknefs of apprehenfion, denoted by an
eye of fire, enabled him at once to difcover where the force of
a caufe lay. This he ftated with wonderful clearnefs, and
placed in fo ftriking a point of view, that he feldom failed
to difpofe the minds of the hearers to follow that impulfion
which he wifhed to give them.”? It is much to the praife of
lord Mansfield that he was uniformly a friend to religious
toleration, and would probably, in the prefent day, have
gone much farther than the ideas of mere toleration will
carry aman ; he would probably have concurred to blot out
from the ftatute-books all laws thet inflict punifhment, or
difability, on account of religious opinions. On various
occafions he fet himfelf againit vexatious profecutions founded
upon intolerant laws, and in the fheriffs’ caufe, as it is deno-
minated, in 1767, he greatly diltinguifhed himtelf by his
found and forcible reafoning in favour of the Proteftant
diffenters, whom the paltry politics of the corporation of
London had habitually fubjeéted to the fine for refufing to
ferve the office of fheriff, while they lay under the fevere
penalties of the teft and corporation aéts fhould they have
ferved it without qualifying, by taking the facrament of the
Lord’s

MUR

Lord’s fupper in the church of England, with which they
could not comply. His expofure of the tyrannical injuttice

of fuch a dilemma carried with it a conviétion that put an

end to the practice. In fpeaking of the revocation of the

edi& of Nantes, as introductory to perfecutions in France,

his lordfhip faid there was no occafion for that meafure,

“the Jefuits needed only to have advifed a plan fimilar to

what is contended for in the prefent cafe: make a law to

render them incapable of office; make another to punifh

them for not ferving. If they accept, punifh them (for it

is admitted on all hands, that the defendant, in the caufe

before your lordfhips, is profecutable for taking the office

upon him): if they accept, punifh them; if they refufe,

puhifh them ; if they fay yes, punifh them; if they fay no,

punifh them. My lords, this isa moft exquifite dilemma,

from which there is no efcaping ; it is a trap a man cannot

get out of; it is as bad a perfecution as that of Procruttes:

if they are too fhort, ftretch them, if they are too long, lop

hem.”

: It mutt not, however, be concealed, that lord Mansfield

was, in politics, a favourer of high maxims in government,
and dire@tly hottile to thofe popular principles which were
the fubje& of fo much contention in the early part of this
reign. He maintained that the jury, in all cafes of libel,
were only judges of the fact of publication, and had nothing
to do with the law as to libel or not; and in all the great
caufes concerning the liberty of the prefs, he ever attached
himfelf to the court, fo that, as it has been well faid, <« his con-
du& asa politician will probably not be dwelt upon by an enco-
miaft, as that part of his public life which does him moft ho-
nour.’ In 1776, he was advanced to the dignity of an
earldom, with the remainder tothe Stormont family, as he
had no iffue of hisown. At this period the popular dif-
putes were fubfiding, and he probably expeéted to wear his
well-earned honours in peace, but the difgraceful riofs in
1780 brought upon hima ftorm for which he was totally un-
prepared. Although the part he had taken in the liberal
bill for the relief of the Roman Catholics was by no means
confpicuous, yet, as the head of the executive juftice of the
kingdom, he was marked out for the attacks of a mob, who
had, unqueftionably, no other objet than the fubverfion of
all law and order. According to Murphy, whom we have
lately noticed, his lordfhip made his efcape, in difguife, be-
fore the flames blazed out. His houfe in Bloomfbury-
{quare was, with all its furniture, pi€tures, books, manu
{cripts, and other valuables, entirely confumed by fire. He
bore his calamity with great equanimity, and refufed to take
any fteps for procuring a compenfation for his loffes. He
once, in the houfe of lords, made a very pathetic allufion to
it, when, having given his opinion upon a legal matter, he
faid, * I {peak this not from books, for books I have none.’
No man was, in all refpeéts, better qualified to enjoy the
« Otium cum dignitate” than lord Mansfield, yet he was
not in hafte to withdraw himfelf from fcenes of bufinefs, and

he continued on the bench till 1788, when he refigned his

feat, having filled it with diftinguifhed reputation for thirty-

two years.. A refpe&tful and affeétionate addrefs from the

bar, figned by all the counfel who had praétifed in the court

of king’s bench during the time he was on the bench, was

tranfmitted to him by Mr. Erfkine : in this addrefs they fay,

“ we defire, in this manner, affectionately to affure your

lordthip, that we regret, with a jult fenlibility, the lofs of a

magittrate, whofe confpicuous and exalted talents conferred

dignity upon the profeflion ; whofe enlightened and regular

adminiltration of jaftice made its duties lefs difficult and la-

borious, and whofe manners rendered them pleafant and re-

fpeGtable.”’

Von, XXIV.

MUR

The faculties of earl Mansfield ftill continued clear,
though their vigour was abated, and he retained his recollec-
tion till within a few days of his deceafe, which took place
without a groan, on the zothof March 1793, in the 89th
year of his age. His remains were depofited in Weftmin-
fter Abbey. The private virtues of lord Mansfield were uni-
verfally acknowledged, and the fingular amenity of his man-
ners, in which vivacity and gaiety were tempered with ele-
gance and decorum, rendered him the delight of all the fo-
cial circles which he frequented. In his early years, he had
undoubtedly been friendly to Jacobitical principles, but
from his firft entrance into public life, he fuffered no fymp-
toms of his original attachments to appear, excepting, per-
haps, a certain bias always difcernible through all the varia-
tions and viciflitudes of his political career, in favour of pre-
rogative. His perfon was graceful, the tones of his voice
exquifitely melodious, and his {tyle of oratory clear, digni-
fied, calm, and perfuafive. Hialliday’s Life of Earl Manf-
field. New Ann. Regifter, 1797. Furneaux’s Letters to
Mr. Juttice Blackftone.

Murray, Joun-Anprew, a diftinguifhed phyfician, was
born at Stockholm in the year 1740, in which city his father
was preacher to the German congregation. His anceftors
were a Scots family, who had fled from their count
during the ufurpation of Cromwell, and fettled in Poland and
Pruffia. Hé was carefully inftruéted in his early years by
his father, and till the age of fourteen attended the Ger-
man lyceum, where he ftudied the languages, hiftory, phi-
lofophy, and the mathematics. He was afterwards put un-
der the care of a private tutor, and in 1756 he removed to
Upfal, and had the benefit of the inftruétions of Linnzus,
for whom he conceived the higheft veneration and efteem,
which continued through life; and with whom he fubk
quently maintained an uninterrupted literary correfpondence. —
In 1759 he took ajourney through the fouthern provinces of
Sweden, and thence to Copenhagen, with a view to extend
his acquaintance with natural hiftory ; and in 1760 he pro-
ceeded to Gottingen, where his brother, John Philip, was
profeffor of philofophy. Here he refumed his ftudies with
great induftry, and devoted fome time to the Englifh, French,
and Italian languages. In 1763, he took the degree of
M.D., and by a fpecial licence from the Hanoverian govern-
ment, gave lectures in botany: and, in the following {pring,

“he was appointed extraordinary profeffor of medicine in that

univerfity. From this time his reputation rapidly extended :
he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences at
Stockholm in 1768, and of the Royal Society of Got-
tingen in 1770; and, in the courfe of a few years after-
wards, of moft of the learned focieties in Europe. In 1769
he was appointed to the actual profefforfhip of medicine,
and made doétor of the botanic garden. Linnzus had al-
ready honoured him by giving the name of Caffida Murrayi
to an infeét which he had difcovered ; and in 1771 he gave
the name of Murraya exotica to an Eaft Indian tree. Pro-
feflor Murray was itill farther honoured by receiving the ti-
tle of the order of Vafa from the king of Sweden in 1780;
and by being raifed to the rank of privy-counfellor by his
Britannic majefty in 1782. In the beginning of 1791 he
was attacked with a fpurious peripneumony, from the effects -
of which the lungs never recovered, and which ultimately
proved fatal, on the a2d of May in that year, when he had
attained the age of fifty-one.

Murray was a man of found judgment, great aétivity and
ipduitry, and extenfive information. He conftantly rofe ear-
ly, and laboured till a late hour in his clofet, unlefs prevented
by his avocations in the botanic garden. Hence he was enax
bled to: compofe a number of traéts, on various fubjeéts, in

Xx botany,

MUR

botany, natural hiftory, medicine, pharmacy, and medical
literature. His principal work, however, was on the fub-
je& of the maceria medica, and had occupied a large por-
tion of his time and attention. It was publifhed at different
times, and entitled “ Apparatus Medicaminum, tam fimpli-
cium quam preparatorum et compofitorum, in Praxeos ad-
jumentum confideratus,” and confifts of fix volumes, o¢tavo.
This work was the obje&t of his anxiety and attention, until
the day before his death, when he correéted part of the tenth
fheet of the fixth volume, and configned the completion of
it to his friend and phyfician Dr. Altorf. Among his other
produétions, are, “ Opufcula in quibus Commentationes
varias, tam medicas quam ad Rem naturalem {pectantes, re-
traGtavit, emendavit, auxit.”? vol. i. Gott. 1785 5 ii. 1786.
«©Commentates de Hepatitide, maxime Indiz Orientalis,”’
ibid. 1780. * Spinz bifide mala offium conformatione inita,”’
ibid. 1780. Retzii Prime Linee Pharmaciz,” tranflated
from the Swedifh, 1771. ‘¢ Rofenftein’s family Difpenfa-
tory;” tranflated from the fame, Leipfic, 1781. In the
TranfaGtions of the Royal Society of Gottingen, are in-
ferted many valuable papers of profefior Murray’s, chiefly
relating to the moft remarkable plants cultivated in the bota-
nic garden; and his defcriptions are deemed models of ele-
gance and accuracy. Gen. Biog.

Murray Frith, in Geography, a large bay of the Ger-
man fea, onthe E. coaft of Scotland, and S. of the county of
Murray, whence its mame: anciently “ /E{tuarium Va-
varis.””

Morriy Harbour, a harbour on the E. coalt of the
ifland of St. John, in the gulph of St. Laurence. N. lat.
46°. W. long. 62° 20!.

Murray’s J/lands, feveral {mall iflands on the S.W. coaft
of the county of Kirkcudbright, at the mouth of Fleet-
bay ; 11 or 12 miles N.N.E. of Burrow Head.

Murray Town/hip, a townthip of Upper Canada, in the
county of Cumberland, lying northward of the ifthmus
which joins the county and peninfula of Prince Edward to
the Main. It is wathed by the waters of lake Ontario and
the river Trent, as well as thofe of the bay of Quinte.

MURRAYA, in Botany, originally written Murrma,
was named by Koenig in honour of John Andrew Murray,
an illuftrious Swede, knight of the order of Vafa, and pro-
feffor of botany at Gottingen, bornin 1740, and who died in
1791. (See Murray). He was the author of feveral tracts
on natural hiftory, and enjoyed fo much of the confidence of
his great preceptor Linnzus, as to be entrulted by him with
the editing of the 13th edition of the Sy/ema Vegetabilium.
He likewife publifhed the 14th edition of the fame work,
after its author’s death, in1784. Itis tobe regretted that
in the execution of his tafk, he did not follow the original
principle of Linnzus, in introducing the new genera from the
Supplementum and other fources. Thefe are difpofed by
Murray according to their technical charaéters, and not
their natural affinities. Although this was fubfequently
found tobe the fame plant as the Linnaan Ciratcas, the
latter name has been univerfally allowed to give way to that
of Murrava.—Linn. Mant. 554. Schreb. 284. Willd.
Sp. Pl.v. 2.548. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 3. Ait. Hort.
Kew. ed. 2.v. 3. 36. Juff. 261. Lamarck Illultr. t. 352.
Gertn, t. 93. (Chalcas ; Linn. Mant. 11. Marfana; Son-
nerat. Ind. Or. v. 2. 249. t. 139. )—Clafs and order, De-
eandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Aurantia, Jufl.

Gen: Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, very {mall,
cloven into five, linear, ereét, roundifh, remote, permanent
ferments. Cor. bell-thaped, of five, lanceolate petals,
fpreading at their tips. Neétary bell-fhaped, fhort, inclofing
the germen, Stam, Filaments ten, awl-thaped, the length

MUR
of the flower; anthers fomewhat obiong. Pi/. Germen
fuperior, roundifh ; ftyle thread-fhaped, angular, longer than
the ftamens ; ftigma flattifh, warty, angular. Peric. Berry
rather pulpy, of one cell. Seed folitary, large, obovate, fur-
rowed on one fide.

Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft.
fhaped. Nectary furrounding the germen.
feeded. 2

1. M. exotica. Afh-leaved Murraya. Linn. Mant. 563.
Murray in Comm. Gotting. v. 9. 186. t. 1. (Marfana buxi-
folia; Sonnerat. Ind. Or. v. 2. t. 139.)—A native of the
Eaft Indies, and introduced at Kew in 1771, where it flowers
in Auguft and September. This is a fhrub or {mall tree,
about fix feet in height, whofe trun is branched, and cover-
ed witha greyith dark. Leaves alternately pinnate, compofed
of three pairs of leaflets, with an odd one; leaflets alter-
nate, on fhort ftalks, obovate, bluntifh, rigid, fmooth, re-
fembling thofe cf the common Buxus, whence its French
appellation Buis de Chine. Flowers corymbofe, white,
fomewhat like an orange-flower, but about half the fize;
their {cent is faid to be fomewhat like that of Jafmine, but
by no means powerful. Berries globular, pointed, tuber-
cled, red. Seed large, whitifh or pale ftraw-coloured.

This plant isextremely well figured in Rumph. Amboyn.
V. 5. 29. t. 18. f. 2, under the name of Camunium japonicum.
Loureiro alfo, in his Flora Cochinchinenjis, 271, defcribes it
as Chalcas japonica. We are unable to difcover what is meant
by the fame author’s Chalcas paniculata.

MURRAYSHIRE, or Exainx, in Geography. See
MoraysuIRe. :

MURRE, in Ornithology, a name given in fome parts of
England to the razor-bill. See ALKA.

MURRECOW, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Benares ; 14 miles S. of Jionpour.

MURREY, in Heraldry, a kind of purple colour, call-
edalfo /anguine.

MURRHINA, in Antiquity, a kind of {weet medicated
wine.
MURRINE, Murrutnus, Me}jwn:, an appellation given
to adelicate fort of ware, brought from the Eait, of which
cups and vafes were made, which added not a little to th
{plendour of the Roman banquets, ;

Critics are divided concerning the matter of the pocula, cr
vafa murrhina, murrina, or murrea. Some will have them
to have been the fame with our porcelain, or china-ware.

The generality hold them to have been made of fome pre-
cious kind of ftene; which was found chiefly, as Pliny tells
us, in Parthia, but more efpecially in Carmania. Arrian
tells us, that there was a great quantity of them made at
Diofpolis in Egypt. ‘This be calls another fort of murrhi-
na work; and it is evident, from all accounts, that the
murrhina of Diofpolis was a fort of glafs-ware, made in imi-
tation of the porcelain or murrha of India. There is fome
difference in the account given by Pliny and Martial of the
murrhina vafa. The firft author fays, that they would not
bear hot liquors, but that only cold ones were drank out of
them. The latter, on the other hand, tells us, that they
bore hot liquors very well. If we credit Pliny’s account,
their porcelain was much inferior to our’s in this particular,
Some conjecture them to have been of agate, others onyx,
others of coral. Baronius, doubtlefs, was farthelt out of
the way, when he took them to be made of myrrh, con-
gealed and hardened. Some have fuppofed thefe veflels to
be made of cryttal, but this is contrary to the account of all
the ancients.

The Greeks had the words xjus#Ados, for cryftal, and
over for myrrh, very common among them, and therefore

nr

Corolla of five petals, beil-
Berry fingle-

MUR

if thefe veffels had been made of either of thefe fubftances,
they would in fome places have called them /myrnina or
eryflallina. On the contrary, the molt correét among them

them murrhina, or morrina. The cups made of cryttal,
which were alfo in ufe at thofe times, were called cryfallina,
and thefe murrhina or murrhea, by way of keeping up the
diftin@ion ; and Martial tells us that the ftone they were
made of was fpotted and variegated, calling them pocu/a
maculofe murre. And Statius mentions the cryftalline and
murrhine cups in the fame fentence, but as different things,
not the fame. Arrian mentions alfo the AsSos popfieey which
hisinterpreters cenfure as an error of the copies, and would
alter into myrrha, the name of the gum myrrh.

Pompey is recorded as the firft who brought thefe mur-
rhine veflels out of the Eaft, which he exhibited in his
triumph, and dedicated to Jupiter Capitolinus. But private
perfons were not long without them. So fond, in effeét, did
the Roman gentry grow of them, that a cup which held
three fextaries was fold for feventy talents. “T’. Petronius,
before his death, to {pite Nero (or as Pliny exprefles it, ut
menfam ejus exheredaret, to difinherit his table), broke a
balon, frulla murrhinc, valued at three hundred talents, on
which that emperor had fet his heart.

MURROBATHRARII, among the Romans, a kind
of perfumers. See Murra.

MURTEZABAD, in Geography, a town of Afiatic
Turkey, in Natolia; 12 miles N. of Angura.

MURTHER, or Munrner, the a& of killing another
with violence and injuitice.

The word comes from the Saxon morth, death; which
fome will have to fignify a violent death ; whence the bar-
barous Latin murdrum, and mordrum.

Among the number of popular errors, is the notion which
has obtained, that the dead body would bleed in the prefence,
or upon the touch of the murderer.

The crime of murder is punifhed with death in almoft all
nations. ,

Murruer, or Murder, in our Law, is that fpecies of
criminal homicide, which denotes a wilful and felonious
Killing another upon prepenfed malice, whether fecretly or
openly, and whether Englifhman or foreigner living under
the kistg’s proteétion.

In order to conftitute the crime of murder, it muft be
committed by a perfon of found memory and difcretion :
for a lanatic and infant are incapable of committing any
crime. Befides, the unlawfulnefs of this crime arifes from
the killing without warrant or excufe; and there mult be
alfo an aétual killing to conftitute murder; and this may be
by poifoning, ftriking, ftarving, drowning, and a thoufand
other forms of death ; the moft deteftable of which is poifon,
becaufe it is the leaft capable of being prevented either by
manhood or forethought. There was alfo, by the ancient

common law, one fpecies of killing held to be murder, which °

is hardly fo at this day, nor has there been any in{ftance in
which it has been held to be murder for many ages palt, i.e.
by bearing falfe witnefs againit another, with an exprefs
premeditated defign to take away his life, fo that the inno-
cent perfon be condemned and executed. ‘The Gothic laws
punithed in this cafe the judge, the wituefles, and the pro-
fecutor; and, among the Romans, the /ex Cornelia, de Si-
eariis, punifhed the talfe witnefs with death, as being guilty
of a {pecies of affaflination. If a man does fuch an act, of
which the probable confequence may be, and eventually is,
death ; fuch killing may be murder, although no ftroke be
infli&ted by himfelf. In order to make the killing murder,
it is requifite that the party die within a year and a day after
the ftroke received, or caufe of ‘death ‘adminiftered ; in the

MUR

computation of which, the whole day upon which the hurt
was done fhall be reckoned the firft. Farther, the perfon
killed muft be a reafonable creature in being, and under the
king’s peace, at the time of the killing; and, therefore, to
kill an alien, a Jew, or an outlaw, who are all under the
king’s peace or proteétion, is as much murder as to kill the
molt regular born Englifhman, except he be an alien-enemy,
in time of war. To kill a child in its mother’s womb, is
now no murder, but a great mifprifion ; but if the child be
born alive, and dieth by reafon of the potion or bruifes it
received in the womb, it is murder in fuch as adminiftered
or gave them. But as there is one cafe where it is difficult
to prove the child's being born alive, namely, in the cafe of
the murder of baftard children by the unnatural mother, it
is enagied by 21 Jac. I. c. 27, that if any woman be de-
livered of a child, which, if born alive, fhould by law be a
baitard, and endeavours privately to conceal its death, by
burying the child, or the like, the mother fo offending flhall
fuffer death, as in the cafe of murder, unlefs fhe can prove,
by one witnefs at leaft, that the child was aétually born
dead. But it has been ufual, upon trials for this offence, to
require fome fort of prefumptive evidence, that the child
was born alive, before the other conftrained prefumption,
that the child, whofe death is concealed, was therefore
killed by its parent, is admitted to convict the prifoner.
Moreover, the killing muft be committed with malice afore-
thought, to make it the crime of murder; and this malice
prepenfe. may be either exprels or implied in law. Exprefs
malice is, when one, with a fedate, deliberate mind, and
formed defign, doth kill another; which formed defign is
evidenced by external circumi{tances difcovering that inward
intention; as lying in wait, antecedent menaces, former
grudges, and concerted fchemes, to do him fome bodily
harm. This takes in the cafe of deliberate duelling. Alfo,
if upon a fudden provocatién, one beats another in a cruel
and unufual manner, fo that he dies, though he did not in-
tend his death, yet he is guilty of murder by exprefs malice.
Such is aifo a perfon going deliberately with a horfe ufed to
ftrike, or difcharging a gun, among a multitude of people.
So if a man refolves to kill the next man he meets, and does
kil] him, it is murder, although he knew him not; for this
is univerfal malice. And if two or more come together to
do an unlawful a& againft the king’s peace, of which the
probable confequence might be bloodfhed; as to beat a
man, commit a riot, or to roba park, and one of them kills
a man, it is murder in them all, becaufe of the unlawful act,
the malitia precogitata, or evil intended beforehand. Farther,
the law will imply malice in many cafes where none 1s ex-
prefled; as, where a man wilfully poifons another, though
no particular enmity can be proved ; and in the cafe of a
man’s killing another fuddenly, without any, or without a
contiderable provocation. Thus alfo, if one kills an officer
of juftice, in the execution of his duty, or any of his af-
filtants, knowing his authority, and the intention with which
he interpofes, the law will imply malice, and the killer fhail
be guilty of murder. And if one intends to do another
felony, and undefignedly kills a man, this is alfo murder.
In a word, we may take it fora general rule, that all homi-
cide is malicious, and amounts to murder, urlefs where
jultifed by the command or proyifion of the law; excufed
on a principle of accident or felfprefervation; or alleviated
into manflaughter, by being either the involuntary conie-
quence of fome act, not firiétly Jawful, or (if voluntary)
oceafioned by fome fudden and fufficiently violent provoca-

tion.
Formerly, murder was reftrained to a clandeftine and
treacherous killing. Thus, “ Murdritus homo antiquitus
D> if dicebatur,

MUR

dicebatur, cujus interfetor nefciebatur ubicumque, vel
quomodocumque effet inventus. Nunc adjunGum eft, licet
fciatur quis murdrum fecerit, homocidium per proditionem.”
Leges Hen. I.‘ Arthurum nepotem propriis manibus per
proditionem interfecit, peflimo mortis genere, quod Angli
murdrum appellant.”? Matth. Paris, an. 1216.

The punifhment of murder, and that of manflaughter,
were formerly one and the fame, both having the benefit of
clergy ; fo that none but unlearned perfons, who leaft knew
the guilt of it, were put to death for this enormous crime.
But now, by 23 Hen. VIII. c. 1, and 1 Edw. VI. c. 12,
the benefit of clergy is taken away from murder through
malice prepenfe. See Hanging inCuartns. Blackft. Comm.
book iv.

Mourtuer, Appeal of. See APPEAL.

Mourtuer, Se/f, is otherwife called /uicide. See FELO
de fe.

MURTHERERS, or MurtHerinG-Pieces, are {mall
pieces of ordnance, either of brafs or iron, having chambers
put in at their breeches.

They are moftly ufed at fea, at the bulk heads of the
fore-caftle, half-deck, &c. in order to clear the decks,
when an enemy boards the thip.

MURTY, or Murti, a word, among Hindoo meta-
phyficians, meaning a form, an apparition, image, or idol.
It denotes any /hape or appearance affumed by a celeftial
being. According to the Vedanta theory, (fee VEDANTA,)
our vital fouls are murti, or images merely of the Supreme
Spirit. Homer defcribes the ido/ of Hercules in Elyfium,
with other deceafed heroes, though the god himfelf was at
the fame time enjoying blifs in the heavenly manfions. The
Hindoo theory, in like manner, would defcribe fuch a murti,
as not fufceptible of affecting with any fenfation, either
pleafing or painful, the being from which it emanated ; though
it may give pleafure or pain to collateral emanations from
the fame fource. Hence they offer no facrifices to the
Supreme Effence, of which our fouls are images or murtis,
but adore him with filent meditation. (See Yar.) Obla-
tions are made to fire, and aéis of worfhip performed.te the
fun, the ftars, the earth, and the powers of nature, which
are confidered as murtis or images, the fame in kind as our-
felves, but tranfcendantly higher in degree. ‘This difficult
fubje& is difcufled by Mr. Wilford, in vol. iii. of the Afiatic
Refearches. The Hindoo triad is called Tri-murti, (fee
that article,) literally ¢ri-form.

[From the latter part of the article Jesury, reference is
made to Murty; but itis a miftake. Murvy is the word
and article intended. ]

MURU, in Geography, a fea-port town of Japan, in the
ifland of Niphon : it has a narrow but fafe harbour, fcreened
by a mountain ; 75 miles S.W. of Meaco.

MURUA, a town of Hindooltan, in Oude; 33 miles
N. of Kairabad.

MURUCUIA, in Botany, according to Marcgrave,
book 2, chapter 11, is the Brafilian name for ivy, and is
therefore borrowed by him and others for certain climbing
plants, better known under the denomination of Paffflora,
or Paffion-flower. From thefe however Tournefort, Init.
241. t. 125, and Juffl. 398, feparate one fpecies, on ac-
count of the inner crown of the neétary being tubular and
undivided, This is Paffflora Murucuia of Linneus. See
PASSIFLORA,

MURVIEDRO, in Geography. See Morviepro.

MURVIEL, a town of France, in the department of
the Hérault, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét of
Beziers; 6 miles N.N.W. of it. The place contains 1550,

2

MUS

and the canton 6427 inhabitants, on a territory of 1874
kiliometres, in 1¥ communes.

MURZAROLT, in Falconry. See Farcon
MURZINEI, in Geography, a town of Reffia, in the
government of Tobolfk, on the Irtifch; 40 miles N.N.W. ©

of Parasrini ve

MUS, a town of the ifland of Sardinia; 5 miles W. of
Cagliari.

Mus, in Zoology, a genus of quadrupeds of the clafs
Mammalia, and order Glires. The generic character is,
fore-teeth upper wedged; grinders three, rarely two, on
each fide the jaw; clavicles perfe&t. The whole gents is —
charaéterifed as living in holes, or any concealed chinks,
climbing and ruuning {wiftly ; fome of them fwim. They
feek their food by night, which is chiefly vegetable, and
which they convey to the mouth by the fore-paws. The
females have moftly eight teats, breed feveral times in the
year, and bring forth numerous litters. Some of them mi-
grate; their ears are fhort and rounded; the fore-feet are
ufually four-toed, with a warty excrefcence in{tead of a fifth.
There are forty-fix {pecies, divided into five families, viz.
A, having the tail compreffed at the end; B, tail round,
naked; C, tail round, hairy; D, cheeks pouched; and E,
earle{s, eyes {mall, tail fhort, or none, fubterraneous. This
numerous tribe conftitutes a formidable phalanx, againft
which mankind find it neceffary to employ various artifices
of extirpation, in order to leffen the ravages occafionally
{uffered by its depredations. In our own ifland, the black
and brown rats, the field and domeftic mice, are the prin-
cipal deftroyers; but in other parts of Europe, as well as
in the hotter regions of Afia, Africa, and America, many
other fpecies, ftill more formidable, are found.

A. Tail compreffed at the End.
Species.

Coypus; Beaver Rat. Tail middle length, fub-com-
prefled, hairy; hind-feet palmate. lt inhabits the waters
of Chili, In appearance and colour it refembles the
otter, but in its teeth it agrees with the rat tribe; it is
ealily tamed.. The female produces five or fix young at a
birth.

Zizeruicus; Mufk Rat. The tail of this fpecies is
long, comprefled, lanceolate; feet cleft. It is found in the
flow ftreams of North America, on the banks of which it
builds, but more fimply than the beaver. It feeds on fhell-
fifh, in fummer on fruits and herbs, in winter on roots,
particularly on flags and water-lilies. The female has fix
teats, and brings from three to fix young at atime, and
three or four times in a year. It {wims and dives dex-
teroufly, walks uniteadily, and isa foot long. About the
anus of this rat are glands that fecrete a mufky oily fluid:
hence it derives its trivial name.

B. Tail round, naked
Species.

Pitortpes; Mufk Cavy. ‘Tail longifh, fealy, truncate ;
body white. A variety of this {pecies has its body tawny,
beneath white. The firit inhabits India; the fecond is
found in the Weft India iflands. It burrows, infefts houfes,
{mells of mufk, is the fize of a rabbit, and the tail is four
inches long.

Caraco. Tail long, fealy, bluntifh; body grey; hind._
feet flightly palmate, It is found in the waters of Eaftera
Siberia and China; burrows on the banks, {wims well, fre-
quents houfes, and is about fix inches long. ‘The head of

. this

MUS.

this {pecies is long and narrow; the eyes are nearer the ears
than the nofe ; toes of the hind-feet conneéted by a fold of
fkin; the back is brown, mixed with grey; the tail about
four inches and a half long. :

* Decumanus; Norway Rat. Tail very long, fealy,
briftly, grey above, whitifh beneath. This fpecies inhabits
India, Perfia, and has been of late years imported into
Europe. It burrows in the banks, fwims well, migrates in
vait armies, and does infinite mifchief; frequents houfes,
itables, gutters, gardens, granaries; feeds on vegetables,

and likewife on animal fubftances, and even on its own tribe.
It is hunted by the dog, cat, and ferrets. The female
breeds thrice in the year, and brings from twelve to eighteen
young atatime. In the Eait Indies they burrow under the
foundations of houfes, and caufe many to fall.

* Rarrus; Black Rat. This fpecies is fuppofed to
have come originally from the Eaft. Its tail is very long,
fealy ; its body is black, and beneath hoary. Its general
length, from nofe to tail; is about feven inches, and of the
tail eight inches. The colour of the head and whole upper
part of the body is a dark iron, or blackifh-grey ; the belly
is of a dull afh colour; the legs are dufky, and very flightly
covered with hair; the tail is nearly naked, coated with a
fealy fkin, and marked into numerous divifions or rings.
Like the decumanus, it breeds frequently, and brings forth
about feven or eight young at atime. Sometimes they in-
creafe fo faft, as to overltock the place of their abode; and
in this cafe, they fight and devour each other: on this ac-
count, thefe animals, after having been very troublefome,
fometimes fuddenly difappear. Various have been the me-
thods adopted for the expulfion of rats from the places
which they frequent: among thefe we fhall notice that men-
tioned by Gefner, who fays, if a rat be caught, and a bell
be tied round its neck, and then fet at liberty, it will drive
away the reft. Its greateit natural enemy is the weefel,
which purfues it into all its recefles, and deitroys it.
is a variety much fmaller, fcarcely weighing an ounce.
This is found about the deferts in the lower part of the
Wolga. ’

AmeRIcANus; American Rat. Tail long, f{caly ; head
long ; nofe pointed; upper jaw much longer; ears large
and naked» It is found in North America, among ftones
and clefts remote from habitations ; fometimes larger than
the rattus. The body isof a deep brown; the belly paler ;
the hair coarfe.

* Muscutus; Moufe. This fpecies has a long tail,
which is rather naked; fore-feet four-toed, hind-feet five-
toed; thumb without a claw. It inhabits houfes and gra-
naries in Europe, Afia, and America; follows mankind ;
eats all kinds of provifions, drinks little; is gentle, timid,
quick, and very prolific. It is devoured by rats, cats,
weefels, owls, and hedge-hogs; is deftroyed by elder and
hellebore ; is about three inches and a half long; varies
much in colour, and is faid to poffefs fome trifling electrical
properties, while alive.

* Sirvaticus; Field Moufe. Tail long, fcaly ; body
yellowifh-brown, beneath white; breaft yellow. A variety
# entirely white; eycsarered. Inhabits Europe, in woods,
fields, gardens, fhrubberies, and in houfes in the winter;
feeds on corn and feeds, which it colle¢ts in large repofi-
tories ; it gnaws through the hardeft planks ; is devoured in
its turn by hawks, foxes, and weefels.

Messorius; Harveft Moufe. Tail long, fealy ; body
rufty-brown, belly white, a ftraight line dividing the colours.

This is found in many parts of England, chiefly in Hamp- ,

There |

fhire ; is fomething f{maller than the filvaticus ; never enters
houfes, but is found in numerous fields during harveft, hence
its trivial name; burrows deep in the ground, forms a bed
of dry grafs, is carried with the fheaves of corn into barns ;
the tailis alittle hairy.

Acrarius; Ruftic Moufe. Tail long, hairy; body
yellowifh ; dorfal ftripe black. This is found in Ruffia and
Silefia, rarely in Germany ; it is gregarious, and wanders
about in large troops, doing great injury to the corn.
There is a variety that has a dorfal ftripe, mixed dufky and
ferruginous; cheeks, between the ears, and fides orange ;
the under parts, legs, and feet pure white. It is found in
New York.

Mrxurus; Minute Moufe.
above ferruginous, beneath whitifh, It inhabits Ruffia,
and lives in corn-fields and in barns. It is not above half the
fize of the common moufe; the female is {till fmaller, lefs
elegant ; the face is dufky; mouth at the corners whitifh.
A variety, found in Siberia, is very beautiful; above ele-
gantly yellow, beneath {nowy.

Soricinus; Shrew-like Meufe. The tail is of about the
middle length, a little hairy; fnout lengthened ; ears round,
hairy ; above yellowifh-grey, belly whitifh. It is a native
of Strafburg, where it was firlt difcovered by profeffor
Hermann. It has feven rows of whifkers; its claws are
very fhort ; tail yellowifh, mixed with cinereous, more hairy
beneath.

Vacus; Wandering Moufe. Tail very long, nakedifh;
body cinereous; dorfal ftripe black; ears plaited. It was
firft difcovered by Dr. Pallas. It is found throughout the
whole of the T'artarean defert, but particularly inhabits the
rivers Oby and Ural; lives in the clefts of rocks, among
ftones, in hollow trees; feeds on feeds, and leffer animals ;
wanders in flocks, and fleeps in winter.

Betutinus; Beech Moufe. Tail very long, nakedifh ;
body tawny; dorfal ftripe black; ears plaited. This, as
its {pecific and trivial names import, inhabits beech woods,
in the deferts of Ifchim and Baraba, and near the Oby 5.
lives folitary in the hollows of old trees, climbs eafily, is
very delicate, and foon growing torpid. In afcending the
branches of trees, it coils round the twig with its tail, in
the manner of an opofflum. Dr. Pallas informs us, that he
has often obferved it afcending the tems of fome itrong
graffes, which were fcarcely bent by its weight. He alfo
kept feveral of them a confiderable time, which grew tame,
and delighted in being held in the hand.

Pumitio; Dwarf Moufe. Tail middle length, and rather
naked; body of a dark ath colour forehead naked, black ;
four dorfal‘lines black. It inhabits the forefts eaft of the
Cape of Good Hope. This is one of the leait of the genus,
being little more than two inches long from nofe to tail. It
was firit defcribed by Sparrman.

Srriatrus; Oriental Moufe. Tail longifh and nakedihh ;
the body has twelve! rows of parallel white fpots. It in-
habits India, and is only half the fize of the common moufe,
The body is dufky, but whitifh beneath; tail is of the
fame length as the body ; the ears are fhort, round, naked.

Barsarvus; Barbary Moufe. Tail middle length; body
brown, with ten pale ftripes; three toes before, and four
behind. It is a native of Barbary; is lefs than the com-
mon moufe; the tail is naked, annulate, the length of the.
body.

Mexicanus; Mexican Moufe. A large reddifh {pot on
each fide the belly. 1t inhabits, as its name denotes,
Mexico ; and its colour is whitifh, mixed with he arf

. Tai

@

Tail long, fealy; body

MUS. A

C. Tail round, hairy.
Species.

Vircimtanus; Virginian Moufe. Tail entirely hairy,
thick at the bafe, long, tapering. Inhabits North America,
and lives in corn-fields and paftures. The body is white ;
nofe black pointed; ears fharp; limbs flender.

Saxatitis; Rock Moufe. Tail longifh; ears longer
than the fur; fore-feet three-toed, with the appearance of a
fourth. It is found in Siberia, in the clefts of rocks, and
feeds chiefly on the feeds of the aftragalus.

Cyanus; Blue Moufe. Tail of the middle length,
rather hairy ; the fore-feet have four toes, and the hind-feet
five; the body is blue, but the under part is whitifh. It
inhabits Chili. In fize and appearance it refembles the field
moufe; is very timid, forms large burrows divided into
many chambers, colleéts vaft ftores cf bulbous roots, which
the natives fearch carefully after.

Ampuizius; Water Rat. Tail middle length; ears
hardly above the fur; the feet are three-toed, with the ap-
pearance of a fourth. There are four other varieties:
1. Tail a little hairy; fore-feet three-toed, with the ap-
pearance of a fourth; hind-feet five-toed; ears fhorter than
fur. 2. Black; in ftruGture refembles the laft. 3. Uni-
formly blackifh. 4. Back with a large white {pot ; on the
breaft a white line. Inhabits Europe, Northern Afia, and
Northern America. It frequents rivers and flagnant wa-
ters, and forms its burrows in the banks. It is of a
thicker and fhorter furm than many others of this genus, and
has fomewhat of the fhape of a beaver. The water rat is
about feven inches long, and its tail about five. Its colour
varies much with the climate in which it is fituated, being
fometimes nearly black, and fometimes paler than ufual.
It alfo varies in fize, and the varieties above defcribed have
.been miftakenly confidered as diftinG f{pecies. It never fre-
quents houfes, but confines its haunts to the banks of rivers,
and is fuppofed to live on fifh, frogs, &c. and probably on
various roots, and other vegetable fubltances. The flefh of
this {pecies has fometimes been eaten. The female is {maller
and of a lighter colour than the male; fhe has eight teats,
four pectoral and four abdominal, and brings eight young
at a time.

Aziarius; Garlic Moufe. Tail fhort; ears largifh,
and.a little hairy ; body cinereous, beneath whitifh. It in-
habits Siberia; feeds on the roots of garlic, which it hoards
up in large quantities.

Rutitus; Red Moufe. Tail fhort; ears longer than
the fur; fore-feet three-toed, with the rudiments of a fourth;
body above reddifh, beneath whitifh. It alfo inhabits Si-
beria; lives in holes and hollow trees, in winter in {heaves
of corn, in granaries, and in houfes. It feeds on grain,
ficth, and roots; runs all the winter among fnow, and is
about three inches and a half long. The feet are hairy,
white; tail above yellowifh, with a brown ftripe, beneath
white; fcarcely an inch in length; its face is briltly.

Grecaris; Gregarious Moufe, Tail fhort ; ears longer
than the furs fore-feet three-toed, with the rudiments of a
fourth; the body greyifh, It inhabits the ealtern parts of
Siberia; burrows in dry fields, with many holes leading to
chambers, where are depofited flores of roots, chiefly of the
garlic and the lily.

(Zconomus; Economic Moufe. Tail fhort; ears fhorter
than the fur; fore-feet three-toed, with the rudiments of a
fourth; the body is brown. It inhabits Siberia, efpecially
its eaftern parts, and Kamtfchatka, in valt numbers. It is
faid to have been found in the ar€tic circle, This {pecies

was named economic mice, from their very curious mode of
living. They inhabit damp foils, and fhun the fandy, and
form burrows with many chambers and entrances. _ In thefe
chambers they lay up ftores of provifions, collected with
great pains in fummer, from various plants, which they
bring out of their holes in hot funny weather, that they
may the more effectually dry and preferve them. In certain
years, they make confiderable migrations out of Kamt-
fchatka: they colleé& in the {pring, and go off in incredible
multitudes. They proceed in a dire courfe, and fuffer
nothing to impede their courfe, not even rivers and the arms
of the fea. Many of them, in their paflage acrofs the wa.
ter, fall a prey to the fifh, but on land they are fafe; for
the inhabitants of Kamtfchatka have a fuperititious venera-
tion for them, and are fo far from hurting them, that if
they find any of them lying in the road, exhaufted through
fatigue and hunger, they afford them every affiftance in their
power. Ontheir return from their migration, expreffes are
fent to all quarters of the country with the joyful tidings,
becaufe their arrival is confidered as a fure prognoftic of a
fuccefsful chafe and fifhery ; and they are faid to lament
their departure, which is ufually fucceeded by tempeituous
and rainy weather.

Layicer; Woolly Moufe. Tail of the middle length;
fore-feet four-toed, hind five-toed, body cinereous, woolly.
Inhabits the northern parts of Chili; it burrows, is cleanly,
docile, tame; feeds on bulbous roots, chiefly onions ; fe-
male brings forth young twice in the year, and five or fix
at atime. The ears are fmall, acute; fnout long; the hair
is long and foft, and was formerly ufed by the Peruvians in-
itead of the fineft wool,

* Arvatis; Meadow Moufe. This fpecies has a large
head; a blunt nofe ; fhort ears hidden in its fur; prominent
eyes and a fhort tail; the head and body are ferruginous,
mixed with black ; the belly is of a deep ath-colour; feet
dufky ; it is fix inches long. It isan European moufe, and
is found in great abundance in Newfoundland, where it does
much mifchief in the gardens. In this country it makes its
neft in moift meadows ; brings forth feveral young at a time,
and feveral times in the year. It refides under ground, and
lives on nuts, acorns, and corn.

Socratis; Social Moufe. Tail fhort, ears round, and
very fhort; fore-feet three-toed, with the rudiments of the
fourth; body pale, beneath it is white; inhabits the fandy
deferts between the Wolga and the Ural rivers, in families
of male and female with their offspring; feeds much on
tulip and other bulbous roots; is the prey of crows, otters,
and weefels, and is a little more than three inches long.

Lacurus; Hare-tailed Moufe. Tail fhorter even than
the fur; the fore-feet three-toed, with the rudiments of a
fourth; body cinereous, with a longitudinal black line.
This fpecies 1s found in the fandy and muddy deferts on the
Ural and Irtifch, each moufe in a round burrow; it mi-
grates in great {warms; feeds chiefly on the dwarf iris, and
on the fmaller fpecies of mice; it is flow in its motions,
fleeps much when it rolls itfelf up, but it is not torpid in
the winter ; brings forth feveral times in the year, and five or
fix atatime. It is a very-fierce animal.

Torquatus; Collared Moufe. Tail fhort; ears fhorter
than the fur; fore-feet five-toed, body rufty, variegated ;
round the neck a whitifh collar; a dark line along the back.
It inhabits the Uralian mountains, and marfhes of the
Trozen fea; feeds on lichens and bulbous roots, which it
hoards in its burrows; it migrates.in troops, and is three
inches long.

Lemus; Lemming. ‘Tail fhort; ears fhorter than the

fur;

y MUS.

fur; fore-feet five-toed; body tawny varied with black, be-
neath white; whifkers long, fix hairs on each fide longer
than the reft, upper lip divided; ears {mall, round, reflected,
belly white, tinged with yellow; there is a variety {maller,
and more uniformly tawny. It inhabits Siberia; burrows
in the ground ; lays up ftores of provifions for the winter :
this variety does not migrate; but the migrations of the
other variety have long rendered it celebrated in the annals
of natural hiftory. ‘The lemming differs in fize and colour
accerding to the regions which it inhabits, thofe which are
found in Norway being almoft as large as water rats, while
thofe of Lapland and Siberia are not much larger than the
field moafe. The colour of the Norway kind is an elegant
variegation of black and tawny on the upper parts, difpofed
in patches and clouded markings; the fides of the head and
under parts of the body being white ; the legs and tail grey-
ifh. In the Lapland kind the colour is chiefly a tawny-
brown above, with indiftin& dufky variegations, and be-
neath of a dull white, the claws are f{maller than thofe of
the Norwegian animal. The natural refidence of the lem-
ming is in the mountainous parts of Lapland and Norway,
from which tracts, at particular but uncertain periods, it
defcends into the plain below, in the manner and with the
effect defcribed under the article Mousr, Sabk. In their
ufual mode of life they are not obferved to be of a focial
difpofition, but to refide in a fcattered manner, in holes
beneath the furface, without laying up any regulat pro-
vifion, like fome other animals of this genus. They are faid
to breed feveral times in the year, and to produce five or fix
at a time.

Hunpsonius; Hudfon’s Moufe. Tail fhort; no ears;
hind-feet five-toed; dorfal ftripe brownifh-yellow ; breatt
and belly yellow. It inhabits Labrador, and is about five
inches long. The body is chiefly cinereous, a pale tawny
‘ttripe along the fides; tail terminated with long {tiff dirty-
white hairs ; the feet are fhort. :

Lenz; Lena Moule. Tail fhort, covered with coarfe
hair; toes four before and five behind, the body is white.
Inhabits the banks of the river Lena, whence it derives its
name, and is about three inches long.

D. Cheeks pouched.

Species.

Acreputa; Siberian Hamfter. Ears plaited; body
grey, beneath whitifh. It is found in Siberia, near the
river Ural. It is about four inches long; lives in burrows,
feeks food by night. Snout thick, upper lip deeply di-
vided ; the upper fore-teeth are yellow, convex, truncate;
the lower are fharp ; the tail is fhort, round; brown abeve,
white beneath; it is only an inch long, and its legs are
white.

Cricetus; German Hamfter. Body beneath deep
black ; the fides have each three white {pots. A variety of
this is entirely black, except the tip of the nofe, edges of
the ears, and feet, which are white. Of the pouched rats,
this is the moft remarkable, and the only European fpecies
provided with thofe peculiar receptacles, which are fituated
on each fide the mouth, and when empty, fo far contra@ted
as not to appear, but when filled refemble a pair of tumid
bladders, having a fmooth veiny furface, concealed, how-
ever, under the fur or {kin of the cheeks, which bulge out
extremely in this {tate. The hamiter inhabits Siberia, and
the fouth of Ruffia; it is alfo found in Poland, as well as in
many parts of Germany. They are very deftructive in fome
diltriéts, devouring great quantities of grain, which they
easry off in their pouches, and depofit ia their. holes, in order

to devour during the autumn. Their habitations, which
they dig to the Pa of three or four feet, confift of more
or fewer apartments, according to the age of the animal; a
young hamfter makes them fearcely a foot deep, and the old
finks them to the depth of four or five feet, and the whole
diameter of the refidence, taking in all its habitations, is
fometimes eight or ten feet. The principal chamber is lined
with dried grafs, and ferves for a lodging; the others are
deftined for the prefervation of provifions, of which the
animal amaffes a great quantity in the autumn. Each hole
has two apertures, the one defcending obliquely, the other
afcending in a perpendicular direétion, and it is through the
latter that the animal goes in and out. The hamfter feeds
on all kinds of grain, herbs, and roots, and when driven to
it, on fmaller animals. In harvelt time, we are told, it
makes excurfions for provifions, and carries every article it
can find into its granary. T'o facilitate the tranfportation
of his food, nature has provided him, as we have feen, with
pouches on the outfide: thefe are membranous, {mooth, and
{hining, and in the infide are many glands, which continually
fecrete a fluid, that preferves their flexibility, and enables
them to refift or to heal any accidents that the roughnefs or
fharpnefs of the grain might occafion. On the approach
of winter, the hamfter retires into his fubterraneous abode,
the entry of which he fhuts with great care, and thus re-
maining ina ftate of tranquillity, feeds on his colle&ted pro-
vifion, till the froit becomes fevere, at which period he falls
into a profound flumber, that grows into a complete torpi-
dity, fo that the animal continues rolled up with all its
limbs inflexible ; its body is perfeétly cold, and without the
leaft appearance of life. Anatomiits have examined it in
this {tate ; have opened it, and found the heart alternately
contracting and dilating, but with a motion fo exceedingly
flow, as to be fearcely perceptible ; though in the waking
{tate of the animal it beats 150 pulfations in the fame time.
In this itate the fat of the animal has the appearance of
being coagulated, its inteftines cannot be excited by the ap-
plication of the ftrongeft {timulants; and the eledtric fhock
may be pafled through it without effeG. The waking of
the hamiter is a gradual operation ; he firlt lofes the rigidity
of his limbs, then makes profound infpirations, at long in-
tervals; after this he bezins to move his limbs, and utters
a fort of unpleafant rattling found. After continuing thefe
operations fome time, he at length opens his eyes, and en-
deavours to rife, but reels about fome time, as if in a ftate
cf intoxication, till at length, after relting a {mall fpace,
he perfeétly recovers his ufual powers. There feems to be
no fort of fociety exilting among the hamfters, They are
naturally fierce, and make a defperate defence when at-
tacked ; they alfo purfue and deftroy every animal which
they are capable of conquering, not excepting even the
weaker individuals of their own fpecies. It is recorded by
M. Sultzer, that they abound to fuch a degree in Gotha,
that in a fingle year, more than 80,000 of their {kins were
delivered in the Hotel de Ville of that capital, upon which
a premium was paid, on account of the enormous devatta-
tions which thefe animals commit among the corn.

ARENARIUS; Sand Rat. Body above cinereous, beneath,
on the fides and limbs fhowy. It inhabits Barbary ; is cha-
racterized as fierce and untameable ; “it burrows, and feeds,
by night, on leguminous plants and feeds.. The head of this
animal is large ; the fnout long ; whifkers longer than the
head; the fore-feet are four-toed; the hair foft; and the
creature about 3% inches long.

Puxus; Zaryzn Rat. Body and tail dark cinereous ;
beneath white. It inhabits the deferts of Siberia, and the
mountains of Perfia; it devours fields of rice, does not be-

come

MUS

come torpid, and is about 34 inches long? This, by Shaw
and other naturalifts, is denominated the Aftracan moufe, on
account of its abode, Zaryzin, which is near Aftracan; it
is occafionally taken in the winter feafon about ftables and
other out-houfes. It is alfo found about the Perfian villages
jn the Hyrcanian mountains, and was firft diftin@ly de-
fcribed by Dr. Pallas. <

Soncarus; Songar Rat. Back cinereous, with a lon-
gitudinal black line, fides variegated white and brown; belly
white. It inhabits the fandy deferts of Siberia, burrows
and forms repofitories for grain, is eafily tamed, and is three
inches long. The tail is thick, blunt, and hairy; the
whifkers fhorter than the head, ears longer; the feet are
white.

Furuncutus; Barbara Rat. Body grey above ; dorfal
ftripe black; beneath whitifh, It inhabits the deferts of
Barbara, near the rivers Ob and Dauria; is three inches
long. It is of a yellowifh-grey colout above, and white
beneath. It feeds on farinaceous feeds.

E. No Ears; the Eyes very {mall ;
none ; _fubterrancous.

Tail fort, or perhaps

Species.

Taprnvus ;-Talpine Mole-rat. The body of this fpecies
is brown, tail fhort; fore-teeth wedged; no ears; fore-feet
five-toed, formed for digging. There is a variety entirely
black. It inhabits the turfy plains of Ruffia; forms cham-
bers under the fod, in which it depofits various bulbous
roots; is not torpid in winter; fight weak in the day;
brings three or four young at a time, and is about 3% inches
long. The nofe is truncate; the eyes hidden in the fur ;
chin white ; belly and limbs whitifh. In the winter it fome-
times makes its neft beneath a hay-rick, at a confiderable
diftance below the ground.

Capensis; Cape Mole-rat. Tail very fhort; fore-feet
wedged ; no ears ; fore-feet five-toed, mouth white. The
head is rounded; hair longifh, brown, tipt with yellow ;
orbits and nape of the neck white; ears with a longitu-
dinal white {pot ; inner toe fhort, the two next long, fourth
fhorter, outer very fhort; five inches and a half long. This,
as its name imports, is an inbabitant of the Cape of Good
Hope; it is exceedingly deftruétive to gardens, flinging up
hillocks, and eating various kinds of roots.

Manitimus; African Mole-rat. The tail of this {pecies
of rat is fhort ; upper fore-teeth furrowed ; it has no ears;
the feet are five-toed ; body above whitifh, mixed with yel-
lowith, fides and belly grey-white. The head is large, the
nofe is black, flattened, and wrinkled at the end; lower
fore-teeth long, and it has the power of feparating thefe at
pleafure, after the manner of a kanguroo. This large fpe-
cies is a native of the Cape of Good Hope, and is there
known by the name of the fand mole, being chiefly found
in the neighbourhood of the fhores, and never in the inte-
rior parts of the country. It makes the ground, in the
places it inhabits, fo hollow, by flinging up the earth, in
forming its burrows, as to be highly inconvenient to tra-
vellers; breaking every fix or eight minutes under the
horfe’s feet, and letting them up to their fhoulders. It feeds
on bulbous roots, runs very flowly, digs its chambers with
great rapidity, bites extremely hard, is very good eating,
and is about a foot long.

Aspacax; Daurian Mole-rat. Tail fhort; fore-teeth
wedged ; no ears; claws of the fore-feet long. This fpecies,
in form and manner of life, agrees with the Mus typhlus,
which will be next noticed, but is in general {maller, and of
a yellowith afh-colour ; the head is flat and blunt, the body
fhort and fomewhat depreffed, the limbs very ftrong, efpe-

MUS

cially the fore-legs; the feet of which are large, naked,
and well adapted for burrowing in the ground. It is a
native of the Altaic mountains, and of the country beyond
lake Baikal; it differs confiderably in fize in different re-
gions ; thofe of the Altaic mountains fometimes meafuring
nearly nine inches in length. ’

Typutus; the Biind Rat. This foecies has no tail ;
fore-feet five-toed ; fore-teeth broad; and without eyes or
external ears. This is one of the largeft and moft remark-
able of the whole tribe, being, as we have obferved, entirely
deftitute of eyes and tail; the defect of the former is
thought to be a very fingular circumitance, and the animal
perhaps affords the only inftance of a truly blind or eyelefs
quadruped. In the mole, the eyes are {mall and deeply
feated, they are neverthelefs perfect in their kind, though
not at all calculated for acute vifion, but they are enough to
enable the animal to avoid the danger of expofure; but in
the blind rat, there is merely a pair of fub-cutaneous rudi-
ments of eyes, fmaller than poppy-feeds, and covered with
areal fkin. It inhabits fouthern Ruffia; each animal form-
ing a long burrow under the turf; it feeds on bulbous
roots ; when irritated it gnafhes its teeth and bites very
hard ; in lieu of eyes, the fenfes of {mell, touch, and hear-
ing are very acute.

Mus Alpinus, a name given by many authors to the
mountain-rat, more commonly known by the name of the
marmotte. ‘

Mus Aranzus. See Surew.

Mus Marinus. See ApHRopITA:

“ Mus Norwegicus, in Zoology, the name given by authors
to the Norway rat, commonly called thé /emming. See
Sable Mouse, and Mus.

Mus Pharaonis, Pharoah’s rat, a name given by the peo-
ple of Egypt to the ichneumon, a creature of the weefel
kind, which they are very fond of for its deltroying fer-
pents, and kept tame about their houfes, as we do cats.

Mus Terre, in Botany, a name given by fome authors to
the roots of the dulbccaflanum, or earth-nut; it was pro-
bably at fir muris terre radix, the earth-moufe’s root, and
fo called from the earth-mice or field-mice being very fond
of them; but the word radix being left out, it ftands only
mus terra. ,

Mus Tag, in Geography, a mountain of Tartary, which,
in Strahlenberg’s map, runs parallel to the Belur on the E.
See Betur.

MUSA, in Botany, the Banana, or Plantain-tree. The
word is corrupted, or rather refined, from Mauz, the
Egyptian appellation of this valuable plant, and is made
claffical in the works of Linnzus, by an allufion to Mu/a,
a mufe; or, with much greater propriety, to Antonius
Mu/a, the phyfician of Auguftus, who having written on
fome botanical fubjects,. may jultly be commemorated in
the above name. Linn. Muf. Cliff. 6. Gen. 538.
Schreb. 714. Ait. Hort. Kew, ed. 1. v.3. 421. Juff. 61.
Plum. Gen. t. 34. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 836,837. Gaertn.
t. 11. f. 1.—Clafs and order, Polygamia Monoecia, or ra-
ther Hexandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Scitaminee, Linn.
Mufe, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Cal. a number of partial fheaths, on a fimple
common ftalk, each ovate-oblong, rather concave, large,
alternate, containing many flowers. Perianth none. Cor.
fuperior, unequal, ringent, the petal conftituting the upper
lip; the nectary the lower. Petal ereét, ligulate, abrupt,
five-toothed, its two fides meeting at the bafe. Nectary
of one leaf, heart-fhaped, bostike; compreffed, pointed,
fhorter than the petal, and inferted withinfide of its bafe,
fpreading outwards, Stam. Filaments fix, awl-fhaped, five

of

‘

MUSA.

of them within the petal, ereé&, the fixth within the netary,
reclining ; anthers linear, longitudinally attached from the
middle of the filament to its f{ummit, fome of them, in one
- flower or another, imperfect. Pi/?. Germen inferior, very
large, bluntly triangular; {tyle cylindrical, ere&, the length
of the petal; ttigma capitate, roundith, with fix flight
notches. eric. Berry pulpy, with a coriaceous coat, with
three or fix flight angles, gibbous at one fide, of one
cell, fpongy or hollow in the centre. Seeds numerous,
imbedded in the pulp, roundifh, roughifh, excavated at the
bafe.
- OLS. The flowers about the lower part of the common
ftalk or receptacle, have ufually five of the anthers abortive,
or altogether wanting, that of the fixth ftamen only, which
accompanies the nectary, being perfe&t; while in moft of
the upper flowers the reverfe is the cafe, five of their fta-
mens being perfect, and the fixth incomplete; their piftil
alfo is fmaller in all its parts, and abortive. Thefe there-
fore are, in effet, a fort of male flowers, and the former
female. Such being the cafe, this genus has fcarcely the
proper characters of the clafs Polygamia, but rather thofe
of Moneecia. Confidering the partial and variable imper-
fe&tion of the organs, ftill as they are both prefent in all
the flowers, Mu/a ought rather perhaps to be referred to
flexandria. In natural affinity it is nearer the Scitaminee
than any other order, the chief difference being, as Juffieu
obferves, in their ftamens.

Eff. Ch. Calyx a many-flowered fheath, of one leaf,
Petal one, ligulate, five-toothed. Neéary of one leaf,
oppofite to the petal. Berry inferior, with many feeds.
Moft of the ftamens abortive in fome flowers, piftilin the
others.

1. M. paradifiaca. Plantain Tree. Linn, Sp. Pl. 1477,
-(M. caudice viridi, fruétu longiore falcato angulofo; Trew.
Ehret. 3. t. 18, 19, 20. Mufa; Rumph. Amb. v. 5
book 8. 125. t. 60. Ger. em. 1515. Bala; Rheede
Malab. v. 5. 17. t. 12, 13, 14.)—Flower-ftalk drooping.
Male flowers permanent. Fruit oblong.—Native of the
Eaft Indies. Cultivated every where within the tropics,
for the fake of its fruit, which makes a principal part of
the vegetable food of the inhabitants, and is almott infi-
nitely variable in quality, like our apples. Notwithftanding
its fize, which is that of a moderate tree, this can be con-
fidered only as an herbaceous plant. The root is perennial.
Stems ere&t, unbranched, 12 feet or more in height, 10 or
12 inches in diameter, round, fmooth, fpongy, and fuccu-
lent, flowering but once, which, in hot countries, ufually
happens the fecond year, after which it dies down to the
root. In our ftoves it will often remain many years with-
out flowering, but after that event, the ftem always dies.
Leaves numerous, about the top of the ftem, oblong, en-
tire, feveral feet long and one broad, with a ftrong midrib,
and innumerable tranfverfe parallel veins; they are quite
f{mooth, eafily torn, rather glaucous and opaque. F/oqwer-
Jftalk terminal, folitary, bent almoft perpendicularly down-
ward, feveral feet long, bearing numerous alternate tufts of
flowers, each accompanied by a fine purple deciduous /heath.
The petal is often ftriped with red. Fruit eight or nine
inches long, 14 thick, green, with a {weet, mealy, pale-
orange pulp. Such at leaft Ehret defcribes, and fuch we
have feen ripened at Sion honfe, under the care of Mr.

Hoy. No /eeds are found in the cultivated plant.

2. M. fapientum. Banana Tree. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1477.
(M. caudice maculato, fru&tu reG&to rotundo breviore odo-
rato; Trew. Ehret. 4. t. 21, 22, 23. )—Flower-ftalk droop-
ing. ‘Male flowers deciduous. Fruit ovate. ‘This is now

’ ufually confidered as a variety of the former, the chara‘ters

Vor. XXIV.

on which its fuppofed fpecific difference was founded,
being to all appearance accidental. ‘ay ae is {potted.

The fruit of this, as well as of the former, roafted be-
fore itis quite ripe, is ufed as bread.

3. M. troglodytarum. Wild Plantain Tree. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 1478. (M. uranofcopos; Rumph. Amb. v. 5. book 8.
137. t. 61. f. 2.) —Flower-ftalk ere&t.—Native of the Mo-
lucéa iflands. This feems to be the true wild ftate of one
or both the former. Rumphius fays, the fruit can be
eaten when roafted only, being rather acrid when raw, and
that it contains abundance of feeds. We apprehend fome
miftake in Gartner refpeGting this being a Heliconia; fee
his v. 1. 30.

4- M. coccinea. Scarlet Plantain Tree. Andr. Repof.
t.47. Redout. Liliaé. t. 307, 308.—Flowers capitate,
ere&t. Sheaths ovate, permanent. Stamens five.—Native
of China. Said to have been farft introduced into the Bri-
tifh ftoves by T. Evans, efq. of Stepney, about the year
1792. This is of much more humble growth than any of
the foregoing, and remarkable for the rich fearlet colour of
its fheaths, which are imbricated and permanent, forming a
cone-like head. The lowermoft of them often ends in a
leaf. Redouté very juftly obferves, that thefe fcales ought
to be called braéeas, and not to be confidered as a calyx.
This author, as well as Mr. Andrews, defcribes five /lamens
only in each flower, all alike perfect in fome, abortive in
others.

For Musa Brnat of Linnzus, fee Heticonra.

Musa, in Gardening, comprehends plants of the peren-
nial kind for the hot-houfe, of which the fpecies culti-
vated are; the plantain tree (M. paradifiaca) ; and the
banana tree (M. fapientum).

Of the fecond fort a very excellent drink is made from
the juice of the ripe fruit fermented, refembling the beft
Southam cyder.

Each of thefe fpecies has feveral varieties. q

And it is obferved by Brown, that << thefe two fruits are
among the greateft bleflings bellowed by Providence upon
the inhabitants of hot climates.’’ As ‘three dozen plan-
tains are fufficient to ferve one man for a week inftead of
bread, and will fupport him much better.”

Method of Culture—Thefe plants may be increafed by
planting the young fuckers of the roots of fuch plants as
have fruited, taken off carefully with root-fibres, in large
pots filled with light rich earth, and plunged in the tan-bed
of the ftove, in the fummer feafon. They afterwards re-
quire to have water given pretty plentifully in the hot fum-
mer months, but more fparingly in the winter, and in lefs
proportions ata time. They fucceed belt in about the fame
degrees of heat as the pine apple. The pots fhould be in-
creafed in fize as they advance in growth.

But the beft way to have them fruit well in this climate
is to fhake them out Of the pots, after they have become
fully eftablifhed, with the balls of earth about their roots,
and plant them in the tan-bed in the ftove, old tan being
laid round their root-fibres to ftrike into. When new tan
is added, care fhould be taken not to difturb their roots,
and always to leave plenty of old tan about them, to guard
againft too much heat. They fhould have water twice a
week in winter, about two quarts each plant at a time, and
in fummer twice as much at a time, and every other day.
The figns of perfe&ting their fruit, are their pufhing
out their flower-ftems in the fpring. The ftoves fhould
be fufficiently high for this pudpcle: as twenty feet or
more.

In their native country, thefe trees thrive beft where the
foil is rich, cool and moift. Their fruiting in the South

ty: Sea

MUS

Sea iflands is faid to be promoted by the ufe of lime and
wood-athes.

Thefe plants are moftly cultivated here by way of cu-
riofity and for variety.

Musa, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in Yemen,
which is a kind of market for fruit and fowls to Mocha.
The town is populous, and furrounded’ with walls ; 18 miles
FE. of Mocha.

Musa, a river of Saxony, which runs into the Elbe,
near Meiffen.

MUSACCHIA, a town of European Turkey, in Al-
bania ; 36 miles S.S.E. of Albafano.

MUS, in Botany, the firft natural order of the fourth
clafs in Juffieu's fyitem. The chara¢ter of that clafs is
to have the feed monocotyledonous, and the ftamens in-
ferted upon the germen. The latter are definite m number.
Germen (of courfe) inferior; ftyles either folitary, or want-
ing, rarely numerous; ftigma fimple or divided. Fruit of
one cell or many, pulpy or capfular.

The Mufe are thus defined. Calyx (corolla of Linnzus)
fuperior, deeply divided into two parts, which are either
fimple or lobed.

fome of them occafionally barren or abortive. Germen_in-

ferior; ftyle fimple; ftigma fimple or divided. Fruit of:

three cells, with one or many /eeds in each. Corculum=in
the cavity of the farinaceous albumen.

Stem herbaceous or arborefcent, often clothed with the
fheathing bafes of the footftalks. Leaves alternate, fheathing,

convolute when young, furnifhed with a {imple longitudinal

rib, which fends off innumerable tranfverfe, or obliquely-
parallel veins. Flowers accompanied by /beaths, and dit-.

pofed in alternate tufts, aleng a /a/é originating from the
centre among the leaves.
This order confifts of Mu/z, from which its name is

taken; Heliconia; Strelitzia; and Ravenala of Adanfon,-

which is Urania of Schreber. It differs from the Scitaminee,
(Juffieu’s Canne), chiefly in having fix itamens, initead of
one ftamen with the rudiments of two others, which laft are
pointed out by Mr. Brown, Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1: 305.
See ScrrAMINEZ.

MUS EUS, in Biozraphy, is more celebrated by ancient
writers as a philofopher, altronomer, epic poet, and prieit
of Ceres, than as a mufician ; however, he lived in fo re-
mote a period, and has fo far furvived his contemporaries,
that he is one of the few melancholy remains of his age, of
which pofterity has cherifhed the memory; he therefore
cannot, without injuftice, be omitted: for whoever looks
into the ingenious and well-digefted biographical chart of
Dr. Prieftley, will find Linus, Orpheus, and Mufeus,
placed in fuch barren regions of hiltory, that, like the once
beautiful cities of Palmyra and Balbec, they now ftand in
a defert; but great and exalted charaGters are buoyed up
by time, and reiilt the ftream of oblivion, which foon {weeps
away all fuch as have not eminently diltinguifhed them-
felves.

Mufwus, according to Plato and Diodorus Siculus, was
an Athenian, the fon of Orpheus, and chief of the Eleu-
finian mylteries, inftituted at Athens. in honour of Ceres;
or, according to others, he was only the difciple of Or-
pheus; but from the great refemblance which there was be-

tween his charaéter and talents, and thofe of his matter, by
giving a ftronger outline to the figure, he was called his
fon, as thofe were ftyled the children of Apollo, who
cultivated the arts, of which he was the titular god.
Mufeus is allowed to have been one of the firlt poets,

who verfified the oracles. He is placed in the Arundelian

Stamens fix, ftanding on the germen;.

MuUS
marbles, Epoch 15, 1426. B.C. at: which time his hymns

are there faid to have been received in the celebration of the
Eleufinian mylteries.. T.aertius tells us, that Mufcus not
only compofed a theogony, but formed a {phere for the
ufe of his companions ;-yet, as this honour is generally given
to Chiron,-it is- more natural to fuppofe, with fir Ifaac
Newton, that he enlarged it with the addition of feveral
conttellations after the conqueit of the Golden Fleece.
The fphere itfelf thews that it was delineated after the Ar-
gonautic expedition, which is defcribed in the afterifms,
together with feveral. other more ancient: hiftories of the
Greeks, and: without any thing later ::for the fhip Argo-
was the firft: long veffel which they. had: built :- hitherto
they had ufed reund fkips-of burtheny and kept within
fight of the fhore; but now, bythe dictates of the oracle,
and confent of the princes of Greece,.the flower of that
country fail rapidly through the deep, .and guide their fhip
by the ftars-

Mofeus is-celebrated-by Virgil in the character of Hig-
rophant, or prieft of Ceres, among the moft illuftrious
mortals who have -merited a place in Elyfium.. Here he is
made the conduétor of /Eneas to the:recefs, where he meets~
the fhade of his father, Anchifess. ~ ~ ~

Avhill near the citadel.of Athens was called Mufeum,.
according to Paufanias, from. Mufeus, who ufed to retire.
thither to meditate, and compofe his religious hymns. and’
at whick place he was afterwards buried. The works,
which went under his name; like thofe of Orpheus, were
by many atributed to. Onomacritus. Nothing remains of
this pcet now, nor were any of his writings extant in the:
time of Paufanias, except a hymn to Ceres, which he made
for the Lycomedes:. And as thefe hymns were likewife fet
to mutic, and fung in. the mytfteries by Mufzus himfelf,.
in the charaéter of a prieft, he thence perhaps acquired
from future times the title of mufician, as well as of poet,
the performance of facred muiic being, probably, at firft
confmed to the priefthood in thefe celebrations, as it had
been before in Egypt, whence they originated. Howevery.
he is not enumerated among ancient muficians by Plu-
tarch; nor does it appear that he merited the title of fon.
and fucceffor to Orpheus for his-mufical abilities, fo much
as for his poetry, piety, and profound knowledge in reli--
gious myfteries.. But notwithitanding the numberlefs tetti-
monies come down to us from the beft and moft ancient
writers of Greece and Rome, concerning Linus, Orpheus,
and Mufus, Voflius, in the true fpint of fyttem and licen- -
tioufnefs of an etymologilt, as well as-from an ambition of |
being thought deeply verfed in the Ealtern languages, par-
ticularly the Phoenician, pretends to: refolve thofe names, .
which have been known and revered by all antiquity, into»
words fignifying things, not” perfons: as Linos, a /ong 5:
Mofa, art, difcipline ; Orpheo, /cience. But if this fancy
were generally praétifed upon ancient authors, there would
be little chance of one among them efcaping annihilation.

Musaus, another of the fame name, called the Gramma-
rian, author of a Greek poem on “ The Loves of Hero
and Leander,”’ is {uppofed to have lived as late as the fourth.
century, fince he is not referred to by any of the older
fcholiatts, and fome of his verfes appear borrowed from
the Dionyfiacs of Nonnius. Nothing is known of him per-
fonally, yet his work is ina pure and elegant ftyle, with
much delicacy of fentiment. It has, been frequently ree
printed, both in collections and feparately.

MUSAGATTA, in Geography; a town of Portugal,
inthe province of Beira; nine miles S.S.W. of: 'Tocre de
Moncorvo, "

MUSAGETES, in Mythology, the appellation of -

Apollo,

MUS
Apollo, as the conduétor of the Mufes. The fame name
was alfo given to Hercules.

MUSALI, in Hindoo Afythology, a name of one of the
Ramas. (See Rama.) The word mufali is derived from
the large wooden peftle ufed for feparating rice from the
hhufk. ‘This peftle is called #:u/a/, and in images and {culp-
tures is feen in the hand of Bala Rama, indicating that,
as well as a warrior, he was alfo a benefa&tor to mankind.
In his hand a plough is alfo fometimes feen, and one of his
names, Halayudha, or plough-armed, is thence derived;
alfo Haladhera, or the plough-bearer: more corre@tly, per-
haps, Haladhara; like Gangadhara, or Murlidhara, as men-
tioned in the article Murry.

MUSANO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Tre-
vifan; five miles W.N.W. of Trevigio.

-MUSART, or Massurt, a {nowy ridge of mountains,
which paffes fouth in Afiatic Ruffia from Bogdo Alim, and
is fuppofed to join the mountains of Thibet. This may
poflibly be the Alak, (Alak Ula, or Alak Tag,): which
joins the Belur Tag. It is faid to give rife to. the rivers
Sirr or Sihon, and the alas.

MUSAY, a town of Hungary; 10 miles from Mun-
kacz.

MUSCA, the Fly, in Zntomology, a genus of infe&ts of
the order Diptera, of whieh the generic charaéter is as
follows: mouth with a foft exferted flefhy probofcis, and
two equal lips ; fucker furnifhed with briftles ; feelers two,
but very fhort, and fometimes none at all; antennz gene-
rally fhort. About sso fpecies are defcribed by Gmelin:
thefe are divided into two families, viz. A, with two fhort
feelers; and B, without any feelers. The latter, however,
includes only eleven {pecies of the vaft number already men-
tioned. Thefe grand feCtions are again feparated into {till
{maller divifions. ‘Thus the family A is divided into fix
fe&tions, and that of B into two.

The vatt extent of this genus, according to Dr. Shaw,
makes it neceflary to divide the whole into different. affort-
ments, in order to the more ready inveftigation of the pro-
perties of the {pecies. Thefe divifions, (which anfwer to
Gmelin’s fubdivifions,) are inftituted from the form of the
antennz, which are either fimple, without any lateral hair
or plume ; or armed, that is, furnifhed with a lateral hair or
plume. The fubdivifions, or feétions, are {till farther
divided, as we fhall fee in the enumeration of the {pecies,
into others, according to the more or lefs downy or hairy
appearance of the infe¢ts.

Although the number of known fpecies in this genus is
fo very large, yet it is probable it bears no fort of propor-
tion to the number that is ftill unknown, or that, at prefent,
has not been arranged under {pecific charaGters._ Mr. Harris,
in his Englifh Entomology, has defcribed a greater number
of {pecies than Linnzus enumerated as exifting in the world ;
but England is not the country that is likely to be moft pro-
dudiive of this infect, The fouthern countries of Europe
afford a much greater variety of {pecies than thofe that are
more north: in hot climates, in general, they are always
humerous, and, in a multitude of initances, they multiply toa
degree that is almoft intolerable. The different f{pecies are
extremely diverfified in their external form, their ftruCture,
their organization, their metamorphofis, their manner of
propagating their young, and in providing for their pofte-
rity. A full explanation of thefe different parts of their
economy would require a large volume, which is incom-
patible with the limits prefcribed to our work.

Some of thefe infects have trunks inftead of a mouth;
others have that organ armed with teeth; and many have

MUS

a mouth and a trunk. The probofcis of flies is a machine
contrived for extracting the blood from the veffels of large
animals, and the neétar from the petals of flowers; and the
fcience of hydraulics has not enabled men to conftrué
machines more exaétly arranged, or better adapted to thefe
purpofes. Some of them poflefs confiderable firmnefs and
folidity, thofe efpecially that are deftined to pierce the fkins
of cattle. In order to fee them at work, expofe a fyrup to
attract them, and then take a lens for the infpe¢tion.

Each eye of the fly contains in, it an aflemblage of a
vaft number of {mall ones, which has, perhaps, the effect
of multiplying the furrounding objeéts, and creating repre-
fentations of them, which the experience of the infeét
corrects. From the eye, if we pafs on and furvey the
body, we find it provided with the crgans of refpiration.
Four ftigmata, for this purpofe, are found upon the thorax,
and a greater number difperfed over the annuli of the ab-
domen. The coverings of the different parts of the abdomen
are fcaly, and do not confift of one piece, but admit of the
contraétion and dilatation of that part, according to the cir-
cumitances of the animal. Each of the feet terminates in a
{mall bunch of hairs refembling a brufh.

The interior organization of this genus, when examined
with a proper apparatus, prefents two pulmonary facs of a
white colour, arranged longitudinally along the body. The
action of the heart may alfo be difcerned, as well as the
liquor it contains, continually driven along the great artery
leading to it, and returning by the fame courfe. During
their larva ftate, flies go through a greater variety of meta-
morphofes than even the filk or butterfly-worms: in their
progrefs from the vermicular to the chryfalis ftate, they pafs
through a change unexperienced by other infeéts. From
the fhortnefs of their lives, all thefe viciffitudes mult rapidly
fucceed each other: this circumftance does not prevent
many f{pecies from conftru€ting a cocoon for their laft meta-
morphofis, of a curious fabric. The greater part of thefe
cocoons are of filk, with a mixture of other materials ; thofe
moit common with us fatisfy themfelves with their own fin,
which becomes an incruftated covering to protect them
during their dormant ftate. ;

When the different members have acquired fufficient firm-
nefs, the fly is ready to burft from its fhell in its winged
form. The covering of the chryfalis, efpecially of thofe
that are metamorphofed in their own fkin, would feem by
its hardnefs an effe€&tual bar to that event. About the time,
however, of its change, the head of the fly is capable of
being {wollen and dilated in an unufval manner; and it is
by means of this dilatation that the fly burlls its covering,
and opens a paflage for its efcape.

The food of flies is, as we fhall fee, as various as their
different kinds ; fome being fupported wholly by vegetable
fubitances, while others are carnivorous; and among the
latter there are fome that only devour flew in a itate of
putrefaction,

The female flies are all fecundated by copulation ; an a&
in which the molt inattentive obferver mutt have frequently
feen them engaged. ‘The far greater part of infects are
oviparous; fome, however, belonging to this genus bring
forth living young. . Many of the viviparous fies pofflets
a degree ef ienaaiyp that muft appear altogether incredible
to thofe who have not been converfant in the ttudy of infeas.
Some of them have been found to contain in their body no
lefs than twenty thoufand living animals at one téme. We
now proceed to a defcription of the fpecies enumerated by
Gmelin,

Yy 2 A. With

MUSCA.

A. With two foort Feelers.

§ a. Sucker with a fingle briftle, without fheath ; an-
tenne fhort, clavate, furnifhed with a lateral hair.

+ Hair of the Antenne feathered.
Species.

Jezuna. The colour of this fly is cinereous ; abdomen
pellucid, with three black belts; the legs are pale. It in-
habits Tranquebar. Thorax and f{cutel dufky, with a paler
margin; antenne fubferruginous; legs pale, with black
tarfi. :

* Meriprana. This is an European infe&, and found
in our own country. It has been defcribed and figured by
Harris in the work already referred to. It is hairy and
black; front golden; wings ferruginous at the bafe.
There isa variety that has a faint rufous {pot at the bafe
on each fide of the abdomen.

* CarnariA. This is hairy, black; thorax with paler
lines ; abdomen shining, and teffellate. It is found in almoft
all parts of Europe, in putrid carcafes and meat.

The Mufca carnaria, or the common large blow-fly, as
every one knows, depofits its eggs on animal flefh, either

frefh or putrid. The larve, or maggots, hatch in a few ~

hours, and, when full grown, which happens in eight or ten
days, are of a white, or yellowifh-white colour, with a flight
tinge of pale-red, and of a lengthened fhape, with a fharpened
front, in which the mouth is fituated, and from this the body
gradually enlarges in fize to the laft fegment, which is of a
very broad and flattened form, furrounded by feveral flightly
prominent tips, and furnifhed with a pair of {pecks refem-
bling eyes; fo that an inaccurate fpeétator might eafily
miftake this part for the head, and the proper head for the
tail. When the animal changes to a chryfalis, the fkin dries
round it, and the whole affumes an oval form, and a reddifh
colour, foon changing into a reddifh-brown. In ten days
more the fly itfelf emerges, which is too well known to
require particular defcription.

Carnivora. Dufky; abdomen blue, fubteffellate, the
fegments edged with black. This is found very common
in Germany, in putrid meat. ‘I'he head is black, mouth fer-
tuginous ; thorax and f{cutel hairy, blackifh, without lines,
legs black.

Larparia. Black; thorax and. abdomen teffellate.
This alfo js foundin Germany : itis lefs than the M. carna-
ria; the abdomen is fubglobular, obtufe, and the legs are
black.

Ruricornis. ‘This is hairy and cinereous ; thorax with
black lines ; abdomen teffellate; the antenne are rufous.
Found in the Eaft Indies. ‘The head is cinereous, with a
black line on the crown; the thorax has three black lines,
the middle one reaching down the fcutel.

Rutitans. ‘Thorax cinereous, with black lines; abdo-
men teffellate, the tail rufous. This fpecies is found in
South America: it is larger than the M. domettica, to be
Shortly noticed. The mouth is whitifh; the antenne are
black ; the thorax and abdomen are hairy.

Macutara. About the fize of the laft; thorax and
abdomen with numerous black fpots. It inhabits divers
parts of Europe. ‘The head is cinereous, with a black
probofcis; antenne black ; abdomen with two black lines
in the middle beneath; wing whitifh, immaculate ; legs
black.

Rupis. This is found in Germany, likewife larger than
the M. domeftica: hairy ; thorax grey ; abdomen teflellate ;

the mouth is cinereous; the antenne are black; the f{cale
of the poifers whitifh ; the legs black. ;

OsscurA. Hairy, dull black; wings and fcales of the
poifers cinereous. Found in Germany. :

* Domestica. Hairy, black ; thorax with five pale lines;
abdonien teffellate; beneath pale at the bafe. Inhabits~
many parts of Europe, on horfe-dung. It feldom makesits
appearance till July. i

Occipua. Thorax with black lines; the abdomen is
banded. It inhabits South America, and is {maller than the
latt.

STRATA. © Cinereous ; thorax with black lines; abdo-
men teffellate. It is about the fize of the Domeftica, and
inhabits Germany. The head iscinereous, with a black line
in Hic middle ; wings white; tail a little roundifh; legs are
black.

AmeERicANA. Black ; fides of the thorax grey, dotted
with black. It is found in feverai of the Welt India
iflands, and refembles the GE{ftrus. The head is fmooth and
black ; thorax glabrous, with an impreffed line in the
middle, the fides are downy, with three black dots; feutel
large, rounded, fubftriate, black ; the wings are alfo black,
and the fcale of the poifers prominent and vaulted. [=

Retusa. Hairy, grey bronzed ; abdomen with a gold
glofs ; tail retufe. This {peci@ inhabits New Holland. A
{pecimen is preferved in the mufeum of fir Jofeph Banks.
The head of the infects of this fpecies is whitifh, with a black
frontal line; thorax hairy; fegments of the abdomen
fhining gold, the edges black ; wings white, with a brown
{pot at the bafe.

Parripa. Shining bronze; abdomen globular; legs
black. It inhabits the American iflands, and is about the
fize of the next fpecies, the Czfar. Its wings are white.

* Cmsar. Hairy, fhining green, with black legs. It
inhabits Europe, and feeds on putrid meat and carcaffes >
there is a variety not more than a third part as large.

MrcacepHaLa. Shining bronze; fegments of the ab-
domen edged with black. It inhabits Guinea; is the fame
fize asthe Cefar ; the head is cinereous, with a brown front ;
wings whitifh ; legs black.

Ferma. Shining bronze; abdomen teftaceous, with a
bronzed tail. It inhabits New Spain. Mouth cinereous,
downy ; eyes chefnut, dotted with black; thorax hairy ;
abdomen diaphanous ; legs black bronzed, with teltaceous
fhanks.

CornicivA. Thorax polifhed coppery ; abdomen green
bronze ; legs black. ‘This is found in various parts of
Italy ; and very much refembles the M. cefar: the fides of
the lip have a filvery glofs.

* CapAverRINA. Body polifhed; thorax blue; abdo-
men green. This is found in feveral parts of Europe, and
in our own country.

Styera. This is a hairy infect; the thorax is blueith ;
abdomen bronze; legs ferruginous. Inhabits America.
The head is brown, and the mouth ferruginous.

* Morruorum. Thorax black; abdomen green bronze;
legs black. LItis foundin many parts of Europe, in carcafles,
and is rather a large fly.

Lronina, Thorax brafly, dotted with white ; abdomen
blue, with a white dot on the fecond fegment, and two on
the lat. It inhabits New Holland, anda {pecimen is pre-
ferved in fir Jofeph Banks’s mufeum.

VomitorniA. Thorax black; abdomen fhining blue ;
front fulvous. ‘This is an European infect.

Vespitto, . Hairy, blackifh; abdomen black bronze ; ~

the

MUSCA.

the legs are black, is not above half the fize of the laft, and
is found at Kiel.

Cyanga. Thorax and abdomen of a bright blue; legs
black. Inhabits Africa. A fpecimen is in the mufeum of
fic Jofeph Banks: feale of the poifers milk-white ; fore-
thighs blue.

Maceriaria. ‘Thorax coppery, with black lines ; ab-
domen bronzed; legs black. Inhabits the American if-
lands: itis of the fize of the M. cefar; the thorax of this
fpecies has three black lines ; the wings are white. .

Veurrina, Thorax black, with four grey lines; abdo-
men fubferruginous, {potted with black. Found in different
parts of Europe. :

Nicripes. Hairy, black; fides of the abdomen teltace-
ous, teffellate with white. Inhabits Germany. The head
is black ; the mouth filvery; antenne black ; wings whitifh ;
feale of the poifers clear white.

Corvina. Black; the abdomen is teftaceous, with a
black dorfal line. It is found in Germany, and is the fize
of the Vulpina.

Tesracea. Cinereous; fcutel, abdomen, and legs tef-
taceous. It inhabits Germany. The wings are white;
the antennz are black.

Pattma. Pale teftaceous, with black tail and ends of
the legs. It inhabits Germany, and is the {ize of the M.
teltacea. The body of this infe& is covered with black
_ hairs ; the laft fegment of the abdomen is brown; the legs
are pale, tipt with black.

Discotor. Thorax dulibraffy ; abdomen pale; the edges
of the fegments and tail are bronzed,

Nesuto. Cinereous; thorax with black lines ; abdomen
teftaceous, with a black line down the back. Found in
the Ealt Indies. The head is cinereous, witha black frontal
line ; wings white, immaculate ; abdomen flightly teflellate
with white ; the legs are black.

Mactans. Teltaceous; wings with two black dots ;
the pofterior one tranfverfe. It inhabits Cayenne.

Aucur. Cinereous ; abdomen blueifh, the fides tefta-
teous, pellucid. It inhabits New Holland ; and is in the
mufeum of fir J. Banks. 2

* Canina. Grey; thorax with four black dots; feg-
ments of the abdomen edged with black. It is found in this
country, and alfo in feveral parts of Germany. ‘The thorax
is very hairy ; the legs teltaceous.

Srricosa.
lines, the middle ones: punctured; abdomen with black
{treaks and line down the middle. It is found frequently
in Kiel. ‘The mouth of this infe& is fnowy ; the antenne
are black, and the wings white.

Preset. Black, with rufous legs. This is an inhabitant
of Germany. Head black, with a changeable grey glofs ;
the thorax is hairy, witha cinereous line in the middle at the
bafe; the fcutel teftaceous; the ends of the legs are
black. :

Rustica. Grey, with rufous thighs. This is a large
infe&t, and found in Germany.

* TigRINA.
flanks ferruginous.
of the M. domettica.
minated by a ftyle.

Mepitasunpa. Hairy, dufky; abdomen cinereous,
with four brown dots. It inhabits‘Italy, Its mouth is
whitifh, and the fhanks rather red.

Evata. Pale teftaceous ; wings with a brown rib and
two dots. It inhabits Europe. The movth is veficular
white; antenne rufous, with a black feathered briftle; wings

It inhabits England, and is of the fize
Its wings are white, and the tail ter-

Hairy, cinereous ; thorax with five black +

Hairy, cinereous; tips of the thighs and |

whitifh, with two fpots, the hinder one tran{verfe; the rib
black.

Lurutina. Blackifh, with teftaceous abdomen and hind-
legs. It inhabits Zealand, and is fmall. ‘Che antennz are
teltaceous; the thorax black with a grey glofs; wings pale
tettaceous. :

LupiricA. Black; thorax with faint white lines ; abdo-
men ovate, teftaceous ; the firft fegment and line down the
middle black. Inhabits Kiel; is the fize of the M.domef-
tica. Head black, mouth filvery ; wings whitifh.

Lonerpennts. Black; wings yellowifh and longer than
the body. It inhabits Germany. f

Funesris. Rulty-brown ; abdomen black, the edges of
the fegments pale. It is found in Germany, and is a very
{mall infe&t. The head is dufky; white filvery ; wings
large hyaline ; legs teftaceons.

SusToMENTOSA. Downy; thorax flightly bronzed ;
abdomen black, with three bands fomething interrupted and
tipt with yellow. It is found in Europe.

Cxaviventris. Brown; abdomen clavate; fhanks yel-
low. It inhabits Europe.

Lurea. Yellow; thorax brown, with an oblong yel-
low {pot on each fide beneath. It is found in divers parts
of Europe.

Fuscrres. Thorax brown; abdomen yellowifh-grey ;
legs yellow, the ends brown, Found in Europe.

AteraBiLis. Black ; abdomen changeable grey. In-
habits Europe.

Varia. Black; abdomen varied with yellow, grey, and
black. Inhabits Europe.

Mecanura. Cinereous, with a black tail; four hind.
legs at the tip and fhanks ferruginous. It is found in Ger-
many.

Srricosa. Teftaceous ; crown with a ferruginous dot
on each fide; wings with numerous tranfverfe~ teftaceous
ftreaks. It inhabits Europe.

ARGENTATA. Cinereous ; thorax with four black lines ;
abdomen changeable grey ; the front on each fide is filvery.
Inhabits Europe.

Axszirrons.. Black, with a white front. Inhabits Eu-
rope.
Furta. Black; wings deflected, brown with a white

lateral margin. It inhabits Upfal, under the leaves of herbs;
very {mall; antennz teltaceous, concealed within the head ;
legs white.

Tucurionum. Cinereous; antenna, feelers, {cutel, and
legs ferruginous. ~Inhabits Auttria.

Tau. Black; abdomen pale ferruginous, with a black
bafe, and line down the middle. It inhabits Auttria.

Decerroria. Cinereous, with rufous legs; abdomen
grey ferruginous, with a black dorfal line. This is alfo
found in Auttria,

*MELANOoPYRRHA. , Downy, black; abdomen with a
rufous tip. It inhabits England and Germany. The front
of this infect is pale; its eyes are black; fcutel olive; wings
with fulvous nerves at the bafe, and a large brown fpot in
the middle.

Orex. Brown; thorax downy, blue, with three protu-
berances; tip of the fcutel and thighs yellow. Found in
the fouthern parts of Europe, particularly in the fouth of
France and Italy.

4-Macutata. Thorax black; breaft with two fulvous
{pots on each fide; abdomen purplifh violet. It inhabits
New Zealand.

Bimacurata. Blue; breaft with a whitifh fpot on
each fide ; abdomen green with a blue bafe. Found in New
Holland,

+t Hair

MUSCA.

“+4 Hair of the Antenna naked.

* Fera. Black; fides of the abdomen teftaceous and
diaphanous. This isan European infe&. The front and
mouth are of a buff colour; thorax glofly black, hairy ;
abdomen orange-brown, with a broad urequal black ftripe
down the middle, the tail hairy; wings hyaline; the rib
at the bafe golden yellow ; legs black, the ends yellow.

4-PustuLaTaA. Hairy, black; abdomen with two ru-
fous {pots on each fide; the legs are black. It inhabits
Germany. The mouth is whitifh; fcutel ferruginous ;
wings whitifh with a {mall black dot in the middle; legs
black.

TrssELLa. Black; thorax ferruginous; fides of the ab-
domen teftaceous, diaphanous, and teffellate with white.
Found in divers parts of Germany ; it very much refembles
the Fera.

Lunia. Hairy; thorax brown; abdomen black, the
fides at the bafe and legs teftaceous. This alfo refembles
the Fera, and is found in Germany; the antennz are fer-
ruginous with a black club; mouth whitifh; thorax hairy,
brown with a yellowifh fcutel ; abdomen black, the bafe
pellucid, teftaceous at the fides, which are joined by two
black ftreaks.

BrrasctaTa. Rufous; abdomen with two gold bands.
Inhabits the American iflands, and isa large infe@; the
antenne are black ; the mouth white; thorax and abdomen
hairy ; legs black, with ferruginous claws.

*Grossa. Hairy, black, wings ferruginous at the
bafe. It is found in many parts of Europe, and in this
country; it feeds on horfe-dung. This is the largeft of
European flies ; it is much larger than the largeft blow-fly,
and is of a dark colour, with the wings dull .orange-co-
Joured at their bafe. In its general appearance it refembles
the M. meridiana, which is fimilar in colonrs, but ftands
among the hairy flies with plumed antenna.

Hysrrix. Very hairy, and black with a whitifh mouth.
It inhabits America; body covered with long {tiff hairs.

TremuLa. Hairy, glofly, and black; bafe of the
wings and fcale of the poifers ferruginous. It inhabits
Europe. This is Jefs, and of a more oblong fhape, than
the M. fera. :

* RorunpatTa. ‘Thorax black, with large ferruginous
{pots; abdomen ferruginous, with a black line, which in one
fex is compofed of dots. Inhabits Europe. The abdomen,
in one fex, is ferruginous, witha black ftripe down the middle,
in the other pale, with four black dots; wings hyalie, with
a pale gold bafe.

Pyprarum. Hairy, blackifh; thorax with faintwhite lines;
abdomen with three white bands. It inhabits Kiel. ‘The
antennz are ferruginous, with a black club; head white,
with black briftles; wings whitifh, with a black dot in the
middle.

*Larvarum. Blackifh; f{eutel teflaceous at the tip ;
abdomen teffellate, whitith. ‘This is found in England; it
depofits its eggs in the larve of moths and butterflies ; the
larva devours the garden cabbage, making the root ftrumous,
and the head lax.

LARVATA.
fhining veficles.

* RapicuM.
cinereous bands.
dens.

PaGANA. Hairy, cinereous ; thorax with brown lines ;
fcutel and legs teltaceous. It inhabits Denmark, The
mouth whitih; the crown grey; antenne black ; wings
white, the bafe a little teftaceous ; legs tipt with black.

6

Black ; abdomen fprinkled with white and
It inhabits the Ural.
Blackifh; abdomen a full black, with two
Inhabits many parts of Europe, in gar-

Vanra. Grey; abdomen rufous, varied with white and
black. It inhabits the Eaft Indies, and is about the fame
fize as the M. radicum. The mouth ef this {pecies is
white ; antennz incumbent, rufous tipt with black; tail
with long black briftles; wings dufky ; legs black.

* Brassicaria. Thorax greenifh; abdomen cylindri-
cal and black; the fecond and third fegments rufous. It
inhabits Europe, and is found at the roots of cabbages.
The head is rufous ; the wings brownifh hyaline.

* SpmraARGentea. Thorax filvery-green; abdomen fil-
very-grey with a yellow band at the bafe. This is found
in England. The antennx and head are brown; wings hy-
aline; legs pale.

Cempressa. Hairy, black; thorax with three filvery
lines ; abdomen cylindrical and rufons, with a black dorfal
line; thighssufous. It is found in Spain, in houfes.’

Navosrasscm. Hairy, grey with dongitudinal black
lines down the back and fides. This is found in different
parts of Sweden, and is extremely deftruétive to the roots
of turnips, efpecially of thofe growing in fandy foils: its
larva is white, and without feet; the head is pointed and
tipt with black; undergoes its transformation about
the month of September; the pupa is brown, oblong, an-
nulate with fegments, and becomes a perfe&t fly in the fol-
lowing May. wi

Crassicornis. ‘Thorax hairy, with pale black lines
abdomen ferruginous, the tip teffellate with black and
grey. It inhabits the American iflands, and is very large;
the head is filvery; the crown dufky ; antennz long, incum-
bent, black; fcutel fubferruginous ; wings dufky ; fcale of

the poifers white, legs black.

Erracea. Hairy, black; lip cinereous; wings white
with ablack rib. Inhabits Germany; the antennz are ob-
long and black ; thorax and abdomen very hairy, black, im-
amaculate ; fcale of the poifers arched, fnowy ; legs black.

Zestivationis. Hairy, black; wings with tranfverfe
white dots. It inhabits Europe. ,

Vorvura. Black;* abdomen cylindrical, with two
avhitifh bands in the middle. It inhabits Italy, and is
about the ize of the Compreffa already defcribed. Head
whitifh, with a black line on the crown; thorax blackifh
and flightly teflellate; abdomen very hairy.

* Lareratis. Black; abdomen red with a black tip,
and ttriate down the middle. It inhabits Enrope, and is
the fize of the Domeftica. The mouth of this fpecies is

white.

Atzirrons. Hafry, black; abdomen teffellate, the bafe
ferruginous each fide. It inhabits Denmark. Abdomen
fubcylindrical.

* Canicutaris. Blackifh.; fecond fegments of the ab-
domen and fides of the third diaphanous. It inhabits Eu-
rope, in {warms under the fhade of trees; it is onty half the
fize of the M. domettica.

* Piuvrauis. -Cinereous; thorax with five black fpots;
abdomen with obfolete {fpots. It inhabits Europe, and ap-
pears in vatt {warms before rain.

* Sunsuttans. This is entirely’ black with hyaline
wings; hind thighs formed for fkipping. Inhabits Eu-
rope; is very fmall, and flies by a fort of fkipping mo-
tion.

Cuorra. Black, with white wings. Found in Ger-
many, and very like the Roralis, defcribed below.

LawiaAta. Hairy, blackifh, with a thining filvery lips
wings white, immaculate. Found in Germany, and in its
f{kipping motion refembles the M. fubfultans jult noticed.
The legs are black; the feale of the poifers arched and
fhowy.

Verna.

MUSCA.

Verna. Cinereous; abdomen with two ftreaks of black
dots. This is found in France ; the body is fmall, hairy ;
wings white, immaculate ; fhanks teftaceous.

* Roraris. This infect is of a deep black; wings
whitifh at the tip. It inhabits Europe, and is fmall; the
antenne are very fhort, incumbent; abdomen hairy, the
poifers black.

Fenestratis. Glabrous, black ; abdomen rugged above,
with white ftreaks, wings brown; legs black, and the hind
ones long.

Rucosa. Glabrous, black; abdomen rugged and im-
maculate above; wings brown. Inhabits Kiel, is larger
than the lalt; the legs are black, with ferruginous tarfi.

Senitis. Glabrous, black; abdomen rugged and im-
maculate above ; wings white ; legs teftaceous. It inhabits
Germany ; the head and thorax naked.

Cinereous; rib of the wings ferrate, with
Sroand in divers

* SERRATA.
fhort hairs ; abdomen and legs ferruginous.
parts of Europe.

Nicricornis. Cinereous; fegments of the abdomen
tipt with black. Inhabits the Ealt Indies, is the fize of the
Domettica: head fnowy; mouth fringed; thorax with faint
black lines ; {cutel brown, with a cinereous margin; wings
white, hyaline ; legs black.

Cinerea. Hairy, cinereous ; antenne and tegs blackifh.
It inhabits India, and is about the fame fize as the laft. In
this {pecies the probofcis is tipt with black; fcales of the
poifers {nowy ; wings whitifh; legs dufky, with black
tarfi.

Seavaris. Black; abdomen cinereous, with five black
bands connected by a line down the middle. It inhabits
Germany, and isa little larger than the M. roralis. The
orbits of this fly are filvery ; the wings. white, and the legs
black.

4-Macutata. Hairy, black; tipofthe abdomen with
Sour grey dots. This is found at Kiel, and is larger than
the next, the Cellaris, which is well known here.

*Cectanris. Black; abdomen paler; eyes ferruginous$
found chiefly in wine vaults; hence its fpecific name., _

Cyxinpricornis. Antennz long and cyliridrical; body
hairy, black, with yellowifh: wings, It inhabits France, and
is lefs than the M. cellaris. The laft joint of the antenne
is cylindrical, nearly as long as. the thorax, with a long
whitifh, hair; tarfi yellowith.

_ Crrara. Hairy, black; fegments of the abdomen

Blueifh at the bafe. It inhabits fome parts of the European
continent, and is about the fize of the M. meteorica. The
head is black ; fides of the mouth filvery, with a black line ;
wings cinereous, hyaline ;, {cales of the poifers fringed’ with
white.

* Mersorica. Black; abdomen pale grey; wings
yellowith at the bafe.. This is found in our own country,
and, like the Pluvialis, comes in fwarms before- fhowers. of
rain..

Arata. Naked, fhining black ;- wings hyaline ; joints.
of the legs-teitaceous. It inhabits Germany, and is {mall ;
the head is-fubglobular and black; the eyes teltaceous ;
wings hyaline.

* Frit. Black; poifers, end of the hind legs, and ab-
domen of a pale green. It inhabits Europe, and. is not
Wicer than a flea. The larva is found in the ears. of barley
and other grain, to which it is fo exceedingly. deftructive,
that.in one year corn to a vaft amount has been deftroyed
by its ravages : in Sweden it is faid one-tenth of the corn is
annually deltroyed by this infea.

Pumitionis. Black, beneath yellow; head and two
Sines on the thorax yellow; poifers white; legs cinereous,

tipt with black. The larva of this fly has a fharp head,
black at the extremity ; the body is white, and compofed of
ten fegments ; it is changed into the pupa form about the
end of May. The pupa is yellow, fhining, and compofed
of fegments; the perfect infect appears about the month
of June; but it does not appear at what time it depofits its
eggs. The larve are or early in the fpring, in the
centre of the ftalks of wheat and rye, very near the root.
It has been thought that the eggs are depofited in Sep-
tember or O@tober, becaufe the earlieft fown grain is moft
affe&ted by them. White wheat is more liable to the de-~
predations of this infeét than the red, The ftalks in which
the larva is lodged do not advance in growth, but conti-
nue in a very dwarf ftate, hence the infeét itfelf has ob-
tained its fpecific name. The ftalks become yellow early
in the fummer, and foon after die away ; but others ufually
fpring up on the fame root, and fupply their place. This
infect firft attracted notice in our own country in 1791,
when it excited a confiderable degree of alarm, left it fhould
prove as mifchievous as the Heffian Ay, that has done fo
much injury in America. An account of this infect has
been given by Mr. Markwick in the Linnean Tranlac-
tions; but the firft defcription of the Pumilionis, and of
the mifchief caufed by it, was given in the Tranfa&tions
of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockholm for the
year 1778, by M. Bjerkander, who difcovered it on the
young fhoots of rye early in the fpring, and in fuch quan-
tities, that in fome fields he found. three or four ttalks
affected in a {quare foot.

Leprz. Shining black ;. antennz and legs white; eyes:
reddifh gold. Itinhabits America. It breeds in the legs of
the natives who are affli€ted with. the elephantiafis, and is
fmaller than a loufe.

* Purris. Black ;. wings white, with a black ribs It
inhabits Europe. The larve of this fy are the maggots
found: in decayed cheefe, bacon,. &c. well known in com-
mon language by the name of hoppers.

Arerrima. This is filky black; wings white, with 2
double black rib half way down; legs lorg, comprefled. -
Inhabits France, and is of the fize of the M. putris.

Manrcata. Black ;:abdomen withpale marginal fpots ;
fore-thighs thickened. Inhabits France, and is larger than
the M. cellaris. ‘The head is brown, mouth grey, and wings
hyaline.

Srricuta. Thorax.with two pale lines ;-abdomen black, .
the fegments with fnowy edges.. It is found in France. -

Coprarta.. Body glaucous bronze; thorax green ;.ab-
domen coppery, hence its fpecific name; poifers naked.
This isan European infe&t. The legs are black, .and very
rarely yellow.

*Avrata. Thorax polifhed, braffy or greenifh ; abdo--
men polifhed, obtufe, brownifh-gold. Inhabits Europe. The
head is-black ; fegments of the abdomen blackifh; wings
dufky ;.abdomen {fometimes blue.

JineEA.. Shining green bronze; head and legs teftaceous,
Found in the Eaft Indies.

*Potrta. Polifhed;. thorax blue ;. abdomen braffy 5.
poifers naked. An inhabitant of Europe. Poifers and legs
yellow

* VipuATA.
the poifers fringed.
gardens.

PuseRa.
curved, with refleted dowam on each fide.
Europe.

Fasciata. This fpecies ts teftaceous, with a black ab-
domen ; wings brown at the tip, with.a white band ; legs’.

long 5;

Black bronze ; abdomen braffy ; fcales of -
It inhabits Europe, chiefly found in

Black; laft fegments of the abdomen in-
It inhabite

MUSCA.

long ; it ts found.in the American iflands ; the body is very
narrow: there is a variety of this {pecies, that has its head
and thorax black.

* PeTRONELLA. Liivid; front red; legs long, tefta-
ceous, with black joints. Found on the furface of waters
in Europe.

‘Cyzinprica. Glofly black ; head globular, with tef-
taceous eyes ; legs long and yellowifh ; it is found chiefly
in Germany. The antennz of this fpecies are fmall, tefta-
ceous, with a black hair; thorax naked and thin; abdomen
ovate, with teftaceous {pots beneath, at the bafe; wings
white.

FintrorMis.
eyes ; legs very long and teftaceous.
In fhape it is very long and narrow.

Tiruvaria. Body long and black ; head and legs telta-
ceous ; wings tipt with brown. Found on the African con-
tinent, particularly in Barbary. The head is pale and tefta-
ceous, witha fcarlet crown.

Pretiotata. Hairy and black ; abdomen compreffed ;
wings black. It is found in-Cayenne, and is the fize of the
Comprefla. The head of this infe& is black, with a white
mouth, and reddifh eyes; poifers {nowy, abdomen long
and black ; the fegments a little whitifh at the edges ; the
legs are black.

Epnirrium. Body long and black ; thorax rufous ; legs
teftaceous. Itinhabits France.

Exoncata. Teltaceous; legs long, hind fhanks black,
theends whitifh. It inhabits Sierra Leona. In this fpecies
the eyes are large and brown; and the wings hyaline.

Loncires. This is black; wings are brown, with a
white band at the bafe, and dots; the legs are long and tef-
taceous. This is found in Cayenne.

AwnouLata. Black; wings hyaline, with a brown
band; legs long, black, hind thighs with two white rings.
Found alfo in Cayenne.

Cristata. Hairy, cinereous; abdomen and legs pale ;
front ferruginous, clavate, and projeéting beyond the an-
tennz. Inhabits Barbary.

CorricioLata. Black, with long yellow legs; thighs
with a black ring, Is found in the ftagnant ditches in va-
rious parts of Denmark. ¢

* Cursitans. Black, with long pale legs; wings in-
cumbent, white. It is found in many parts of this country,
on trees and walls, refembles a Cimex, and runs with great
velocity.

Cimicoines. Black; wings incumbent, white, with
two black bands. It inhabits Denmark, is found abont
trees, and, like the laft, is very like a Cimex. The laft
fourteen f{pecies are diftinguifhed from the reft by a glo-
bular head, with prominent rounded eyes, and a linear bady
with long legs.

PALLIPES.
ifh dots at the bafe; the legs are yellowith.
Germany, and is very {mall.

*Uncurara. Brafly green; tail hooked; the legs are
long and livid, Jt is found in many parts of Europe, about
waters.

* Nosivitata. Braffy green; tail hooked ; wings with a
black fpot tipt with white, Found in Europe, in gardens,

Equesrais. Brafly green; abdomen with five black
bands ; the tail is hooked ; the wings are white, with a brown
fpot. ‘This is found in Brazil; {jr Jofeph Banks has a fpect-
wen of it in his mufseum,

*Norata, Hairy; thorax brown, with four greenifh
lines ; abdomen bronzed; wings clouded with brown, with
ablack dot, It inhabits England,

3

Body filiform, black ; head ovate with red
Found in Germany.

Shining bronze ; abdomen with two yellow-
It inhabits

Grasrata. Shining black bronze; head black; an-
tenne teftaceous. This fpecies is found in France, and is
the fize of the Ungulata juft noticed.

Nicrirgs. Shining brafly; antenne and legs black ;
wings white and immaculate. It inhabits France, and is very
feat ; the thorax and abdomen are hairy, and the legs
black.

Arrocans. Hairy, black; wings brown, with three
white bands ; an inhabitant of Europe.

Loneicornis. Antenne long; body hairy; fhining
bronze ; abdomen darker. Jt inhabits the American iflands.

Rostrata. Body bronzed ; abdomen with black bands ;
mouth horny, prominent, black. Inhabits Germany ; is the
fize of the M. ungulata.

4-FasciaTa. Pale, with four black bands on the abdo-
men; wings white. It inhabits Germany, and is a little lefs
than the latt.

FERRUGINEA.
the wings white, with a ferruginous rib and ftreak.
habits the Eaft Indies.

Hisrrionica. » Cinereous, with a ferruginous head ; ab-
domen cylindrical, and black with a whitifh bafe; wings”
with ablack {pot at thetip, It inhabits the Eaift Indies.

Suitta. This is teftaceous; the fegments of the abdo-
men are edged with black ; the wings are marked with two
black dots. Itis found in various parts of Germany.

Fiaveota. This fpecies is hairy and teftaceous ; ab-
domen downy, tipt with brown, and is found alfo in Ger-
many. ‘The head is teftaceous ; the antennz are brown, and
the wings white.

Furcata. Hairy, dufky ; fcutel proje&ting, and forked.
It inhabits France.

Orarorta. Teftaceous; abdomen pale, the fegments
are edged with black ; the wings are marked with three or
four brown dots. This inhabits the Barbary coafts; the
head and thorax are hairy, of a pale colour, and teftaceous.

Merparia. Hairy, cinereous with rufous fhanks ; wings
white with a browndot. It inhabits Kiel. The mouth is
whitifh ; the crown is generally black, with a reddifh {pot ;
antenne black ; abdomen flat and hairy.

Lurarta. Grey; abdomen, tail, and legs ferruginous.
It inhabits Kiel. The mouth is whitifh ; the antenne are
rufous; the abdomen beneath and at the fides brownifh;
wings yellow witha {mall brown nerve in the middle, and a
larger one towards the tip.

Livens. This, as its name fignifies, is of a livid hue,
with a ferruginous {pot on the front ; joints of the legs fer-
ruginous. It is found in Denmark, he mouth is white,
front yellowifh, with a red {pot behind the antenne ; thorax
and abdomen naked.

* Cucunarta. Thorax grey; abdomen ferruginous ;
wings yellowifh, with a darker dot. It is found in man
parts of Europe. ‘The antenne have a {nowy hair on
each.

* ScyBaLaniA. Hairy; dull ferruginous ;
lowifh, with a dark dot; legs rufous.

Marainata. This is of a dull lead colour ; wings reti-
culate, with a black rib. Inhabits Saxony, and is the
fize of the laft. The mouth is veficular white; the an-
tenne are brown, with a long white hair; wings reticulate,
with white dots, the rib sick.

* FinneTAria, Antenne flightly feathered ; body git.
brous, ferruginous ; wings immaculate, It is found about
dung-heaps in various parts of Europe.

UGA (Skins Thorax cinereous; abdomen, wings, and
legs black. It inhabits France, and is the fize of the laft.
The mouth is ferruginous, and the head has a ferruginous

fpot

This, as its name imports, is ferruginous ;
It in-

wings ‘yel-

al

~

_ceous ; wings clouded with a black rib.

‘with rows of black dots between the nerves.

America.

MUSCA.

{pot above the antenne ; the abdomen is paler at the
bafe.
Rurrrrons. Cinereous ; head ferruginous with two black
dots; rib of the wings black. This is found in Italy, and
is about the fize of the Marginata. Mouth veficular white ;
anteonz rufous, with a black margin all round, and pro-
jeéting white hairs ; wings whitifh with black dots, and the
egs are rufous.

Graminum. Front impreffed, fulvous ; wings clouded,
with two dots, the hinder one linear and tranfverfe. "This
fpecies inhabits France, and is the fize of the latt.

Cincra. This {pecies is cinereous; head and legs tefta-
It inhabits Den-
mark.

Rericurata. Hairy, cinereous ; wings faintly reticu-
late ; he rib is dotted with black and white ; found in divers
pasts of Italy ; the head and antennz are rufous; the mouth
nowy. é

areriae A, This fpecies is teftaceous; wings white
with three black dots united to the rib, anda fingle difliné&
one. This is a Brafilian infect. The mouth is whitith;
the thorax hairy ; the legs teftaceous. *

Puncrata. Cinereous with rufous legs; wings white
It is found

in Kiel, and is known by its whitifh mouth and greyifh

. body.

UmpracutaTa. Brown; thorax with faint ferruginous
lines; breaft and legs teflaceous. It inhabits France, and is
a {mall fly.

Pennipes. Hairy ; abdomen rufous; wings black, with
a ferruginous {pot and white hind margin. It inhabits North

Lucens. Thorax with yellow lines; abdomen blue;
wings black, with two white bands, which are bifid at the
outfide. Ic inhabits Sierra Leona.

Moerens. Hairy, black ; thorax with white lines ;
wings long, black, with a white line at the bafe, and three
bands, the firft of whichis bifid. It inhabits Guinea.

Oxex. Thorax greyifh; abdomen conic, ferruginous, the
fides {potted with black. It inhabits Italy; the larva is
found in the fruit of the olive. The head is yellowifh, with
two black dots above the mouth ; thorax with faint black
lines ; abdomen with three black dots on each fide ; wings
hyaline; legs yellow. ‘

Ctavata. Teitaceous; abdomen brown, the fegments
are pale at the bafe, and terminated by a clavate ftyle. The
antenne and thorax are hairy ; the wings are large and
whitith.

Parretina. Cinereous ; wings brown fpotted, and dot-
ted with white, front teftaceous. It inhabits Europe.

Discorpea. Black; wings with white dots and mar-
ginal lines; headand legs teftaceous. It inhabits Denmark,
and is a large infect. The eyes, thorax, and abdomen of this
fiy are black and immaculate.

Connexa. Abdomen cylindrical and black ; wings
white with three black bands, the third connected with a
{pot at the tip. It inhabits France, and is large.

Umsrarum. This fpecies is cinereous ; the abdomen
is marked with black bands; wings brown {potted with
white. It inhabits many parts of Europe, and is found
among flowers.

* Vinrans. Wings hyaline, tipt with black ; the head
is red. It inhabits Europe, and is continually agitating its
wings.

Punctum.
tip ; abdomen bronzed.

laces.

Vor. XXIV.

Wings with a black lateral dot at the
It inhabits France, in moift fhady

Wings with a lateral black dot at the tip ;
It inhabits Europe, and yields a fra-

* CynipsEA.
abdomen cylindrical.
grant {mell.

_* Grosstricationis. Deep black ; wings blueifh, tipt
with white. Is common in fhrubberies, in many parts of
Europe.

Arremisi&. Yellow ; wings white, with five marginal
black {pots. Inhabits Denmark, and, as its name imports,
on the Artemifia vulgaris.

Comprnata, Yellowifh; abdomen black ; wings with
two black dots at the tip. This is found about many
flowers in European fields and gardens. The wings are
white with a dot on the thin edge, and at the tip.

Frorum. Yellow; wings hyaline, with three black dots
on the difk, the middle one tranfverfe, and a black curye at
the tip. It inhabits Italy, and is larger than the M. com-
binata.

ERYTHROCEPHALA. Grey-brown ; head rufous, with a
black dot on the crown. It inhabits Sweden, and is found
hovering about flowers. The wings of this fpecies are
ne with a black dot and tranfverfe line; the legs are

ack. F

Arnicz, Teltaceous ; wings cinereous with deep black
marginal fpots and faint brown dots. It inhabits Europe,
and is found on flowers.

Purcuetta. Hairy, cinereous; difk of the wings yel-
lowifh-brown, with a flexuous white hyaline fillet. ‘This is
found in Italy. '

* Styztara. Cinereous; abdomen black ; wings white,
with two brown approximate dots, and a curve at the tip.
This fpecies is found in England, among woods, and in
meadows. Independently of its fpecific chara¢ter, its an-
tenn are ferruginous; the front is yellow ; the crown is
cinereous ; thorax hairy, cinereous, with a yellow lateral
line; feutel and poifers yellow; abdomen oblong, black,
terminated by a ftyle as long as the body; the legs ferru-

‘ ginous.

_Ruricaupa. This is cinereous; the wings are white,
with three coftal black fpots ; ftyle at the end of the tail

rufous, with three black dots : hence its {pecific name. It

is found in France, and refembles the lait. ets

ArcuatTa. Teftaceous; wings with two. Bick {pots
and curve at the tip. It inhabits Germany, agd refembles
the M. ftylata. rk

* UMBELLATORUM. Cinereous, with ferruginous legs ;
wings white, with tran{fverfe brown {pots and tip. It in-
habits England. The head is whitifh ; the antenne rufous @m*
tail reddifh, with a black ityle.

Heracrer. Cinereous; wings white, with brown dots,
two bands and a line at the bafe. It inhabits Kiel, and is
the fize of the lat.

Dorsatis. Wings white, witha few black dots ; thorax
cinereous ; abdomen rufous, with a black dorfal line. It
inhabits the meadows of Bohemia. The mouth is white ;
anteunz rufous ; legs rufous, black at the ends.

Seminationis. Wings black, with cinereous {pecks ;
abdomen yellow at the bafe beneath. It inhabits the
meadows at Leipfic. Is the fize of the Domettica. The
body is entirely grey, or brown, with minute grey fpecks,

Picra. ‘ Brown; wings black, with two oppofite white
{pots on each fide, and two white dots between them. It
inhabits North America. f

Virrata. Hairy, black; head marginal; ftreak on the
thorax, fcutel, and fhanks yellow ; wings with a white band.
It inhabits Guinea.

*Frava. Yellow, as its name imports ; antenne with

Zz a black

a black dot at the tip. It inhabits Europe, and varies very
much in its fize.

* 4-PuncraTa. Yellow, with four black dots on the
abdomen. It inhabits Europe. The dots on the abdomen
are remote.

fEstuANS. Wings hooked, white, with a blackifh cen-
tral dot. It inhabits Europe, on flowers.

Lingata. Black, with yellow lines on the thorax;
{cutel and body yellow beneath. Inhabits many parts of
Europe, in ears of barley, which it renders fterile. The
head is yellow, with a black crown; wings immaculate.

Rosz. Brafly-black; head rufous; legs teftaceous. It
inhabits Kiel, on flowers, and is very fmall; wings hyaline.

* SERATULZ. Wings white; thorax greenifh; abdo-
men cinereous, with four lines of black dots. It is found
on thiftles in many parts of Europe.

* Urticz. Black; wings white with a terminal brown
dot, and. three diftin& bands. it is found in England and
other parts, on the nettle, as its {pecific name imports.

CRASSIPENNIS. Cinereous; abdomen with black bands ;
swings mi/k-white, with four abbreviated black bands, It
inhabits Germany.

Cornurz. Antenne projecting, {pinous, and one-tooth-
ed; body grey; wings white, with four brown bands. It
is found in Germany.

Davucr. Wings white, with four diftin@ black bands ;
Yeutel and legs te!taceous. It inhabits Sweden, and 1s lefs
than the M. urtice ; the abdomen is black, with a long
ftyle.

% Cerast. “Wings white, with unequal brown bands ;
the lower ones connected outwardly. It, inhabits this coun-
try, and is found in the kernels of cherries. Body black ;
front teftaceous.

Annonz. Blue; wings white, with four black bands ;
the lower ones conneéted outwardly. It inhabits the Amie-
rican iflands, and ‘is fmall. The front fulvous ; crown blue ;
legs black.

Crax. Cinereous; wings white, with three unequal
black bands; legs teftaceous. It inhabits the Eaft Indies,
and is the fize of the M. ortice. The abdomen is varied
with cinereous arid black, and ending in a long ftyle; the
wings have three bands at the bafe. ;

* Carvut. Black; wings white with a flexuous brown
band. It inhabits Europe, in the flowers of the thiltle.

Syncenest®. Black 5; wings white with three abbreviated
black bands and {pot at the tip: it is a fmall fly, and inha-
bits Germany.

Turrcacinis. Yellow; wings white with four brown
barids. It inhabits Denmark, on flowers; abdomen cinere-
ous, with ferraginous ftyle tipt with black.

Furcata. Cinereous, with a teftaceous tail; wing's
brown, dotted with white. It inhabits the American
ands; the eyes'of this infeé&t, which is fmall, are green.

* SoustTic1aLis. Wings white with four conne&ed black
bands; fcutel yellow. It is an inhabitant of this country,
and has been defcribed and figured by Mr. Donovan. The
head is \pale ; body blueifh black ; abdomen ending ina long
ftyle ; wings with a brown outer margin connecting the four
bands; legs yellow, thighs black.

CostaAiis, Blue; wings white with two black coftal
fpots. It inhabits the South American iflands, and is
fall.

_. Laeuninis. Black with yellow head and legs; wings
black, the border ltreaked with white. Itinhabits Kiel.

* Onoponpinis. Verruginous, with a yellowith feutel;
wings with brown marks andtip. It inhabits Europe, and
is defcribed in Dondvan’s Eng, Inf, head and legs pale,

MUSCA.

CenTAure®. Black; head and legs yellow; wings
with brown marks and tip. Inhabits Kiel, and refembles
the latft.

Scasiosm. Yellow; difk of the wings finuate, brown
and dotted with white. It inhabits France, and is large.

* Hieraco. Wings brown, varied with white, on the
thicker margin three black fpots, with a white pupil. It
inhabits England, and is found among flowers; the body is
grey with a few brown dots; thorax grey with two brown
dots on the fnoulders, four in the middle and two behind;
the abdomen is grey with four black bands, the two firft in-
terrupted; legs yellow. :

Mixvura. Yellow; thorax black on the back ; abdomen’
with two black ftreaks and two dots behind. It inhabits
Kiel, and is chara€terifed as very fmall.

JEquinocTiALis. This fpecies is glabrous, blatk ; tef-
taceous ; eyes chefnut-brown, legs long. It inhabits South
America; the bedy is long and narrow.

Cigaria. Smooth, with raifed ftemmata; the abdomen
is cinereous, hooked; the legs are long. It is found very
much in kitchens in divers parts of Europe.

Terrestris. Brown; thorax with a brown dot without
the lines; abdomen ftriate bereath. It inhabits Sweden, -
and feeds on the ground.

Sattuum. Wings white with a brown rib and terminal
dot; body yellow; head blackifh behind. ‘This is an Eu-
ropean infeét.

Arnicm. Wings booked, grey fpotted with black. Tt
inhabits Europe, on the difk of radiate flowers; particularly
the Arnica montana.

Soncut. Wings hyaline, with a black marginal fpot ; the
eyes are green. It inhabits Europe, on the receptacles of
the Sonchus arvenfis.

SuscuTANEA. Wings white with flexuous brown bands;
eyes green. It inhabits Europe, under the leaves of the
heracleum.

Ruriventris. Thorax cinereous ; abdomen rufons, with
a black {pot at the bafe, with two brown fpots and ‘brown
hind margin.

Srrosa. Black; abdomen briftly, with a pale {pot on
each fide at the bafe. This and the next thirty-feven fpecies
are defcribed generally as inhabiting Europe.

VersiPELLis. Black; the three firft fegments’of the ab-
domen on each fide are changeable reddifh-grey. ~

Pura. Black; abdomen glabrous, greenrfh-black. It
inhabits Europe.

Brunnea. This is entirely of a chefnut colour.

Nicrivitis. Cinereous, with black briftles; legs teftace-
ous, black at the ends.

Nicrives. Cinereous; wings yellowifh at the bafe; legs
black.

TrsiAtis. Cinereous; front tip of the thighsiand fhanke
teftaccous.

Versicotor. Black, witha changeable grey glofs.

Picea. Piceous, glabrous; legs black.

Crassiprs. Black, rough; thighs thick.

Leucostiera. Black ; wings with numerous white dots.

Ruricaricca. Cinereous, with a rufous crown and tef-
taceous fhanks.

OcHROPTERA.
fhanks ferruginous.

SupuLata. Piceous; abdomen fubulate ; wings with a
ferruginous {pot ; fhanks pale.

Conica. Cinereous; abdomen conic; legs brown tef-
taceous.

Asnkurra, Cinereous; wings with three abrupt teftace-
ous bands,

Black ; front white ; wings yellowith ;

CuRyso-~

MUSCA,

CunysocerHALa. Crown ferruginous; back of the
thorax and linear abdomen black ; wings white, with two
brown bands, the tip brown with a white fpot.

Fiavescens. Yellowifh-grey with a ferruginous crown ;
head and legs yellow; wings white with four yellow bands.

Levcoris. Blackifh, with a white face; tip of the {cu-
tel fubteftaceous ; abdomen. changeable grey.

Cyuinprica. Blackith; abdomen cylindrical, changeable

rey.

5 aay Piceous, glabrous, cylindrical; legs yellow.
Seticornis. Reddifh-brown with brown eyes and wings.
Sorpipa. Black; wings brownifh, with hyaline thinner

margins.

Tricotor. Cinereous; wings brown; legs black.

Depressa. Brown with ferruginous legs; abdomen de-
preffed.

Quapricotor. Polifhed; thorax blue; abdomen green ;
thighs black, the tip and fhanks yellow.

Squatipa. Blackifh; abdomen cylindrical, cinereous,
with a black dorfal line.

Larives. Yellow; abdomen clavate; hind-thighs yel-
low ; fhanks with a white ring.

Despecta. Teftaceous with a cinereous back ; fegments
of the abdomen brown at the bafe.

Lirurata. Grey; wings with a ferruginous fpot ; legs

ale.
, Tripunctata. Blackifh; crown with three black dots
each fide; thorax pale, cinereous.
Leucoptera. Piceovs, glabrous; legs ferruginous ;
wings white.
GtavucorTera. Piceous, glabrous; wings glaucous.

g-Punerata. Thorax black; abdomen pale grey, with
nine black dots.

Picata. Thorax black; abdomen piceous, glabrous;
ends of the hind-legs thick. ;

g-Macutata. Yellow; wings with fix blackifh {pots,
and three at the tip.

Rusriees. Black, with ferruginous legs.

Metanocurysa. Yellow, with a black dst on the
crown; thorax with three longitudinal black ftripes.

* Granpitarsa. Glabrous; thorax black-bronze;
abdomen ferruginous, tipt with black. It inhabits Eng-
land.

Apirormis. Hairy, black; bafe of the thorax yellow ;
abdomen with a yellow belt; the tail whitifh. It inhabits
Auttria.

Arcyrostoma. Hairy, black, with a filvery front;
abdomen with filvery bands. It inhabits Vienna.

Furvivenrris. Blackifh; abdomen with yellow down
beneath; wings dotted with white. It inhabits Vienna.

Ciavicrus. Yellow, naked; eyes green; hind-thighs
clavate. Inhabits Auttria.

g-Puncrata. Cinercous; wings with a dot at the tip,
one at the inner margin, and three at the outer. Inhabits
Auttria.

Srictica. Yellow; thorax and abdomen with four lines
of black dots ; wings white, with a yellow margin and three
bands. It inhabits Vienna,

PocciLorTera. Wings reddifh-brown, variegated with

white. Inhabits Auitria.

Linzensis. Black; front red, the margin with two
ana{tomofing brown f{pots. It inhabits France.

Nasuta. Yellow; thorax with about five black lines ;
abdomen with four black bands. It inhabits France.

Lamep. Wings hyaline, the outer margin varied with

brown, the inner margin marked with a brown Hebrew
lamed. It inhabits Auttria,

Mintanta. Yellow, with black eyes; wings yellow,
with a triple brown {pot and numerous dots. It inhabits
Europe.

CyanopuTuaLMia. Hairy; eyes violet, with fix
purple bands; legs with a white ring. It inhabits
Auttria.

Meticutosa. Glofly-black; fhanks rufous, with a
black band, the hind ones curved. It inhabits Auftria,

Merutina. Glofly-black, with red eyes; wings hya-
line, immaculate. It inhabits Auttria.

Resinertm. Black; feale of the poifers ferruginous ;
abdomen with two thin white belts.

Cornura. Yellowifh, with two horns fending out three
branches from the upper fide; wings hyaline, {potted with
brown. It inhabits Carniola.

Inipata. ‘Thorax {plendid green; abdomen lucid lan-
ceolate, yiolet-brown. It inhabits Carniola.

Caxnapina. Thorax bronzed; abdomen pellucid yel-
low, with alternately narrower black bands. It inhabits
Carniola.

Lurtna. Thorax cinereous, with four interrupted black
lines; abdomen fubteffellate, the fides diaphanous. It in-
habits New Zealand.

TeEsTacea. Scutel two-toothed; body teftaceous; firft
fegment of the abdomen brownifh. It inhabits South
America.

Errans. Scutel two-toothed, black; abdomen black,
the fecond and third fegments with white fides. It is lefs
than the latt.

CuAMALEON. Scutel two-toothed, yellow; abdomen
black, with three triangular yellow {pots on each fide, and
one at the end. It inhabits Europe. This is one of the
molt remarkable fpecies: it is a large black fly, with a
broad, flattifh abdomen, having the fides of each fegment
yellow, forming fo many abrupt femi-bands acrofs that
part. It proceeds from an aquatic larva, of very confider-
able fize, meafuring two inches and a half in length, of a
fomewhat flattened fhape, and of a brown colour, with a
narrow or flender front; the body widening by degrees to-
wards the middle, and from thence gradually tapering to the
extremity or tail, which is terminated by a circle of radiating
or diverging hairs. ‘This larva is common in ftagnant wa-
ters, during the fummer. months, and paffes into its chry-
falis {tate without cafting its fin, which dries over it, fo as
to preferve the former appearance of the animal in a more
contrafted form.

SPLENDENS. Scutel two-toothed; body covered with
rich gold down; abdomen with black bands. It inhabits
Spain.

Furcata. Scutel two-toothed, black, edged with yel-
low; abdomen black, the fides tpotted with yellow. It in-
habits Germany,

Epuiepium. Scutel two-toothed; thorax rufous and
fpinous-on each fide. It inhabits Europe.

Crucis. Scutel two-toothed, black; abdomen black,
with two lateral yellow fpots aud tip, It inhabits the
South American iflands.

Fiavisstma. — Scutel two-toothed; body black ; ab-
domen rufous, with a longitudwal. black line. It inhabits

Ltaly.

Microteon. Scutel two-toothed ; abdomen black, with
lateral white ftreaks. It inhabits Europe.

STRiGATA. Scutel two-toothed; abdomen black, with
white flreaks beneath. It inhabits Italy.

Cyanea. Scutel two-toothed ; body blue; head verfi-

cular white. It inhabits Cayenne.
Pauuiprs. Scutel two-toothed; abdomen above black,
Zz 2 the

MUSCA.

the edges of the fegments whitifh each fide. It inhabits
North America.

Murasitis. Scutel two-toothed; body grey, downy ;
abdomen black at the bafe; rib of the wings ferruginous.
It inhabits Cayenne.

Fasciata. Scutel two-toothed ; body black ; abdomen
with two white ftreaks above, beneath filvery. It inhabits
Cayenne.

ARGENTATA. Scutel lightly two-toothed; body black ;
abdomen covered with filvery down and yellow lateral fpots.
It inhabits Saxony.

TicRina. Scutel two-toothed; body black ; abdomen
rufous beneath. It inhabits the waters of Denmark.

Hyproteon. Scutel two-toothed; body black; ab-
domen green, with a black line down the middle. It in-
habits about ftagnant waters of Europe.

Viriputa. Scutel two-toothed; abdomen green, with
a black back. It inhabits Germany. :
TyRILINEATA. Scutel two-toothed ; abdomen greenifh-

yellow; thorax with three black ftripes; abdomen with
black marks. It inhabits Europe.

Hyporzon. Scutel two-toothed, yellow; thorax black
edged with yellow ; abdomen black, with five yellow {pots.
Inhabits Europe.

Muscaria. Scutel two-toothed, yellow; body black ;
margin of the abdomen {potted with yellow. It inhabits
Italy.

Mrinurior. Scutel two-toothed; body black; feg-

ments of the abdomen edged with white. It inhabits
‘Tranquebar. 2

Mevanoris. Scutel two-toothed; body teftaceous,
with black eyes; fecond and third fegments of the abdomen
with a yellow fpot on each fide behind. It inhabits Eu-
rope.

Nioaioa we Scutel two-toothed; black with yellow
teeth ; abdomen black ; the hinder margins of the fegments
whitifh beneath. This is an European infe&.

4-Lingeata. Scutel four-toothed ; body black ; abdo-
men with four white lines. This is found in Sierra Leoua.

Cravires. Scutel fix-toothed; body black; abdomen
ferruginous. Inhabits Sweden; wings brown; legs ru-
fous. ;

*6-DenTATA. Scutel fix-toothed; thorax bronzed ;
abdomen ferruginous. It is an inhabitant of this country ;
a fpecimen is found in the mufeum of fir Jofeph Banks.
The thorax is fhining- bronze; fcutel with fix black teeth ;
abdomen long, flat above, and pubefcent ; wings whiuth,
with a black marginal fpot; legs yellow, the hind ones
long. .

* CHatyBeA. Scutel fix-toothed ; thorax fteel blue; ab-
domen black. This is an Englith fly ; the wings and poifers
are black ; legs teftaceous, the ends black and clavate.

* Smuitis. Scutel fix-toothed, fhining green-blue; abdo-
men fteel-blue. It inhabits England ; wings ferruginous,
with a brown dot ; legs black; poifers white.

* VatiATA. Scutel fix-toothed; abdomen and thighs
yellow. It is found in England. Wings fubferruginous,
flat, incumbent, with a brown dot inthe middle of the rib;
poifers yellow ; thanks near the tip and tarfi brown.

c. Sueker with a fingle briftle and univalve fheath; an-
tenn feated ona common petiole ; in this fub-feétion there is
but a fingle

Species.
Untvarvis. Black; front yellow; thorax [potted with
} y ; Pp

yellow ; abdomen with three yellow ftreaks. It inhabits
Kiel and Barbary.

d. Sucker with three briftles, without fheath; feelers
placed at the bafe of the fucker.

Species.

* ScotopaceA. Cinereous; abdomen yellowifh, with
three rows of black dots; wings clouded. This is found in
other parts of Europe as well as in this country.

Trincaria. Cinereous ; abdomen yellowifh, with three
rows of black dots; wings immaculate ; thorax of one co-
lour. It is found in the woods of Europe.

VaANeELLA. Cinereous; thorax lineate ; abdomen tefta-
ceous, immaculate ; wings fub-teftaceous. It inhabits Den-
mark, and refembles the latt. reltegny

Arpea. Black; margin of the abdomen {potted with
grey; wings immaculate; fhanks teftaceous. It inhabits
Italy. J

VerMILEO. Cinereous; abdomen with three rows of
black dots ; wings immaculate ; thorax fpotted.

The Mufca vermileo is a middle-fized fly, of a fomewhat
lengthened form, with a diftant refemblance to a Tipula ; it
is of a dull yellow colour, with tranfparent wings ; the
thorax marked above by two black lines, and the abdomen
by triple rows of black fpots. The larva meafures about
three quarters of an inch in length, and is of a pale yellowifh-
grey colour, flender or fharpened in front, and growing gra-
dually broader towards the tail. It is found in the fouthern
parts of Europe, and is not uncommon in fome diftri&s of
France ; it is remarkable for praCtifing a method exa@ly
fimilar to that of the Hemerobius formicaleo, in order to ob-
tain its prey ; excavating a circular pit or cavity in the dry
fand ; concealing itfelf, waiting the arrival of any {mall in-
fe&t which may happen to fall into it, and after abforbing its
juices, throwing out the exhautted remains to a confiderable
diftance from the cavity. ,This larva feems to have been firft
obferved and deferibed by Reaumur, in the Memoirs of the
French Academy for the year 1752. It affumes the ftate of
a chryfalis by cafting its fkin, which of itfelf roils to the
hinder part of the body: the chryfalis is of a dull reddifh
colour, dnd is rounded or clubbed at the upper part, fud-
denly tapering from thence to the extremity, and after lying
nine or ten days, it gives birth to the perfect infea.

* Lineara. Lineate; abdomen black ; wings hyaline,
with a brown {pot andtip. This is an Englifh fy; the an-
tenne are cylindrical, incurved, longer than in others; the
fore-legs are long and black.

Fuscata. Thorax cinereous, with black lines; abdo-
men brown; wings witha black marginal f{pot, in which is a
cinereous dot. This is found in Sweden.

Norwecica. Teftaceous; abdomen with five black
bands ; wings hyaline, with a brown fpot at the tip. In-
habits Norway. Thorax gibbous; abdomen cylindrical ;
legs long and brown ; thighs pale.

Tiputtrormis. Brown ;.wings white, tipt with black.
It inhabits Germany.

Curysopus. Thorax ferruginous ; abdomen black, with
yellow {pots on the fides. It inhabits Germany, and isa
{mall fly.

Bicotor. Teftaceous; back of the thorax and tip of
the abdomen black ; wings with a brown {pot. It inhabits
Italy.

Ansrersa. Abdomen black, the fegments edged with
white ; wings brown hyaline, with black{pots. This fpecies
inhabits Germany.

Birineata. Blackifh; thorax cinereous, with two black
lines ; wings hyaline, with black marginal {pots. It inha-
bits Kiel.

Macrocenas. This fpecies is teflaceous, with lateral

2 black

MUSCA.

black {pots on the abdomen; antenne very long. It is found
in Germany. ;

Succincra. Teftaceous, with black bands on the abdo-
men; wings hyaline, with black {pots.

Tomentosa. Black; abdomen covered with gold down ;
wings white, with a black marginal fpot. It inhabits

enmark.

Lixgoxta. Cinereous ; abdomen teftaceous, with a black
tail, and {pots on the back ; wings hyaline, with a black
marginal fpot. This alfo is an inhabitant of Denmark.

Maura. Deep black, with blackifh wings. It inhabits
Germany, and is of the middle fize.

Nicrita. Black ; fegments of the abdomen edged with
a cinereous down, wings white with a marginal black fpot 3.
the legs are black. This {pecies inhabits Italy.

Diapema. Cinereous; wings white, with a marginal
brown {pot ; legs yellowifh. It is common at Leiplic.

Arrata. Black, immaculate; wings hyaline, with a
black marginal fpot. Inhabits Italy.

Cotomuascuensis. Black, with white incifures of the
abdomen, fhanks, and tarfi. This {pecies is found in many
parts of Ruffia and Siberia, particularly in the {pring and
autumn. It is extremely troublefome, and often fatal to
the cattle which are attacked by it. It infinuates itfelf
into the nobler parts, and deftroys the creatures thus affected
in the courfe of four-or five hours.

Papataci. Antenne, body, and wings hairy. It in-
habits Italy; is very {mall, and very troublefome im the
night during the whole fummer; the eyes are black, and
dotted white ; the abdomen is red.

Acuminata. This is black ; abdomen thin, long, and
fubulate at the end; wings fpotted; thighs yellowifh-
rufous; fhanks brownifh.

e. Sucker with three briftles, and a fingle valved fheath ;
antenne united at the bafe, and pointed at the tip.

Species.
fixea. Black, downy; abdomen bronzed. Inhabits
Germany.
* Presera. Cinereous, hairy; fegments of the abdomen

edged with white. This is found in our own country, and
other parts of Europe. The hind thanks are ferruginous.

Ocuropus. -Hairy, cinereous; fegments of the abdomen
edged with yellow ; legs teftaceous. It inhabits Germany.

Mareinata. Black; abdomen conic, the fegments
edged with white; wings {potted with black. This 1s
found in Italy.

Nositis. Ferruginousand hairy; abdomen conic, fulvous,
with a black tail. This fpecies is found in the woods of
Denmark.

Luceusris. This fpecies is hairy and black; mouth
cinereous ; fhanks teftaceous. It inhabits Kiel. The wings
are whitifh ; and the legs black.

Srricata. Hairy and black, with two white ftreaks on
the abdomen. This refembles the laft, and is found in
Germany.

Fiorescens. Black; feelers and fore-legs teftaceous.
“It inhabits Germany.

Ants. Villous, whitifh-grey, with hyaline wings.
Found in feveral parts of Europe.

PANTHERINA. Black; back of the abdomen with three
white fpots, united to as many at the fides. It inhabits
Sweden, and is naked,

Denicrata. Hairy and black; thorax with a white
line on each fide; wings varied with black.

Mevanoprera. Black; fcutel ferruginous; abdomen

re

beneath, and angles of the fegments, ferruginous. This is
faid not to be known in Europe.

Fusca. Hairy, yellowith ; wings and abdomen brown ;
the fegments with a ferruginous fpot on each fide.

Poryzonras. Abdomen ferruginous, with a longitudinal
black {tripe ; wings hyaline, and banded.

f. Sucker with four briftles, without fheath; feelers
placed at the bafe of the briftle.

+ Antenne feathered.

Species.

Manis. Thorax fubteftaceous; abdomen with two
black belts.
Micans. Thorax black on the back ; abdomen pellucid,

with three black belts. It inhabits Italy.

* Petiucens. Black; firlt fegment of the abdomen
white, pellucid. This is defcribed and figured in Harris’s
Englifh Infe&s.

* Bompytans. Downy and black ; abdomen rufous at
theend. This alfo is defcribed and figured by Harris.

* Mysracea, Downy and black; thorax and tip of the
abdomen yellow. This fpecies inhabits Europe, and has
been given in Harris’s Infeé&s.

Mussrrans. Downy; thorax fulvous; abdomen greenifh.
Inhabits Kiel. :

Lapronum.
domen with three whitifh interrupted belts.
in Lapland. ‘

Inrrata. Head and feutel yellow; firft fegment of
the abdomen pellucid and yellow. It inhabits Italy.

AprariaA. Downy; thorax yellow before; abdomen
tipt with white ; wings ferruginous at the bafe. This is an
inhabitant of Italy, and refembles the M. myttacea.

Esuriens. Body naked; abdomen ferruginous, pel-
lucid. It inhabits the American iflands.

* IntricaTa. Downy, yellowifh; abdomen black; the
tip and joints of the legs are white.

Crassa. Naked, black; hind thighs rufous, and one-
toothed. It is an inhabitant of 'T'ranquebar.

Bompytirormis. Downy, yellowifh; fhanks white at
the bafe. It inhabits Germany.

Vacua. Naked; thorax with yellow lines; abdomen
pellucid, yellow, with black belts. It inhabits the American
iflands, and is a {mall fly.

Ovgsa. This {pecies is likewife naked; wings with two
brown {pots ; body bronze. It inhabits America.

Piumosa. Black; abdomen rufous behind; thorax
hairy, black. This is fufpected to be a mere variety of the
M. bombylans.

Downy, black ; fcutel ferruginous; ab-
This is found

++ Antenne naked.
Species.

Body naked; thorax black, fpotted with
It inhabits

PINGUIS.
white ; abdomen teftaceous, with a white band.
America.

Penputa. Downy; thorax black, with four yellow
lines ; abdomen yellow with tranfverfe black lines, conneéted
by a longitudinal ftripe.

The Mufca pendula is a moderately large, and very beau-
tiful infe&. Its colour is black, with four bright yellow
{tripes down the thorax, and three broad interrupted bars
acrofs the abdomen. Its larva, which is an inhabitant of
ftagnant water, is of aremarkable appearance ; it is furnifhed
with a tail of great length, compofed of a double tube, the
interior of which is very flender, extenfile at the pleafure
of the animal to a vait length, and terminated by te

ma

, MUSCA. f

fmall fpiracle. The length of this tube is, therefore, varied
in proportion to the greater or {maller depth at which the
infe& choofes to continue ; the tip reaching to the furface,
in order to fapply the requifite quantity of air. Sometimes
great numbers of thefe maggots are found coiled or twilted
together by their tails in fuch a manner, that it is not eafy
to feparate any one from the refl. [he chryfalis refembles
that of the M. tenax, the remains of the tail being vifible in
a dried and contracted ftate. The complete infect is fre-
quently feen on flowers during the autumnal feafon.

Natans. Downy; thorax with four lines; firft feg-
ment of the abdomen ferruginous, with an abbreviated
white ftreak. It is found in various parts of Italy.

VersicotornaTa. Downy; thorax with two faint
whitifh dorfal lines; abdomen rufous, the back is black,
but varied with cinereous. It inhabits Germany, and is
very like the M. pendula.

*Friorea. Downy; thorax with black bands; abdo-
men yellow, with a black dorfal line; the fegments are
edged with black.

Suscotzoprrata. This fpecies is downy; thorax
black ; wings thicker, cinereous, with two brown flexuous
fillets. This is found in Sweden, and is larger than the
M. hemiptera, the next in the order of defcription.

* Hemiptera. Downy; thorax with a ferruginous
border; wings thicker, cinereous, varied with yellowith-
brown.

Crassirpennis. Downy; thorax yellowifh;
thicker, the difk white with a diltant black dot.
found at Paris, and refembles the latt.

wings

This is

Arrinis. Thorax fulvous at the fides; abdomen black.
It inhabits France.
Nemorum. Downy; abdomen black, with three white

belts, the firft fegment is yellow at the fides; the legs are
black, with white joints.

Cryprarum. Downy; abdomen brown, with three
white belts; the firft fegments are yellow at the fides ;
fcutel and legs teftaceous. It inhabits Germany.

Acrorum. This is downy and black ; fcutel and fides
of the abdomen are ferruginous.

Arvorum. Downy; thorax yellowifh, with four black
lines; abdomen black, with three yellow dots. ‘This in-
habits China, and is faid to refemble the M. nemorum.

Hortorum. Downy; thorax brown, with two pale
bands; abdomen with three white bands; hind legs thick
and ferruginous. In inhabits the American iflands.

ArsustorumM. Downy; abdomen black, the firft feg-
ment, and fides of the fecond, ferruginous.

Pratorum. Downy, black; thorax with two yellow
bands, and two dots; abdomen with three yellow {pots on
each fide. It inhabits the American iflands.

Sattuum. Naked, black ; thorax {potted with yellow;
fegments of the abdomen edged with yellow ; hind thighs
toothed. It inhabits Italy.

*¥Froretorum. Downy, with two yellow lines on the
thorax ; abdomen ferruginous, with an interrupted black
dorfal line. Inhabits England; a little lefs than the M. pen-
dula. The antenne of this {pecies are ferruginous, witha
brown hair ; thorax black with ferruginous down, and two
yellowifh lines on the back ; abdomen ovate, with a bleck
crefcent at the bafe and tip, connected by a black line; the
fecond fegment black with yellow fides, and three ferrugi-
nous dots on the back.

Ericeronum. Slightly downy; thorax bronzed with
yellow fides; abdomen fulvous with three black {treaks.
[is is found in Africa; and a {pecimen is in the mufeum
of fir Jofeph Banks.

Murorum. Downy; abdomen black; the fegments
edged with white; hind thighs clavate: Found in Bar-
bary.

* Tenax. Downy; thorax grey; abdomen brown;
hind fhanks compreffed and gibbous.

The Mufca tenax is about the fize of a drone, and of a
brown colour, with tranfparent wings, and the firft feg-
ment of the abdomen is yellowifh on each fide. It proceeds
from a larva of fingular appearance, being a long-tailed
brown maggot, of rather flow motion, meafuring about
three quarters of an inch in length, without the tail, which
is extenfile, and confifts of a double tube, the exterior an-
nulated into numerous fegments, and the interior terminated
by a circle of hairs, furrounding a fpiraculum or air-hole.
This maggot is feen in muddy ftagnant waters, drains, and
other places of the like defcription, and notwithftanding its
unpleafing appearance, exhibits, when accurately examined,
many particulars well worthy of admiration. The feet,
which are feven in number on each fide, are wonderfully cal-
culated for enabling the animal to afcend wails or cther per-
pendicular places, to feek fome proper fituation in which it
may. undergo its change into a chryfalis, being very broad,
and befet on their under furface with numerous fmall
hooked claws; thus giving it the power of clinging with
fecurity during its afcent.

Of this larva a particularity is ftated, on the authority
of Linneus, which, if true, may indeed well be numbered
among the miracula infectorum; viz. that being a frequent
inhabitant of the turbid pulp ufed in the operation of paper
making, it is often expofed to the a¢tion of the wooden
mallets ufed in the procefs, as well as fqueezed in the
ftrongeft preffes ; and yet furvives uninjured by thefe feem-
ingly deftructive operations. :

This larva commonly changes to a chryfalis about the end
of Augult; the fkin contrating, and drying round the
body, and the tail continuing in a fhrivelled tate. After
thus remaining about the {pace of a fortnight, it gives
birth to the complete infe&, which has fo much the general
appearance of a drone, that it is very frequently miftaken
for fuch, It is very common duripg the month of Sep-
tember.

Serosa. Downy, black; hair of the antennz long and
clavate. It inhabits Barbary.

Srcetum. Downy, pale cineteous; abdomen black,
with two yellowifh fpois at the bafe. This is likewife
found in Barbary, and is of the fame fize as the M, tenax.

Tritineata. Downy; thorax pale, with black lines ;
abdomen black, with an interrupted ferruginous band at the
bafe. This is a New Holland fly, but a fpecimen is pre-
ferved in fir J. Banks’s mufeum.

4-Lingata. ‘Thorax yellowith, with four bronzed lines;
abdomen ferruginous, the tip black, with a white ftreak.
It inhabits ‘T'ranquebar.

s-Straiata. Thorax bronzed, with five white lines; ab-
domen ferruginous; the tip black, with a white ftreak.
This is an inhabitant of the Eait Indies.

5-Lineata. Downy; thorax with five alternate white
and black lines ; abdomen black, the fegments white at the
bafe. ‘This fpecies is found in Africa: fir Jofeph Banks
has a {pecimen of it,

Fusirormis. Downy, thorax yellow, with a black
band; abdomen black, with a yellow bafe and fulvous tip.
This is found in France, and is the fize of M, myftacea,
already defcribed.

Orstracea. Black, witha whitith fcutel; abdomen yel-
lowifh at the tip,

8 AsILI-

MUSCA.

Asturrortsis. Thorax downy, yellowifh; abdomen black ;
the two firft fegments yellowith. It inhabits aad te

*Lucorum. Downy; thorax grey ; abdomen black ;
the firft ferment entirely white. It is fica in this country
and in other European ftates, chiefly in the fields and
gardens.

Fatrax. Downy, brown with a yellow front; tip of
the abdomen covered with a fulvous down; feale of the
poifers white. Lt inhabits Europe, on flowers.

Syrvarum. Downy, black; laft fegment of the abdo-
men covered with yellow down. It inhabits Europe on
flowers.

Nicrana. This f{pecies is charafterifed as naked, black,
and having blue wings. It is a large fly, and is found in
Jamaica.

Craviers. Downy, cinereous; thorax with a black
band ; tip of the abdomen fulvous; hind thighs curved.

Equsstris. Downy, cinereous; thorax with a black
band ; abdomen fulvous; hind thighs and fhanks ‘toothed
at the tip. Tt inhabits Italy, and refembles the laft.

Fravicays. Downy, ye'lowih, immaculate, with black
legs. © Lt intrabits Italy, and is lefs than the M. equeftris.

Cryerea. Downy, cirereous, with a black tail; thorax
with a black band. It inhabits Italy.

Bicinera. Black, with two yellow belts on the abdomen;
fides of the thorax dotted with yellow. An European fly.

* Arcuara. Black, with four curved belts on the abdo-
men; thorax {potted with yellow at the fides. This {pecies
is found in our own country.

Crxcurata. Downy; abdomen black, the firft fegment
white at the bafe, the reft with white dots. It inhabits New
Zealand. To be feen in the mufeum of fir Jofeph Banks.

Zonevis. Downy, black, with cinereous tail, front and
fore-part of the thorax ; firft fegment of the abdomen whitifh.
This {pecies is found in China.

Errans. Downy; thorax cinereous with a black band
and f{eutel ; abdomen black, the fides yellow at the bafe.
It inhabits China.

Muraszitis. Downy; thorax immaculate; abdomen
black with a changeable grey glofs. It inhabits the meadows
of different parts of Europe.

* Devia. Downy, witha blueifh thorax ; abdomen dull
violet.

® Seenis. Naked; thorax bronzed; abdomen ferru-
ginous, tipt with black; fhanks white. This as weil as the
laft inhabits our own country, and other parts of Europe,
on flowers.

Vorvota. Downy, black; abdomen cylindrical, blue ;
‘antenne and legs rufous; hind thighs thick. This is found
in France, and 1s of the fame fize as the M. fegnis.

Picra. This is nearly naked and black; abdomen ferru-

inous with a black tail; hind thighs clavate. It inhabits

ermany.

Lunata. Downy; thorax cinereous; abdomen with
white crefcents ; the bafe rufous, and tip black ; hind
thighs thick. Found in Barbary.

* Femorata. Downy ; thorax flightly bronzed ; hind
thighs clavate. It inhabits the flowers of this and other
countries of Europe.

Sprvipes. Downy; abdomen black with white lines,
the firft fegments rufous; hind thighs toothed. It inhabits
France.

AnnvuLata. Downy; abdomen black, the fegments
edged with white ; hind thighs clavate and toothed. Found
in France.

Dentires. Naked; thorax black, with four white

lines ; abdomen clavate; hind thighs thickened and toothed,
This [pecies inhabits Cayenne.

* Conopsea. Naked, black, with lateral lines on the
thorax, abdomen with three yellow bands. This is found
in England and other parts of Europe. The wings are
white, with a black thicker margin. .

* IcuneuMoNEA. Cylindrical, black ; front, hind part
of the thorax, and legs ferruginous. It is found on flowers
in this country and other parts.

Bicotor. Black; abdomen rufous with a black bafe and
tip. It is found in Barbary, and very much refembles the
laft {pecies. ts

* Spuecia. Black with rufous legs. It inhabits Eng-
land: a {pecimen is preferved in the mufeum of fir J. Banks.

Cravata. Naked and black; abdomen clavate, with
ae yellow fpots on each fide. Found in the Weft India
iflands.

Cytinprica. Naked, black; wings blackifh, the thin-
ner margin {potted with white. Inhabits, like the laft, the
Welt Indies.

VesicuLosa. Naked, black ; abdomen clavate, the tip
teftaceous and yeficular. It inhabits Italy.

Etoneata. Naked; thorax bronzed ; abdomen clavate,
black, with two yellow bands. It inhabits Denmark, on
flowers.

Popacrica. Naked ; thorax bronzed; abdomen with
two yellow bands; hind thighs clavate. It is found in Den-
mark.

Crapronirormis. Downy; thorax variegated ; abdo-
men yellow, the two firit fegments tipt with brown. This
is an inhabitant of Madeira, and a {pecimen of the {pecies is
in the mufeum of fir J. Banks.

DioprHaima. Naked; thorax {potted ; abdomen with
fix yellow belts; hind thighs toothed. It inhabits Europe.

Apvirormis. Downy ; thorax black with white dots and
lines ; abdomen yellow with black belts. It inhabits Ger-
many.

* Vespirormis. Naked; thorax black, {potted with
yellow ; abdomen with yellow belts uniting at the fides.
This is found in our own country, and other parts of Eu-
rope. And independently of the fpecific charafter juft
given, its thorax is marked with a lateral interrupted yellow
hne ; fcutel black, edged with yellow bands on the abdomen
uniting in pairs.

* Festiva. Naked; thorax black with yellow lateral
lines ; abdomen with four interrupted yellow belts. Is found
chiefly in gardens, here and elfewhere in Europe.

Larra. Naked; thorax black, with yellow lateral lines ;
abdomen with four yellow belts, the firlt interrupted. It in-
habits Kiel.

Roricornis. Downy; thorax brown with grey lines ;
abdomen bronzed, wings with two brown fpots. It is found
on flowers in different parts of Denmark.

Seminura. Black; abdomen ovate, with a broad fer-
ruginous tip. Found in Germany.

Catcarata. Downy; thorax brown; abdomen black
with whitifh lateral {pots ; hind thighs toothed.

Fravicornis. Downy; obfcure bronze; antenne and
fhanks yellowifh. It inhabits Germany.

JExza. Downy; black-bronze ; joints of the legs
white. It inhabits Germany.

Funesta. Thorax downy ; obfcure bronze; abdomen
black with three pale cinereous bands. It inhabits Italy.

Mevancuo.ica. Thorax bronzed with white lines; ab-
domen black, with cinereous ftreaks. It inhabits Italy.

SEPUL-

MUSCA.

SreputcuraLis. Downy, blackifh; abdomen fhining-
‘black. Found in Sweden.
Tristis. This fpecies is nearly naked; thorax black,

with five paler lines; the abdomen is bronzed. Found in
Germany. :

Lucusris. Black, immaculate ; wings white with a
brown fpot. It inhabits Denmark.

CameTerionum. Black-bronze ; abdomen depreffed,
fhining-black ; wings blackifh.

Meratiwa. Shining black-bronze; antenne black.
Found in Germany.

Sussuttans. Gloffy-black; wings white and immacu-
late. This is found in Germany.

Graucra. Slightly downy, black; abdomen with a
pellucid bafe, and two whitifh interrupted belts. Fourd in
Europe.

Nocrituca.
two pellucid fpots on the firft fegment.
Europe, chiefly in gardens.

* Grozosa. Slightly downy; thorax ferruginous on
the fore-part ; abdomen fub-globular, pale, tipt with black.
It inhabits this and other European countries. The mouth
is white; front ferruginous, with a black line; thorax fer-
ruginous before, and black behind ; legs black; wings
white.

* Rises. Nearly naked; thorax immaculate; abdo-
men with four yellow belts, the firft interrupted. Found
ufually among the Aphides ribis.

BrrasciaTa. Downy; thorax bronzed;

- black, with two yellow belts, the firft interrupted.

Pyrastri. Nearly naked, black; thorax immaculate ;
abdomen with three pair of white recurved lunules. Found
among the Aphides pyri.

Tuymastri. Downy; thorax flightly bronzed; abdo-
men black, with three whitifh bands; the fecond 1s inter-

Slightly downy, black; abdomen with
This inhabits

abdomen

rupted. It inhabits Germany, on flowers.

Transruca. Downy; abdomen black, with three pair
of whitifh lunules

Satvim. Naked, yellow; back of the thorax and

edges of the abdominal fegments black. Found in Sierra
Leona.

Corott®. Downy; thorax bronzed, with a yellow
lateral line and fcutel ; abdomen depreffed, black, with fix
yellow fpots and tip.

Umpettatarum. Nearly naked; thorax blueifh; ab-
domen black, with three white {pots at the fides, and two
ftreaks. It is found in Germany.

Aspominatis: Black; abdomen rufous, with a black
tail; antennz long, with a fnowy hair. It inhabits
France.

Rosarum. Naked; thorax black-bronze ;
black, with two yellow {pots.
in Germany.

*Meriina. Naked; thorax flightly bronzed, imma-
culate; abdomen with eight yellowifh {pots. It inhabits
Europe, and is found among various {pecies of Aphis.

* Menturastri. Naked, black; thorax fpotted; ab-
domen with four yellow belts; fcutel yellow. This, like
the laft, is found among various kinds of Aphis.

Scavanis. Nearly naked, fhining-bronze ; abdomen with
fix fulvous {pots.

* Scripta. Naked; thorax with yellow lines; abdomen
linear, with yellow bands. It inhabits Europe.

Ocymi. Shining black-bronze ; abdomen rufous, with
a bronzed bafe andtip. It inhabits Germany.

Disran. Naked; thorax black, with a yellow lateral

abdomen
It is found among flowers

line ; abdomen variegated with yellow and black. It in-
habits South America on the Parthenium hyfterophe-
rum.

NecTares. Downy; abdomen yellow, the margins of
the fegments black, with a yellow band. ;

* Atsrmmanus. Downy; thorax bronzed; abdomen
elongated, black, with white dots. It inhabits England.
A fpecimen is in the mufeum of fir J. Banks.

Diniprata. Naked, deep black; wings black at the
bafe. Inhabits.the South American iflands. This is a
fmall fly. :

Piriens. Naked; abdomen {potted with white at the
fides; hind thighs clavate and toothed.

Giszpa. Variegated with black and yellow; head mi-
nute and orbicular. Found in Barbary.

_Gisposa. Downy, brown; abdomen fubglobular,
black, with four white belts; fcales of the poifers inflated.
This inhabits Europe.

Orzicuta. Naked, black; abdomen tipt with white.

Erratica. Nearly naked; thorax immaculate; feutel
ferruginous ; abdomen with three whitifh belts.

Grossires. Glabrous, black, with pale eyes: legs
piceous, the hind ones large. It inhabits Europe, and is
very {mall. ;

Sattatrix. Naked, yellow; abdomen brown above ;
thorax with three brown lines. This is an European infeé,
and it fkips like a Cicada.

Ocuroteuca. The front of this fly is white; crown
and thorax yellow ; the abdomen of an ochre-yellow; legs
black; hind thighs thick ; wings white, with a brown band.
It inhabits Europe.

Futva. Thorax fulyous; abdomen black, with fulvous
down, beneath ferruginous on each fide; thighs black ;
fhanks yellow, the hind ones black towards the tip; wings
white, with a black band. ;

Rusiernosa. Black; fcutel yellow; wings with white
veins ; the firft two fegments of the abdomen have a ferru-
ginous band at the bafe; thighs ferruginous, the hind one
thick and black towards the tip; fhanks brown, the hind
ones curved.

LerucocepHaLa. Head white, according to its name ;
eyes coppery, dotted with brown; thorax cinereous, with
four black bands; abdomen blue-black. r

Vurtea. Oblong and black, with rufous legs; hind
thighs long and thick, with black curved thanks.

Metanocurysa. Black; fecond and third fegments of
the abdomen fulvous. is

Enza. Thorax flightly bronzed; abdomen black with
hile cinereous bands; legs yellow, thighs black at the
bafe. ‘

Inrerrupra. Thorax flightly bronzed ; abdomen black
with a yellow band on the firlt two fegments; the firlt of
which is interrupted ; the legs are yellow; the ends of the
hind ones brown.

Navia. Black; thorax fpotted; abdomen with four
interrupted bands ; wings with a brown marginal {pot.

Gurysozonias. Thorax flightly bronzed with two ob-
folete bands; fcutel pale; abdomen with four interrupted
bands and tip.

Lurrora. Black; fecond: fegment of the abdomen
yellow on each fide.

Lineotara. Black-bronze ; crown with imprefled tranf-
verfe lines on each fide ; abdomen deprefled.

PrastnA. Thorax black; abdomen greenifh-black, a
little downy and depreffed.

Pusww1s. This is a minute fpecies, black with a

downy

MUS

downy front; abdomen depreffed, wings white; legs rufty-
brown.

Arropos. Slightly downy ; thorax whitifh, with three
black {pots; abdomen black, with interrupted yellow bands
and margins of the fegments. This is found chiefly in
Auttria.

Aternata. Thorax green-black; f{cutel yellow; ab-
domen black, with yellow bands alternately larger, the firft
interrupted. This alfo is an Auftrian fly, as are the five
that follow it.

Monina. Grey; thorax with three black lines; wings
fpotted with brown.

Ecepnantorus. Black; abdomen ferruginous at the
bafe; hind thighs thick.

OxruscaTa. Black; bafe of the thanks and antenne
fulvous-brown.

Dizontus. Naked. black; abdomen with two yellow

belts; the fore-legs yellow.

Larvata. Silvery teftaceous; head inflated, fhowy ;
legs annulate with black ; wings brown hyaline f{pots.

Monocutus. Eyes large, very approximate; thorax
brown; abdomen pale-gold. This is found in South
America.

Depressa. Abdomen roundith, and depreffed with three
yellow bands; the firft and third interrupted.

AmeERIcANA. Thorax pale, with a black band; ab-
domen reddifh on the back, and tipt with black; the body
ef this fly is very large, and covered with down.

B. The Flies in this Divifion are without Feelers.

a. Sucker witha fingle recurved briftle without a fheath ;
the antennz are inferted at the bafe of the probofcis.

Species.

* Uricrxosa. Black; abdomen fnowy, tipt with

black.
probofcis is cylindrical, grooved on the back for the recep-
tion of the briftle; there is a white dot in the front ; the
poifers are white, and legs pale.

* Mareinata. Black; margin of the abdomen and
fhanks whitifh. This fpecies is common in France and
England; and is defcribed as having, independently of its
{pecific character, a black head. The antennz united at
the bafe; thorax black-bronze; abdomen depreffed, with
a few faint whitifh {pots on the back ; the thighs are black,
and the wings are white.

Vittosa. Black, with cinereous hairs; fegments of
the abdomen with a lateral whitifh margin. Found in
Hungary.

Punetata. Black, with three lines of yellowifh dots
onthe abdomen. ‘This fpecies inhabits Barbary.

Minor. Black ; abdomen fnowy, with a black fpot at
the bafe. It inhabits Tranquebar.

Tarpa. Smooth and black; thorax flightly bronzed ;
legs fubteftaceous.

Formosa. Thorax green; abdomen blue and dilated.

4. Sucker with a fingle briftle, without a fheath ; an-
tenne approximate, with an ovate compreffed club.

Finata. Black; fecond fegment of the abdomen pel-
lucid at the fides ; hind thighs ferrate. It is found in South
America.

Leucopus. Abdomen black, the edges of the fegments
pellucid; ends of the legs white. It inhabits South Ame-
rica, and is about the fize of a wafp.

Bitiseata. Black, with two white lines on the thorax;
fhanks ferruginous at the bafe. It inhabits New Zealand.
A {pecimen is in the mufeum of fir J. Banks.

Vor. XXIV.

It is found in Germany and in this country. The

MUS5

Necrarivora. Black ; antenne cylindrical, perfoliate ;
wings white. This, wherever it is met with, is found on
the flowers of fruit-trees; where it remains the whole day
extracting their nectar. Jt has a {mall and oblong body.

Musca, Crabroniformis and Rapax, names fometimes ufed
for the hornet-fly .See Asixus.

Musca Ve/piformis, the wafp-fly.

Musca, in Affronomy. See Apis.

Musca, in Antiquity,.a defignation given to parafites, buf-
foons, &c. who intruded themfelves into the company of
thofe that defpifed them, or found means to be admitted to
entertainments where they were not welcome.

MUSCADINE, a rich wine, of the growth of Provence,
Languedoc, Cividad, &e.

The word, as well as the liquor, is French: fome fetch
its original frorn mu/e, the wine being fuppofed to have a
little of the {mell of that perfume: others from muj/ca, a fly,
becaufe the flies are extremely fond of its grapes; as the
Latins had their vinum apinum, fo called ab apibus, from the
bees which fed on the grapes it was made of.

The way of making mufcadine at Frontignac is as fol-
lows: they let the mufcadine grapes grow half dry on the
vine, and, as foon as they are gathered, they tread and
prefs them immediately, and tun up the liquor, without let-
ting it ftand and work in the vat; the lees occafioning its
goodnefs.. Phil. Tranf. abr. vol. ii. p. 657.

MUSCZ: is ufed for officers of the popifh inquifition,
who feign themfelves of the fe of the prifoners, in order
to draw a confeffion of their opinion from them, and thereby
betray them; there being perfons placed to overhear their
converfation. See Musca.

Muscx Volitantes, in Optics, dark irregular veins and
fpots, feeming to fly before the eyes of many people, efpe-
cially on looking at bright objeéts, fuch as white paper, the
fky-light, the candle, &c, Thefe have only the appearance
of cobwebs, fometimes that of fmoke, duit, &c. The re-
femblance of many of thefe {pots to flies has given them the
name of mujfce volitantes, q. d. fltes flying about.

It is not eafy to account for this phenomenon. Some will
have its caufe to lie in the aqueous humour; others in the
retina. Monf. de la Hire’s account of them is this: they
are of two forts; fomepermanent, which, in fixing the eye
upon a point of an obje¢t, appear always fixed in the fame
fituation to that point; others feem to fly about, and to
change their fituation, though the eye be fixed. The fhapes of
both forts are changeable : thofe of the firit fort are commonly
lke a dark fpot upon a white ground ; thofe of the fecond fort
appear like the knots of a deal board, fome parts of them
being very clear, and furrounded with dark threads; they
are alfo attended with long fillets of irregular fhapes, which
are bright in the middle, and terminated on each fide by
parallel black threads. On fixing the eye upon an object,
they appear to defcend gradually, efpecially after ae
the head fuddenly. ;

The fpots that appear fixed in refpeét to the axis of
the eye, muft, for that reafon, be caufed by fome diforder
in a correfponding part of the retina, or in fome part of the
vitreous humour lying pretty clofe to the retina. For an
opacity of the coats or humours in any part remoter from
the retina, by intercepting fome part of the rays of eve
pencil, could only caufe an uniform obfeurity or feantocle
of light in every place of the retina, and not a total defe&
of it in any particular place. Hence M. de la Hire attri-
butes the caufe of thefe permanent {pots to {mall drops of
extravafated blood upon the retina.

But he finds it more difficult to account for the moving
fpots. When the rays of the fun are tranfmitted through

3A a piece

See AsiLus.

MUS

a piece of bad glafs, and fall upon white paper, the fha-
dows of the little fands, veins, and irregularities in it, appear
not unlike thofe fpots. He therefore imagines the aqueous
humour is fometimes troubled with fome little mothery,
ropy fubftance ; fome parts of which, by the figures of their
little furfaces, or by refra€tive powers, different from the
humour itfelf, may caft their diftin@ images upon the re-
tina. He fuppofed them in the aqueous humour rather
than the vitreous ; becaufe of its greater fluidity for a free-
dom of defcent, and becaufe they will then appear to de-
{cend, ‘as being fituated before the pupil, or at leaft before
the place of the interfection of the pencil. But if this he-
terogeneous mother be in the vitreous humour, it mult be
lighter than this humour, fo that after a fudden fhake of
the head, it may firft defcend a little, and then afcend
gradually, to caufe the gradual apparent defcent above men-
tioned.

Thefe fpots are obferved to change their figures, fome-
times in two or three hours, at other times not in two or
three days; and to appear more numerous at one time
than another. Dr. Smith’s Optics, in the Remarks, art.
27, feq.

We have an inftance in the Philofophical Tranfactions,
N° 384, of thofe fixed {pots above mentioned. A woman,
who, in looking with the left eye only, at three fhort words
in print, could fee the extremes, but not the middlemott ;
and, in looking with the right eye only, at the middle be-
tween four fhort words, could fee but three of them; one
of-the two middlemoft being covered with a dark round
{pot ; but in looking with both eyes fhe conld fee them
all.

Pitcairn denies the caufe of the mufcz volitantes to lie in
the aqueous humour, and fays it is owing to, anda fign of,
an internal inflammation of the veffels of the retina. Heitter
thinks them owing to fome obftruétion of thofe veflels ; and
both thefe authors, and many others, think them forerun-
ners of a gutta ferena, or a cataraét ; and propofe a cure by
mercurials and decoétions of guaiacum. See Pitcairn’s Elem.
Medic. and Heifter’s Compend. Medic. Praétic. Plempius
has given a defcription of the mufcz volitantes, in his Oph-
thalmographia.

Dr. Porterfield, in the Medical Eflays of Edinburgh, ob-
ferves that thefe {pots may proceed from fome little extrava-
fations, various {wellings, or other defeéts in the retina,
which, by intercepting the rays, will occafion a defe& in the
piGture ; and by confequence a fimilar and correfponding
defeét or {pot in the objeét. He obferves alfo, that thefe
{pots commonly vanifh, or at leaft become lefs fenfible,
when the object is bronght nearer the eye, and within the
limits of diftin& vifion. For the rays which are now ex-
atly united upon the retina, by being more crowded, have
their force augmented ; by which means a fenfible impreffion
is made upon the retina through thefe extravafations. Hence
thefe {pots are moft fenfible to thofe who have a {mall pu-
pil, and afpecially to thofe who are fhort or long-fighted.
Hence alfo, in the prefbytical eye, the {pots which were for-
merly very fenfible, become faint when the objeé is viewed
through a convex glafs; for by means of this glafs more
rays enter the eye, which being united exaétly at its bottom,
mult {trike the retina ftrongly enough to make a fenfible im-
preffion through thefe extravafations, which will render the
{pots obfcure,

The learned do&or farther obferves, that what has been
faid with refpect to thefe fpots, when oceafioned by ex-
travafations, or defects in the retina, will alfo hold when
they are occafioned by a cailofity, or any degree of paralyfis

* humour.

MUS

or infenfibility in fome parts of the retina, by which the im-
pulfe received from the rays is made lefs fenfible. :

But, befides thefe defe&ts in the retina, there is another
caufe which may give occafion to thefe fpots, both in the
myopia and vifus fenilis ; and that is, certain {mall opaque
marks in the cornea itfelf, or any where within the eye,
which, by intercepting fome of the rays, muft occafion a de-
fect in the picture, from which defeét a kind of dark {pot will
be feenin the objeét. Thus, in the eye of a myops, if there
be any opacity in the cornea, or within the eye which inter-
cepts the rays Bbe, Ced, and VLa, (Plate XV. Optics,
fiz. 18.) there will be a defe& in the picture at e, d, and a;
from whence alfo the external appearance will be deficient
at the correfponding points E, D, and A ; where, by con-
fequence, dark {pots will be feen. Forit isto be obferved,
that there is not one point in the picture which is formed by
a plurality of rays which meet at the point, but every ray
goes to a different point of the picture, both in myopical
and prefbytical eyes ; and therefore, when any of the rays
are intercepted, that part of the picture to which fuch rays
belong will not be illuminated, which muft occafion a cor-
re{ponding defect in the appearance of the obje&. But in
the perfect fight, where the rays which come from the fe-
veral points of the object, are fo refracted as to meet again
at fo many corref{ponding points in the retina, every point
of the picture is formed by a cone of rays, whofe bafe is
the pupil ; and therefore, though fome of thofe rays be in-
tercepted, yet no part of the picture will be darkened, and
confequently no defe& will be feen in the objet from any
fuch opacity in the cornea, or humours of the eye ; unlefs
this opacity be in the back part of the vitreous humour,
where the pencil is narrow, and intercepts the whole pencil.
This may be proved from the camera obfcura, by {ticking
fome {mall patches on the glafs. Thefe will not be per-
ceived if the paper is placed at the due focal. diftance ;
but if the diitance be greater or {maller, the [pots will
appear.

The doétor alfo obferves, that thefe fpots are not all of
the fame kind. He thinks that thofe which change not their
place with re{pe&t to the axis of vifion, proceed from fome de-
fect either in the retina or cornea, or in the vitreous and cryf-
tallme humours. As for thofe whichare in con{tant motion,
he {uppofes them to arife from fome corpuifcles Hoating in the
aqueous humour.

Befides thefe dark {pots, there is another kind often met
with, more bright and luminous than the ebje@ itfelf be-
fore which they appear. Thefe {pots appear beft by looking
at diftant bright objects, and are always of the fame colour
with the object. In the middle their colour is clear and
ftrong, furrounded by a dark fhady border. They are com-
monly accompanied wich certain irregular veins, which pro-
ceed from each {pot, and which, as well as the {pots them-
felves, change their order and difpofition. Thefe veins are
alfo of the fame colour with the objeét, and being bright
and luminous in the middle, are likewife terminated by a
dark and obf{cure edge. Thefe fpots change their pofition
with refpeét to the axis of vilion, according as the eye is dif-
ferently moved, being fometimes in the axis of vilion itfelf,
and at other times to the right or left of this fame axis ; but
when the eye is kept fixed in the fame direction, they, as well
as the dark kind of {pots firft mentioned, commouly defcend
gradually.

Asto the caufe of thefe brighter {pots and veins, it feems
that, firft, they mult proceed from fome corpufcles within
the eye, which are at liberty to change their place, and
which therefore mult be fuppofed to float in the aqueous
Secondly, feeing thefe {pots always defcend when

the

MUS

the eye is kept fixed, the corpufcles from which they arife
mutt afcend ; and are confequently lighter than the aqueous
humour in which they fwim. Thirdly, thefe {pots being
more bright and luminous than the object, they cannot be
oceafioned by any opaque corpulcles, which, by intercepting
the rays, would caft a fhade upon the retina. What there-
. fore bids faire(t for producing thefe brighter {pots and veins,
is fome {mall, oily, diaphanous particles and filaments, which
{wim in the aqueous humour before the cry{talline; for fuch,
by their lightnefs, will afcend, when left to themfelves ; and,
by their greater refraftive power, produce thefe luminous
{pots terminated by dark lines. That oily and fulphurous
fubftances, though lefs denfe than water, have a ftronger

refraGtive power, is evident from the obfervations of fir
~ Tfaac Newton. From which it follows, that the rays of
light, which pafs through thefe oily particles, will meet fooner
behind the cryttalline than the other rays; whence in a pref-
byticaleye, the rays of light which come from the feveral
puints of the object willnot converge to fo many other points
in the retina, but behind it, by which the piture in the re-
“tina will be rendered more dark and obfcure ; but the rays
which pafs through thefe oily grains; by having their re-
fraétion increafed, will meet nearly at the retina, where
they will form {mall luminous {pots, furrounded with dark
borders.

But we mutt here obferve, that the fame appearances
happen to myopes; and this feems difficult to account for
from this theory of the learned doétor.

Many medical authors have looked on the mufez volitantes
as forecunners of a cataract, or gutta ferena. And we fup-

ofe it cannot be denied, that many who have fallen into
thofe terrible diforders have had thofe appearances before
their eyes; and hence they might have been taken for prog-
noftics. But as it is no lefs certain, that many thoufands
have the fame appearances, and yet preferve their fight very
well to the lait, there feems to be no great reafon to be
alarmed about them ; and far lefs fhould people be running
to quacks, and injuring their ftomachs and conftitutions by
ill-judged phyfic on fuch occafions. St. Yves denies thefe
appearances to be at all dangerous, and he thinks them owing
to the feparation of fome parts of the retina from the cho-
roid. However, as the diforder is troublefome and alarming
to the patient, he advifes purgatives from time to time, and
millepedes. We can fay, from experience, that neither
mercurials, nor fea-water, nor other purgatives, nor mil-
lepedes, nor again Tunbridge or other chalybeate waters,
have had any effe& towards removing or diminifhing thefe
diforders. A greater dofe of wine than ufual has been
known to increafe it for a little time; and Plempius has
made the like obfervation. We fhall only add, that feveral
of thefe flying appearances refemble little globules joined by

Seeidlés Abbie ye ; and thefe

globules appear in different numbers, and at different dif-
tances.

All authors agree, that thefe appearances change their
figure, which is true, in fome meafure; but from our own
obfervation we can fay, that though they feem, on a fudden
looking to the fky, or other bright objeét, to vary in their
figures; yet when they begin to defcend, they return in
one conftant figure before we lofe fight of them, On the
whole, it feems this phezomenon is not yet fully accounted
for. ‘The vafcular form of mott of thefe appearances, and their
refemblances to {mall veins or arteries, make it difficult to
conceive them floating in the humours of the eye; and, on
the other hand, their feeming contortions, and change of

MUS

figure, on fuddenly looking up, or fhaking the head, make
it no lefs difficult to conceive them fixed and obftructed ca-
pillaries, as many authors fuppofe. :

MUSCARDIN, in Zoology. See Vespertitio Piflus.

MUSCARDINUS. See Myoxus.

MUSCARI, in Botany. See Hyacintuus.

MUSCARY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Guzerat; 16 miles S.S.W. of Junagur.

MUSCAT. See Mascar.

MUSCHLAU, in Geography, a town of Moravia, in
the circle of Brunn; 20 miles S. of Brunn.

MUSCHUOF, a town of Arabia, in the province of
Yemen; 8 miles N.W. of Damar.

MUSCTI, in Botany, Moffes, a moft diftin& and natural
order of plants, of the Linnzan clafs Cryptogamia. The
word occurs in the belt Latin writers, but its origin is un-
known. Ambrofinus deduces it, in his Phytologia 113,
from pozxos, a young calf or lamb, as well as the young Ricard
or tendril of a plant, which is not an improbable etymology,
and is adopted by Ray. © The older botanifts have found itill
more difficulty in defining the nature of a Mofs, than in the
derivation of its name. Ray fays, “ Moffes are beft diftin-
guifhed by their minutenefs; their lefs fucculent, or even
arid, fubftance; their power of reviving quickly, by im-
merfion in water, after they have beea dried; their dry or
abje& fituations, expofed either to extreme cold or to
fcorching heat, upon trees, timber, or ftones, where no

_other plants could exift or endure; finally, their mode of

producing fruit, which is unlike that of other vegetables.”’
Dillenius, who takes the idea of a Mofs in its wideft fenfe,
and who has illuftrated the whole order, as he underftood it,
in a moft careful and learned manner, has f{carcely improved
upon the definition of Ray. He {peaks of Mu/éi as <*an ©
inferior tribe of plants, the moft imperfe&t kinds of which
confift, either of fimple and uniform parts, deftitute of
flower and feed; or of parts differing among themfelves, ac-
companied with fomething in the place of flowers and fruits,
which ie analogous to thofe organs. The more perfeét kinds
zre compofed of parts not fo much differing in figure, but
are befides furnifhed with organs containing a pulpy matter,
that becomes dry in ripening, and when arrived at maturity
flies off, in the form of an extremely fubtil powder, ferving
for the propagation of the plant.” Of thefe “ more per-
fect’ kinds, or Mufcit properly fo called, we are now to
treat. It is therefore needlefs to detail more of the defini-
tions of Dillenius, which apply to the valt tribe of Lr-
cHENES (fee that article); as well as to Byfus, Conferva,
Tremella, &c. all now excluded from Mu/éi ; nor fhall we,
except incidentally, fpeak of the Hepatice, which the emi-
nent writer laft mentioned includes under Wu/ci, and which
indeed compofe the next link in nature’s chain. See He-
PATICE.

Linnzus firft circumfcribed the natural order of Mu/ci
within its juft limits. It makes the fecond order of his
Cryptogamia, and except the genus Lycopodium, which does
not fo properly belong to this order as to the Filices, and
Porella, which is a miftake, he includes nothing but what
anfwers to the moft correét and moft recent ideas on the
fubject.

Mufti, according to the Linnean idea of the order, as
well as the lateft difcoveries, are defined as follows.

Herb leafy. Corolla like a hood, bearing the ftyle, and
covering the capfule, which is clofed with a lid.

Thefe plants agree with the Hepatice in the very extra-
ordinary nature of their corolla, which is formed like a
conical hood, and tipped with the ftyle. It is termed the
calyptra, or veil. But Moffes differ from the order juit men-

SrA 2 tioned

MUSCI.

tioned in having the capfule clofed with a lid, ufually de-
ciduous. Their herbage alfo confilts of a ftem with dittiné
leaves ; in the Hepatice the herbage is frondofe.. (See He-
patic#.) Hence the appellation by which the great Hed-
wig defignates the tribe in queftion, ‘* mu/ci frondofi,’ feems
incorrect. Such would have well expreffed the Hepatice ;
while the Moffes might have been called ‘ mufei foliofi.”’
It muft however be confefled, that there is in Mofles, as
‘well as in the leafy Jungermannie, fo fpri&t an union between
the’ ftem and leaf, that the latter fcarcely ever feparates from
the former by a folution of continuity, as in other clafles of
vegetables, [he old leaves of many moffes indeed break
off, but always in an irregular manner, from bnittlenefs
caufed by decay, and not by the feparation of a dying or
difeafed part from a vigorous living one, as in the leaves of
trees and fhrubs. Mofles more agree in this particular with
fome herbaceous plants, efpecially of thofe termed mono-
cotyledonovs, which alfo they refemble in their highly vaf-
cular or cellular texture, and in the rapidity of their abforp-
tion and perfpiration, Some of them are no fooner gathered
than they begin to wither, as Polytrichum undulatum, Engl.
Bot. t. 1220, and Bryum ligulatum, t. 1449. But though
ever fo long dried, even for fifty years, or probably as long
as their texture endures, they refume their original form,
with the greateft facility and exaétnefs, by immertion in
water. Some of their minuteft parts.are the moft perfect of
hygrometers. See Frince of Mojes.

The reticulated ftruéture of thefe diminutive vegetables,
like that of the Jungermannia, is rather known to us by its
beautiful appearance under a microfcope, than by any pre-
cife notion of its conftruétion or economy. We know
fcarcely any thing of the form or aétion of ,the veflels of
their leaves, except that the {trong mid-rib, ufual in Moffes,
though almoft univerfally wanting in Jungermannie, 18 a
clufter of parallel tubes, much the fame indeed as in the
foliage of other plants. But this rib fends off no vifible
branches, or tranfverfe veins, into the apparently uniform
cellular fubftance of the reft of the leaf, nor is any thing
known of the mode of the propulfion of fluids, however
rapid, through that fubftance.

The roots of Moffes, which are fibrous and branched,
abforb with equal facility. Thefe are not confined to the
bafe of the plant, where it is fixed to the foil, but are often
abundantly protri:ded, in fine, minutely jointed, branched
tufts, from various parts of the ftem, which doubtlefs im-
bibe nourifhment, as they readily do any portion of hu-
midity.

The {tem of thefe plants, always more or lefs prefent, is
often fimple, though frequently branched; either in the
ufual manner; or by protrufion, or innovation as it is
termed, through or beyond their fruétification, much the
fame as in the Bromelia Ananas, or Pine-apple, the genus
Pinus, and fome others.
invariably fimple and undivided, their margin only being
often ferrated, and in one or two in{tances toothed. (See
Trichoflamum lanuginofum; Engl. Bot. t. 1348+) Their
fruétification is in fome lateral, and in that cafe always per-
haps axillary, but it is more generally terminal.

The Frucrirication or Mosses is one of the moft
curious fubjeéts of vegetable phyfiology. As,we detail its
hiftory, we fhall deferibe the organs concerned. . Thefe are
of two kinds, and conttitute the flowers of Moffes, though
they are neither fo determinate in number, cireum{cribed in
fituation, nor fenced with appropriate and diftinét integu-
ments, asin flowers or blofloms commonly fo called. The
male, or barren, flowers of the plants.in queftion, confitt of
an indefinite number of ftamens, confifting of erect parallel

The leaves of Mofles however are >

anthers, fuppgrted by very fhort filaments, and difpefed on
an horizontal receptacle. Each anther is membranous, of
one cell, opening at the fummit, for the moft part witha
lid, and difcharging an extremely fine elaftic powder, or
pollen, after which the anther becomes flaccid, and withers.
Intermixed with the anthers, we find a number of flender, »
club-fhaped, jointed, pellucid, juicy filaments, about whofe
nature there has been much difpute, but which feem moft
‘probably abortive ftamens, capable, according to circum-
{tances, of being perfeéted, but generally inefficient and”
fuperfluous. Abundant fimilar inftances to this, occur
throughout the vegetable kingdom, Such is the ufnal
ftructure of the ftamens of Mofles; but the genus Sphagnum
differs fomewhat from the reft. Its anthers are elliptical,
fupported by taller filaments, and each is encompafied with.
the femblance at leaft of a vertical jointed ring. They like-
wife indeed burit at the top, though not with a lid. Their
ftructure approaches nearly to the anthers of Jungermannia,
fo copioufly illuftrated, and now placed beyond the reach
of doubt, by Mr. Hooker, in his valuable monograph on
that genus. It may be worth obferving that the habit of
Sphagnum approaches Jungermannia, in its pallid hue, highly
cellular texture, and want of a midrib in the leaves. The
male flowers of moffles are often accompanied by an extra-
ordinary change in the neighbouring leaves, which aflume
an enlarged, coloured, ftar-like afpe@&. Thefe parts were
all noticed, in the Bartramia fontana, by Linneus, as he’
travelled through Lapland, in the fummer of 1732, and the
juit ideas which he conceived of their nature may be feen in
his «¢'Tour in Lapland,” v. 1. 183, which remained latent
in his manufcript journal till very lately, It does not appear
that he:had then obtained any knowledge of the fimilar ob-
fervations of Micheli, publifhed in 1729 at Florence. That
author, in his 5th plate, defcribes, with great fidelity, the
anthers, accompanied by their barren filaments, in feveral
mofles; but miftakes the former for female organs, the
latter for male, comparing their fituation, with refpe& to
each, other, to the florets of compound flowers,
The female or fertile flowers, or piftils, of Moffes, were
firft defcribed by Schmidel, in his Jcones Plantarum, p. 16,
where he mentions. having obferved them in Mnium pellu-
cidum, now called Tetraphis pellucida, At the fame time we
think he clearly indicates their nature; though Hedwi
gives this honour to Schreber, who certainly in his celebrate:
differtation upon Phafcum, p. 19, more decidedly explains
the matter. ‘To Hedwig himfelf however belongs the merit
of having amply defcribed and delineated the piftils of nu-
merous Mofles, in his various publications. Thefe are
ufually, but not invariably, in a feparate flower from the
ftamens, and confit, in their earlieft itate, of feveral ere&,
parallel, tubular bodies; flightly enlarged, and moft folid,
at their bafe; membranous, dilated, and apparently per-
vious, at their fummit. It is feldom indeed that thefe or-
gans have been inveftigated in their earlieft and unimpreg-
nated itate; for one, if not more, of them is commonly
found more vigorous than the rett, which wither at its bafe.
Jt feems that, as foon as impregnation has taken place, the
tubular part, which confilts of both ftyle and ftigma, is
greatly and {peedily elevated, in confequence of an enlarge-
ment of the infant germien; and {till more, by the produc-
tion, or elongation, of a peculiar organ, termed the fruit-
{taik, on which the germen ftands, and by whofe fudden
growth the young veil, or calyptra, is torn from its bafe,
and carried up along with the germen or young fruit. There
it remains entire, crowned with the brownifh withered
ftigma, till the {welling fruit obliges it to fplit, turn afide,
or fall off. The elevation of the ca/yptra is one conflant
point

MUSCI.

point of difference betwixt the Afu/ei and Hepatice ; for in
the latter it burits to let the capfule pafs. Nor can we re-
frain from mentioning another coincidence between that
order and the genus Sphagnum. The bale of the calyptra is
permanent in the latter, as well as in_dndrea, the upper half
only of that membrane being torn off by its {welling cap-
fule, which capfule is remarkable for remaining feflile, hay-
ing no fruit-ftalk, in which circumftance we trace a further
refemblance to fome genera among the Hepatice. We mean
not, by pointing out thefe aualogies, to hint at any real am-
biguity in the nature of the genus Sphagnum, which is truly
and properly a Mofs, as well as Andrea.

The fruit of this order is invariably a capfule, of one
cell, opening by a tranfverfe deciduous lid, and deltitute of
valves, except in Andrea, which has four valves, and a
more permanent lid. There is another feeming objeCtion,
in the genus Pha/eum, the moft diminutive of Mu/ci, whofe
lid, though indicated, as ufual, by a beak, and by fome dif-
ference of colour, is not really deciduous, the capfule {plit-
' ting at one fide only, im an irregular manner. This is one
of thofe curious exceptions, which occur in every depart-
ment of natural hiftory, like the folitary inftance of three
ftamens, inftead of five, in one fyngenefious plant, a fpecies
of Siegefbeckia, and the difunion of the anthers in a very few
more of that moft natural clafs. The lid of the capfule of
moffes is rarely without a conf{picuous point at the fummir,
which is often elongated into a conical or taper beak. To
this the inner fide of the veil is, in an early ftate, attached,
their union being diffolved fooner in fome {pecies than in
others. The central part of the lid itfelf is united to a
central column, moft confpicuous in Gymnoflomum, and, ac-
cording to Hedwig, prefent in all Mofles. Whether im-
pregnation be communicated to the feeds through this co-
lumn, or by any other channel, has not been explained.
By Hedwig’s figures of fome unripe feed-veffels, the young
feeds feem to occupy but a {mall cavity, in the midft of a
highly cellular or vafcular mafs, through which laft it muft
be prefumed the aGtion-of the pollen may be communicated.

The bafe of the capfule, or the top of the fruit-ftalk, is
fometimes accompanied by a tumour, or fucculent appen-
dage, often coloured, highly remarkable in the beautiful
genus Sp/achnum, of which it forms one of the moft ftriking
characters, being in fome fpecies far more obvious than any
-other part, in the form of a broad circular difk or cap, of
a vivid red, or bright yellow. Yet its ufe is totally unknown.
Its colour indicates fome conneGtion between this part and
the aétion of light; which may perhaps operate through it
upon the fructification, as is fuppofed to be the cafe with
the petals of other plants.

The bafe of the lid, or the orifice of the capfule, is in
feveral moffes furrounded by an elaftic band, termed the
annulus, or ring, whofe infide is lined with two, three, or
four rows of fucculent pellucid proceffes. The precife ufe
of this part is not determined, except that, beingan ex-
quifite hygrometer, it may by its {pring ferve to throw off
the lid. Hedwig has detected it in many f{pecies of Hypnum,
but recommends the common Dicranum pulvinatum, or rather
Grimmia pulvinata, Engl. Bot. t. 1728, as a fit fubje& for
examination on this account.

The Fringe of the capfules of Moffes has already been
explained in a feparate article. (See Frincr.) We fhall
advert to it again prefently. It is hardly worth mentioning
that Meefe, as well as our fir John Hill, fancied the fringe
to be the ftamens of Moffes.

The feeds of thefe plants are extremely abundant and
minute, appearing’ to the naked eye like an impalpable
powder, of a green or brown colour, protruded from the

I

capfule on the removal of its lid, either {pontaneoufly, or
by the flighteft compreflion of that part. That this fine
powder is really feed, has firft been proved by Meefe, whos
in the year 1767, raifed plants of Pelytrichum from thence.
(See Meesta.) But the far more accurate and lucid ex-
periments and remarks of Hedwig, now leave no doubt on
this fubje&. That acute obferver deteéted differences in
the fhapes and furfaces of the feeds in different Moffes, in
fome meafure analogous to the various configuration of the
fame part in other natural orders. He has alfo repeatedly
obferved their germination, and delineated their cotyledons,
if fuch they may be called, which are perhaps the moft
curious and extraordinary part belonging to thefe plants.
When the feed of a Mofs fends forth its radicle downward,
it protrudes upward an oblong, obtufe, fucculent, pellucid,
jointed fhoot, either fimple or branched, folitary or accom-
panied by feveral others like itfelf, which fhould feem to be
analogous to the cotyledons of other plants; and yet in
their appearance, and frequently multiplied and indeter-
minate configuration, are very unlike the generality of thofé
organs. The diftinétion between them and the infant germ
or herbage is as ftrongly marked as poflible, in which refpe&
the germination of Moffes differs a little from that of Ferns.
Otherwife the latter might be expected to throw much light
upon the former. The deteétion of thefe parts in Mofles,
overthrows the claffification of them among the monocotyle-
dones, or acotyledones ; which indeed, though generally
adopted, has always been hypothetical. The ingenious
Mr. Brown, well aware of the danger which hence arifes
to the main hinges of the natural fy{tems at prefent efta-
blifhed, hints, at the end of the preface to his Prodromus
of New Holland plants, that the fuppofed cotyledons, both
of Ferns and Moffes, are entirely the produce of germina-
tion. We anxioufly expe& from him fome further elucida-
tion of the fubjeét, and fhall be very glad to get rid of the
difficulty, which feems to us not at all leffened by confider-
ing the parts in queition as of a new and unheard of nature,
unlefs we on that account decidedly feparate thefe two
natural orders from all other plants, asa clafs by themfelves,
which their anomalous nature in many refpeéts would abund-
antly authorize.

Having given the above view, which appears to us the
true one, of the fruétification of Mofles, it is proper to
mention fome different hypothefes, which have been ad-
vanced, by botaniits of great eminence, upon the fame
curious fubjeét. We fhall firft difmifs the decifion of
Necker, who declares that “‘ whatever has been advanced,
or may in future be faid, of the fexual propagation of
Moffes, will always be to hima fiGion and a dream :?? that
he is “ certainly perfuaded no perfon in any age will be able
to demonftrate fuch, in any of the Mofles at prefent
known :’ and he undertakes to prove that ‘ Mofles have
neither any diftinét male and female organs, nor any real
feed.’? This challenge he never made good, and he is re-
futed by the experiments of Hedwig. Necker, like Adan:
fon, believed that Moffes were propagated by buds or
fhoots, the latter fays even by feeds, without any fecunda-
tion. No doubt they are fo increafed, like the bulb-bearing:
Lilium, Dentaria, and Saxifraga; but this does not pre-
clude fexual generation, in the one café more than in the
other, Haller was nearly of the fame opinion with Necker,
but rather from reading than experiment, as many others
have been. Another fet of philofophers have made a com-
promife with the fexual fyftem, by prefuming that the duft’
of the capfules, now proved to be feed, might partake fo
far of the nature of pollen as to give vigour and increafe
to the buds of the plant by falling upon them, What they

under

MUSCI.

underftood by thefe buds, were in fome cafes really fo, but

moft frequently the male bloffoms, after the produétion of
which they obferved the branches of fome Moffes, as the

Polytrichum, to make a fudden fhoot, and this was the only

circumftance that favoured their hypothefis. Of this opinion
was Dillenius, the great inveftigator of the fpecies of Moffes,
but of lefs authority as a phyfiologift. We have already
mentioned his influence over the better judgment of Lin-
nzus, whom he mifled on the point before’ us. (See Ditie-
nius.) Hence, throughout the works of the great Swedifh
botanift, what is really the capfule is called the anther, for
fuch he, as well as Dillenius, believed it to be; though the
latter negligently termed it cap/ule, meaning by that word
fimply a little box, not a feed-veflel. Hedwig, who rightly
underftood the nature of this part, not content with its pro-
per name, denominated it /porangium, which is merely a
tranflation of /eed-veffel into Greek ; for by the term /pore
he meant precifely /eeds, the produce of fexual impregna-
tion, as all his experiments tended to prove. ‘This miftake
cannot be too often impreffed on the Cryptogamic ftudent.
We have already twice adverted to it. (See Gemma and
Hepwie.) Nor can we too often deprecate the admiffion of
new terms into the fciences of natural hiftory or philofophy,
when they communicate no new information, and either mark
a diftinG@tion without a difference, or, as in the prefent cafe,
lead only to error. ;

The Hedwigian theory of the impregnation and feminal
propagation of Moffes being, as it appears to us and to moft
practical mufcologifts, fo clearly eftablifhed, it was little to
be expected that a new hypothefis would, in our days, be
advanced. Yet fuch a phenomenon has appeared, from the
able pen of no inexperienced theoretical adventurer, but a
praétical and philofophical botanift, M. Pallifot Beauvois,
whofe ideas on the fubje&t, which we thall briefly tate, may
be feen at length in Sims and Konig’s Annals of Botany,
v2. 218.

This writer confiders what we term the capfule, as a
flower, containing within itfelf the male as well as female
organs of impregnation. It is compofed of five parts,
which are always prefent, and indifpenfable ; and occafion-
ally of one or more of five others, which are acceflory or
adventitious. All thefe we fhall detail.

1. The veil, which is, as we have deicribed, of a hood-
like thape, either f{mooth, or ftriated, naked or hairy, fingle
or double. This part is confidered by the author as a fort
of external corolla, at leaft with regard to its funétions. It
envelopes every part of the young budding flower, except
the perichetium, or fheath, where Fach is prefent.

2. The lid, an organ almoft peculiar to this family, as
above defcribed. This, as M. P. Beauvois thinks, falls off
at the time the flower is ripe for impregnation. ‘The Hed-
wigian botanifts believe it to remain till the feeds are ready
for difperfion.

3. The urn, which is no other than our capfule, or at
leaft its external coats, with which the outer fringe, when
prefent, js conneéted. This urn the author compares to a
real corolla, or fecond integument of the flower.

4. The pollen, or fecundating duft. An affemblage of
minute round rough grains, contained in a peculiar mem-
brane, covered by the urn. ‘This membrane is open in fome
mofles, and furnifhed at its orifice with fine teeth, the inner
fringe of Hedwig; in others it is clofed, burfting when ripe,
without any teeth or marginal fringe. Its fhape is conform-
able to that of the urn. In moffes furnifhed with a fringe,
this duft explodes with one or two puffs. This fuppofed
pollen is what thofe of the Hedwigian fchool believe to be
the feed, becaufe they have een it germinate and produce

plants, which is furely enough to confute the fyftem of our
author.

5. The pifil or capfule ; the central column, or columella,
of Hedwig and his followers. ‘* An organ of various forms,
occupying the centre of the urn, inclofed within the antheri-
ferous fac, and furrounded by the pollen.” No ftyleis to
be difcovered, except perhaps in Splachium. The ftigma
is capitate, four or five-cleft ; pointed and conical in fome
fpecies of Hypnum. Germen oval or oblong, fmooth or
villous. ‘It is generally fupported on a ftalk, that takes
its rife from the fheath, traverfes the tube (or fruit-ftalk),
and penetrates as far as the urn, where it fometimes divides
into feveral branches, that unite again at the bafe of the
germen. At other times it traverfes a green flefhy fub-
ftance, that occupies the bottom of the urn, and on which
the capfule appears to reft.””

The five following parts are of only partial occurrence.

6. The tecth (or outer fringe). Thefe form a bordér to
the outer covering of the urn, and are generally lanceolate,
pointed, variable in number from eight to fixty-four (the author
confiders the four teeth of Tetraphis as conitituting the lid, not
the fringe, a great error, copied from Schmidel), fingle or
in pairs, or each f{plit into two, rarely fhort and obtufe
« Thefe when prefent contribute effentially to fecundation,
by means of a regular movement of irritability, by which
they alternately recede from and approach each other.” In ~
Polytrichum the teeth are immoveable, and accompanied by
an horizontal membrane. In fome genera they are attended
by an inner fringe, in others not. Several moffes are def-
titute of thefe teeth altogether. /

7. The cilie (or inner fringe). 'Thefe form, at the orifice ©
of the urn, a border to the inner membrane, of which they
appear to be merely a continuation. They are flender, of a
filky afpe@, ftraight or {piral, generally eight, fixteeen, or
thirty-two, diftinét or united into one or feveral bundles,
and affift like the teeth, feparately or conjointly with them,
in the feeundation of the feeds. ‘heir irritability is lefs,
and confequently their movement not very evident. The
author confiders the twifted teeth of the genus Tortula as
of the nature of an inner fringe, unaccompanied by an outer
one, in which he appears to be very correct.

8. The horizontal membrane. This is peculiar to the mofles
included by Hedwig under Polytrichum, of which M. P.
Beauvois makes three genera, and is what is commonly taken
for their inner fringe... It is very thin, perforated like a
fieve, and fupported by the teeth.

9. The /eath, which is nearly univerfal, is a {mall cylin-
drical tube, at the bafe of the ftalk or tube of the urn,
and may be confidered as an inner calyx, in which the urn,
and all its parts above defcribed, are enveloped at their firft
formation.

10. The perichetium, or fcaly freath, this is efleemed by
the author as a real calyx, in which we concur. It confitts
of feveral leaflets, generally membranous, conftantly dif-
ferent from the foliage, and more or lefs imbricated. This
part isexemplified in Hypnum and fome other genera. We
fave not before mentioned it, or the foregoing.

M. P. Beauvois obferves that as foon as the fringe, or
fringes, ave no longer retained by the lid, « they begin to
move one among another, feparating and approaching each
other alternately, as long as the urn contains pollen and
feeds.’ He conceives, therefore, that in all mofles fur-
nifhed with any fringe, the pollen and feeds are difcharged
with an explofion, the inflant the lid falls off; and that the
tecth ferve to retain both for a while, and to promote their
coming in contact with each other ; for his opinion is, that

fecundation

MUSCI.

fecundation takes place in mofles, as in fifhes, after the
feeds or eggs are diflodged !

Such are the principles of the theory of this ingenious
Frenchman. We would briefly remark, that if fuch be the
mode of impregnation, what is the ufe of the various ftig-
mas which he defcribes? We fhould have been glad of
fome defcription of the feeds of Moffes, or at leaft of fome
affurance that the author had feen them, of which in the
paper before usthereisno mention. In another work on the
fubjec& it appears, from the accurate inveltigation given by
Mr. R. Brown, Tr. of Linn, Soc. v.10. 313, that M. Beauvois
has been mifled, by a tranfverfe fe€tion of fome capfules, to
take for feeds produced there, what were really accidentally
forced into the cellular fub{tance of the central column, which
he is pleafed to confider as the capfule! By a longitudinal
feétion of the column this is avoided, and the internal part of
that organis found delftitute of all appearance of feeds. As
far as we have obferved, the column dries and finks together
by the time the real feeds (the pollen of Beauvois) are ripe
for explofion. If any perfon fhould ftill have a doubt on
the fubject, and imagine that Hedwig and others, in fowing
the pollen {which they took for feed), might fow the real
feed of Beauvois along with it, and that the latter was
what aétually rofe’ into plants; fuch perfons may fatisfy
‘themfelves by eafily procuring the green powder from
the head of the common Polytrichum before explofion. If
they at the fame time look at the central column, they
will find little to countenance the opinion of our author
refpecting that part. We fhall conclude the fubje@ with
remarking, that the motions in the fringe of mofles, curious
as they are, appear to us purely hygrometrical, and by no
means owing toirritability ; and further, that this ingenious
. writer, in his examination of what Hedwig believed to be
the male flowers, appears not to have diltinguifhed them
fufficiently from gemme. Yet, ftrange to tell! he has in
the genus Jungermannia aflerted the anthers to be feed-
veffels, and what every body elfe believes to be the capfules,
he takes for anthers! In this cafe too he afferts thofe foiral
fibres to be irritable, which appear to us fimply elaftic, or
perhaps hygrometrical. Mr. Hooker, under the twenty-
fifth plate of his excellent work on the genus in queftion,
has controverted thefe gratuitous fuppofitions of M. Beau-
vois ; and very jultly obferves, that whoever will compare
the parts which Hedwig takes for anthers in the moffes,
with thofe which he alfo efteems fuch in the Jungermannia,
mutt conclude both to be dettined to perform fimilar fune-
tions. The latter have been examined and reprefented b
Mr. Hooker, in almoft every {pecies that he has publithed,
aswell as the prolific and abortive piltils, the burfting veil,
and every othey effential organ. Every thing confirms the
opinion of Hedwig, as clearly as all the mot confpicuous
flowers elucidate the fame doétrine ; which, when afferted
by Linnzus, in the beginning of his career, met with far
more elaborate oppofition. ‘There is however this remark-
able difference in the prefent ftate of the queftion, that the
fexual doctrine 1s now fo generally admitted with refpeét to
vegetables, that in overturning one theory of impregnation,
M. Beauvois found himfelf obliged, at any rate, to fet up
another in its ftead. Even Gertner, who contended fo
much for fexual propagation in fome departments of the
Cryptogamia, chole to have recourle to the conjeture of
Hiul, that the fringes of Moffes were their anthers, rather
than deny their fexual impregnation. | This idea, however,
has nothing but vague conjecture to fupport it. Nothing
like pollen or anthers is found in this part, and there are
very numerous fpecies totally deftitute of all fringe what-
ever.

4

The objeGtions of Gertner to the Hedwigian doétrine
of the flowers of Moffes, though laboured, are entirely
hypothetical, and in that refpe€t unworthy of fo great a
practical inquirer. They are, 1{t, the dioecious nature of
molt Moffes. « Why,” fays he, “ fhould Nature, in this
numerous tribe, have chofen the moft uncertain and difficult
of all modes of fecundation, unlefs it be faid that fhe has
purpofely aimed at defeating her own ends.”? On this point
we humbly leave Nature to an{wer for herfelf, and we believe
that a fatisfatory reply will not be withheld from any unpre-
judiced inquirer. adly. Gertner fays the impregnation of
thefe plants is fuppofed to take place at a period when no-
thing like the rudiments of feeds can be feen in the ovary or
germen, the contents of whichare then a pulpy chaos. We
would afk, in anfwer to this, what could be difcernible, at
the fame period, in the germens of many of the largeft
and molt perfecé& flowers, if reduced to the fame exquifite
minutenefs ? How are the pellucid coats of feeds fearcely
vilible when ripe, and umbilical veffels hitherto unfeen at
any period, though Gertner himfelf would certainly not
doubt their exiftence ; how are thefe to be dete€ted fo early ?
As to the word chaos, as applicable to what is infcrutable
to the human eye, would Gertner apply that term to the
yolk of an egg even before impregnation? 3dly. This
writer aflerts that many of thefe fuppofed anthers never
difcharge any thing, but fall off entire. Here he appears
to have taken buds for anthers. He adds, that if fome of
them do ‘ belch forth’ (we ufe his literal expreffion) fome
granular matter, that explofion is allowed by Hedwig him-
felf to be chiefly caufed by moilture, ‘‘ whereas nothing is
more certainly fatal than moifture to real pollen, nor does
any thing more hinder its explofion.’ This laft paflage is truly
curious. Did not Gertner know that pollen in general ex-
plodes by moilture alone, that the liquor of the ftigma is
deftined to make it explode, and that the acceffion of wet
is injurious, only by caufing it to explode prematurely ?
If we give him credit for being ignorant of the nature of
the pollen in the Orchidee and Cor‘orte, had he not feen
enough of other plants to underftand that there may be
different kinds of pollen, whofe ftru€ture and whofe mode
of operation may be in fome meafure as various, as thofe
admirable feeds and feed-veffels with which he was fo con-
verfant ? - Could he not conceive that the pollen of vegeta-
bles deftined to bloffom in moifture, like Mu/ci and Hepatice,
might, by fomething refinous in its compofition, be protected
againft atmofpherical humidity, and be foluble, or ative,
only through the operation of a fubftance appropriated to
that purpofe, which Hédwig feems aétually to have de-
teed in the ftigma of Bryum pun@atum ; fee his Fund.
uv. 1. ¢. 10. f. 67.—4thly. He objects to the probability of
the fuppofed anthers being fuch, and ftill more to their
being, inftead of anthers, themfelves naked pollen (as Hed-
wig at one time thought), becaufe of their prodigious fize
compared to the feeds. As to their being anthers, as we
believe, or naked grains of pollen, it is of no importance to
the argument. Does not this very circumftance,.of the great
bulk of thefe parts, tend to invalidate Gzrtner’s firft objec-
tion, as it would appear that in their, as well as in the
larger dioecious or monoecious plants, there is a fuper-
abundance of pollen to compenfate for the hazard which
attends its conveyance?

Ventenat feems favourable to Gertner’s opinion, in his
Tableau du Regne Végétal, v. 2. 44—49, chiefly becaufe
he lays many Moffes are totally deprived of the fuppofed
male flowers. He ought rather to have faid ‘“ they have
not been obferved in all ;”? at which thofe who have ever fo
little practical knowledge of the-fubje& will not wonder.

Moffes

/

MUSCI.

Moffes are generally moft noticed and colle&ed when their
capfules are fully formed, or ripe. The more they are
examined earlier, the more of their male flowers are, from
time to time, obferved. The fame writer remarks that
there are Moffes which fru@tify under water, where they
pafs all their lives. He afks, ‘* if the organs are not both in
the fame cover, how can the male duit reach the female
organ, without being fpoiled by the water?”? ‘This is in-
deed a difficulty ref{peGting the hiftory of moffes, as well
as of fome other plants. To remove it, we ought to in-
veltigate the very few Moffes fo circumflanced, and to
obferve carefully whether they do not rife above the water
at the flowering feafon, like the numerous tribes of other
aquatic plants ; or if otherwife, whether their pollen be not
ofa peculiar nature, accommodated to its fituation, like that
of the Chara. We think the former would mott likely
rove to be the truth. 3 :

The SysTEMATICAL ARRANGEMENT of Muscr comes
next under our confideration.

On this fubje@ nothing can juftly be faid to have been
attempted previous to the labours cf Dillenius and Linnwus.
They moft laudably depended upon the parts of fruétifica-
tion only, as far as they knew, cr thought they underitood,
thofe parts, for the accomplifhment of their purpofe, ‘ They
aimed at eftablifhing genera upon this {ure bafis, while they
paid at the fame time a due regard to habit in their con-
ceptions cf thefe genera. On this laft point, thefe great
men ftand unrivalled by any of their fucceffors, few of
whom appear ever to have kept any fuch cbje¢t in view.
The deepett mulcologifts of the German fchool, feem un-
accountably ignorant and incurious refpe€ting this part of
the ftudy. Dazzled with the difcovertes of their great
Hedwig, and with the beautiful precifion of his technical
marks of difcrimination, they take thofe marks for abfolute
guides, without adverting to natural differences or affinities.
Some of Hedwig’s fucceffors efpecially, carry this artificial
principle to excefs, and take its extreme refinements as a
flandard of excellence. ‘* Such different talents are obfer-
yation and judgment !”” ;

Dil'enius confidered a tranfverfe deciduous lid to the
capfule as the dillinguifhing mark of his « more perfe&
mofles,” our JM]u/ci properly fo termed. This chara¢ter
alfo belongs to his Mnium, though he places that genus
by. itfelf, on account of its bearing ‘two kinds of
powdery. heads,’’ one of which indeed is the male
flower, the other the capfule. Dillenius in his ideas re-
verfed them, taking the one for the other, as we have
already explained ; nor is his primary definition, in which
he includes Mnium with the reft, flri¢tly corre&t, according
to his own theory, frudification tonfpicuous in powdery
beads ;’? for he efteemed thofe heads to be anthers, con-
fequently only a part fudfervient to fructification. It is
however more literally true, if we take the heads for real
fruit, or capfules of feed, as they now are proved to be.
We thall therefore continue to ufe this appellation for the
part in qdeltion, as we explain the arrangements of Dilienius
and Linnzus, though the former only called them fo, be-
licving them to be anthers, and the latter yfed the latter
word, becaufe he judged it to be correét. To recur to
this confufion of ideas and terms, would perplex us in our
progrefs, and the reader of Linnaus has only to fubftitute
every where cap/fules tor antheres in his charaters of thefe

lants.
- The next fubdivifion of Dillenius, into Mofles with a
calyptra (veil), or without, is erroneous. The latter confiits
of Sphugnum alone, which is known to have a veil.

His next feétion is into Moffes « with feflile capfules,

enclofed in a fheath or calyx,’’ of which Fontinalis is the
only example, though its capfule is by no means really feffile ;
and Moffes whofe capfules have no fuch calyx (or rather
are not included therein), but ftand on longith fruit-ftalks,
termed by him briftles.

The latter are diftinguifhed into thofe whofe fruit-ftalks
are axillary, and producéd along the branches, being enconi-
paffed at the bafe with a fcaly involucrum, different from
the leaves, which are the chara¢ters of Hypnum; and thofe
whofe fruit-ftalks proceed either from the ends of the ftems
or branches, or from the roots, or from annual fhoots
which, in the preceding year, were the termination of the
ftem. Such fruit-ftalks want the fealy involucrum, but
have a tubercle for their bafe. The veil of this lait feGion
is either {mooth, which marks the genus Bryum, or hairy,
which is the charaéter of Polytrichum. ‘Thefe are all the
Dillenian genera. Linnzns has added to them Pha/cum,
Buxbaumia, and Splachnum ; but his characters of the twe
firlt are erroneous, though the genera are diftin@. We
have already mentioned that Linneus includes Lycopodium
among the Mufci, as indeed does Dillenius, but the latter
places it (fubdivided into four genera) in a feparate feétion,
diftinguifhed by having no lid to the capfule. As to the
Porella (or Poronia as Dillenius at firft called it) of thefe
authors, it is proved by Mr. Dickfon, in Tr. of the Linn.
Soc. v. 3. 238, to be a Jungermannia which had met with
fome injury. ai

Botanifts have often met with difficulties in the application
of the above principles, which did not efcape thofe who
firft advanced them. Some Moffes referred by Dillenius
and Linneus to Bryum, have really a fcaly involucrum ; as
the /coparium and its allies, Dill. t. 46. In others there is
great difficulty in afcertaining the fruit-ftalk to have been
originally terminal, fo much is the ftem or branch elongated
beyond its origin or infertion, of which fome of thofe, for-
merly fuppofed Brya, now referred to the new genera of
Dicranum, Trichoftomum, and Tortula, afford inftances. All
fuch difficulties are removed by the modern improvements,
of which we are now to fpeak. Hedwig, by taking the
Fringe and its various forms into confideration, has opened
a new and moft fuccefsful road to the clear definition of
the genera of this natural order, as we have already ex-
plained. (See Frince.) We have in that article exhibited
the charaéters of the part in queftion, in all the genera
which appear to us well diftinguifhed thereby. But it ie
neceflary here to give a full expofition of Hedwig’s fyitem,
including all his genera; that the ftudent may fee to what
extent this original principle of the author is there employed,
as well as what ufe he has made of the principles of his pre-
deceffors. Thefe, as well-as his own, he hasscarried to their
greate{t extent, introducing the lateral or terminal fituations
of the male as well as female flowers into his generic cha-
ra@ers. This is his chief error; fplitting the fubje& into
obfcure, uncertain, and unnatural refinements ; toile fight
of the great Linnean rule, that ‘“ the genus ought to give
the charaéter, not the charaéter the genus,” and, in fhort,
rendering the whole fyftem as artificial and as difficult as it
could be made. We hall correct a few incidental miftakes
as we proceed. It would be too tedious to trace the pro-
grefs of Hedwig’s arrangement, through the changes which
have taken place in his different publications ; efpecially
as thefe are not material; and we fhall take his lateft view
of the fubject, from the. Species Mu/torum, publifhed in 1801,
after his death. ‘The hard Greek names which encumber,
rather than dillinguifh, his fections, and his new terms for
well-known things, may be difpenfed with. His merits far
outweigh fuch blemifhes.

Sys.

MUSCI.

System oF Hepwic.
The capfule of Moffes is either deftitute of 1 p, :
a regular orifice, as in™ < rs afeum
or conitruéted with one, as in all the following.
Mouth naked, or deftitute of a fringe.

1. Male flower club-fhaped = Sphagnum.

2. Do. in a terminal head - Gymnoflomum.
. Do. axillary - - AniGangium.

For remarks on thefe three, fee GyMNosTomUM.

Fringe of a fingle row of undivided teeth.
Teeth four, unconneted at either end ;
flowers polygamous - “
———, conneéted at the fummits
[Mr. Hooker has fhewn, Tr. of Linn.
Soc. v. 10. 382—387, that this latter has
acapfule of four valves, which botanifts
in general, like Hedwig, have taken for
the fringe, but which in faét afford the
peculiar character of Andrea, bearing
the lid on their points, and ftarting
afunder in wet weather, in their middle
part only, to let the feeds pafs.
Ehrhart originally defcribed this cap-
fule rightly ; but his ideas, buried in
pedantic novelty of phrafeology, have
been overlooked.
Teeth eight, capfule without an apophyfis Odoblepharum.
, capfule with an apophyfis —_ Splachnum.
Teeth fixteen, capillary or linear, ftraight
and equidiitant ;
made flower axillary, female terminal
on the fame plant Sd peat! } Encalypea.
——— ; male
and female flowers axillary on fot Pterigynandrum.
rate plants - = ~ b
( Péerozonium of other writers.)
—_—_., ——_—_, ftraight, approxi-
mated in pairs ; ;

Tetraphis.
Andrea.

male as well as female flower terminal Cynontodinm.
male as well as female flower axillary Didymodon.
F , twifted ;

male flower axillary, female terminal Tortu/a.

male and female flowers terminal Barbula.
Teeth fixteen, pyramidal ;

male flower axillary = - Grimmia.

male flower terminal = - Weiffia.
Teeth more than thirty, cohering by

a membrane 5
male and female flowers terminal - Polytrichum.

Fringe of a fingle row of cloyen teeth.
Teeth thread-fhaped and ftraight, nar-
row at the bafe; male flower > Tricho/fomum.
axillary : = - A J
Teeth broad, deeply cloven ;
male flower axillary S =
— terminal - -

Fiffidens.
—_—_ Dicranum.
Fringe double.
Inner Fringe membranous, with pointed
teeth;
flower united, terminal e
Inner Fringe membranous, with abrupt
tecth;
male flower terminal if i 2
Inner Fringe membranous, furrowed,
contra¢ted into a cone, finely laci-
niated at the orifice ;
flower united 7 E a F

Vou. XXIV.

Webera.

Buxbaumia.

Bartramia.

Inner Fringe with reticulated teeth ;
male as well as female flower axillary Fontinalis.

male as well as female flowerterminal Mecfia.
Inner sit with ciliary teeth ;
unconnected and equidiftant - — Neckera.

~ unconneéted, approaching each other 2

in pairs PP rf 8 pare. oe Orthotrichum

Inner Fringe with ciliary teeth ; cohering /
by a membranous bafe ;

teeth uniform; male flower axillary, Timmi

female terminal - - o i ae:

; flowerunited, terminal Pobjia.

; male and female flower

axillary A is = 3 } Lefeea.

teeth of various fhapes; female flower

terminal; male flower terminal, dif. + Mnium-

coid - : - - -
male flower terminal, in around head Bryum.
———_————,, axillary - Arrhenopterum
teeth of various fhapes ;

male vere Zigheas,

female flower axillary -
Inner Fringe with ciliary teeth; cohering
by their points ;
male and female flower terminal - Funaria.

The author of the Flora Britannica firft pretuined to
abolifh Cynontodium and Didymodon, uniting them to Trt-
choftomum, from which they differ in having their teeth,
though approximated in pairs, quite unconnected at the
bafe. But the membranous web in Trichoflomum is often fo
very flight and narrow, as to be hardly difcernible, though
in other cafes more obvious; and thefe moffes are all by
nature evidently of one genus. The lateral or terminal fi-
tuation of the flowers, whether male or female, in Moffes
with a fingle fringe, will appear, to thofe who confider them
under that point of view, to lead to no natural difcrimina-
tion whatever. The charaGter is alfo peculiarly difficult
in thefe to afcertain, and we queftion much whether Didy-
modon will really be found to have axillary female flowers,
if examined at the time of their firft formation. For the
fare reafons Barbula of Hedwig is funk in Tortula, and
Weiffia in Grimmia, by all Britifh botanitts.

As to Fiffidens, the genuine fpecies of that genus, whofe
leaves are two-rankcd and compreffed, form fo natural and
diftin€ an affemblage, that it is much to be wifhed they
could be feparated from Dicranum. In confideration of
their very peculiar habit, perhaps the Hedwigian character
of the axillary male flowers might here be allowed to mark
the genus ; more efpecially as the female flowers are in fome
cafes lateral. (See Dicranum, fe&.8.} It mutt alfo be
obferved, that fome of Hedwig’s f{pecies of Piffdens ap-
pear to be no lefs improperly confidered as fuch by their
chara@ter than their habit. In the latter they agree with
Dicranuin, and it is difficult to underftand, by Hedwig’s
own excellent plates, how he could confider their male flow-
ers as otherwife than terminal: The fpecies to which we
allude are F. polycarpus and ffrumifer, Hedw. Crypt. v. 2.
t. 31, 32.

Th the generic arrangement of Moffes with a double
fringe, we find the union of the ftamens and piftils in one
flower, by which alone Webera and Pohlia are feparated
from their natural congeners, a charaéter of no confequence
whatever, and not lefs artificial than obfcure.

On the uncertainty and obfcurity of generic characters
founded on-differences of the inner fringe, we need not
repeat what may be found under the articles Frincr of
Moffs, “ypxum, Leskea, Meesta, and Mnium. The
lait mentioned, like Bartramia, is beft marked by the fix-

3B teea

MUS

teen ftrong furrows of its capfule, though many of Hed-
wig’s {pecies are thereby difcarded. If Mecha be retained
as a genus, it muft be on account of the fhort blunt teeth of
the outer fringe, rather than any thing in the ftrudture of
the inner.

The genus molt difficult to charaG@terize by the Hedwi-
gian charaGers is Orthotrichum, though no genus can be more
natural. Its fpecies, one only excepted, all feem, as Mr.
Turner remarks, {carcely more than varieties, fo clofely and
naturally are they allied. Yet they differ widely in their
fringe, the inner one being in fome compofed of fixteen,
in others of but eight teeth, and in others totally wanting.
Their outer teeth, naturally fixteen, each marked with a
longitudinal furrow, are in fome fpecies combined into
eight, each with two furrows. But here another part of
the frutification offers itfelf to ouraid. The ftrongly an-
gular or deeply furrowed veil, to fay nothing of its afcend-
ing hairs, which are not conftant, ftamps this genus de-
cidedly. A valuable paper on this fubjeét, by the late Mr.
Mohr, may be feen in Sims and Konig’s Annals, v. 2. 532.
We hefitate to adopt a new genus of the author’s, named
Ulota, though it differs from Orthotricham in the curling of
its leaves when dry, of which O. cri/pum, the fpecies above
alluded to as unlike the reft, is an example. Mr. Mohr
chara€terizes Orthotrichum as having eight keeled ribs to its
veil, with deep furrows between, whereas in U/dota, inter-
mediate furrows take place of thofe ribs. His remarks
however are well worth attention, as well as what concerns
the veil in Neckerg and fome others. He hints at the practi-
cability of making this part fubfervient to generic-difcrimi-
nation, where the Hedwigian characters have been objected
to, as in Ani@angium and Gymnoffomum, Grimmia and Weiffia.
We fear his diltin@tions are too nice for common ufe, ef-
pecially as it is often fo difficult to obtain {pecimens with
the veil in a good ftate for examination. But a more
weighty objection is, that it does not appear to us to lead
to the determination of much more natural genera. The
acute and learned author however is of a different opinion,
and he has candidly put the decifion of the queftion into any
one’s power, having enumerated, under each genus, the fpe-
cies of each, as he would, on this new principle, wifh to
difpofe them. He afcribes to Anidangium, Grimmia, and
Trichoflomum, ‘<a veil fhaped like a mitre,’”’ (we fhould rather
fay an extinguifher,) ‘fomewhat halved,’’ that is, partly
fplit up on one fide, * unequally torn at the bafe, and
falling off obliquely.” To Gymnoflomum, Weiffia, and Di-
cranum, he gives ‘¢ a hooded or halved veil, nearly entire at
the bafe, falling off obliquely.”

There are feveral diflinguifhed writers on Mufti, befides
thofe whofe fy,ftems and remarks we have detailed, efpecially
Bridel, the author of a large and elaborate Mu/cologia in
Latin, making two quarto volumes, publifhed in 1797 and
1798, and compofed on the principles of Hedwig. Dr.
Swartz, who wrote the Methodus Mu/fcorum, publifhed in
1781, under the prefidency of the yeunger Linnzus, printed
in 1799 aneat little volume on Swedifh Mofles, with feveral
coloured plates ; and Mr. Dawfon Turner, in 1804, gave a
more detailed account of thofe which are natives of Ireland.
The writer of the prefent article has, in his Flora Britannica,
vol. ini. firlt diftributed the Moffes of Britain and Ireland
according to the fyftem of Hedwig, with fome alterations,
and with original deferiptions; and has in the Englifh Bo-
tany publifhed figures, with Englith deferiptions, of nearly
the whole of them. Hoffmann and Roth have defcribed
the Mofles of Germany in their Floras; but the latter is lefs
original in this department than in moft of his excellent

Many of this tribe are figured in the Flora Da-
9

writings,

MUS

aica, but not happily ; a very few in Curtis’s Flora Lond: -
nenfis, and the works of Jacquin. We muft repeat that
Hedwig is unrivalled in his figures and defcriptions, if not
in his technical definitions, of this his favourite family.
The accurate and ingenious Schrader, wherever he has
touched upon the fame fubjeé, has contributed to eluci-
date it, but appears to have paid lefs attention to Moffes than
to other Cryptogamic fubjeéts. A few New Holland Mufii
have been defcribed by Labillardiere; but a much more
complete account of the novel productions of that country,
in this as well as other botanical departments, is to be expefted
from Mr. Brown; one of whofe new genera may be found
defcribed under the article Leprostomum. He has alfo, in
Tr. of the Linn. Soc. v. 10. 316, along with Leptofomum,
defcribed and figured another new genus, called Daw/onia,,
in honour of Mr. Dawfon Turner, the very curious and fin-
gular charaéter of whichis as follows.

Fringe tufted, of innumerable capillary ftraight equal hairs,
originating from the capfule and central column! Cap/ule
flat on one fide, convex on the other. Outer Veil of entan-
gled hairs ; inner rough at the point.

D. polytrichoides, ibid. t. 23. £. 1, is the only known fpe-
cies, found about the fhady banks of rivers, at the foot of
the mountains, near Port Jackfon, New South Wales. Its
habit is precifely that of the larger fpecies of Polyirichum,
while its capfule and central column nearly agree with Bus-
baumia; but the fringe is totally unlike every thing before
obferved. S.

MUSCICAPA, the Fly-catcher, in Entomology, bill nearly
triangular, notched on each fide, bent in at the tip, and
befet with briftles at the root; the toes are moftly divided
to their origin. Gmelin has enumerated ninety-fix fpecies,
which are fcattered over the warmer traéts of the globe, two
only are common to our own country ; the greater number
are inhabitants of Auftralafia and Polynefia. Among our-
felves the fly-catcher is a bird of paffage, that breeds in the
ifland, but retires as early as the month of Augult. It
builds its neft upon the fides of trees, or of old walls, and
feeds upon infe€ts. When the young are led out, they
generally take their ftation upon the higher boughs of trees,
whence they are taught to drop perpendicuiarly upon the
flies below, and to rife again in the fame manner. Sub-
ordinate to the rapacious birds, and in the next clafs, nature
has placed this tribe of hanters, more numerous than that
of its fuperiors, becaufe more ufeful. The largeit of this
genus is of the fize of the butcher-bird, while the {malleft
1s not larger than the nightingale. All the intermediate
degrees are occupied by various kinds, differing in magni-
tude, but marked by the fame generic charaCters.

We bhali now give an account of the

Species.

Parapisi; the Paradife Fly-catcher. Crefted, head
black ; body white; tail wedged, the two middle feathers
very long. ‘There are three varieties: 1. Head greenifh-
black ; body chefnut, beneath white ; lower part of the
neck and breaft grey. 2. Chefnut, beneath white ; breait
blueifh. 3. Body paler; wing coverts golden. It inhabits
Africa and Afia, and is about eight inches and a quarter
long ; head, neck, and chin greenifh-black ; back, rump,
throat, and body beneath white ; wing-coverts and quill-
feathers black, edged with white; two middle tail-feathers
fifteen inches long ; legs lead colour.

Murata; Motable Fly-catcher. Head crelted; tail
wedged; two middle tail-feathers very long; eye-brows
blue. There are two varieties: 1. The body and tail of the
one is of, a cinnamon colour. 2. The other ts a chefnut-

colour ;

MUSCICAPA.

celour; two middle tail-feathers varied with black and
white. It inhabits Madagafcar, and is nearly a foot long.
Bill and legs black ; head, neck, and back Geet beck.
the latter varied with white; body beneath white ; wings
black, longitudinally white in the middle ; the two middle
tail-feathers are more than four inches longer than the
others, white, with a black fpot near the tip, the reft is
white on the inner, and black on the outer webs.

Srriata; the Martinico Fly-catcher. Head crefted ;
body brown, beneath cinereous ; outer edge of the quill-
feathera whitifh. This, as its trivial name imports, is found
in Martinico, and is fix inches long; the feathers of the
crown at the bafe, and quill-feathers at the edge, whitith;
legs cinereous.

Fusca; Black-headed Fly-catcher. Brown, berieath
yellowifh-white ; bill, crown, and legs black. It inhabits
Carolina, and is fix inches and a quarter long; the tail is a
little forked ; the crown of the female is blackifh.

Tyrannus. ‘Tail is very long, forked; body is black,
beneath white. It inhabits Canada and Surinam.

Forricata ; Swallow-tail Fly-catcher. Pale grey, he-
neath white; tail forked; quill and tail-feathers black,
edged with grey, the outmoft of the latter half white on
the outer webs. This is about ten inches long, and inhabits
New Spain.

Surinama; Surinam Fly-catcher. Tail rounded, tipt
with white ; body black, and beneath it is white.

Fuxicinosa; Brown Fly-catther. This fpecies is of a
black-brown colour, the feathers edged with yellowith-
brown, beneath whitifh; quill and equal tail-feathers edged
with whitifh. It inhabits Cayenne, and. is hardly four inches
long. The bill and legs are black; the breaft is mixed
with brownifh.

AvrRaAntTIA; Orange-breafted Fly-catcher. The colour
of this {pecies is greenifh-rufous, beneath white ; breaft
orange ; head and neck above greenifh-brown ; quill-feathers
black, edged with rufous. It inhabits the woods of Guiana.
The bill is black and legs pale.

Coronata ; Round-cretted Fly-catcher. It inhabits
near the Amazon, and is five inches and a half long: quill-
feathers edged with grey, the legs are reddifh.

Ma vacuvura ; Soft-tailed Fly-catcher. Brown, beneath
ferruginous ; throat (of the male) blue; tail long, wedged,
with loofe-webbed feathers. It inhabits the marfhy places
of New South Wales, lives among the long grafs and rufhes,
in which it hides itfelf very dexteroufly.

Rurescens; Rufous Fly-catcher. Glofly pale rufous,
beneath white; quill-feathers black ; crown with a brown
band. Jt inhabits Cayenne. Bull and legs black.

CinereA ; Rufous-bellied Fly-catcher, Cinereous; rump,
tail, and body beneath rufous. It inhabits Cayenne, and
is about eight inches and a half long.

Pyem2xa; Dwarf Fly-catcher. Beneath ftraw-colour;
head and neck rufous, {potted with black ; feathers of the
back and wing-coverts cinereous, edged with greenifh;
quill-feathers black, edged with grey; tail black, fhort.
It inhabits Cayenne, and is barely three inches long.

Minuta; Petty Fly-catcher. Olive-grey ; wings black-
ifh, with a few yellowifh ftreaks. It inhabits South Ame-
rica, and is lefs than the laft.

Barsata; Whifkered Fly-catcher. Oliye-brown ; be-
neath greenifh-yellow, crown orange; rump yellow. It
inhabits Cayenne.

Rusricotyis; Purple-throated Fly-catcher. Black ;
chin and throat with a large purple-red {pot. The purple-
throated fly-catcher is about the fize of a blackbird; the
whole plumage is black, except the chin, throat, and fore-

part of the neck, on which is a large bed of beautiful crim.
ion, inclining to purple; the legs ate black. Thefe birds
inhabit Cayenne, and other parts of South America; where
they are found in flocks, and precede in general the toucaris
in their movements. They feed on fruits and infeéts; and
are lively birds, always in aétion. They, for the moft part,
frequent the woods, like the toucans; and where the firft
are found, the others are feldom far off.

Crinita ; Crefted Fly-catcher. Crefted, head and neck
blueifh, belly yellowith; back greenifh ; quill and fail-
feathers rufous. It inhabits Carolina and Virginia, and is
eight inches long.

Ferox; Tyrant Fly-catcher. Brown; chin, throat, and
breaft cinereous; belly yellowifh; greater wing-coverts
edged with olive. It inhabits Cayenne, is feven inches long,
and the legs are blackifh.

Lupoviciana ; Louifiana Fly-catcher. Grey-brown ;
beneath yellowifh; chin cinéreous ; quill and tail-feathers
edged with rufous. It inhabits Louifiana, and is the fize
of the laft,

Avupax; Yellow-crowned Fly-catcher. Blackifh waved
with rufous, beneath yellowifh; crown yellow ; frontlet
white ; rump and tail rufous. It inhabits Cayenne, and is
eight inches long.

* ArricaPILLA; Pied Fly-catcher. Black above; under
parts, {pot on the front, and fhield on the wings white ;
lateral tail-feathers white without ; bill and legs black ; tail-
coverts {potted with white. There are three varieties :
1, Above varied with grey ; thighs varied with brown and
white ; the three outmoft tail-feathers edged with white.
2. Collar white, outmoft tail-feathers edged with white.
3. Brown; beneath, front, fides of the head, and longitudi-
nal line from the fhoulder to the back white. The frit
three inhabit Europe, but the other is an Indian bird. The
pied fly-catcher is not to be found in great numbers in any
part of this ifland, but is moft frequently to be met with in
Yorkfhire, and the contiguous counties. A nelt belongin
to two birds of this {pecies was taken in 1803, in Asal
park, with a great number of young, and alfo the parent
birds. The affiduity of the latter, which were almoft un-
remittedly employed in taking flies for their numerous
family, was highly interefting, The dexterity and atten-
tion of the male bird appeared moft confpicuous. The
third variety is found in the Eaft Indies, and is four inches
and a quarter long.

RuTIcILia 5 Yellow-tailed Fly-catcher. Black ; breaft,
{pot on the wings, and bafe of the quill and tail-feathers yel-
low. It inhabits America and Jamaica, and is the fame
fize as the laft.

Virens; Cinereous Fly-catcher. Greenifh-brown, be-
neath pale yellow; eye-brows white. It inhabits during
fares in Carolina, and is rather more than five inches
ong.

Virinis; Chattering Fly-catcher. Green, beneath yel-
low ; belly and vent whitifh; eye-brows and {pot under the
eye whitifh; tail brown. It inhabits unfrequented places
of Carolina, and is feven inches long. It is a fhy bird, and
flies with its legs extended.

SreericA; Dun Fly-catcher. Brown; throat and vent
fpotted with white. It inhabits Siberia and Kamtfchatka.
The body of this {pecies is inclining to cinereous.

Erytunoris; Red-faced Fly-catcher. This {pecies is
{potted, beneath it is white, and has a red front. It is a
Siberian bird.

Cayanensis ; Cayenne Fly-catcher. This is brown, but
the under parts are of a pale yellow; the eye-brows white,
the crown pale orange. It is found, asits {pecific name im-

3B2 ports,

MUSCICAPA.

Ports, at Cayenne; alfo in Hifpaniola, and is about feven
inches and a half long.

CanapeEnsis ; Canada Fly-catcher. This is cinereous ;
beneath pale yellow ; lores yellow ; but the crown is {potted
with black. It inhabits, as its name imports, Canada, and
is four inches and a half long.

Cixnamomea; Cinnamon Fly-catcher. Yellowifh-cin-
namon; bar on the wings and tips of the coverts yellow ;
quill-feathers black, edged with ferruginous. It inhabits
Cayenue, is eight inches long, and has a black bill.

Spapicea; Yellow-rumped Fly-catcher. This is of a
ehefnut colour ; quill-feathers, and even tail, brown ; wing-
eoverts edged with rufous; rump yellow; belly and vent
yellowith. It inhabits Cayenne, and is feven inches long.
The bill is brown. ;

Oxivacea; Red-eyed Fly-catcher. Olive, beneath
white; eye-brows white, eyes red. There is a variety that
has olive-coloured eye-brows, and wings marked with a
double pale band. This fpecies inhabits Carolina in the
fummer, and Jamaica in the winter. It is about five inches
and a half long.

SENEGALENSIS; Senegal Fly-catcher. This is varie-
gated ; eye-brows white ; outmolt tail-feathers half white.
There is a variety that has a black breaft, and a body waved
with black and-white.. It inhabits. Senegal, and is four
inches and a half long.

Cristata ; Crefted Senegal Fly-catcher. This, fpecies
has acre‘led head, the throat is of a glofly black ; the body
‘above is bay, and beneath cinereous; the tail is wedg-d.
It inhabits near Senegal, and is more than eight inches
long.

Roniitich’s Bourbon Fly-catcher. Beneath cinereous ;
head greenifh-black, with a violet glofs; back and tail pale
bay; rump grey; quill-feathers black, edged with bay.
This bird is found, as its name fignifies, in the ifland of
Bourbon, and israther lefs than fix inches long. :

MeELaNnorTERA; Collared Fly-cather. Cinereous, be-
neath white; throat brownith-bay, with a tran{verfe black
bar beneath; bill, wings, and tail black. This {pects in-
habits Senegal, and is little more than four inches long.

Nicrirerus; Black-fronted Fly-catcher. Brown, be-
neath olive-brown ; front and temples black ; chin and throat
yellow; tail-feathers olive-brown, the two middle ones
brown. The fame fize as the laft; the bill is blackifh, and
the legs are black.

Levucura; White-tailed Fly-catcher. Greyifh-afh, be-
neath white; bill, legs, and middle tail-feathers black ; the
reft obliquely half white, the outmoft nearly white. This
inhabits the Cape of Good Hope, and is four inches and
a half long.

Ponpicertana; Coromandel Fly-catcher. Grey-ath,
beneath white ; lateral tail-feathers half white; fpot on the
wing-coverts and eye-brows white. Inhabits, as its name
imports, Coromandel; is lefs than a {parrow, and fings
well; the bill and leys are black.

Arra; Spotted Yellow Fly-catcher. Dirty-yellowifh,
fpotted with black; crown rufous, ftreaked with black ; tail
and wings rufous, the latter edged with brown. It inhabits
the Cape, and is eight inches long; the fides of the neck
are marked with two or three ftripes, and there 1s one from
the mouth.

Cana; Afh-colonred Fly-catcher. Cinereous; head,
nape, ard chin blackifh ; vent white ; quill-feathers black,
edged with cinereous ; bill and tail black ; lateral tail‘feathers
civereous at the tips; middle ones cinereous, blackifh at the
tips. ‘This fpecies inhabits Madagafcar, and is eight inches
anda half long.

_ Mapacascarigensts; Madagafcar Fly-catcher. Olive ;
chin yellow; throat. and breaft yellowifh. This alfo is
found in the ifland of Madagafcar, and is feven inches and a
half long.

Unpertata; Undulated Fly-catcher. Waved with
whitifh and brewn; head blackifh; wings rufcus brown.
It inhabits the ifle of France. ‘~

Trerec ; Indian Fly-catcher. Brown, varied with {mall
rufous fpots, beneath pale rufous; throat whitifh ; tail and
quill-feathers at the edges tipt with rufous. It inhabits the
ifland of Bourbon. The bill and legs are brown; the female
is white where the male is rufous.

Ruriventris; Rufous-vented Fly-catcher. Black ; vent
and lower tail-coverts rufous ; legs whitifh. Inhabits Bour-
bos, and is four inches and a quarter Jong.

Comata. Black; beneath, rump, and tips of the
middle tail-feathers white; vent yellow; head crefted. It
inhabits Ceylon. Its legs are blueith. :

Hazmorruousa; Red-vented Fly-catcher. Wayed with
brown, beneath white; vent red ; fubcrefted head and tail
black. ‘There isa variety that has a yellow vent; tail black,
with a white bar towards the tip. The firft is found at
Ceylon, and the fecond at Java. It is about four inches
and a half long. : ;

Pstp1i1; Guava Fly-catcher. Brown, beneath white;
vent yellowifh; crown, lores, and legs black; eye-brows
white. It inhabits Manilla. F *

Mevanictera; Yellow-breafted Fly-catcher, | Head
and cheeks black; back and wing-coverts grey-brown,
varied with yellow; breaft yellow; quill and tail-feathers
black, edged with yellow. It is found in Ceylon; is the
fize of a goldfinch, and fings well. ie

Nirexs; Green Fly-catcher. Green-gold; wings black;
throat and breait rufous; rump and belly yellow; tail-
feathers jong, green on the outer, and black on the inner
webs. It mhabits India.

Stxensts; Wreathed Fly-catcher. Greenifh-grey ; head,
bill, and legs black; chin white; throat and breaft grey;
belly and vent yellowifh ; quill-feathers yellowifh-green.

Grisea; Grey-necked Fly-catcher. Black, beneath
reddifh ; throat grey ; wing-coverts with a white band; tail
a little wedged. It inhabits China; its legs are yel-
lowith.

Fravicotiis; Yellow-necked Fly-catcher. The upper
part of this {pecies is green; the crown ard orbits yellowrth;
face black ; throat and edges of the quili and tail-feathers
yellow ; the belly is greenith, with three yellow fpots. It
inhabits China, and is about fix inches and a half long.

FramMeEA 3; Flammous Fly-catcher. Biack; back, laft
wing-coverts, breatt, vent, edges of the fecondary quill-
feathers, and tips of the tail-feathers, orange. There is a
variety, which is hoary, beneath fearlet; chin black; the
firft four quill-feathers are red at the bafe. ‘It inhabits India,
and is fix inches long.

Fuscescens; Orange-vented Flycatcher. Brownith,
beneath whitifh; head fubcrefted; rump and vent crange.
It inhabits Chipa, and is fix inches long.

Luzontensis; Black Fly-catcher. Black gloffy-violet,
beneath grey ; wings witha white ftripe in the middle. «Tt
is found in the Philippine iflands, asd in Madwgafear, and
is very {mall.

Puictprensis; Philippine Fly-catcher.. -Grey-browti,
beneath whitith; eye-brows white, This is found in’ the
Philippine iflands, and is the fize of a nightingale.

Canviea; Azure Fly-catcher. Blue; hind-head and
brealt with a black fpot; belly and vent blueifh-white ; quill

11 and

MUSCICAPA.

and tail-feathers dufky-blue. It inhabits the Philippine
iflands, and 1s five inches long.

CyanocerHaLa; Blue-headed Fly-catcher. Red, be-
neath brownifh; head blue; cail-feathers tipt with black.
It inhabits Manilla, and is the fize of a linnet. ~

Manicuensis; Yellow-throated Fly-catcher. Hind-
head and back grey; reft of the head and nape black ;
middle of the back bay; chin yellow; middle tail-feathers
black, lateral ones white. It inhabits Manilla.

FLABELLIFERA; Fan-tailed Fly-catcher. The upper
part of this bird is olive, beneath ferruginous; eye-brows,
chin, throat, fides of the neck, and lateral tail-feathers
white ; middle tail-feathers, head, and collar black. This
fpecies inhabits the fouthern ifle of New Zealand, where it
is feen conftantly hunting after infeéts and flies, always with
its tail in the fhape of a fan. It is eafily tamed, and will
then fit on any perfon’s fhoulder, and pick off the flies.

Superciviosa ; Supercilious Fly-catcher. This fpecies
is cinereous, beneath reddifh-white ; eye-brows black; tail
wedged, the middle feathers black, the reft white. It is
about four inches and a half long.

Carepoyica; Olive Fly-catcher. Olive, beneath yel-
lowifh-white ; chin and vent yellow; quill-feathers ferru-

inous. It is found in New South Wales; is about fix
inches long, and its legs are black.

Lutea; Luteous Fly-catcher. Whitifh-yellow ; wing-
coverts and guill-feathers {potted with black; tail dufky
towards the tip. It is found in Otaheite, and is fix inches
long.

Cette atin Yellow-headed Fly-catcher. Head,
neck, and breaft golden; body above ye lowifh-green, be-
neath white. It inhabits New Zealand, and is lefs than the
laft.

Fravirrons; Yel'ow-fronted Fly-catcher. Yellow-
olive, beneath yellow; front, eyes, edges of the blackith
quill-feathers, and brown tail-feathers, yellow ; arch over the
eyes white. It inhabits Tanna ifland, and is five inches and
a half long.

Navia. Black; midd’e of the back and fhoulders
{potted with white. It is found in New South Wales, and
is more than eight inches long.

Mutticotor; Red-bellied Fly-catcher. Black; front
white; breaft and belly red; vent reddifh. It inhabits
Norfolk ifland, and is about four inches and a half long,

SANDWICHENSIS; Sandwich Fly catcher. Brown, be-
neath and eye-brows whitifh; breaft ferruginous; wing-
coverts, quill, and lateral tail-feathers tipt with white. It
inhabits the Sandwich lands, and is five inches and a half
long.

Oxscura; Dufky Fly-catcher. Brown, beneath paler ;
tail-feathers long, even, pointed; belly inclining to rufous.
This alfo inhabits the Sandwich iflands, and is feven inches
and a half long. F

Macutata : Spotted-winged Fly catcher. This {pecies
is ferruginous, but beneath it is pale chefnut ; quill-feathers
black ; wing-coverts w'th rufty-white {pot near the tip; tail-
feathers brown, the outmott tipt with white. It inhabits the
Sandwich iflands.

Torquata; Cape Fly-catcher. Black, beneath white ;
breaft rufous; innermott quill-feathers tipt with white.
There is a variety that is brown, but beneath it is white ;
the brealt is black; the wings with a rufous band; tail
feathers tipt with white. It is about four inches long, and
inhabits the Cape of Good Hope.

Bicotor ;, Biack and White Fly-catcher. Black; front,
orbits, throat, rump, fpurious wings, band on the greater
wing-coverts, tips of the tail feathers, and body beneath

white. A variety is generally white; the hind-head, neck
wings, rump, and tail black. It inhabits Cayenne; is four
inches and a half long. ‘The female of the variety is wholly
grey.

AROLINENSIS; Cat Fly-catcher. Brown, beneath ci-
nereous; head black; vent red. This bird is fomewhat
bigger than a lark; length eight inches; bill black; the
upper parts of the body and wings are of a deep brown;
the under afh-coloured ; the crown of the head is black ; the
tail is blackihh, and the legs are brown. It is found in Vir-
ginia in the fummer feafon, where it frequents fhrubs rather
than tall trees, and feeds on infe&ts. Its cry refembles that
of a cat, whence the Englifh name given it by Catefby.

Octrotevca; Golden-throat Fly-catcher. Dirty-olive,
beneath whitith-yellow ; chin and edge of the wings yellow ;
primary quill and tajl-feathers olive. It inhabits New
York,

Nitipa ; Nitid Fly-catcher. This fpecies is of a pale
green; wing-coverts edged with white; quill and tail-
feathers blackifh, edged with yellow. Vhis is a {mall {pecies,
and inhabits China.

Atra; Dark Fly-catcher. Olive-ath; breait cinereous;
belly whitith-yellow; head, tail, and quill-feathers black ;
the fecondaries at the edge and outmoft tail-feathers on
the outer webs white. This fpecics inhabits New York, and
feeds on bees. ;

Novesoracensis; Hanging Fly-catcher. Greenifh;
middle of the belly and two bands on the wings white ;
chin cinereous ; fpot on each fide the bill and flanks yellow ;
primary quill and tail-feathers black, edged with green.
It is found in New York from May to Augult.

PasseRinA. Blackifh, beneath white; the tail is black.
It inhabits Tanna, in the Pacifie ocean.

Acapica ; Leffer crelted Fly-catcher. Sub-crefted,
green-afh beneath, yellowifh-white; wings with a double
white band. It is found in Nova Scotia.

Agpon. This fpecies is cf a rufty-brown; but the
under parts are yellowifh-white ; middle tail-feathers fub-
equal, the outmolt each fide much fhorter. © It” inhabits
Dauria ; ‘and fings in the night very {weetly.

Novz Hotranpim. Brown, beneath whitifh; under
the eyes, on each fide, as far as the ears, there is a yellow
ftreak. It inhabits New Holland, and is feven inches long.

FerruGiyea; Rufty Fly-catcher.- Brown-rufous, be-
neath whitifh-yellow ; chin white ; wii gs black, edged with
a rufty colour ; tail-feathers beneath glaucous, above black,
edged with brown; the outmoft fhort and white. It ‘in-
habits Carolina, and is five inches and a half long.

Nicra. This is totally. black; bill, head, and legs
dufky-black. | It inhabits the Society iflands.

Ocuracea. Neck and breatt ferruginous-ah ; wings
and tail black-afh. It is found at the Cape’ of Good
Hope.

Avsirrons. This fpecies is black-brown above; but
the throat and breaft are whitifh; the belly is pale ferru-
ginous; front whitith; its bill and legs are black. It in-
habits the Cape of Good Hope,

Merayotevuca. This is of a fnowy colour; but the
feathers at the bafe are brown ; the breaft is of a palith-yel-
low; the head and neck, as far at the middle wings, tips of
the tail-feathers, bill, and legs are black. It inhabits Georgia,
iu the fummer months only, and is about fix inches long.

Perecuia. This is brown; but beneath it is cinereous,
fpotted with rufous throat aud veut rufous. Te inhabits
the ifland of Martinico, and is fix inches and a half long.

VirGata; Streaked Ply-catcher. © Brown, beneath
whiuifh-brown, with longitudinal brown ftreaks ; ‘crown

fub-

MUS

fub-crefted, varied with cinereous and yellow; edge of the
quill-feathers, and two bands on the coverts, rufous. It
mhabits Cayenne, and is four inches and a half long.

Acitis; Adtive Fly-catcher. Olive-brown, beneath
whitith ; quill and tail-feathers black, edged with olive-
brown. It inhabits Cayenne, is the fize of the M. virgata,
and is continually hunting after infects, which it picks out
from under the bark of trees. '¥

* Grisota; Spotted Fly-catcher. Brownifh, whitith be-
neath ; neck longitudinally {potted ; vent pale-rufous ; bill
black, whitifh at the bafe; infide of the mouth yellow;
head large, brownifh, and {potted with black ; back moufe-
coloured; wings and tail black; the former edged with
white ; chin {potted with red; legs black. About the
fize of the tit-lark; length five inches and a half. It in-
habits this country, and others in Europe. This bird vifits
us in {pring, and departs in September. It frequents orchards
and groves, and will make its neft on the limb of fome
fruit-tree nailed againft the wall, or in a hole, fometimes in
out-buildings, on the end of a beam or rafter, and at other
times again{t the body of a large tree, or on the ftump of a
decayed branch. The neft is formed of bents, mofs, and
fuch kind of materials, interwoven with {piders’ webs, and
lined with feathers. The female lays four or five eggs, not
much unlike thofe of the red-breaft, but rather lefs, and the
ruft-coloured {pots more diftin&, and not fo much confined
to the larger end. Its food feems to be entirely winged
infeéts, though it is faid to be particularly fond of cherries,
probably from the circumftance of its frequenting the cherry-
tree for the fake of flies that are attracted by the fruit. As
foon as the young birds leave the neft, they are led by the
old ones to fome neighbouring wood or grove where infe&s
abound, and where they may be feen darting in every direc-
tion in purfuit of flies, and frequently returning to the fame
ftation. The note of this {pecies is a fimple weak chirp,
not frequently ufed till after the young are fled; fo that
the bird, though common, is not readily difcovered.

Dicuroa; Two-coloured Fly-catcher. Above cine-
reous, beneath ochre; tail-feathers partly ochre, partly
cinereous. Itinhabits Africa.

Desertr1; Defert Fly-catcher. Body ferruginous and
footy ; wings and tail blackifh ; bill yellowifh, It inhabits
the deferts of Arabia.

Javanica; Javan Fly-catcher. Tail very long, rounded ;
body varied with black and ferruginous, beneath white ;
throat black; eye-brows white. It inhabits Java.

Aza; White Fly-catcher. White; head yellowifh-
fulphur. It inhabits round Stockholm.

Campatensis; Cambay Fly-catcher. Gloffy-black ;
back yellowith-green ; beneath tawny-yellow ; wing-coverts
with a double white band. It inhabits Cambay.

Muscicapa Madagafcarienfis, kc. or Fork-tailed thrike.
See Lantus Forficatus.

Moscicapa Tyrannus, the Tyrant fhrike of Latham, and
Tyrant fly-catcher of Pennant. See Lanius Tyrannus.
Muscicara Emeria, the Bengal fhrike of Latham.

Lanius Lmersa.

Muscicapa Paradifi, the Paradife fly-catcher of Latham.
See Topus Parad:/eus.

Muscicara Rubra, the Summer Tanager of Pennant and
Latham, See Tanacra Afiva!

Muscicapa ¢ Ceruleo, Cinereo, Fufco, Luteo, Varia, the
Jamaica warbler of Latham. See Moracitza Dominica.

MUSCIPETA, the Stone-chat of Latham. See Mo-
TACILLA Rubicola.

MUSCIPULA, in Botany, is ufed in a different fenfe

See

MUS

from the claffical one, and derived from AZu/ca, a fly. See
Stveve and Dionma, where it occurs as a {pecific name,
fynonymous with Catch-fly, or Fly-trap : in the former in-
ftance alluding to the glutinous nature of the ftems in fe-
veral {pecies of Silene; and in the latter to the peculiar
ftructure and irritability of the leaves. Mu/cipula however
always means, with the ancients, fome fort of moufe-trap,
from Mus, a moufe; and fuch may in general be the
puayex Or puxyeor, as well as the pvayeos, of the Greeks, but
not, it feems, the pvayeos of Diofcorides. See MyAGRuM.

MUSCKA, in Geograpay, a town of Lufatia, on the
river Neiffe ; the chief place of a lordfhip, about 30 miles
in circumference ; 52 miles N.E. of Drefden. N. lat. 51°

1’. E. long. 14° 46'.

MUSCLE, in Anatomy and Phyfiology, is that foft and
fibrous {tru€ture, generally of a red colour, known in com-
mon language by the name of flefh, and poffeffing the pro-
perty of contraction, by which it becomes the initrument of
almoft all the motions in the ‘living body. It confilts of
threads or fibres joined together by cellular fubftance: thefe
are rendered very confpicuous in meat, which has been boiled
for along time. They are arranged in different forms ac-
cording to the purpofes to which they are fubfervient.
Connected together in large maffles, and united to ten-
dons, which are fixed to the bones, they conftitute the vo-
luntary mufcles. Thefe compofe nearly the whole bulk of the
foft parts of the limbs, and a very confiderable proportion
of the trunk, and execute all the motions, which take place ~
in obedience to the commands of the will. They fix the
body, and determine the attitudes of its various parts in
ftanding, fitting, and lying: they move it forwards in
walking, running, jumping, dancing, {wimming, climbing,
&c. ; and are the fole agents in feizing, holding, thrufting,
throwing, &c. By alternately enlarging and contra¢tin
the chelt, their affiftance is effential in refpiration ; and thefe
motions, together with thofe which they caufe in the larynx
and mouth, produce the voice and {peech. , They dire& the
eyes towards furrounding objeéts, and elevate or deprefs the
lids: they open or clofe the mouth and nofe. They are the
agents of fucking, chewing, and fwallowing, and are effen-
tially concerned in copulation and parturition, in expelling
the urine and feces, &c.

Under another arrangement, in which they furround va-
rious hollow organs, they move the contents, whether folid
or fluid, of fuch parts. In this way they drive the blood
through the different cavities of the heart, and propel it in
the arterial canals; they convey the food through the
cavities of the ftomach and inteftines, and the urine along its
paflages. ©

Some motions are not executed by mufcles : the elafticity
of acartilage, for inftance, may reftore it after it has been
moved out of its natural ftate. It is {till a controverted
point whether the arteries are mufcular (fee HEART) ; and
the veins certainly are not. Similar doubts exift concerning
the iris (fee Eye). We can dete&t no mufcular fibres in the
Fallopian tubes lice GENERATION), nor in the excretory
canals of the glands (fee GLanp), The motions of exha-
lation, fecretion, abforption, and nutrition, are for the moft
part imperceptible to us, and the minutenefs of the organs,
in which they are performed, conceals them altogether from
our refearches: we have, therefore, no grounds Br believing
that they are executed by mufcle.

According to the preceding view, we may ftate that the
perceptible motions (excepting thofe of the iris and the lar,
abforbing veffels) are performed by that kind of ftru€ture
which we call mufcle ; while the movements, which efcape
our obfervation, are executed in a manner, of which we may

rather

MUSCLE.

rather fay we are ignorant, than that it is not effected by the
medium of mufcular ftructure.

The organifation of the different organs enumerated above,
which perform motion, yet are not manifeltly fibrous, has
afforded an opportunity for much unferviceable controverfy
among anatomifts, which might, perhaps, have been {pared
by a little attention to the meaning of the terms employed.
If mu/éle be a tiflue confilting of long, cylindrical, and pa-
rallel threads, poffefling the power of contraction, mufcu-
larity muft be denied to many parts of the body which
perform motion: if the executing motion be a criterion of
mufcular ftruéture, thefe parts muft be ranked among muf-
cular organs.

Hitherto we have confidered the fubje€ in a general point
of view, regarding mufcle as a ftructure capable of con-
tra‘ting, and thereby performing moft of the animal motions:
this power has generally been called irritability. A more
clofe infpeGtion will foon convince us that the mufcular fyf-
tem mutt be divided into two great fections, differing from
each other in their organifation, vital properties, external
form and functions. In one of thefe motion is produced in
obedience to volition ; inthe other it is independent of the
will: ina few inftances the two chara¢ters are united. Hence
the mufcles have been divided into voluntary, involuntary, and
mixed. Yet their ftru€ture and properties have generally
been confidered together. Bichat has feparated completely
the voluntary and involuntary mufcles: he makes of the
former, the mufcular fyftem of the animal life, and of the
latter, that of the organic life, according as they are con-
cerned in the one or the other of the great divifions efta-
blifhed by him in the animal fun&tions. (See Lire.) This
arrangement appears to us to be the moft conformable te na-
ture, and we fhall accordingly adopt it in the prefert article.
We bhall, therefore, divide it into two parts; of which the
firft will include the account of the mufcular fyftem of the
animal, and the fecond of the organic life. The following
order of fubjeéts will be adopted in the firft part: 1. The
organifation. 2. The properties of the animal mufcular fyf-
tem. 3. The application of the mufcular fibres to tendons,
compoling the mufcles. 4. Divifion, names, forms, and ar-
rangements of the mufcles. 5. Tabular view of the muf{cles.
6. Explanation of the plates. 7. Phenomena of the muf-
cular fyitem in aétion. 8. A view of the powers, by which
the more general motions of the body are effected. 9. De-
velopement of the animal mufcular fyftem. In the fecond
part we fhall confider fucceffively, 1. The organifation.
2. The properties 3. Thephenomenaof aétion. 4, The
developement of the organic mufcles.

I. Organifation of the Mufeular Syftem of the Animal Life.—
The diftinguifhing chara¢ter of a mufcle is the mufcular fibre;
it contains, befides, blood-veffels, nerves, exhalants and ab-
forbents, and cellular tifflue, which are common parts; (we
{peak of thofe vifible to the naked eye. )

The mufcular fibre is flender, long, cylindrical, red, foft-
ifh, of uniform fize in the large and the {mall mufcles; pof-
feffing every where the fame characters and appearances ;
fometimes difpofed in diftin& bundles feparated from each
other by confiderable grooves, but more generally arranged
in a plane furface ; always joined to numerous others of the
fame mature, and eafily diltinguifhable by the naked eye.
If we proceed to examine minutely any particular mufcle,
we ealily feparate it into.a number of bundles, or fafci-
culi; each of thefe is again feparable into f{maller bundles,
and this divifion may be repeated until the parts be-
come too minute for our obfervation: they are diftinguifhed
throughout by the fame fibrous or thready appearance,
and the whole mufcle differs from its {malleft portion

only in the number of the threads, Inftigated by the hope
of difcovering the mechanifm of mufcular motion, ana-
tomifts have examined the ftructure of thefe organs in
every poffible way, and have profecuted inquiries into the
organifation and properties of the ultimate fibre by the aid
of the microfcope, when the unaflifted eye had traced their
divifions as far as poffible. Boiling for a long time, and
immerfion in fpirits of wine, render the fibres more percepti-
ble ; they become {maller, harder, more opaque, and eafily
feparable : but we {till find nothing in them but threads of an
uniform appearance, reducible into fmaller and f{maller
bundles, in which the elementary fibre cannot be traced, We
believe that the long labours of the numerous microfcopical
enquirers have not hitherto advanced our knowledge any
further: and if it be true, as Soemmerring informs us, that
Muys fpent eighteen years in inveftigating the fubjeét, we
can only colleé from his inveftigations, as detailed in the
Mufculorum artificiofa Fabrica, 4to. Lugd. Bat. 1751, that
the phyfiology of mufcular motion is not likely to receive
any important elucidations from this quarter.

Micrefcopical obfervation fhews us that the fibres purfue
their courfe witheut bifurcation or any kind of divifion : they
are placed in mutual eppofition, and lie parallel to each other:
hence much fewer fibres are divided by a perpendicular, than
by atranverfe feGtion. Itis not determined whether the fibres
run through the whole length of a long mufcle or no, Pro-
chafka afferts that they do: Haller fays that they turn afide
after a fhort courfe among the peighbouring ones, and are
loft in the cellular fubftance. In general they appear cylin-
drical ; but fometimes they are more or lefs ferpentine or un-
dulated, particularly after boiling, or when obferved foon
after death: occafionally the line of the fibre is quite zigzag,
or it has‘ knotted appearance. The conneétions by means of
cellular fubftance, and the courfe of veflels and nerves, feem
to be the caufes of thisappearance. The fibres are fo fmall,
that Muys eftimates they would not tranfmit the 46th part of
a red globule of the blood if they were hollow, and that
they are forty times {maller than the flendereft human hair.
On thefe points, however, agreat variety of ftatements will
be found in the reports of different obfervers. «‘ Hzc omnia,”
fays Haller, «‘ multum habent ex arbitrio, et ex cafu nata, cum
alii ultimum, alii penultimum ordinem decrefcentium fibrarum
vidiffe potuerint. Sed neque ullo modo probabile videtur, nos
ultima elementa, et proxima organa motus animalis, oculis
perfpicere : aut o€to ejufmodi continuos, veris limitibus dif-
tinétos, ordines effe, in quos fila filorum refolvantur.??
Elem. Phyfiol. t. iv. p. 416.

4A great diverfity of opinion has exifted about the figure
and appearance of the ultimate fibre, of the lait threads, into
which the mufcular {tru€ture can be refolved. It has been a
matter of difpute whether it be folid or hollow, cylindrical or
flattened. Some have reprefented it as compofed of veficles
or globules, fome of a feries of rhombs, others as cellular,
&c. Leeuwenhoeck and Muys, whofe refearches feem on
the whole to have been the moft numerous and accurate, ree
prefent them as cylindrical and fometimes, but rarely,
knotted. When weconfider that this is a point determinable
only by the microfcope, and remember how many fources of
error fuch obfervations are expofed to, we fhall agree with
Haller; ‘« Iterum, fi quettio fuerit de ultime fibre fabrica,
num folida, num cellulofis fibris intercepta & farta, num
denique tofa inftar tubuli cava fit, timidius certe oportebit
os eure omnem oculorum aciem pofita pronunciare.’?

- 418.

That the mufcular fibres are a continuation of the nerves,
under a different form and arrangement, or that they are
hollow and prolongations of blood-vellels, are doctrines

which

MUSCLE.

which have been maintaiued by very eminent men, and very
generally received. Thefe ftrange notions reft on no direét
obfervations ; they are vague and confufed fancies, contra-
di&ted by well-known phy fiological faéts, and repugnant to
allanalogy. The objects in queftion are beyond the reach of
our fenfes : confequently we can procure no data for an opi-
nion concerning them. Our ftudy of nature fhould begin
where it falls within the {phere of our organs. All that
we know about the nature of the mufcular fibre is, that ‘it
conftitutes a pecuiiar tiffue, not identical to that of the
nerves, blood-véffels, tendons, or cellular fubftance. Where
the organifation is the fame; the properties muft be
the fame. Now the propertics of all thefe fyftems differ
effentially, and their ftru€ture cannot therefore be ana-
logous.

The mufcular tiffue is remarkable for its foftnefs, and in
this refpe& differs from the fibrous: hence it is very eafily
torn in the dead body ; the mere weight of the limbs will
fometimes do this. During life it is no lefs remarkable for
its powers of refiftance: it feems to acquire, when con-
tracted, an augmentation of ftrength, that renders it capa-
ble, not.only of bearing great viclence, but of fupporting
enormous weights, rupturing the tendons, breaking the
bones, &c. Ruptures of the mufcles during life are very rare,
but not altogether unexampled: we have feen three or four
inftances of it in the reéti abdominis.

The chemifts have exerted themfelves very bufily in the
examination of the mufcular tiffue, and we refer the reader
to their works, and to the chemical articles of the Cyclopedia
on this fubje&t. (See Frere.) We fhall confider the matter
here in a phyfiological view. ;

When cut into thin flices, and expofed to the air, the
mufcular tiffue affumes a dark brown colour, becomes thin,
hard, and brittle. When put into water a few days after
being thus dried, it recovers its original foftnefs and form,
and has alighter colour. When the mufcular flefh is expofed
in large maffes, or to morft air, it pntrefies very quickly,
affuming a green or livid colour, and exhaling a putrid odour.
A thick ftinking pulp, after a certain time, holds the place
of the fibres: this gradually evaporates, and leaves a hard,
blackifh, brown refidue.

Cold water deftroys the colour, and very rapidly if thin
flices are placed in a curient, or if they are frequently
immerfed and then fqueezed ; the furface only is whitened
when a moufcle is left in a jar of water. The fluid, which
has been ufed in wafhing a mufcle, is reddifh: it contains
the colouring matter with fome gelatine, &c. No part of
the anima! {tru€ture lofes its colour more readily than mufcle.
When kept in the fame water, at a moderate temperature,
its furface is reduced after a long time into a foft putrid
matter. Sometimes, however, it 1s converted into a fub-
ftance refemLling fpermaceti. This change is generally pre-
ceded by a reddifh appearance in different fpots on the fur-
face of the mufcle, which is the commencement of the
decompofition. See Anrpocire.

When repeated wafhings have removed the colouring mat-
ter of a mufcle, there remains a white fibrous fubftauce,
from which we may extraé& by ebullition albumen, which
rifes in the form of froth, which grows firm on cool-
ing, an extraétive matter of a deep colour when concen-
trated, and fome phofphoric falts. "The refidue is a greyifh
fibrous matter, infoluble in warm water, foluble in weak
acids, yielding much azote under the ation of nitric acid,
and prefenting all the chara¢ters of the fibrine of the blood.
This, as Fourcroy has obferved, is probably the peculiar
nutritive fubilance of the mufcle, which bettows the dif-
tinGtive character on the organ, as the phofphat of lime does

onthe bone. Whether this be found in the blood, and
conveyed into the mufcle, or be formed by the procefs of
nutrition in the mufcle, and thence carried irto the blood,
we have no means of determining. It feems to exift in very
various degrees; and hence, probably, the varieties in the
confiftence of the mufcular tiflue. To this fubftance is
owing the property, which a mufcle poffeffes, of becoming
corrugated under the aétion of heat, whether by expofing
it to naked fire, or in boiling water. The quantity exifting
in the mufcles is in proportion to that contained in the
blood.

When mufcles are boiled, conne&ted with furrounding
parts, an albuminous froth and fome drops of fat arife,
probably from the cellular tiffue: a gelatinous matter is
produced from the aponeurotic parts; and an extrattive
fubftance is fet free, giving a colour and a peculiar tafte to
the fluid. The latter remains partly adherent to the fibres,
and gives them a deep tint very different from that of raw
flefh : the colour becomes lighter as the part cools. Certain
falts are diffolved in the boiling, and add to the flavour of
the broth: thefe are particularifed by the chemifts.

As the water approaches the boiling poirt, the mufcular
tiffue, which had not hitherto undergone any change, be-
comes corrugated and condenfed, and acquires very great
additional firmnefs. Its condition may be compareé to that
of its contraétion during life, and it will now fupport
weight that would have broken it eafily before it was boiled.
This condenfation of the mufcular tiffue is very rapid, and
is at its higheit degree at the moment of ebullition; it con-
tinues for a certain time and then gradually diminifhes, the
fibres becoming again foft, and more eafily lacerable than
they were at firft. The mufcle, however, does not go back
to its original ftate; it has lott the power of corrugation
by heat, alcohol, or acids ; its tafte is different; it pu-
trifies lefs eafily, and produces a different odour under that

rocefs.
q Expofure to naked heat, as in roafting, changes the co-
lour, confiftence, and tafte of the mufcles, and dettroys the
power of corrugation by the agents already {pecified.

The mufcular fyftem is a€ted on very remarkably by
the fluids of the ftomach, and performs a very important
office as the principal nutriment of carnivorous animals and
man. See DicEstion.

There are differences in the properties of mufcles con-
neéted with the differences of fexes: this is known from
their employment as food. The flefh of the male, in the
rutting feafon, has a very peculiar odour, and a {trong dif-
agreeable tafte. See GENERATION.

The celluiar tiffue is very abundant in the mufeular fyf-
tem. (See CerLuLar Sub/fance, and MEMBRANE, Cellular.)
It forms round each mufcle a ftratum, which is generally
loofe, filled with fat, and eafily dittended with air in emphy-
fema, or water inanafarca. In {ome in{tances it is more denfe,
and difpofed in the form of a membrane; as for example,
in the obliquus externus abdominis. Each fafciculus, and
each fibre, down to the fmalleft perceptible divifions, has a
covering, which becomes more delicate as the divifions ave
more minute. The quantity of the cellular tiffue in the fub-
{tance of a mufcle varies greatly ; it is generally the moft
abundant in the broad, and the large and long mufcles.
Thofe about the {pine have but little. The general cover-
ing of the mufcle fixes it to the neighbouring parts, while
the pliancy of the cellular tiffue enables it to yield readily
to the motions in every direétion. ‘The coverings of the
particular fafciculi and fibres attach them to each other, while

the ferum and fat of the cells facilitate their reciprocal
motions,

As

MUSCLE.

Asche mulcular fibres are all parallel to each other, the
cellular threads uniting them pafs at right angles to them,
and have fometimes been taken for tranfverfe fibres. We
believe that all the fibres in the voluntary mutfeles are parallel
to each other. Hence, if it be cut according to their
courfe, the power of motion remains ; but it is entirely loft
if the feGion is carried tranfverfely.

The fat is fometimes accumulated in a mufele to fuch a
degree, that the appearance of the mufcular fibres is almott
lok. In animals which are fattened for flaughter, we often
obferve a confiderable quantity of fat mixed with the fibres,
which is never feen in the mufcles of wild animals which pre-
ferve their native powers of exertion,

The arteries of mufcles are very numerous and apparent :
they enter towards the middle, rather than at the ends of
the mufcle, run at firft between the principal fafciculi, and
proceed, as they divide, along the intervals of the fmaller
divifions, until they end in capillary ramifications. In pro-
portion to their bulk, hardly any organs receive more blood
than the mufcles. It gives them their peculiar colour, not
by circulating in their veflels, but being combined with their
tiffue. Hence thefe organs are not changed in their appear-
ance in afphyxia: if a mufcle be divided in an animal dying
in that ftate, black blood is thrown out from the arteries,
but the mnfcular fibres continue red. The veins correfpond
to the arteries, and every where accompany them: they
receive, from the contraction of the mufcles, a preffure,
which accelerates the ftream of blood, as may be feen when
a perfon on whom phlebotomy is performed moves his fore-
arm and fingers. No effect of this kind is produced on the
arterial circulation. As the mufeular contractions affilt in
fo confiderable a degree the progrefs of the venous blood,
thefe veins probably have few or no valves : certainly they are
very little fubje& to varices.

Exhalants and abforbents exift in the mufcles ; but they
cannot be demonttrated.

The nerves of the voluntary mufcles are almoft all de-
rived from the brain, or from the fpinal marrow ; when
they receive any branches from the ganglia, as in the neck
and pelvis, they have others from the cerebral or {pinal nerves.
The mufcles receive larger nerves than any parts in the
body, except the organs of the fenfes ; and in general the
fize of the nerves is in proportion to the bulk of the mufcle ;
but this is not conftant, the mufcles of the eye, for example,
receive very large ones. Small mufcles have often only a fingle
nervous branch, but the larger ones generally receive feveral.
It has been remarked that the flexors have larger nerves than
the extenfors: the truth is, that the former mufeles very
greatly exceed the latter in fize, and the great nervous as
well as vafcular trunks ufually run along the limbs in the
afpeé&t of flexion, difpatching branches to the extenfors.
There is no reafon for aflerting that more nerve goes to an
equal bulk of flexors than of extenfors.

The nerves enter the mufcles at various angles, and in all
fituations. They divide and run between the fafciculi, like
the blood-veffels, and may be traced in this manner until
they have become very minute. Whether they grow fofter
as they become fmaller; whether the ultimate fibrils lay
afide their external coat and aflume a pulpy form; and whe-
ther every fibre of the mufcle receives a nerve, are points
which cannot-be afcertained. The fa& that the whole
mufcle is thrown into action by irritating the nervous trunk
that fupplies it, favours the affirmative fide of the latter
queftion ; but the whole mufcle contraéts equally if a few
fibres only are ftimulated.

The nerves generally enter the mufcles in company with
blood-veflels, particularly arteries, and conneéted to them

Vou. XXIV.

by loofe cellular tiffue. ‘They are rendered’ niore apparent
in the mufcle by maceration, as they refift putrefaftion for a
long time.

IL. Properties of the Mufcular Syftem of Animal Life.—
There are no fy{tems in the animal {tru€ture, in which the
vital properties, and thofe refulting from organifation, exift
in a more marked degree than in the fubjeét of our prefent
confideration. The phyfical properties, on the contrary,
are weak ; the tiffue is foft, and offers very little refiftance
after death: the power, by which its funétions are cha-
catterifed, is derived from life.

1. Properties derived from Organifation—Extenfibility is
fhewn under various circumitances. When any part is
moved, the mufcles antagonifing thofe that have moved it
are ftretched ; all great flexions put in aétion the extenfi-
bility of the extenfors, and vice ver/é. This phenomenon
belongs to the mufcular fibres only, and not at all to the
tendons ; hence the degree, in which it is poffeffed by any
mufcle, depends on the length of its flefhy fibres. Tu-
mours, diftentions of the abdomen in afcites, pregnancy,
é&c. occafion the exertion of the fame property.

Contractility of tiffue belongs to the mufcles in a yer
coniiderable degree, and is conftantly difpofed to exer-
tion when they have been extended beyond their natural
length. It is independent of the nerves, and of the irri-
table nature of the mufcles; influenced by life, but not
neceflarily conneéted with it ; and depends effentially on the
organifation. It aéts in a flow and regular manner, and is
diminifhed or increafed only in proportion as the mufcular
tiffue is {trengthened or weakened. Hence the variations in
its quicknefs can only be feen in different individuals, or in
the fame individual at different times ; there are never fuch
fudden changes in a fhort time as we fee in the exertions of
the vital properties; and this is a ftriking diltin@tion be-
tween them. The contractility of tiffue is feen in the
recovery of the abdomen after paracentefis or parturition,
in the return of parts to their original ftate after the
evacuation of an abfcefs or the removal of atumour. This
property caufes the two ends of a divided mufcle to become
{eparated from each other; and Bichat afcribes to it the
attitudes which the limbs prefent, when they are not in-
fluenced by any mufcular aGtion. He obferves, that in
the middle ftate of a limb, between the two extreme points
to which it can be moved, the antagonift mufcles balance
each other by their contractility of tiffue. The part can
be moved in either direétion from this middle ftate only by
the exertion of the vital powers of the mufcles, and can be
maintained in its new polition only by the continued ation
of fuch powers. In this cafe the oppofite mufcles are
{tretched in a degree proportioned to the motion which the
limb has performed; and the contraéted mufcle not only
aéts on the bone, in which it is implanted, but alfo on its
antagoniit. Hence the mufcles reciprocally a& on each other ;
they are alternately active and paflive, moving and moved
organs. A mufcle, when thus ftretched, is difpofed to con-
tract itfelf, and more, in proportion to the degree of exten-
fion: as foon as the vital powers ceafe to operate in the
contraéted mufcles, the contractility of ciffue of the anta-

onifts carries back the limb to the middle ftate. Hence,
fays Bichat, whenever the mufcles feel nothing of the cere-
bral influence, and are not irritated by any itimuli, as in
Sleep, and in the fcetus, the limbs are conitantly found in
a middle pofition between flexion and extenfion, abduétion
and adduétion, &c. The horizontal extention of the trunk
and limbs in fevers does not arife from any fuperiority in
the extenfor mufcles, but from a deficient energy in the
flexors, which cannot overbalance the weight of the limb.
3C Hence

MUSCLE.

‘Hence fuch an attitude is a clear fign of general and alarm-
ing weaknefs.

Befides the retra€tion of the two ends, there is another
effe& following the divifion of a mufcle: the contraility
of tiffue of the antagonift, being no longer oppofed, draws
the moveable part towards the oppofite fide to that on which
the divifion has been made. Hence we find the mouth
drawn towards the found fide in a cafe of paralyfis; but
the deviation is not fo remarkable here, as when the mufcle
has been divided, becaufe the contractility of tiffue remains,
and oppofes the oppofite mufcles fo long as the parts con-
tinue at reft. When the perfon endeavours to fpeak, and
the mufcles of the found fide are put in action, the deformity
becomes more apparent. ‘The contraétility of tiffue feems
to be weakened in fome inftances of paralyfis; but it is
never entirely deftroyed. Bichat divided the nerves of the
leg in a dog; and cut off the leg fome days after: the
mufcles retraéted when divided.

The extent of the contraétility of tifflue is in a dire&
ratio to the length of fibres: hence the fuperficial mufcles,
which are the longelt, always retra&t the moit in amputation ;
the phenomena arifing from this power during fleep are
moft apparent in the limbs, where the mufcles are the
longeit ; hence, too, antagonift mufcles corre{pond in length
to each other.

This power is weakened, but not annihilated by death ;
putrefation alone completely puts an end to it. Bichat
ttates, however, that the power of retraction in the mufcles
is greater, fo long as they retain vital warmth, than after
the coldnefs of death has feized them. s

This contractility of tiflue appears very nearly the fame
with the vis mortua of Haller. He calls it by that name,
becaufe it is exerted after death. «* Ceterum hee vis cum
yita nihil commune habet. Etfi enim in humeéta et flexili
animali materie eft manifeftior, diu tamen a plena morte, in-
que excifis membris, in mufculis, inque membranis integra
fupereft.’’ Elem. Phyfiol. t.1v. p. 444. To the fame
property he refers the phenomena arifing from the ation of
fire, concentrated acids, alcohol, &c. on animal matter,
which is corrugated and curled up by fuck applications.
s« Ad hanc ipfam potentiam referre mortuz irricabilitatis
genus, quod venena chemica in omnibus partibus corporis
humani demonftrant, potiffimum etiam nitri {piritus fumans,
deinde oleum vitrioli, et butyrum antimonii, et alia id genus.
Acerrimi enim hi latices cellulofam telam, cutem, eaque
cellulofa tela compofitas membranas, placentam uterinam,
vifcera, arterias, venas, etiam laéteas, dudtus excretorios,
facculos urine et bilis, nervos, tendines, mufculos ipfos, et
cor, quando contigerunt, continuo cogunt in minorem lon-
gitudinem fe recipere, ela quidem ceHulofa, cum ipfo
adipe, exeditur et confumitur, reliqua firmiora contrahuntur,
fulco exarantur profundo, et arétantur, ficubi cava funt re-
ceptacula, et in curvitatem contraéla; repunt quando longi
et recti funt funiculi.”” The effeét of heat is analogous ;
that is, it caufes a crifpation and curling of the animal tex-
ture, Bichat has defignated thefe phenomena by the term
racorniffement ; and he points out feveral circumftances, by
which they are diftinguifhed from thofe which he afcribes to
the contractility of tiffue. ‘The latter property exifts in a
very flight*degree in feveral organs, which enjoy the power
of racorniffement very confiderably ; ¢. gr. the fibrous, fibro-
cartilaginous, ferous fyftems, &c.

It varies very much in different organs, from the mufcles
and fkin, where it is the molt fenfible, to the cartilages, which
hardly feem to poffefs it; while the latter is nearly uniform
throughout the body. It is deftroyed by drying, which
does not affe& the power of suai as we may fee

in leather and parchment: it receives an additional energy
from life, particularly in the mufcles, while the other is not
modified by this caufe. The contraétility ats very gra-
dually ; the racorniffement very fuddenly: to feel the in-
fluence of fire, and become curled, are almoft fimultaneous
phenomena. The latter produces a remarkable denfity in the
organs, which they never exhibit under the exertion of the
contractility. The ceffation of extenfion is the only con-
dition neceffary to the exertion of contraétility : the contaé&
of a foreign body is neceffary to the crifpation of the
tiffue.

2. Vital Properties.—Animal fenfibility exifts in a very ob-
{cure degree in the mufcles, at leaft in their natural itate.
We are not confcious of their contraétion. When they
are divided in amputation, or in experiments on living ani-
mals, no very confiderable pain is occafioned, unlefs when a
nerve is included in the cut. The irritation of chemical
ftimuli does not render their fenfibility more apparent. Yet
they are the feat of a peculiar feeling, produced by re-
peated or powerful contraétions, and termed fatigue. This
is felt in the mufcles, which are principally employed in the
ation that has produced fatigue, as in the lumbar mufcles
after ftanding, in the mufcles of the calf and the extenfors
of the knee, after walking or running upa hill, &e. It
may take place without any previous exertion, as in fevers,
where the patient has the fame kind of laflitude, as would be
produced by a long mufcular exertion. When the muf-
cular tiffue is inflamed, the animal fenfibility is exalted in a
very remarkable degree; the weight of the bed clothes
cannot be borne, and the flighteft motion of the part pro-
duces the moft lively pain.

Animal contradility, on which depend all the phenomena
of locomotion and the voice, and which affilts feveral of the
internal and external funtions, refides exclufively in the
mufcular fyftem of the animal life, and forms its diftin@ive
charaéter. It confifts inthe power of moving under the in-
fluence of the brain, whether that be determined by the
will, or by any other caufes. In the exercife of this kind of
contractility, and the correfponding {pecies of fenfibility,
the action of the brain and the nerves is required, while
the two kinds of organic contraétility are concentered in the
organ that is moved.. If we may be allowed fuch expref-
fiens, the brain may be called the fource from which this
property is derived, as it is the point to which all the fen-
{ations are conveyed: the cerebral nerves are the agents
tran{mitting it, as they are in an oppofite direction con-
duétors of the fenfitive phenomena. In order, therefore,
to gain aclear notion of this property, we muft examine it
in the brain, the nerves, and the mafcles.

All the phenomena of animal contradtility evince the m-
fluence of the brain. Its energy is augmented when the
brain is excited by the paffions, as wrath, by opium, or
by wine: terror, which diminithes the aétion of the heart,
and caufes a kind of atony in the brain, and the various
narcotics taken in excefs, which have an analogous effect,
caufe a languor, or even a complete intermittence, in the vo-
luntary ations of the mufcles. When the brain is concen-
trated in its relations to the organs of fenfe, or in its in-
tellectual funétions—when we are looking or hearing very
attentively, or employed in profound meditation or reflec-
tion, the voluntary powers all remain at relt.

In difeafe, all caufes, which a& powerfully on the brain,
re-act fuddenly on the animal mufcular fyftem, and produce
paralyfis or conyulfions, of which the former indicates
diminifhed, and the latter increafed energy. The one is
caufed by compreffion of the brain, and by the confe-
quences of apoplexy: it generally takes place at the com-

mencement

MUSCLE.

mencement of hemiplegia, when the patient lofes his fenfes
and voluntary powers, and has all the figns of affection of
the brain; the immediate attack fubfides, but its effect re-
mains, and is evinced by the immobility of one-half of the
mufcular fyftem: the paralyfed fide of the body is op-
pofite to that of the injury in the brain. Various irrita-
tions of the cerebral organ, as fpicule of bone lacerating
its fubftance, inflammation, tumours, &c. produce convul-
fions. Thus, fays Bichat, we may figuratively call the
animal mufcular fyftem the thermometer of the brain; the
energy of the voluntary motions is dire&tly proportionate to
the one ef that organ: in this point of view the mufcles
are to the brain, what the arteries are to the heart. When
the compreffion of the brain ceafes, the power of voluntary
motion is reftored. The refu'ts of phyfiological experiments
on living animals coincide with the facts juft ttated. By tyin
all the arteries of the brain, voluntary motion is fuddenly fuf-
pended, and death takes place. Inje¢tions of irritating fluids
produce convulfions and then death. By mechanical or chemi-
cal irritations of the brain when laid bare, convulfions are pro-
duced. This effe&, however, does not take place when the
convex furface of the hemifpheres is aéted on: and it foliows
the more certainly in proportion as we come nearer to the
bafis of the organ. Compreffion of the expofed furface of
the brain paralyfes the mufcles.

We mutt, however, admit fome latitude in our notions
concerning the conneétion between the ftate of the brain and
the mufcular phenomena. When lecal affeCtions of the
head take place gradually, they may proceed to a great ex-
tent without affeGting the mufcular motions ; as in collec-
tions of matter or pus, or intumours. Sometimes, in fuch
cafes, the intelleGtual funGtions alone are difturbed; or the
perceptive power may be affected. The brain has three
prat functions ; it receives the impreffions of the external
enfes ; it is the centre of the voluntary motions ; and it is
the feat of the intelleGtual phenomena. It may be deranged
in one of thefe refpects, and perform the two other offices
regularly.

We fhould infer, from what has been now ftated, that
acephalous foetufes cannot live. As the animal life does not
begin wntil after birth, thefe foctufes grow and have all
their funétions regularly performed in the uterus. Refpira-
tion, which commences at birth, cannot be performed with-
out the exertion of mufcles, which derive their power from
the brain, and confequently the child perifhes. Yet there
are inftances, in which fuch children have lived for fome
time, in which they have breathed, cried, fucked, &c.;
but ina few hours at moft their exiftence terminated.

Placed at a diftance from almoft all the mufcles, the brain
communicates with them through the medium of the nerves,
either direGtly, or by the intervention of the medulla {pi-
nalis. All the affections of the latter organ influence the
mufcles fupplied by the nerves placed below the affected
point. Compreflion or feétion of the medulla paralyfes,
and irritation of it convulfes the mufcles. ‘The higher the
injury of the medulla, the more parts are influenced, and
confequently the danger is the greater. If it be in the loins,
the mufcles of the pelvis and lower limbs only are para-
lyfed; if in the back, thofe of the abdomen are included,
and confequently refpiration begins to be affected ; if higher,
the intercoftals are added to the number; and, if it be
above the origin of the phrenic nerve, the diaphragm alfo
is rendered motionlefs, refpiration ceafes, and death follows.
Divifion of the medulla {pinalis between the occiput and
the firft vertebra is fo quickly fatal, that it has been
adopted as a means of killing animals for food, and is
termed pithing.

We have fimilar proofs of the influence of the nerves on
the voluntary motions. Irritation of a nerve, as by prick.
ing or cutting it, by chemical ftimuli, but more certainl
by the former, caufes contraétion of the mufcle fupplied
by it: that particular motion, which is the office of the
mu(cle, as flexion or extenfion of a limb, &c. is performed.
When feveral mufcles are fupplied by one nerve, they are
all convulfed. The mufcles, which have no branches from
the nerve, are not affected ; nor thofe which receive branches
from it above the irritated point, 7. e. between the brain and
the feat of the experiment. A continuance of the irritation
exhaufts the mufcles, fo that they at laft remain motion-
lefs; but the convulfions are removed, if the irritation be
applied lower down in the nerve. If a nerve be com-
prefled, tied, or cut through, the mufcles fupplied from it
no longer contrat under the influence of the will: they
are paralyfed. Irritation of this nerve between the brain
and the injured part produces no convulfions in the mufcles
fituated beyond the injury: but irritation of the nerve
below the injury caufes contraction of the mufcles for
fome fhort time: this effe€t, however, foon ceafes. Re-
move the caufe of compreffion, take away the ligature, and
the power of motion returns; unlefs, indeed, which feme-
times happens, the ligature fhould have diforganifed the
nerve at the point of its application. If a divided nerve
fhould be afterwards united, the power of motion returns.
Irritation of the brain, or of the medulla fpinalis, pro-
duces no contraétion in the mufcles placed below the feétion
of the nerve; but it convulfes all the others.

All the mufcles of the animal life are not equally in-
fluenced by the different ftates of the brain. Thofe of the

_limbs are the moft readily convulfed or paralyfed; the

mufcles of the abdomen, of the neck, and particularly of
the chelt, exhibit thefe phenomena only when the caufes of
excitation or debilitation are carried to a high degree, and
are often feen in a perfeétly natural ftate, while thofe of the
face and limbs are violently convulfed. In hemiplegia, the
mouth is often drawn afide, and the limbs motionlefs, while
the motions of the cheft and abdomen continue.. The
mufcles of the larynx are more eafily affeGted than the lat-
ter; and hence the alterations of the voice. If we ar-
ranged the parts of the body according to the fufceptibility
of the mufcles for receiving the cerebral influence; or of
the nerves for propagating it (for we do not know on
which of thefe principles the phenomenon refts), we fhould
place the limbs at the top of the fcale, then the face, the
larynx, the pelvis and abdomen, and laftly the intercoftal
mu{cles and diaphragm. This fcale bears a very important
relation to the functions of the organs: injuries of the brain
ealily produce paralyfis of the limbs, which merely deprives
the animal of a mode of communication with exterior ob-
jects: if the mufcles of ref{piration were affected in the
fame way, both the internal and external life would be fud-
denly interrupted.

The nervous influence is propagated only from the brain
towards the mufcles, and never in the inverfe direétion. Ir-
ritation of a nerve, or of the medulla fpinalis, preduces no
contraction of the mufcles placed between the brain and the
point of irritation.

The mufcles, deftined to receive the influence of the
brain through the medium of the nerves, muft be in a
natural {tate, fo far as regards their organifation, in order
to perform their part in the feries of phenomena that contti-
tute voluntary motion. If they are inflamed, bruifed, dif-
tended exceffively, as by a tumour, &c. they cannot con-
tract. It has been afferted, that a fupply of blood is necef-
fary to their performance of this fundtions the affertion

3C zs may

MUSCLE.

may be true, but it is difficult to afford experimental proof
of it.

Steno ftated that paralyfis of the lower limbs immedi-
ately followed tying the abdominal aorta above its divifion
into the two iliac arteries, and Bichat corroborates this by
his own experience. No doubt was entertained that this
experiment completely cut off the fupply of blood to the
lower limbs. In a very interefting experiment of this kind
performed by Mr. A. Cooper, and recorded in the Medico-
Chirurgical Tranfa@tions, vol. ti, paralyfis did not take
place; and as the limbs were fully nourifhed, and retained
their natural warmth, we may conclude that the mufcles
received blood through the medium of the inofculating
branches. It appears too, that red blood is neceffary to the
contraétion of the mufcles; and that they can no longer
execute their funGions when black blood is fent to them.
(See Lune.) When fluids different from blood are intro-
duced into the veffels, the mufcular aétion is not kept up:
this is the cafe with water, oily and albuminous fluids, &c.
and @ fortiori with acrid irritating matters, fuch as urine,
folutions of acids, alkalies, &c. Bichat found that the in-
jection of thefe into the crural artery weakened and de-
ftroyed the motions of the limb. The refult of his experi-
ments varied according to the fluid employed: the effe@s on
the moving power were more or lefs marked, from debilita-
tion to complete fufpenfion; but the deviation from the
natural condition was always pigs 3 The fame phyfiolo-
gilt tried the effefts of various gales, brought in contac
with the mufcles by artificial emphyfema, on ther contrac-
tions. The animals were not incommoded by thefe trials ;
oxygen did not excite or accelerate, hydrogen and carbonic
acid did not diminifh the contraGtions ; and the gafes them-
felves were gradually removed. Emphyfema produced with
nitrous gas 1s conftantly mortal: its contaét feems to ftrike
the mufcles with a fudden atony. Various fluids introduced
into the cellular fubftance produce different effeéts on the
mufcles, according to their mild or acrid properties, &c. :
none have a more fudden or confiderable operation than
opium. When app'ied in folution, it quickly paralyfes the
mufcles. It produces relaxation in a contraéted mufcle.
Probably feveral caufes, befides thofe enumerated above,
are capable of affeGting the mufcles: for example, mercury,
lead, and copper aé&t on the workmen of manufa€tories ; cold
and certain fevers greatly influence the mufcular powers,
&c. The tremulous motions obferved in thofe cafes do not
feem’to have their caufe in the brain, for there is no tign of
affeétion of that organ: whether, however, they depend on
the mufcles or nerves, is not eafily decided.

We have juft feen that three things are neceffary in the
exertion of the animal contractility: 1, an action of the
brain; 2, of the nerves; 3, of the mufcles; the principle
of motion refides in the brain, it is conveyed along the
nerves, and received by the mufcles. But the brain muft
receive fome impulfe to determine it to exert its influence.
As the animal contra‘tility is exercifed only at intervals,
whenever its aGtion has intermitted, fome new caufe muft be
applied to call it again into exertion: in the natural ftate
this caufe aés firft on the brain.

Thefe caufes are the will, and the impreffions made on
the brain, independently of the influence of the mind. The
produétion of motion in confequence of volition mult be fo
familiar to every individual, that it needs no illvftration.
We may only obferve that the motions are regular and pre-
cife while the intelleétual fun@ions are perfeét, while the
perception, the memory, and the imagination are exercifed
naturally, and the judgment direéts with regularity the acts
of the will: they have an oppofite charaéter when thefe

12

fun@tions are difturbed, as in the various kinds of mental
derangements in dreams, delirium, &c.

When we fpeak of the produétion of motion by volition,
of the power or energy of the will, &c. thefe expreffions
are not to be underftood as conveying any other faé& than
the fimple conneétion of two events. How they are con-
nected is entirely unknown to us. The anatomift indeed is
aware that the brain, nerves, and mufcles are effential in this
operation ; but the volition, that a& of the mind, of which
we are confcious, is juft the fame in him as in the perfon
who does not know that the body contains brain, nerves,
and mufcles. We will to bend the elbow: this is effeGted
by a contraction of the biceps and brachialis internus mufcles,
to which our thoughts are not at all directed. In Mr. Hume's
“ Effay on the Idea of neceflary Connetion,” this matter is
explained with great clearnefs: we fhall make a fhort extra
from it. ‘A man fuddenly itruck with a palfy in the leg
or arm, or who had newly loft thofe members, frequently
endeavours, at firft, to move them, and employ them in
their ufual offices. Here he is as much confcious of power
to command fuch limbs, asa man in perfeét health is con-
{cious of power to a€tuate any member which remains in its
natural condition. But confcioufnefs never deceives. Con-
fequently, neither in the one cafe, nor in the other, are we
ever confcious of any power. We learn the influence of
our will from experience alone. And experience only teaches
us how one event conftantly follows another; without in-
ftruéting us in the fecret connection, which binds them to-
gether, and renders them infeparable.

“We learn from anatomy, that the immediate obje&
of power in voluntary motion, is not the member itfelf
which is moved, but certain mufcles and nerves, and animal
{pirits, and perhaps fomething ftill more minute and more
unknown, through which the motion is fucceflively propa-
gated, ere it reach the member itfelf, whofe motion is the
immediate obje&t of volition. Can there be a more certain
proof, that the power, by which this whole operation is
performed, fo far from being direétly and fully known by
an inward fentiment or confcioufnefs, is to the laft de
myfterious and unintelligible? Here the mind wills a cer-
tain event: immediately another event, unknown to ourfelves,
and totally different from the one intended, is produced :
this event produces another, equally unknown: till at laft,
through a long fucceffion, the defired event is produced.
But if the original power were felt, it muft be known:
were it known, its effeét muit alfo be known, fince all
power is relative to its effet. And, vice ver/d, if the effe&
be not known, the power cannot be known nor felt. How
indeed can we be confcious of a power to move our limbs,
when we have no fuch power; but only that to move certain
animal fpirits, which, though they produce at laft the
motion of our limbs, yet operate in fuch a manner as is
wholly beyond our comprehenfion ?””

In the other clafs of caufes, motion takes place without
the participation of the will, or even in oppofition to its de-
terminations. We fee this in experiments, when the or;
is irritated, in great determinations of blood to the head, in
inflammation and injuries of the part, &c. The motions
exhibited under thefe circumitances are involuntary, al-
though they take place in parts habitually fubjeét to the
will ; and they are produced by the direé&t application of a
mechanical caufe. But in other cafes the brain is affeGed
only by fympathy, a term which conveniently fubftitutes an
appearance of knowledge in the place of our real ignorance
of the relations exiting beaMaes different organs. We may
have delirium, convulfions, &c. without any difcoverable
mechanical action on the brain, and appearing merely as

con-

MUSCLE.

concomitant fymptoms of fome other difeafe. Here the will
has nothing to do with the mufcular contraétions: the patient
cannot reftrain the convulfive motion ;—the fympathetic irri-
tation of the brain is ftronger than the influence of the will.

To a fympathetic influence exerted on the brain, by the
interior organs, Bichat refers the effects of the paflions in
exciting or deprefling the mufcular powers. He conceives
that they aét in the firft place on the parts about the epigaf-
tric region, as the heart, liver, ftomach, f{pleen, &c. ; that
thefe re-a& on the brain, which excites the mufcles, and
gives to their exertions an impetuofity, which the will is
often unable to controul. This is exemplified in men a@tu-
ated by jealoufy, hatred, rage, &c. Other paflions have
the direGly contrary effet of weakening all the mufcular
motions: we fee this flrongly in fear, it is alfo obfervable
in the furprife accompanied by grief or by joy, &c.

Thus we fee that the animal contraétility either may or
may not be fubjeted to the will; that the feries ef pheno-
mena in the brain, nerves, and mufcles is the fame in both
inftances, and that the only difference is in the caufe excit-
ing the brain, which may be either the will, or an irritation
diretly applied to the organ, or a fympathetic irritation.

The animal contraétility continues for fome time after ap-
parent death. The intelleQual funétions always ceafe firtt,
however death may come on; and the notion of the depar-
ture of life is particularly attached in popular acceptation
to their ceffation: confequently mufcular contraétion in
obedience to the will is at an end. Still convulfive contrac-
tions of the mufcles may be produced by irritating the brain,
fpinal marrow, or nerves; and often this phenomenon is
more apparent immediately after death than it was before.
In the latter cafe the influence of the will upon the mufcles
may interfere with the refult, which cannot be difturbed by
any fuch caufe in the former. Some birds, as ducks, geefe,
&e. will run and jump after decapitation; the limbs fome-
times exhibit flight motions, and the mufcles of the face
contraé after execution by the guillotine; and thefe pheno-
mena may be rendered much more fenfible by irritating the
divided end of the medulla fpinalis. The animal contrac-
tility ceafes after death firft in the brain, then in the medulla
fpinalis, and laftly in the nerves; that is, we can excite con-
tration by irritating the two latter when we can no longer
accomplifh it by irritating the former ; and a fimilar obferva-
tion holds good of the medulla and the nerves. The dia-
phragm continues longer obedient to thefe irritations than
any other mufcle ; whereas during life it is little affeted by
the ftate of the brain, and hardly ever paralyfed or con-
vulfed. The effeéts of different irritants continue for a
longer or fhorter time: galvanifm {till aéts forcibly, when
mechanical or chemical = produce no farther influence.

The effets of galvanifm on the mufcular fyftem excited,
when they were firlt noticed, confiderable attention in the
minds of phyfiologifts, as they were {uppofed to offer a fo-
lution cf the phenomenon of mufcular motion. More ex-
tenfive and accurate inquiry feems to jultify us in referring
the phenomena noticed by Galvani, and the more powerful
exhibition of them in the voltaic apparatus, to ele¢tricity.
(See Gatvanism.) We regard them now only as examples
of eleétrical irritation of the mufcles, and acknowledge that
they leave the problem of mufcular motion in all its original
aubearity. In order to exhibit them, it is neceffary to place
the mufcles between the two ends of a galvanic apparatus.
The moft fimple form of the experiment 1s to lay the hind
leg of a trog, with the fkin stripped off, ona piece of zinc,
aad another of filver, fo that one extremity fhall reft on the
former, and the other on the latter metal, all the apparatus
being moittened: when the two metals are brought into

couta&, or when they are united by a metallic are, convul-
fions are produced. If the nerves be in contaét with one
metal, while the mufcles reft on the other, the phenomena
are alfo produced by their contact ; but the intervention of
the nerves is not neceflary. When the nerves are made a
part of the circle, the convulfions take place, although they
fhould be tied or even divided, provided in the latter cafe
the divided erds are in contaé&t. The pile of Volta, and the
fubfequent improvements on it, afford the means of produc-
ing thefe phenomena with greater energy. If a wire from
one end of the apparatus be placed in the mouth of an ani-
mal juft killed, while that from the oppofite end is placed in
the rectum, the parts being moiftened, the whole body is
convulfed: or the medulla {pinalis, and any of the mufcles
of the body, may be treated in the fame way. In this mode
of operating, the eyes and eyelids, lips, tongue, &c. may be
made to move after decapitation: thefe phenomena at firft
excited great general curiofity; but the philofopher perceives
in them nothing more than an example of the well-knowa
operation of eleGtricity. If the body is kept warm, thefe
contraétions may be produced for one, two, or three hours
after death; but, as it cools, the power is loft. The fuf-
ceptibility is weakened or entirely deftroyed by alcohol or
opium: when it is nearly exhaufted, immerfion in osygen-
ated muriatic acid reftores it. Humboldt found it greateft
in the {pring in frogs, in young individuals, and in the front
limbs of the male, by which it feizes and holds the female
in their long copulation, while the hind legs of the female
are the moft fufceptible. It is very great in animals killed
by repeated difcharges of an eleétrical battery. Afphyxia
by ftrangulation, by drowning in mercury, by pure and car-
bonated hydrogen, oxygenated muriatie acid, and fulphur-
ous acid gafes, and the air-pump, do not weaken it: drown-
ing in water, death by breathing fulphurated hydrogen,
azote, ammoniacal gas, and the vapours of charcoal, entirely:
annihilate it.

Phenomena fimilar to thofe produced by the metals may
be witnefled fometimes without their being employed at all.
Detach the lumbar nerves from their furrounding con-
neCtions, and bring them in conta& with the mufcles of the
thigh in the frog, and convulfions are produced.

3- Organic Properties —Organic fentibility clearly belongs
to the mufcles of the animal life, and is called inte conftant
exercife in them by nutrition, abforption, and exhalation.
It is rendered ftill more apparent by expofing and irritating
them: they feel that irritation, and the motion, of which
we fhall fpeak prefently, is the refult of fuch feeling, which
is concentrated in the mufcle, and not referred to the brain.

Infenfible organic contraétility belongs to the mufeular
as to all other fyftems.

The fenfible organic contractility is very manifeft in the
prefent fyitem. If a mufcle be expofed in a living animal,
and irritated, it is contracted, and agitated or thrown into
a tremulous motion. The fame phenomena are produced
after apparent death, and that for a confiderable time.
They are produced alfo in a mufcle, or in a part of one
removed from the animal.

zAlmoft every thing acts as a ftimulus on an expofed
mufcle : viz. air, water, neutral falts, acids, alkalies, earths,
metals, animal and vegetable fubftances, eleGtricity, whether
of the common or voltaic kind, &c. Simple conta& is
fufficient, to produce contraction; but, befides this, there
is fomething depending on the nature of the ftimuli, and
caufing a variation in the intenfity of the contra¢tions,
Powdered wood, charcoal, or metal, produce but flight
motions; a falt caufes {trong agitations, and various ofcil-
lations of the part, Every fubftance affleGs the mufcles
differently,

MUSCLE.

differently, according to its nature; and thefe organs are
differently a€ted on according to the age and temperament
of the individual, the climate, feafon, &c.

It is not necefflary to irritate the whole mufcle in order
to produce its contra¢tion: a fingle pundture, affeting a
few fibres only, will throw the whole into aGtion. Often,
in performing thefe experiments on animals, the contraction
is communicated from one mufcle to another.

In a living animal the contra€tion is often not fo vigorous,
nor fo ftrongly marked, as juft after death : fometimes, in-
deed, during life, irritation produces no contraGtion. The
nervous influence, the power of the will, interferes with and
difturbs the contraction. By dividing the nerves of the part,
this power is entirely got rid of: the permanence of the
fenfible organic contraétility after fuch an experiment, as
well as after apparent death, or paralyfis, in which the in-
fluence of the brain is equally annihilated, marks the diftinc-
tion between this property and the animal contrattility,
and fhews that the former is inherent in the mufcular tiffue.

The contraction of the animal mufcles from the applica-
tion of ftimuli is exhibited under two very different forms:
it either affe&ts the whole of the mufcle, fo as to approximate
the two points of its infertion, as when deat has occurred
recently ; or it produces numerous ofcillations of the fibres,
and a general vibration or trembling, which does not draw
together the points of attachment. The latter phenomenon
occurs when the vital powers are nearly extinguithed.

The fenfible organic contraétiliry is feldom exerted
during the life of the animal; fo that we are at a lofs to
account for its exifting in this texture in fo high a degree.
All mufcles do not poffefs it equally: the diaphragm and
intercoftals are the moft irritable, and retain this property
for the longeft time after death.

On the fubjeé& of the vital powers, by which the mufcles
are enabled to execute their functions, phyfiology is greatly
indebted to the experiments and writings of Haller. He
diftinguifhed the property, by which the mufcles contrac
under the application of ftimuli, from the vis mortua on the
one fide, or the contractility of tiflue, and from the vis
nervofa on the other, or the power of moving under the in-
fluence of the brain ; and he gave to it the name of vis infita,
or vis mufculorum propria. It had been called by Gliffon
irritability, tone by Stahl, vis vitalis, ofcillatio, &c. by
others; but was generally confufed with the other vital
powers. The views, which were taken of the fubje& by
Haller, will appear from the following quotations from the
eleventh book of his Elementa Phyfiologie. ‘ In animalis
vivi, five nuper omnino exftinéti, carne mufculofa, fepiffime
{ponte apparet motus contraétilis, velox, vividus, quo lacerti
mufculofi alterne ad medium ventrem adducuntur, et alterne
ab eo medio recedunt.—Cum hac vis et ab elatere diverfa fit,
et a mortua illa contraétione, omnibus fibris communi, pecu-
liarem omnino poteftatem conftituere videtur, propriam
fibre animali, et que ejus fibre charaéterem conftituat, ut
et omnis fibra mufculofa fit irritabilis, et contra, quod irrita-
bile eft, fibram mufculofam effe poffis pronunciare. Propria
autem vis eft, ab omni alia poteftate diftin&ta, et referenda in-
ter fontes generandi motus, quorum ulterior caufa ignoratur ;
eademque in ipfa fibra infita non aliunde advenit.—Separari
quidem irritabilem naturam hinc a vi mortua, inde a vi ner-
vofa, et ab anime poteftate. Ab ea motum cordis, et in-
teftinorum irritabilem naturam unice pendere oftendi. Ad
mufcularem fibram unice reduxi. Oltendi porro, eam vim
quidem perpetuo vivam a@efle, et fepe nullo, certe qui nobis
notus fit, ftimulo externo indigam in motum erumpere ; a
timulo tamen, quoties quievit, facillime revocari.’’ Seé. a.

{t will probably be expeéted that we fhould take fome

9

notice of the {peculations of phyfiologifts concerning the
caufe of mufcular motion: we fhall advert very fhortly to
this fubject, on which the reader will find more copious
details in the Elementa Phyfiologiz of Haller, lib. ii. fe&. 3
becaufe we are of opinion that the time confumed in fuch
invefligations has hitherto been worfe than left: it has not
oniy thrown no light on the fubje& of inquiry, but hae
drawn men away from the only path by which: they could —
arrive with certainty at a knowledge of the mufcular fyftem,
namely, obfervation of the phenomena. <‘ Iterum,”’ fays
Haller, ‘ in hypothefes invitus mergor, non quod propriam
aliquam conjeéturam habeam, quam exornem, fed quod ad
inveniendos fontes admirabilis illius potenti vivarum car-
nium potius per fpeculationes aditum fibi, quam per expe-
rimenta, fere {criptores phyfiologici paraverint.””

Our knowledge concerning mufcular motions amounts
to this, that certain phyfical changes are produced in the
fibres under the a¢tion of certain caufes: thefe changes we
call contraction and relaxation.. When we fay that a mufcle
acts by virtue of its irritability, contractile power, or con-
tractility, we merely denote this faét, and exprefs-thefe phe-

. nomena in a general word: we know no more of this irrita-

bility, what it is, or how it is brought into exercife, than we
do of attraGtion, or the force by which the phenomena of
dead matter are regulated- This view of the fubje& coin-
cides nearly with the fentiments of Haller: «* Caufam
quidem neque mechanicam hujus poteftatis quero, neque
omnino phyficam, qui perfuadeor, propriam et innatam fibre.
animali vim effe, cujus non aliam porro caufam quzrere
oporteat, five nunc unice fortior fuerit contraCtionis mortue
gradus, five alia vis, ut ex eo poflis arguere, quod mortua
vis omni fibre animali et vegetabili, hac certe in animato
corpore fibre mufculart propria fit.”

Nothing appears more evident than the diftin@ion between
the two kinds of motions ordinarily defignated by the epithets
voluntary and involuntary: yet a very numerous fe&. in
phytiology, the followers of Stahl, deny the exiftence of any
original difference in this inftance, and refer all the motions
in the haman body to the mind or foul (anima) : this pro-
duces all motion, and guidesit by wife defign to the produc-
tion of certain ends. It governs the body, after forming
it in the uterus of the mother, and is the agent of reparation
after injuries. They hold that all motions, even thofe of the
heart, were originally voluntary: and they cite the cafe of
colonel Townfhend, related in Cheyne’s Englifh Malady,
p- 307, who is faid to have been able before death to fufpend
and renew at pleafure the action of che heart. They afcribe
the lofs of voluntary power over the heart to habit, which
has deftroyed the influence of the will on the motions of the
iris and palpebre, and other voluntary organs; and affert
that repetition is attended with the lofs of confcioufnefs in
thefe cafes, fo that the reflex operation of the mind is not
perceived. They think that the mind would be able to
move at its pleafure the inteftines and heart, if it could fee
them. They cite the operation of the paffions on the heart.
Fevers and difeafes are the efforts of the mind (anima)
again{t evils which threaten the body. They difcern the
operations of a defigning intelligence (providentis anime
confilia) in crifes, in the falutary augmentation of fecretions,
and laftly, in fleep, which they regard as a vo.untary reft
granted by the mind to its body, leit perpetual exertion
fhould wear out its powers,

The confcioufnefs of the heart’s a&ion is loft in confe-
quence of its familiarity ; as is the cafe in fome obvioufly
voluntary motions, when they have been very frequently
repeated. Men immerfed in thought walk, eat, and per-
form many Other aétions without being confcious of them,

The

MUSCLE.

"The exertion of the will on the brain in playing on a violin
is very obfcure. They conceive that the mind regulates the
internal organs ‘ intellectu puro, abfque reflexione et ra-
tiocinio ;”’ ee that it performs our communications with
external objects “cum aétu reflexo, five cum confcientia
fue fenfationis & aétionis.’" From thefe and fuch confider-
ations the Stahlian fchool affert that irritability is the pro-
teGting power of the mind againft ftimuli that affect it
unpleafantly, by which, with a more or lefs ftrongly marked
feeling according to the amount of the caufe, it produces
a contraétion of the fibres for the removal of that catfe.
Hence that no motion takes place without fenfation, nor
without the participation of the mind; and that not only
thofe contraétions which are caufed by irritating a mufcle,
but all others, even fuch as occur from the mere recollec-
tion of an unpleafant objet, as in vomiting, proceed from
the mind.

It appears to us, that in thefe opinions objects which
are the moft unequivocally diftin@, are confounded to-
gether ; that the term mind, or anima, is employed in a
very indefinite or obfcure fenfe ; and that the affértions are
mott obvioufly repugnant to every man’s experience, if this
word, as the authors apparently mean, fhould be deemed fy-
nonimous with will.

That the mind, when intent on any thing that powerfully
interefts it, is not confcious of many flight impreffions, is
well known ; and in fuch cafes confcioufnefs and voluntary
aGtion feem disjoined: but let this more important occu-
pation ceafe, and the flighter impreffions are immediately
perceived. In playing a mufical inftrument toa, as well as
in many operations in the arts, the motions are fo rapid,
that we find it difficult to allow that there can be a dif-
tin& volition for each: neither are we confcious at any
time of the particular mufcles employed. But the motions
ceafe, as foon as the will to move is difcontinued, and be-
gin again when that is renewed. Either of thefe cafes is
moft obvioufly diftin&t from the aétion of the heart or in-
teftines, in which the clofeft obfervation can difcern no fen-
fation, and the moft refolute exertion of the will cannot mo-
dify the motion.

The fuppofition that the ations of the involuntary or-
gans are at firft voluntary, and are continued by habit
without the exertion of the will, is inconfiftent with what
we fee in refpiration. That is a funtion neceflary to life,
yet performed by voluntary powers: we can accelerate, re-
tard, or fupprefs it. This dominion of the will is never loft ;
the neceffity of the funétion to life, or the invifible ftruc-
ture of the diaphragm, has here no effect. The heart, on the
contrary, of which the office is fo clofely conneéted to that
of the lung, and the motion of which is perceptible to
the touch, has never been excited or retarded in its action
by any individual: we know too little of the cafe of co-
lonel ‘Townfhend to admit it as an exception to the other-
wife invariable teftimony of experience. It does not explain
the matter to fay that we do not fee the heart: for we do
not fee the diaphragm in the preceding cafe; nox can we in-
fluence the motion of the penis which we do fee, nor of the
inteftines when protruded from the abdomen in various
ways.

it has been afferted that the emotions of the mind influ-
ence the heart, and that as the mind influences thefe, it
muft therefore operate on that organ. ‘That wine, poifon,
or an affront, will accelerate the heart's motion is moft true ;
but thefe are not voluntary affections ; we cannot avoid being
drunk, when we have taken wine, nor can we help being
angry when we are irritated.

It is not true that habit confounds the claffes of volun-

tary and involuntary motions: the former are all ose
fubje& to the will in the infant, boy, and adult. No vo-
luntary mufcle is ever removed from the dominion of the
will, while life continues. Although we move the upper
eyelid frequently without perceiving it, yet we perceive it
as foon as we attend; we can moreover move it more or
lefs frequently as we choofe: by exercife we can hold it
quiet when an obje&t is brought fuddenly before the eye.
On this analogy, then, the habit of contraétion ought not
to make the heart an involuntary power, if it had been a
voluntary one in the foetus. The periftaltic motion is inter-
rupted for months in hybernating animals ; the is does not
contraét ina dark place, nor does the penis move in an indi-
vidual who does not fee or think of a woman : on the appli-
cation of proper ftimuli, all thefe parts move, yet they are
as much out of the controul of the mind or will as in ani-
mals where they are conftantly exerted.

We may therefore moft truly affirm, with Haller,
«¢ ZEterna lege feparatur voluntatis imperium ab irritabi-
litatis provincia. Nemo mortalium unquam, ullo exemplo,
voluntate fua aut in cor, aut in inteitinum, aut in ventricu-
lum, aut in arteriam, aut aliud in vitale organum arbitrium
exercuit ullum, neque eos motus vel excitare didicit,. vel
retardare, vel accelerare, vel fupprimere. Nemo mortalium
in mufculis voluntati obnoxiis, fi fani fuerunt, defideravit
ebfequium quod preitarent voluntati. Eos omnes mufculos
et ad motum ciere novimus omnes, et in motu incitare, et
viciffim morari, ad quietem denique jubendo reducere.’’
Lib. xi. feét. 3. and 8.

That fevers are excited by the command of the mind is
afferted without any proof ; and the total want of power in
the will over critical evacuations, &c. is too obvious to re-
quire mention. The accelerated aétion of the heart, the
convulfions, &c. produced from injury or difeafe, are fo far
from being adapted to the purpofes of remedy or reftora-
tion, that the phyfician endeavours to leffen them by every
means in his power.

That any obfcure fenfation caufes the motion of the heart
is afferted contrary to the teftimony of fenfe itfelf. When
intently occupied, we either do not perceive or do not re-
tain in our minds the flighter impreffions : but we are imme-
diately confcious, even of the moft gentle impulfe of the
air, when we turn our attention to it exclufively : how then
does it happen that no man ever felt the four ounces of
blood rufhing into his heart, nor could ever perceive any
difference between the fyftole and diaftole of that organ?
Further, the heart when removed from the body ftill con-
tracts, when all fufpicion of fenfation muft furely be re-
moved.

To the notion of the formative power, exercifed by the
mind in compofing the new being, Haller has very juftly re-
plied, ‘ Stru€tricem animam quis credat, qui imperitiffi-
mum animalium, incredibilis artiticii corpus, perinde ut fa-
pientiffimum mortalium, ftruere videat ; qui nullam diver-
fitatem in reéta fabrica corporis infantis nunquam fana
mente ufi videat, et infantis in Newtonum convalituri?
Frequentiffimum hic mihi obverfatur animo exemplum fa-
tui generis hominum, quo vicina Valefia aburdat. Ii ad
omne vite humane officium inepti, vel in aprico fole hu-
mana dignitate manifetto minores feffitant, vel in leGis cu-
biculorum fere immoti, tota vita fua decumbunt. Nihil
unquam mihi vel a poeta vifum eft minus credibile dici,
quam hanc animz, adeo fero, adeo modice {fapientis,
zmulam divini creatoris poteftatem; fi enim plantas Deus
fabricatur, digniora plantis animata corpora ipfa ftruit fibi
anima.” Ibid. fe&. 9.

The reader will find a more ample difquifition of this

fubjec,

MUSCLE.

fubje&, and of other hypothefes concerning mufcular mo-
tion, now nearly forgotten, in the eleventh book of the
Elementa Phyfiologiz., Hialler’s own idea, which has been
very generally adopted. but which we confefs appears as
little inftruGtive as any other, is that the unknown nervous
fluid, of almoft infinite fubtilnefs and velocity, a&s as a fti-
mulus on the elements of the mufcular fibres, as the electri-
cal matter excites motion in thefe fibres, independently of
the will. Not that both thefe fluids are the fame, but that
they agree in the velocity of their courfe, and in the power
of penetrating all the elements of the bodies, in which they
refide.

The inadequacy of all the attempts at folving this in-
tere{ting problem is manifeft from the conflant fabrication of
new hypothefes. No fooner is any great difcovery made
in phyfics than an application of it to phyfiology is brought
® forwards. Thus oxygen and galvanifm have been prefled
into the fervice on this occafion. A modern author on phy-
fiology reprefents as the moft ingenious and ftrongly fup-
ported of all the hypothefes, devifed for the purpofe of
explaining the phenomena of mufcular aétion, that which
makes it depend on the combinations of the hydrogen, car-
bon, azote, and other combuftible fubftances in the mufcu~
lar fibres, with the oxygen brought by the blood of the ar-
teries. To effe& this combination, fays he, it is neceflary,
not only that arterial blood fhould bathe the mufcolar
flefh, and that oxygen fhould be brought into contact with
the fubftances with which it is to unite, but alfo that a ner-
yous current fhould traverfe the tiffue of the mufcle and
produce the decompofitions, as the paflage of the- electrical
fpark through a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen produces
water. (Richerand Elemens de Phyfiologie, fect. 162.)
If this be the beft of the hypothefes, we may allow the
re(t to purfue their journey without obftruGion to the tomb
of all the Capulets.

Sympathies.—Convulfive motions of the animal mufcular
fy{tem attend various affeétions of our organs, particularly
in children. - Animal contraétility is the predominant vital
property in this fyftem, and is therefore moft frequently
called into aGtion in fympathies. Convulfions are particu-
larly frequent in the affeGtions of our organs accompanied
with great pain; there are indeed very acute pains unat-
tended with fympathetic convulfive motions, but convulfions
are rarely obferved, except in cafes where the organ origi-
nally affe&ted has its animal fenfibility very ftrongly deve-
loped. From this view, which we have given, of the part
which the brain performs in animal<contradtility, we muft
conclude that che fympathies, in which that property 1s
called into aétion, take place through the medium of the
brain. Next to the animal contraétility, the fenfibility of
the fame kind is the property molt frequently calied into
a&tion in fympathies.. The laffitude, the feeling of weight,
the vague pains experienced at the attack of many difeafes,
are examples. The organic properties are feldom fympa-
thetically exerted; or, if they are, the fa& is not indicated
tous by any fenfible figus.

Téndons.—The mufcular fibres, which are the moving
powers, are not in general applied immediately to the bones,
which are the parts moved. The fkeleton would not afford
a fufficient furface for this purpofe: indeed, in moft cafes,
a very {mall part only of the flefhy fibres could be direétly
implanted in the bone. Inftead of this they are fixed to
fibrous organs, which are implanted in the bones. Some
mu(cles, which have no long attachments, as about the face
and pharynx, have no tendon in their ftracture : but where
the mufcle, as is the general cafe in this fyftem, is fixed at
both its ends to bones, a confiderable portion and very fre-

quently the whole of its attachments is tendinows. An ex-
ample will fhew in the moft ftriking manner the advantage,
connected with the tendons, of bringing an increafed quan-
tity of fibre to bear on a particular point of bone. The
vaiti and cruralis, the principal extenfors of the knee, cover _
by their origin, which is ia great meafure flethy, nearly the
whole body of the thigh-bone: had they been inferted by
mufcular fibres, they muft have covered the whole tibia.
The tendon, by which they are attached, is fixed to a fur-
face of about three quarters of an inch long by one quarter
broad ; and the reft of the bone remains for the origins of
mufcles moving the foot and its different parts.. The fibrous
{yttem, fo far as it is connected with the mufcles, is feen in
two forms; either in hard and thick cords, called tendons ;
or in broad and thin plates, called aponeurofes. 5 i

The latter are often condenfed into the former: that is,
an aponeurofis of feveral inches in breadth, receiving mufcu-
lar tibres in its whole furface, may be contraéted into a ten-
don not broader than the finger. In this cafe, the fibrous
texture, which is expanded in the one, is condenfed in the
other, and the only difference is in the form.

The organifation of the tendons, and their properties,
have been already explained in general, under the article
Fisrous Sy/tem.

The aponeurofes admit of being divided into three kinds.
1. Thofe which poffefs a broad furface, are very numerous :
they are fometimes formed by the expanfion of a tendon, as
in the rectus extenfor cruris; fometimes, as in the maffeter,
they come immediately from the bone. They may receive
mufcular fibres on one fide only, or on both. — In the latter
cafe they form fepta, placed between mufcular fafciculi,
which they feparate from each other and yet unite into’one
organ. ‘They always receive the infertion of the mufcular
fibres in a very oblique direétion. 7

The advantage, which we have mentioned as belonging to
the tendons in general, of multiplying the points of infer-
tion for mufcular fibres, is very obvious in thefe aponeu-
rofes. The whole of the temporal foffa would not be fuf-
ficient for the attachment of the mafleter, if it were efleGted
by feparate fibres: the aponeurotic fepta in its fubitance
receiving the fibres, and then fixed to the bone, concen-
trate the infertion ik the edge of the zygoma. Ali’the
very powerful mufcles, which mutt confequently poffefs nu-
merous fibres, are interfeGed by fimilar aponeurofes.

Thefe organs in their nature are identical to the tendons;
many are continuous with them, the fibres following the
fame general direction, but fpreading out in the aponeurofis.
Their fibres are in general not interwoven, as in the fafciz,
but follow one dire@ion.

By macerating a tendon for a fhort time, it is foftened,
and may be {tretched laterally fo as to aflumea formexa@ly
like that of an aponeurofis,

2. When a large veffel paffes under a mufcle, it is covered
by an aponeurofis in an arched form, fo that the origin of
the mufcular fibres is not interrupted : thefe however are not
numerous.. They may be feen in the diaphragm, over
the courfe of the aorta, and in the foleus, at the paflage
of the polterior tibial artery. The mufcular fibres are im-
planted in the convexity, and the paflage of the veffel
takes place under the concavity of the nity the two ex-
tremities of which are fixed to the bone. If the a€ion of
the mufcle has any effect on thefe arches, it muft rather
enlarge than diminrfh the openings under them, as the fibres
draw upon the convexity of the arch.

3- Aponcurofes formed of infulated fibres. Thefe con-
filt of a valt number of {mall fibrous bodies, diftin& from
each other, feparately attached to the periofteum, and con-

tinued

MUSCLE.

tinued into the fubftance of the mufcle. This is a mode of
infertion requiring broad bony furfaces.

The tendons are commonly fituated at the extremities of
mufcles ; but fometimes they occupy the middle, as in the
digaftricus. They are generally placed at the molt moveable
end, the oppolite extremity of the mufcle having its fibres
implanted in aponcurofes, as we fee partigularly in the fore-
arm and leg, where all the mufcles, attached above by broad
bony or aponeurotic furfaces, terminate below by compa-
ratively flender tendons. From this arrangement, the ends
of the limbs, which execute the moft extenfive motions, are
lefs bulky, and confequently lefs heavy ; and the whole
effort of a large mufcle is concentered upon a narrow point
of bone. ‘Lhe refifting powers which ‘charaéterife the
fibrous tiffue in fo remarkable a manner, render the tendons
particularly fit for thofe fituations, where they have to turn
over, and confequently rub againft, the ends of the bones ;
and the fame property enables them to withftand the external
efforts and violence to which thefe parts of the limbs are ne-
ceflarily much expofed in executing their various fun&tions,

The form of the tendons is generally round; that figure
includes the greateft bulk under the fmalleft furface. But
fometimes they are more or lefs flattened. They may be
divided into cwo or more fecondary portions, implanted into
feparate bones, or receiving mufcular fibres. A loofe cel-
lular fubtance connets them to each other, or to furrounding
organs, and allows them a free power of motion. Some-
times, inftead of this tiffue, they are furreunded by fynovial
membranes, or partially covered by fuch membranes, which
are expanded alfo on the furfaces of the parts over which the
tendon moves. Thefe arrangements are found in fituations
where the motion is very extenfive, or the friction between
a tendon anda bone very conliderable ; they have been com-
monly called burfe mucofe; the details concerning their
ftru&ture will be found under the articles MemBrane (divi-
fion of fynovial membranes), and Fisrovus Sy/lem (divifion
of fibrous fheaths.)

The mode of conneGtion of the mufcular fibres to the
tendons varies. The tendon fometimes has a row of fibres
joining it at acute angles on each fide, fo that it may be com-
pared to the fhaft, and the fibres to the barbs of a feather ;
fuch have been called penniform mufcles. When the fibres
run into the tendon on one fide only, it is called 2 femipenni-
form mufcle. Sometimes the tendon is contained in the fub-
ftance of the mufcle, and can be expofed only by making a
longitudinal fection.

The connection of the mufcular fibres to the tendons and to
the aponeurofes is the fame. If we follow carefully a parti-
cular bundle of fibres, we fee it continued in the aponeurofis
(for example in the diaphragm) under an alteration of bulk
and charaéters. The mufcular and fibrous parts are infe-
parably conne€ted, and compofe one organ. As the power,
produced by the contra¢tion of the mufcle, is applied through
the tendon to the bone, this firm conneé¢tion is obvioufly ef-
fential to the fun¢tions of the part. Yet in no inftance are
we at any lofs in marking the boundary between the flefhy
and the fibrous ftruéture; the differences in their organifa-
tion and fenfible charaéters are as ftriking as between their
vital properties and funétions. In the mufcles of a robult
and recently killed individual, an appearance of a rifing line
has been defcribed at the conjunétion of the mufcular fibre
and tendon, and the boundary between the two is fudden
and clearly marked. Generally the fibres of the tendon are
difperfed in the mutcle in a penicillous form,

We deem the opinion, which regards tendons as formed
by indurated mufcular fibres, no mere worthy of difcuffion

Vor. XXIV.

Strahan and Prefton,
New-ftreet Square, London.

than-the conceit of the latter being a continuation of the
nerves.

Ebullition caufes the tendon and flefhy fibres to feparate
gradually, and long maceration detaches them. ‘The union
1s not fo intimate in the young fubje&t; feraping with a
{calpel detaches the mufcular fibres from the tendon at this
age, and leaves the furface of the latter nearly {mooth.

The oppofite end of the tendon is fixed to the periolteum.
In'the young fubjeét this membrane is eafily detached, and
carries with it all the tendinous infertions. At more ad-
vanced periods, the tendon, periofteum, and boue are iden-
tified, and nothing but the hardelt feraping will detach the
former from the latter. The tendons are implanted in other
fibrous membranes, as the fclerotica and corpus cavernofum
penis ; but in no other defcription of organs. ,

The fibrous tiffue is extremely denfe in the tendons;
feveral of them appear homogeneous on the firft view; but
wae examination foon enables us to difcover fibres united

y a very compact cellular tiffue in very {paring quantity.
Ebullition bo. thefe fibres very sect eles toa a tes
don has been cut tranfverfely, and plunged into boiling water,
they {well at the divided end, and are thus rendered very ap-
parent. When they expand to form an aponeurofis, or to
be fixed to the periofteum, they are vilible without any pre-
paration. Continued maceration expands and foftens thefe
organs, and renders their fibres very diflin@. They are
parallel to each other, and feem flraight: they may be fepa-
rated into fmaller and {maller bundles joined by cellular {ub-
ftance, and the end of this divifion is doubtful. They have
been defcribed as appearing wrinkled, or fpiral under mi-
crofcopical examination.

The vafcular fy{tem of the tendons admits no red blood;
but they become red under certain circumftazces of inflam-
mation.

Their vital properties are more obfcure, and their mode
of vitality in general is more feebly marked than in any other
part of the fibrous tiffue. No fiuid efcapes, no pain is felt
when they are diffeGted in living animals ; and their tempera-
ture (except inafmuch asit is influenced by that of furround-
ing parts) is low.

Diwvifion, Names, Arrangement, Sc. of the Mufcles.—When
we fpeak of a mu/cle, we do not reftri& the term to the proper
mufcular or flefhy tiffue, but mean a particular mafs of that
tiffue together with the tendons or aponeurofes conneéted to
the mutfcular fibres. In this way we talk of the tendon or
aponeurofis of a mufcle. Hitherto no certain and regular
method has been followed in ettablifhing the feparations and
diflinétions of the animal mufcular fyftem. Our general no-
tion of a mufcle is that of a mafs of mufcular fibres, which,
with its tendons, is unconneéted in every dire@tion with the
{urrounding ones; the pronator qua¢ratus, and the mufcles
of the eyeball are examples. Or there may be two or more
diftin& portions of muticle joined toa common tendon, as in
the pectoralis major and biceps flexor cubiti; or a common
mafs of mufcle may have feparate tendons, as the flexors and
extenfors of the toes and fingers. But, in fome cafes, ana-
tomilts have feparated and defcribed as diftin& mufcles thofe
inferted into a common tendon, as the mufcles of the calf,
and the extenfors of the knee; and they have even done
this where the two parts are moft clofely conne&ted, as in the
ferno-maftoideus and cleido-maftoideus, the facro-lumbalis
and longiflimus dorfi, &c. They have alfo proceeded in a
very arbitrary manner in dividing the mufcles of the face,
which are very clofely conneéted together. Hence there
are numerous exceptions to any general rule concerning the
diftin€tions of the particular mufcles.

3D As

MUSCLE.

As a voluntary mufcle is an ergan compofed of flefhy and
tendinous fibres, having the office of moving the parts of
the body on each other, in which the motion produced by
the contraGtion of the mufcular fibres is brought to bear on
the parts moved by means of the tendons, it muft be fixed
to at leaft two moveable parts. The ends, which are gene-
rally tendinous, are comparatively flender, while the middle,
compofed of flefhy fibres, {wells out into a much larger bulk.
The extremity fixed to the leaft moveable part, or that
which is neareft to the trunk of the body, is ufually called
the origin (caput or origo) of the mufcle ; the oppofite end,
its infertion (cauda, finis, infitio); and the middle, its delly
(venter). Where a mufcle is conneéted to two equally
moveable points, either end may be called the origin or in-
fertion. "The effe& produced on any part by the contrac-
tion of the mufcle is called its aéion.

Anatomifts have drawn the names by which they diftin-
guifh the particular mufcles, from various fources; 1, from
the a@tion, as extenfor, flexor, pronator, fupifiator, abductor,
adduétor, &c.; 2, from the attachments of its extremities,
as coraco-brachialis, ftylo-hyoideus, genio-gloflus, &c. ;
3, from the attachment of one end only, as pterygoideus,
palmaris; 4, from fome remarkable circumftance, as feptum
tranfverfum ; 5, from the dire¢tion of its courfe, as circum-
flexus, reGtus, obliquus; 6, from the figure, as deltoides,
triangularis, rhomboideus; 7, from the number of origins,
as biceps, triceps; 8, from the relative pofition, as radialis,
ulnzis, &c.; 9, from fize, as valtus, &c. &c. The bett
pames are thofe drawn from the fecond of thefe fources, as
they indicate the attachments, and therefore are, in fome
meafure, defcriptive ; the principle cannot be very well fol-
lowed, when the conneétions are numerous, as the names be-
come then immoderately long, and burthen the memory, as
much as they offend the ear. Occipiti-dorfo-clavi-fus-acro-
mien, the name given by Dumas to the trapezius, isa fpe-
cimen of thefe.

The mufcles in general are double, and correfpond exaGly
on the two fides of the body ; a few are fingle, placed on the
middle line of the body, and divifible into mght and left cor-
refponding halves; wiz. azygus uvule, arytenoideus tranf-
verfus, {phinéter oris. {phinGter ani, {phinéter vagine. The
law of fymmetry, therefore, which belongs to the parts con-
cerned in the animal life, is applicable to thefe organs. The
diaphragm partakes of the organic as well as animal life ;
and its ftru€ture is not fymmetrical ; the two halves do not
correfpond.

The male and female have each a fmall number of mufcles
conneéted with the organs of generation, peculiar to itfelf ;
all others are common to both fexes.

The mufcles are very numerous ; taken altogether, they
compofe a larger volume, and occupy a larger {pace than
any other fyftem in the body. Befides their other fituations,
they form a layer generally expanded under the fiin, and

partaking in fome degree the functions of that organ ; that
is, they protect the fubjacent parts, receive with impunity the
ation of external bodies, and may even be divided to a confi-
derable extent without the general funétions of life bemg
fenfibly impaired. Hence they are well calculated to defend
the more deeply-feated organs, the injuries of which would, in
many inftances, be fatal. They may be divided, fo far as
regards their general form, into long, bread, and fhort.

The long mufeles in general occupy the limbs, to the form
of which their figure is accommodated. ‘They are feparated
from the skin by the aponeurofes, from the bones by the
periofteum, and thus are lodged in a kind of fibrous tube,
which confines them ftrongly. In this they are difpofed

in more or lefs numerous ftrata, of which the deeply-feated
are bound down by the fuperficial, which in their turn are
fupported and confined by the aponeurofes. The latter are
always the longeft, and belong to the motions of three or
four bones, as the flexors of the knee, the flexors and exten-
fors of the wrift, fingers, ankle, toes, xc. In proportion
as they are deeper, they are fhorter, and concerned almoft
always in the motions of one joint only.

The different layers are feparated by cellular ftrata, which
are loofe or clofe in their texture, according as the motions
are free or limited, and thick where veflels or nerves run
between the mufcles.

The long mufcles have been diftinguifhed into fimple and
compound. The former confift of a fingle mafs of mufeular
and tendinous fibres ; in the latter, there may be either two
or more feparate portions, arifing diftinély, and joined into
one ma{s, as in the ferratus anticus, biceps cubiti, &c. ; or
afingle mufcle may be fplit into feveral infertions, as in the
flexors and extenfors of the fingers, &c. :

They are generally infulated, but fometimes conneéted
together by aponeurofes, which may join two, three, or more
of the neighbouring mufcles into one mafs at their origins 5
this is the cafe with thofe that come from the condyles of the
humerus.

The long mufcles upon the {pine do not refemble thofe of
the limbs; the fibres do not run from one end to the other,
but are arranged in numerous fhort fafciculi, placed in ap-
pofition to each other, and therefore forming one mufcle.

The broad mufcles in general cover the large cavities of
the body, particularly the thorax and abdomen ; they con-
tribute to form the fides of thefe cavities, protect the internal
organs, and facilitate their functions by the motions which
they execute. The thicknefs of thefe mufcles is inconfider-
able; they compofe broad ftrata, fometimes arranged in fuc-
ceflive layers, as in the abdomen, fometimes placed over the
long mufcles, as in the back; in the former cafe they are
more extenfive in proportion as they are more fuperficial.

When a broad mufcle arifes and terminates on one of the
great cavities, it is equally broad throughout, as there are
extenfive furfaces for all the attachments. But if it pro-
ceeds from the trunk to a long bone, its fibres converge ;
it becomes thicker and narrower, and ends in a comparatively
{mall tendon fixed to the bone. The latiflimus dorfi, pec-
toralis major, &c. exemplify this arrangement.

Cellular ftrata feparate the broad muicles from each other,
in the fame way as the long; but they are very feldom
covered by aponeurofes. They are fimply fubjacent to the
integuments, and their form prevents thofe difplacements,
to which the long mufcles would be fubje&, were they not
confined by fafciz. See Fascia.

The fhort mufcles, in which the three dimenfions are
nearly equal, are found in fituations where the motions are
not extenfive, but require confiderable force. The muf-
cles of the jaw, thofe inthe hand and foot, feveral about
the hip and fhoulder, and others in the fpine, exemplify
this arrangement. The number of their fibres gives the
ftrength, while their fhortnefs correfponds to the limited
nature of the movement. Thefe fhort mufcles are often
joined together, either at their origin or infertion ; they are
feldom covered by aponeurefes, and they vary in figure.

This divifion of the mufcles into long, broad, and fhort,
like the correfponding one of the bones, is fubject to nu-
merous modifications. Many have a mixed charaéter, and
might be claffed with equal propriety in either of two di-
vifions. Nature varies the conformation of the moving
powers according to the functions of the organs, fo that our

anatomical

MUSCLE.

‘ anatomical divifions, inftead of being rigorous and precife,
are to be regarded merely as approximations. ct -

In deferibing the mufcles, anatomifts generally divide the
body into certain regions, and con{ider together the mufcles
which are conneéted in point of fituation, As this is an
arbitrary method, the number of regions is different in dif-
ferent works. The arrangements of Albinus, Innes, and
Dumas, as well as the fynonyms of all writers previous to
the firft of thefe anatomifts, and the new names propofed
by the laft, are contained in the firft part of Dr. Barclay’s
book oa the mufcular motions of the human body. The
particular mufcles are defcribed in this ditionary under their
refpective titles, with a few exceptions. Thofe of the eye,
ear, and nofe, are given under thofe articles: thofe of the
lips, cheeks, tongue, os hyoides, palate, pharynx, and
jaw, under Deciutition. The mufcles belonging to the
organs of generation, are defcribed in the article GENERA-
vT10N ; and thofe conneéted with the anus, in InrEsTINE.

The fynonyms moft frequently met with are mentioned in
the account of each mufcle.

In order to prefent a general view of the mufcles, we
fhall adopt the arrangement of Dr. Barclay, from whofe
work the following table is copied. It contains all the muf-
cles conneéted with the fkeleton by origin or infertion. In
the middle column the bones are arranged in the ufual order
of demonftration ; the feries commencing with the bones of
the cranium, and proceeding regularly through thofe of
the face, neck, and trunk, to the extremities. Each bone
is followed by the mufcles attached to it, the names of
which are either in Roman or Italic charaéters ; the former
exprefs the mufcles which are conneéted to the bones by
infertion, the latter thofe by origin. When any mufcle has
other origins, they are to be found in the firft column in
Italic chara&ters ; when other infertions, in the third column,
in Roman charaters.

OS FRONTIS.
Cutis. Orbic. palpebrarum. Corrug.
Occipitis ; temporale . = 4 =p PPT OMS mikes! | vee { upercil. Levator labii fup. et alx
nau.
Orbicularis palpebrarum - - -~ Cutis, Epicranius. Corrug. fupercilii,
Corrugatores Juperciliorum - = Epicranius.

Sphenoidale. Temporalia. Malaria - Temporales

s ds - Maxilla inferior.

OSSA PARIETALIA.

- Maxilla inferior.

OSSA TEMPORALIA.

Frontale. Sphenoidale. Temporalia. b rem ais }
Malaria
Sternum. Clavicule - ~ - Sterno-mattoidei.

Trachelo-mattoidei.
Splenii capitis,

Proceffus tranfuerfi cervicis
Proceffus fpinales cervicis -

Oscipitale. Frontale

Epicranius

Cutis, Orbic. palp. Corrug, fuperc.
Ley. labii fup. et ale nafi,

Frontal. Sphenoidalia. Parictalia. 1 Pemporates 7 Trebinn JC te Maxille iaferior,
MAM REN SLAIN A dire YT oct Guo dyn os Meet eae
Digaftrici - - - - - Maxilla inferior, Os hyoides,
Stylohyoidi - + - + ~ Oshyoides, °
Styloglofi - - ~ © = Lingua.
Stylopharynget =e wep ite - Pharynx,
Levatores palati mollis < - - Velum palati,
Lanatores tympanorum —— ~ ° = Mallei.
Tenfores tympanorum - - - - Mallei,
Stapedei - - - - - - Stapedes.
Anteriores auricularum — ~ - - Auriculz,
Retrahentes auricularum - -- + Auricule,
MALLEI.
Tempordia - - = - = Laxatores tympanorum,
Tube Euflachii - + - = Tenfores tympanorum,
Sphenoidale - ~- - » - Externi malleorum,
STAPEDES.
Temporalia =~ - - - - Stapedei,
OS OCCIPITALE,
Proceffus [pin. dorfi et eervicis = - Trapezi —- - - - - Scapule. Clavicule.
Proc. fpin. cervicis - “eles - Splenii capitis - - - ° - Offa temporalia.
Proc. tranfverfi cervicis et dorfi - - Complexi,

Proc. fpin. atlantis -

Reéti capitis poftici minores.

3 D2 Prec,

Proc. fpin. vertebrae dentate

Proc. tranf. cervicts - -
Atlas - ef = a
Prac. tranfx. atlantis -

Proc. fpin. atlantis’ - -
Frontale temporalia - -
Lingua.
Offa [phenoid. Offa fone
Os hyoides -

Maxilla infer. et fuper.

Offa temp. partet. malar. ae -

Maxilla fuperior - -

Offa palatina - Shy Sas
Frontale. Parietalia. Sphenoidalia
Temporatia - = 5 A

Maxilla fuperior - -
Sphenoidale — -

Sphencidale - ie a -
Parietalia. Temporalia. Malaria.
Frontale. Sphenoidale = F
Temporalia. Malaria - -
Sphenoidale. Max illa fuperior -
Sphenoidale. Palatina ss =

Tela cellulofa humeri et pe@oris

Temporalia 2

Maxilla fuperior -

Offa temporalia - -
Mazxilla inferior - -

, ' ' ‘

MUSCLE.

Reéti cap. poft. majores.
Reéti cap. interni majores.
Retti cap. int. minores.
Rei cap. laterales.
Obliqui cap. pen ores
Epicranius > -

Conftri&ores pharyngis fuperiores

Conftric. pharyng. medii

OS SPHENOIDALE.

Temporales
Pterygoidei externt - =
Pterygoidei interni - -
Pierygo-pharyngei. - =
Circumflexi palati - -
Externi malleerum -
Levatores palpeb. fu, hee 3
Obliqui Juperiores oculorum
Reéii fuper. ocul. .
Reéi externi ocul. +
Re&i infer. ocul. =
Rei interni ocul. = -

OSSA MALARIA.

Temporales.
Maffeteres
Zygomatici majores - -
Zygomat. minores = -

MAXILLA SUPERIOR.

Compreffores narium - =

Levat. lab. fuper. alarumque mae

Levat. angulorum oris -
Depre effores alarum ep =
Buccinatores - -
Mylopharynget . -
Pterygoidei externt - =
Obliqui inferiores oculorum -

OSSA PALATINA.

Pterygoidei interni - =
Azygus uvule

MAXILLA INFERIOR,

Temporales.
Maffeteres.
Pterygoidei externi.
Pterygoidei interni.
Latiffimi colli < °
Digaftrici.

Mylo-hyoidei - - -
Genio-hyoidet
Genio-gloffi
Buccinatores -
Depreffores angul. oris
Depreff: lab. infer. -
Levatores menti _

Mylo-pharyngei -

OS HYOIDES.

pine = |S ee
Mylo-hyoidei.

b* Ser weg s

5 0.8 B 3 stem

Cutis.

Pharynx.
Pharyox.

Macxilla inferior.
Maxilla inf.
Max. inf.
Pharynx.
Velum palati.
Mallei.
Palpebre fuper
Ocoli.

Oculi.

Oculi.

Oculi.

Oculi.

Mala.

Orbiculatis oris.
Orbicularis oris.

Cutis.

Ale nafi. Orbicularis oris.
Orbic. oris.

Ale nafi. Labium fuperius.
Orbicularis oris.

Pharynx.

Maxilla inferior.

Oculi.

Maxilla inferior.
Uvula.

Depreffores angulorum oris.
Tela cellulofa faciei.

lab. infer.

Os hy oides.

Os hyoides.

Lingua. Os hyoides,
Orbicularis oris.

Orbic, oris.

Orbic. oris.

Cutis et adeps labii infer.
Pharynx.

Maxilla inferior,

Orbic, palp. Corrug. fupereil, i

Depreff.

Off

Offa temporalia - 3 =
jae inferior + Z e

Cartilago thyroidea - s
Sternum. Cofte pemne. Clavicul

Scapule - a
Maxilla inferior - 2 <

Veriebra dorfi. Proc. tranf: cervicis

Proceffus /pinales cervicis _ - -
Proceffus tranfv. cervicis et dorfi -
Proc. tranf. cerv. et dorfi - =
Proc. tranf. dorfi =
Proc. fpin. dorfi. Os peciptale =

Proc. fpin. dorfi | - = a

Proe. tranfv. cervicis
Proc. fpin. dorft
Proc. tranfv. dif -
Cofe -

Proc. pin. renee destela
Proc. tranfv. dori - -

CS eit Ya LS Br ea f

Proc. tranfv. dorfi - B .
Proc. tranfv. dori - = i

Vertebra dorft = “ “

Ila - = -
Verkbre et proc. fran Joinib: =

Prot. fpin. lumbor. - -

Proc. tranfv. dorfi - y
Proc. tranfv. dorfi et lactis. -
Proc. fpin. cervicts. Os ocet, -

Proc. fpin. facri et lumbor. i lias
Proc. oh cervicis = - -

Proc. [pin. lumb. - e 3
Proc. tranf. dorfi - 4 v
Nia. Proc. fpin. et ani: fae et

lumborum

Cofte.

MUSCLE.

Stylo-hyoidei.

Genio-hyoidei.
Thyro-hyoidei.
Sterno-hyoidei.
Omo-hyoidei.
Hyo-pharyngei- ~ = =
Hye eloff,

Genio-glofi - - - ,

VERTEBR CERVICIS.

Longi colli.
Re&i capitis internt minores -

PROCESSUS SPINALES.

Interfpinales colli.
Multifidi fpine.
Semifpinales colli.
Semifpinales dorfi -
Trapezti - -
Splenii capitis - *
Reéi cap. poflici majores
Reéti cap. poft. minores
Obliqui cap. inferiores
Serrati poftict /uperiores
Rhomboidei minores -

PROCESSUS TRANSVERSI.

Intertranfverfi colli.
Splenii colli.
Tranfverfales cervicis.
Cervicales defcendentes.
Obliqui capitis inferiores.
Semi/pinales colli -
Multifidi {pine =
Complexi = 2
Trachelo- maftoidet -
Obliqui capitis fuperiores
Reé&i cap. int. majores
Reéti cap. laterales =

Scalent - - -
Longi collt < -
Levatores fcapularum

Levatores duo coftarum

VERTEBRZ DORSI.

Quadrati lumborum - =
Pfoe magni - - : :

PROCESSUS SPINALES,

Spinales dorfi.

Semifpinales dorfi.

Multifidi fpine.

Trapexit - - S =
Latiffimi dorfi - - ~ =
Serrati poftici fuperiores.

Serrati poft. infer.

Rhombotdei majores - = =
Splenii colli - - - :
Biventres cervicis = = A

PROCESSUS Gea

Longiffimi dorfi = B 5
Semifpinales dorfi — ~ a z

‘

Pharynx. Os occipitale.
Lingua. '

Lingua.

Os occipitale,

Proc. {pin. dorfi.

Scapulz. Claviculx.

Occipitalia. Temporalia.
Occipitale.

Occipitale.

Proc. tranfy. atlantis.

Cotte. ji
Scapula.

Proc. f{pin. cervicis.
Proc. {pin. cervicis.
Os occipitale.

Offa temporalia.

Os occipitale.

Os occipitale.

Os occip.

Coftz.

Vertebrz cervicis.
Scapulz.

Cotte.

Proc. tranf. lumb. Cofte ultime.

Femora.

Scapulz. Claviculz.
Humeri.

Scapulz.

Proc, tranfv. cervicis.
Os occipitale.

Cofte.

Proc, fpia. dorfi et cervicis,

Muliifidi

"Proc. nae cervicis = = *
Prac. fpin. dorft et cervicis - -
Proc. tranfv. cervicis - - <

Proc. tranf. dorfi - =

Cofte -
Ultima vert, eee 3 ct ct proce Sprtesh ay

Sacrum. Proc. tranf. lumbor.

Ika. Proc. fpin. facri, i a et
dorfi. Cofta.

Proc. fpin. dorfi

Ilia. Cofte. Proc. fpin. Tact Proc.
Jpin. et tranfv. lumbor.

Tha. Proc. fpin. facri. Proc. fi CEU ees f
tranf. lumborum Scongilfiak dof
Proc. fpin. facri. Tranf. ae
Ilia. Lig. Pouparti ~ = - Obliqui externi abdominis -
cS PROCESSUS TRANSVERSI.

Ilia - Quadrati lumborum -

Ila. Proc. hin. facri et eae. Longiffimi dorft” -

fie _ Cofte nee. Spin. ies tori et lum a Sacrolumbales cum accefforiis

orum

Sacrum - Multifidi fpine -

Ilia. Sacrum. Per Spin. pains

Ligam. Pouparti - - Obliqui internt abdominis :

Ilia. Lig. Poupartt : - Tranfverfi abdominis =
SACRUM.

PROCESSUS SPINALES,

Mia. Cofte. Proc. fpin. lumb. etdorft Leatiffimi dorfi =

Ila. Proc. fpin. et Hess, lumb.

Lig. Pouparti - Obliqui interni abdominis .

Tha. Proc. fpin. et rome lumb. - Longiffimi dorft -

ee Eee Spire iS —- : Sacrolumbales cum accefforiis

Ilia. Coccyx. Proc. tranf. facri - Glutet magni -

Ilia. Proc. tranf. facri - Multifidi {pine -

PROCESSUS TRANSVERSI.

Tha. Proc. fpin. facri. Coccyx.

Ligamenta facro-fciatica - Glutei magni -

Ilia. Proc. fpin. facri - - Mutifidi /pina -

; Coceyget 5
Curvatores coccygis -

Tia - - - Pyriformes -
coceyx,

Nfchia - - Coccygei.

Sacrum - - Curvatores coccygis.

Offa innominata - - Levatores ani,

lia. Sacrum. Ligamenta. Sacro-ftiatica

Cofle « us

Proc. tranf. a dorfi ° ~

Multifidi [pine
Semifpinales colli
Complexi -
Biventres cervici3

Trachelo-maftoidet

MUSCLE.

i i t 4

Tranfverfales cervicis =

VERTEBRZ LUMBORUM.

Diaphragma.
Pfoa magni = - -
Pfoe parvi - - -

PROCESSUS SPINALES,

Multifidi {pine.

A Latiffimi dorfi i

- Serrati p-flict inferiores -

Sacrolumbales cum acceffortis

Sphinder ani ‘
Glutet magni -

* cost x.

Intercoftales,
Levatores longiores coftarum,

‘amet ier) ee Vie) Vin

eee! Te ee ae A

Proc. fpin, dorfi et cervicis.

Proc. {pin. cervicis,
Os occipitale.

Os occip.

Offa temporalia.
Proc. tranfv. cervicis.

Femora.

Pubes.

Humeri.
Cotte.
Cofte.

Cofte et proc. tranf. dorfi.

Cofte. Linea alba.

Cofte ult. verteb. ult. dorfi,

Cofte et proc. tranf. dorfi.
Cotte.
Proc. {pin. lumb. et dorfi.,

Linea alba, Cotte.
Linea alba. Cotte.
Homeri.

Cofte. Linea alba.

Proc. tranf. dorfi et cofte.
Cofte.

Femora. Fafcie femorum
Proc, {pin. lumb,

Femora. Fafcie femorum.

Proc. fpin. lumb.
Coccyx.
Coccyx.
Femora,

Accelerator urinz.
Femora. Fafcie femorum

Proce.

Proc. tranf. colli et dorfi -
Sternum. Cartilago enfiformis -
Proc. fpin. dorfi et cervicis -
Proc. fpin. dorfi et lumborum

Ia. Sacrum. Prac. apa. et paar
lumb.

Ilia. Sacrum, Proc ites. et tran/.
lumb.

dia > - =
Via. Sacrum. Obliqui externi. Proc.

Spin. et tranf: lumborum
Proc. tranf. cervicis
lia. Obliqui externt. Bree. tranf.

lumb. -
Clavicule
Sternum. Clavicule

Ilia. Sacrum. Proc. fpin. lumb. et
dorft = 3

Vertebre lumborum. Cartilago enfiformis

Clavicule - -
Coffe prime. Clavicule -
Cofte prime = -
Cofte. Clavicule - =

Cofe é - ve
Offa innominata. Obliqui externi. Sa-
crum. Proc. fpin. et tranf. lumborum

Obliqui externt. Offa innominata. Proc.
tranf. lumborum 2

Cofte - - -
Cofte. Vertebre lumborum é
Os occip. Proc. Spin. cervicis et dorft

Sternum =
Sternum. Cofte prime Ss 2
Scapule = 5 =

Os occip. Proc. fpin. cervicis et dorft
Proc. {pin. cerv. et dorft

Proc. tranf. cervicis - -
Cofte g : -!
Cofte - - -
Humeri - -

MUSCLE.

Levat. breviores coftar.
Triangulares fterni.
Serrati poftici {uperiores.
Serrati polt. inferiores.

ie Sacrolumbales.

Longiffimi dorfi

Quadrati lumborum
Obliqui externi abdominis

} Obliqui interai abdominis
Scaleni.
*} Tranfverfi abdominis

Subclavii.
Peéorales majores
Peétorales minores
Serrati magni

} Latiffimi dorft
Accefforii ad facrolumbales
Diaphragma.

STERNUM ET CARTILAGO ENSIFORMIS.

Sterno-cleido-maftoidet - -
Sterno-hyoidet
Sterno-thyroidet -
Peéorales majores

Obliqui externi abdominis -
} Obliqui interni abdominis :
or Tranf{verfi abdominis = =

Reé&i abdominis . =

Triangularis flernt - -

Diaphragma.

CLAVICUL2.
Subclavii ke e
Trapezii

Sterno Pisin i el
Sterno-hyoidei
Peétorales majores
Deltoidei

SCAPULZE.

Trapezil

- Rhomboidei.
Levatores {capularum.
Serrati magni.
Petorales minores.
Omo-hyoidet
Suprafpinati ~
Infrafpinati
Teretes majores -
Teretes minores
Subfcapulares
Deltoidei
Coraco-brachiales
Tricipites brachiorum
Bicipites brachiorum

Proc. tranf. dorfi.

Proc. tranf. lumb. Vertebra ultima dorfi.
Offa innominata. Linea alba.

Lineaalba. Pubes.

Linea alba. Pubes.

Humeri.
Scapulz.
Scapulz.

Humeri.

Sacrolumbales.

Offa temporalia.
Os hyoides.
Cartilago thyroidea.
Humeri.

Offa innominata.

Pubes.

Os occipitale.

Linea alba.
Lineaalba. Cofte.

Linea alba.

Pubes.
Cofte.

Pubes.

Cofte prime.
Scapule.
Os occip.
Os hyoides.
Humeri.
Humeri.

Temporalia.

Clavicule.

Os hyoides.

Humeri. Capfe articulares,
Humeri. Capfe artic.

Humeri.

Humeri. Capfz artic.
Humeri. Capfe artic.

Humeri.

Humeri,

Ulne.

Radii. Aponeurofes cubitorum.

HUMERI

Clavicule.
Scapula

Giskicalallv Gye” Sichewe

Scapule -

Proc. fpin. facri, lumb. et dorfi. Ih
Cofte - -

Aponeurofes antibrachiorum. Capfe ar-

ticulorum

Ulne. Capfz articul. =

Aponeurofes antibr. Capfe artic.

Radi - -
Scapule. Humert -
Humeri -

Aponeurofes antibr. Capfe artic. cubitor.

MUSCLE.

HUMERI.

Deltoidei.

Suprafpinati.

Infrafpinati.

Teretes majores.

Teretes minores.
Subfcapulares.
Coraco-brachiales.

Pe€torales majores.

Tricipites brachiorum *

‘t Latifimi dori:

Anconei =
Brachiales interni -
Supinatores longi -

Extenfores carpi radiales longiores

Extenf. carpi rad. breviores
Extenf. commun. digitor.
Extenf: propr. auricular.
Extenf. carpi ulnares =
- Supinatores breves -
Palmares longi.

Flexores carpi radiales.
Flexores carpi ulnares.
Pronatores teretes.

- Flexor. digit. fublimes -
ULNZE.
- Tricipites =
- Brachiales interni -
Extenf. commun. digit. =
Extenf. propr. auric. =

Extenf. carpi ulnares -
Extenf. carpi rad. breviores

Indicatores 2
Np r indies longi. -
Aponeurofes antibr. Capfe artic. cubitor. 4 Flexores carp. radiales -
Flexores carp. ulnares -
| Pronatores teretes -
Radii. Aponeurofes - - Flexores digit. fublimes -
Ligamenta interoffea antibrach. - Flex. digit. profundi -
Radii. Ligamenta interoffa - LExtenfores primi internodii pollicum
Radi. Ligamenta interoff. - Extenf. fecund. internod. poll.

Ligamenta interoff. 2

Scapule - -
Humeri -

Humert. Ulne. Capfe articulor.
Humerit. Aponeur. antibr.

Ulne = A
Humeri - -
Humeri. Ulna. Apon. antib.
Humeri. i Tine .
Hureri. Ulne

Ligamenta annularia

Offa magna et unciformia
Ligamenta annularia

- Extenf: tert. internod. poll.

RADII.
- Bicipites -
- Supinatores longi.
- Supinatores breves,
- Pronatores teretes,
- Pronatores quadrati.
- LExtenf. carpi ulnar. -
- L-xtenfores commun. digitor.
Flexor. longi pollicum :
- Flexores fublimes digitor,

PISIFORMIA.
- Flexores carp. ulnares.
- Abdutores digit. minim.
TRAPEZIA.
- Opponentes pollicum -
- bdudores pollicum .
5

Ulne.

Ulne.
Ulne.
Radi.
Offa metacarp. indicum.
Metacarp. dig. medior.
Phalanges digitorum.
Phalanges digit. auricul.
Metacarp. dig. auric,

» Radii.

Phalanges mediz digit.

Capfe artic. cubitor.
Capfe artic. cubitor.
Phalang. digit.
Phalang. dig. auric.
Metacarp. dig. auric.
Metacarp. dig. medior.
Phalanges indicum.

0 { Aponeurofes palmares. Ligamenta an-

nularia.
Metacarpi indicum. Offa trapezia.
Offa pififormia. . Ligamenta annularia.
Radii.
Phalanges digit. mediz.
Phalanges digit. tertia.
Phal. prim. poll. abdu@. poll.
Phal. fecund. poll.
Phal. tert. poll.

A poneurofes cubitorum.

Metacarp. digitor. minimor.
Phalanges digitorum.
Phalang. tert. poll.
Phalang. med. digitorum,

Phal. prim, dig. min.

Phalang. prime poll.
Phalanges fecund. poll.
Phat.

MUSCLE.

Phal. prim. indicum, ‘Tendines exten-
i forum,

Phal. fecund, poll. ope offium fefamoi-
deorum.

- Phal, fecund. poll. ope offium fefamoid.
- Metacarp. digit. auric.
- Metacarp. digit. auric.

Phalanges tertix digit. Tendines ex-
2 tenforum communium.
Phalauges fecund. poll. ope offium fe-

famoideorum.

- Phal. fecund. poll. ope offium fefamoid.

Phal. prim. poll. - Abdudores indicum a
TRAPEZOIDEA.
Offa magna sinciformia. 9 Metacarp ‘t Flesores breves pollicum -
indicum, mediorum, annular. -
UNCIFORMIA.
Offa magna et uncif. metacarp. - Flexores breves poll. “
Ligamenta annularia - - Adduéores digit. auricul.
Ligamenta annularia - - Flexores breves auricul. =
METACARPI.
; Extenfores carpi radiales longiores et
Humeri ; - breviores.
Lnteroffei -
Cy ae vd enoidea, Offa magna. } Flexores breves pollicum “ =
nciformi = =
Adduéores poll. =
Humeri. Ulne - - Extenfores carp. ulnares

Offa unciformia. Ligamenta annularia

Lig. annul.
unciformia

Ulne. Radi.

Ulne. Ligamenta interoffea

Adduétores metacarp. digit. minim.

PBALANGES,

PRIMZ POLLICUM.

Trapexia. Offa magna et Opponentes poll.

Ligament. interof. _- Extenfores primor. internod.

AbduéGores indicum -

SECUNDZE POLLICUM.

Extenf. fecund. internod.

Offa uncif. Trapezoid. Magna. Metacarpi F\exores breves poll.

Lrapexia. Ligamenta annularia

Metacarpi digit. med. -

Ulne.
Radii.

Ligamenta interoffea
Lig. interoffea

Pififormia. Ligamenta annularia
Metacarpi indicum wine
Phalang. prim. pollicum -
Unciformia. Lig. annular.

Humeri. Radii - -
Ulne = = 2
Humeri. Ulne. Aponeur. antib.
Humeri. Ulne. Aponcur. antib.

Radii. Ligamenta interofia -
Metacarpi - =
Tendines profundoru -

Prac. fpin. facri, lumb. et dorfi.
Cofte e F -
Sacrum. Proc. fpin. et tranf. lumb.

VoL, XXIV.

Abduéores poll.
Adduétores poll.

TERTIZ POLLICUM.

Extenfores tert. internod.
Flexores longi poll.

PRIM DIGITORUM.

AbduéGeres digit. minim.
Semi-interofleus indicis
Abduéores indicis.
Flexores breves auricul.

PHALANGES SECUNDZ.

Flexores fublimes.
Indicatores - ~
Extenfores communes.
Extenfores prop. dig. auric.

PHALANGES TERTIZ.

Flexores profun di.
Interoffei
Lumbricales - -

Latiffimi dorft - -
Longiffimi dorft - .

- Phal. fecund, poll. ope offium fefamoid.

- Phalanges prime indicum.

- Tendines extenfores communium.

- Tendines extenf, commun.

- Tendines extenf. commun.
- Tendines extenf. commun.

- Humeri.

- Coftz. Proc. tranf. dorfi.

3E Sacrum:

MUSCLE.

Sacrolumbales ie

Sacrum. Proc. fpin. et tranf. lumb.
Obliqui extern abdominis

Cofte = = z z
Obliqui externi. Sacrum. Proc. fpin.

ieee Obliqui interni abdominis

Obliqui ext. Proc. tranj. lumb. - Tranfverfi abdominis
Ligamenta ilio-lumbaria - Quadratilumborum -
Nhaci interni - <
Sacrum = = A - Pyriformes ~
Sacrum. Coccyx. Ligament. facro- Clutéi Sante ‘
Sciatica - -
Glutei medi -
Glutei minimi =
Tenfores vaginarum
Sartori = -
ReGi crurum -
PUBES.
Verteb. ult. dorfi et prima lumb- - Pfoz parvi
Cofte. Sternum - - - Rei abdominis
Pyramidales -
Peainei - Em
Graciles - -
ee - = = - Tricipites Sh ee
chia. Ligament. obturat. - Obturatoresexterni -
Tfchia.. Ligament. obturat. - Obturatores internt -
Obliqui externi abdom.
See Inta ~ - { obi interni abdom.
Tranfverfi abdom.
ISCHIA.
Gemini = -
Semitendinoft -
Semimembranoft -
Femora - - - - Bicipites - -
Pubes - - = - Tricipites i =
Quadrati femorum -
Pubes. Ligamenta obturat. - Obturatores extern -
Pubes. -- Ligamenta obturat. ~- Obturatores internt =

Eredtores penis -
—clitoridis -
Tranfverfi perinet — -
Tranfverfi alteri perinei

FEMORA.
Mia. Sacrum. Coccyx - - Glutei magni “
Tha = - - = medii.
Tlia - ~ : - — minimi.
Hiia. Sacrum - - -' Pyriformes.
Uchia - - - Gemini.

Obturatores externi,

Ufchia. Pubes. Ligament. obtur.
—— interni.

Ifchia. Pubes. Ligament. obtur.

[hia | - - - Quadrati femorum,

Ilia = . ~ - 'Tenfores vaginarum

Pubes - “ = - Peétinei.

Pubes. Ifchia - - - Tricipites.

Ultima vert. dorfi. Verteb. lumb. Plow magni.

Lita . - - - Jhaci interni.
V afi externi -

interni ry

Crurei ‘ me
Gaftrocnemit -
Plantares . =
Bicipites crurum -
Poplitei - -

,

Cofte. _
Pubes. Linea alba.

Cofte. Linea alba. Pubes.
Coftez. Linea alba. Pubes.

{Per tranf.lumb: Coftz ult. Windies

ultima dorfi.
Femora:
Femora.

Femora et fafciz late.

Temora.

Femora.

Fafcie late.

Tibiz.

Patelle. J

Linea alba.
Femora.
'Tibie.
Femora.
Femora.
Femora.

See Ira.

Femora.

Tibia.

Tibiz.

Fibule.

Femora.

Femora.

Femora.

Femora.

Corpora cavernofa penis.
clitoridis.
Acceleratores urine. Sphinéter ana.
Urethra. Corp. cavern. penis.

Fafciz late.

Fafcie. late.

Patelle.

Patell.

Patelle.

Calcanea.
Calcanea.
Fibule.

Tibie.

TIBLA

Tha

Pubes - = < 2
Tchia 2 P » he
Lfchia - - ~ S

lia = a a B
Femora - - f; e
Femora = myth oe ‘s
Femora ~ oun ei 4
Ligamenta interoffea a z
Fibule = = @ 3
Fibule al & z &
Fibule. Ligamenta interoffea v
Fibule, Ligamenta interoffea ' -
Ifchia. Femora - :
a L +3
Femora - = = 5
Tibie. Fibule - - %
Femora - S z 3
Aponeurofes plantares - =
Cuneiformia teriia - 4
Aponeurofes plantares - -
Cuboidea. Cuneiformia tertia.

Metatarfi.. Tendines peron. long.
Metatarfi. Aponeurofes plantar. -

Tibie. Fibule. Ligam.interof.
Tibie. Fibule. Ligam. ae fm

See CALCANEA -
Ligamenta peron. long.

mM otek t

dig. min. =
Tibie. Ligament. interoffea -
Tibie. Fibule. Aponeurofes crur'um
Tibia. Fibule. Ligamenta interoffea
Tibie. Fibule. Ligamenta interoffea -

Tendines tibial. poft. Aponeurofes plant.
Caleanea. Aponeurof. plantar. -

. MUSCLE.

TIBLE.
Sartorii.
Graciles.
Semitendinofi.
Semimembranofi. .
Reéti crurum
Crurei
Vatti externi
<interni
Tibiales antici
Extenjores ine dig. ped
Solet
Flexores longt ae ped.
Tibiales poftici -

FIBULE.

Bicipites crurum.

Peronei longi - - - -
breves, - - - -
tertit - = *s

Extenfores longi digit. pedi mins -
——— proprii poll. ped. =
Flexores longi poll..p - - =
Solet - + :

CALCANEA,.

Gaftrocnemii.

Solei.

Plantares.

Extenfores breves digitor. - -
Flexores breves digitor. - -
Flexores accefforit = = -
Flexores breves pollicum - -

Abduéores poll. - =

Addudores poll. - - -
Abdudores digit. minim. = =

NAVICULARIA.
Tibiales poftici - - a
CUBOIDEA.

Tibiales poftici = =
Adduétores poll. = =

Flexor. brev. digit. minim. — -- -

CUNEIFORMIA PRIMA.
Tibiales antici = 4 3

Interventu patellaruth,

Of. cuneiform. intern. metatarfi.
Phalanges digitorum.

Calcanea.

Phalanges tertiz digit.

Tarfi. Metatarfi.

Metatarfypoll. ~Cuneiform. prim.
Metatarfi dig. quint.
Metatarfi dig. quint.
Phalanges digitorum.
Phalanges pollicum. ped.

ultime digitor.
Calcanea.

Tendines extenf. long.
Phalanges mediz.
Tendines flexorum longorum.

Phalanges prime poll. ope off. fefamoid.
Phalanges prime poll. ope off. fefamoid.

Phalanges.

Phalanges prime poll. ope off. fefamoid.
Phalanges prime dig. min.

Cuneiformia. Calcanea. Metatarfi. digit.
quint.

- Cuneiformia. Calcanea. Meta. dig. quint.

Phal. prim. poll. ope off. fefamoid.
Phal. prim. dig. min.

Metatarfi poll. .

Peronei longi = - - Metatarfi poll.
Tibial ftici f Navicularia. Cuneif. ‘fecund. et tert.
IPED POC . ; Y Cuboidea. Metatarfi dig. tert.
CUNEIFORMIA SECUNDA.
ric ae Navicularia.. Cuneif. fecund. et tert”
eee. Ff <= { Cuboidea. Metatarfi dig.

CUNEIFORMIA TERTIA.

Flexores breves pollicum - :
Abduéores pollicum = < S

Phal. prim. poll. ope offium fefamoid.
Phal. prim. poll. ope offium fefamoid.
Cyl ake METATARSI.

MUSCLE.

METATARSI.

Interoffé.
Tran{verfales pedum.

Tibie. Fibule. Aponeurof. crurum Peronei longi
Fibule = = = - Peronei breves.
Fibule - - - - Peronei tertii.
Tibie. Ligament. interoffea - - Tibiales antici

Tibie. _Fibule. Lig. interoffea - Tibiales poftici
Cuboidea. Cuneif. tert. Lig. peron. long. Adduéores pollicum

Phalanges prime digitorum.
_ Cuneiformia prima.

- Cuneiformia prima.
Navicularia. Cuneiformia.

Phal. prim. poll. ope off. fefamoid.

Cuboidea. Ligamenta peron. long. - Flexores breves dig. min. = - Phal. prim. digit. minim.
Calcanea. Aponeurofes plantares - Abdudiores dig. min. = = - Phal. prim. digit. mivim.
PHALANGES. °
PRIM POLLICUM. ta
‘Calcanea. Cuboidea. Cuneif. tertia - Flexores breves poll.
Calcanea. Aponeurofes plantares - Abduétores poll.
Calcanea. Cuboidea. Cuneif. tertia. j
Metatarfi ate Siva i Adduétores poll. z
Calanea- - : - Extenfores breves digitor. - - Tendines extenfor. long. Phal. digit.
SECUND® POLLICUM.
Fibula - - - - Enxtenfores proprii poll.
Fibula - - - - Flexores longi poll.
PRIME DIGITORUM.
Meatarfi - . - - Interoffei = - : - Tendines extenfor. long. ,
Tendines extenforumlongorum - - Lumbricales = - - Tendines extenfor. long.

Phalanges mediz.

Calcanea. Aponeurofes plantares - Abduéores dig. minim.
Cuboidea. Ligam. peron. long. - Flexores breves dig min.
MEDIZ DIGITORUM:
Calcanea. Aponeurofes plantares - Flexores breves digit.
Fibule - - - - Enxtenfores longi digit.
TERTIZ DIGITORUM,
Tibie. Fibule. Lig. interoff: - Filexores longi digit.
Fibule - = a -. Extenfores longi digit. = Z
Calcanea - - - -

Explanations of the Plates, in which the Anatomy of the
Mufcles is reprefented.—In each of the mufcular figures, dif-
ferent ftrata of mufcles are reprefented in the two fides of
the body. Each is followed by a correfponding plate of
outlines; in which, befides the principal figure, the fmalier
parts are drawn on a larger fcale, to make the letters of re-
ference more clear.

Anatomy. Myology. Plates VIII. and 1X.

On the left fide, the firft ftratum of mufcles, or thofe ex-
pofed on removing the fin, are feen : on the right, the fecond
layer, or thofe brought into view when the preceding have
been partially removed, are exhibited,

“A. In the Head, Neck, and Trunk.
. Frontal portion of the epicranius.
. Union of the right and left portions.
Aponeurofis of the epicranius.
, 5. Attollens or fuperior auris; 4, the tendinous; 5, the
flefhy part.
6. peer auris.
9, 8. Orbicularis palpebrarum; 7, the interior; 8, the
exterior portion,
9: Conpettar nafi.
10. Levator labii fuperioris aleque nafi.
proprius.

n

Ww

il.

Extenfores breves digit. ~ E

Tendines extenfor. long.

12. Fibres from the orbicularis palp. to the upper lip.

13. Zygomaticus minor.

14. Lower portion of the levator anguli oris.

15. Zygomaticus major.

16. Orbicularis oris.

17. Nafalis labii fuperioris.:

18. Depreffor anguli oris.

19. Depreffor labii inferioris proprius.

20. Levatores menti.

21. Buccinator.

22. Maffeter.

23, 24. Platyfmamyoides ; 23, riforiusof Santorini. The

lower jaw, clavicle, and {terno-cleido-maftoideus are

marked by dotted lines.

25. Biventer maxillx inferioris.

26, 27, 28. Sterno-cleido-mattoideus; 27, the fternal at-
tachment; 28, the clavicular.

29. Trapezius.

30. Sterno-hyoideus ; a little of the fterno-thyroideus is feen
at its fide.

31. Omo-hyoideus.

32. Levator fcapule.

33- Scalenus medius.

34. Peétoralis major.

35—39- Pectoralis minor ; 35, the flefhy part.

2

Cuboidea.

MUSCLE.

36—38. Attachments to the ribs; 39, to the coracoid
procefs.

40o—42. Firft and fecond bones of the fternum ; and enfi-
form cartilage.

43. Serratus magnus.

44. Intercotlales externi.

45: interni,

46. Latiffimus dorfi. ‘

47—51. The left obliquus externus abdominis ; 47, the
flefhy portion; 48—51, the aponeurofis.

45. The obliquus internus feen through the aponeurofis.

g. The reétus; 50, the pyramidalis ; 51, the tendinous in-
terfeciions of the rectus.

52. Umbilicus.

53- The abdominal ring. ,

545 s5- Obliquus intetnus abdominis of the right fide. The
external lamina of the aponeurofis (55), by which ‘the
rectus was covered, is removed.

56, 57. Reétus abdominis of the right fide, expofed by the
removal of its fheath ; 56, the flefhy part; 57, the ten-
dincus interfeétions.

58. Pyramidalis of the right fide.

59. Crematter.

B. In the Upper Limbs.

60. The clavicle.

61. The coracoid procefs of the fcapula.

62, 63. Thefubclavius ; 62, the flefhy, and 63, the tendi-
nous part.

64. Deltoides.

65. Subfcapularis.

66. Teres major.

* Suprafpinatus. :

67 —71 Biceps brachii ; 67, the flefhy belly ; 68, the fhort
head ; 69, the long head; 70, the aponeurofis cut off ;
71, the tendon inferted in the radius.

72. Coracobrachialis.

73—75- Triceps; thelong, middle, and fhort heads.

76, 77. Brachialis internus ; 77, infertion of the tendon in
the ulna.

78. Supinator longus of the left arm. It is removed on the
right fide.

79. Extenfor carpi radialis longior.

80, ————— brevior.

81. Extenfor primi internodii pollicis.

82. — fecundi internodii pollicis.

83. Pronator teres. It is removed on the right fide.

84. Supinator brevis.

$5. Flexor carpi radialis. In the right arm a portion of the
tendon only is left.

86. Left palmaris longus.

87. Left palmar fafcia.

§8. Left palmaris brevis.

89, go. Flexor digitorum fublimis; 89, the flefhy part ; go,
the four tendons divided to ailow the paflage of the ten-
dons of the flexor profundus.

91, 92. Flexor profundus; 91, a part of its tendinous ori-
gin; 92, its four tendons.

93—96. The four lumbricaies.

97, 98. Flexor longus pollicis ; 97, the flefhy ; 95, the
tendinous part.

g9- Pronator quadratus.

too. Flexor carpi ulnaris.

tor. Left abductor pollicis.

102. Flexor brevis pollicis.

103. Right opponens pollicis. The abduétor has been re-
moved, ;

- 123.

104. Abduétor digiti minimi.

105. Right flexor brevis digiti minimi.
ro6. Adduéttor pollicis.

107. Left abductor indicis.

1o$. Aunular ligament of the writ.

C. In the Lower Extremities.

10g. Gluteus medius.

110. Right gluteus minimus,

* Edge of the left gluteus maximus.

tir. Left teafor vagine femoris.

112, 113. Left fartorius; 112, the flefhy ; 113, the ten-
dinous part.

114. Ihacus internus.

115. Pfoas magnus.

116. PeGtineus.

117. Adduétor longus femoris.

118, 119. Gracilis; 118, the flefhy portion; 119, the
tendon, |

120. Tendon of the femitendinofus.

121, 122. Reétus femoris; 121, the flethy part; 122, the
tendon. It is cut away on the right fide.

Ligament of the patella.

Vattus externus.

internus.

Right cruralis.

124.

125.
126.

127. Biceps femoris.

128. Inner head of the left gaftrocnemius.

129. Soleus.

130. Left tendo Achillis.

131. Tendon of the left plantaris.

132, 133. Flexor longus digitorum pedis; 133, the
tendon.

134. Tendon of the tibialis polticus.

135, 136. Peroneus longus ; 136, its tendon.

137. Peroneus brevis.

135, 139. Extenfor longus digitorum; 138, the flefhy
part: 139, the tendon divided into four portions on the
back of the foot.

140. Peroneus tertius. :

141, 142. Extenfor longus pollicis; 142, its tendon.
Under this and the tendons of the extenfor longus digi-
torum, thofe of the extenfor brevis are partially feen.

143, 144. Tibialis anticus ; 144, the tendon, which is cut
off in the right foot.

145. Left abductor pollicis.

146. Flexor brevis digitorum.

147. cinnular ligament of the ankle.

Plates 1X. and X.—A front view of the deeply-feated
mufcles. 'Thofe of the firft and fecond orders, expreffed in
the former plates, have been removed: the right half
reprefents thofe of the third, and the left thofe of the fourth
layer.

A. Inthe Head, Neck, and Trunk.

I, 2. Orbicularis palpebrarum ; 1, the exterior; 2, the
Interlor portion.
3- Corrugator fupercilii.
4. Levator palpebre fuperioris, et reétus oculi fuperior,
which are cut through near their infertion.
5. Reétus externus oculi cut through.
6. Obliquus inferior cut through.
7. Temporalis.
8, 9. Maffeter ; 8, the anterior ; 9, the pofterior portion.
10. Levator anguli oris.
11. Depreffor anguli oris cut through near its apex.

12, Or.

MUSCLE.

Ocbicularis oris. ‘
. Natfalis labii fuperioris.
Trachelo-mattoideus.
. Potterior belly of the digaftricus.
. Scalenus medius.
Scalenus anterior.
Reétus capitis anticus major.
R Longus colli.
. Sterno-thyroideus.
. Hyo- thyroideus.
Mylo-hyoideus.
. Intercoitales externi.
interni.
Tranfverfus abdominis. :
. Pofterior layer,cf the aponeurofis of the obliquus ex-
ternus abdominis.
* ee cord cut through in front of the rmg.
Peritoneum.
es Diaphragm; 28, the convex; 29, the concave
furtace ; 30,’ the tendon; 31,. the crura.
325 33- Pfoas minor; 33, the tendon.
35. Pfoas major ; 35, the tendon.
. Ihacus internus.
Quadratus lumborum.

B.. In the Upper Extremities.

39. Subfcapularis ; 39, the tendon.

41. Teres major; 41, the tendon.

. Short head of the biceps cut off.

. Coracobraghialis. j

. Place where the biceps has been cut.

46. Brachalis internus; 46, the tendon.

48. Inner head of the triceps; 48, the tendon.

50. Extenfor capi radialis longior ; 50, the tendon.

gr. Extenfor carpi radialis brevior.

52. Remainder of the pronator teres, which has been partly
cut away.

53. Supinator brevis.

54, 55- Flexor profundus; ¢5, its ae tendons.

56—58. Flexor longus pollicis; 56, the flefhy belly; 57,
the tendon; 58, the acceflory portion,

59. Pronator quadratus.

60—63. Lumbricales.

64, 65. Flexor brevis pollicis; 65, the tendons inferted
into the fefamoid bones.

66. Adduétor pollicis.

67. Adduétor metacarpi minimi digiti

68—71. Interoffei interni.

72—74- — externi.

75. Annular ligament of the writ.

76. The penis cut off: the ereétores and acceleratores urine
are imperfetly feen behind it.

77. Sphincter ani externus.

78. Tranfverfus perinei.

C. Inthe Lower Extremities.

. Gluteus minimus.

. Obturator externus,

. Adduétor brevis femoris.

82. — magnus femoris.

. Semimembranofus. ,

85. Gracilis; 85, its tendon,

Biceps femoris.

. Peroneus longus.

- brevis.

90. Tibialis polticus; 90, the tendon.
92. Flexor longus digitorum; g2, the tendon

93. Extentor brevis.

Plates X11. and XIII. Back view of the mufeles: the
fuperficial ftratum is reprefented on the right, and the fecond
on therleft fide.

: A. Inthe Head, Nechy Gada

1, 2, Occipital portion of the epicranius ; _ the ten-
dinous; 2, the flefhy part. 2
3. The frontal caenee of the epicranius.
4. The aponeurofis of the epicranius.
. The thin and membranous portion of the aponeurofis.
6. Part of the temporal fafcia.
7, 8. Attollens auricule; 7, the eas 8, the sonditigiva
part.
g- Orbicularis palpebrarum.
10. Anterior auris.
11. Retrahentes auricule.
12. Zygomaticus major.
13, 14.'Mafleter; 13, the anterior; 14, the potterior por-
tion.
15. Pterygoideus internus.
16. Mylo-hyoideus. ¢ “ c
17. Platy{ma myoides.
18, 19. Sterno-cleido-maftoideus ; 18,
tendinous part. 5
20. Biventer cervicis:
feen on the left fide.
21. Splenius capitis :
fide.
22. Levator feapule.

the flefhy; 19, the
its tendinous origin from the head is

its origin is alfo feen on the left

'23—27. Trapezius; 23, the flefhy part; 2427, the ten-

‘dinous portion; 24, the attachments to the occiput;

25, the part contiguous to the oppofite mufcle; 26, the

attachment to the {pine of the fcapula; 27, to the acro-
mion.

28—31. Latifflimus dorfi; 28, the flefhy; 29, the ten-
dinous part; 30, attachment to the facrum; 31, to the
ilium: ss :

32. Right obliquus externus abdominis.

33. Serratus potticus fuperior.

34, 35- Rhomboideus RACES 34, the flefhy ; 35, the ten- |

dinous part.

36, 37- Rhomboideus major; 36, the flefhy; 37, the ten-
dinous part.

38—42. Serratus pofticus inferior ;' 38, the tendinous ori-
gin; 39—42, attachments to the four lait ribs. ‘

43- Left obliquus internus abdominis. ;

44. Serratus magnus.

45. Sacrolumbalis.

46. Longiffimus dorfi.

47- A portion of the longiff. dorfi, tranfverfalis cervicis,
trachelo-mattoideus, and {plenius colli, comes into view
here.

48. Spinalis dorfi.

49—51. 9th, roth, and rrth intercoftales externi.

52. 11th intercoftalis internus.

B. Jn the Upper Extremities.

. Suprafpinatus.

Infrafpinatus.

. Teres minor.

. Teres major.

. Deltoides.

8. Biceps brachii.

s9—61. Triceps cubiti,

62. Common tendon of the three heads of the triceps.

63. Anconeus,

64. Bra-

MUSCLE.

Brachialis internus.

Supinator longus.

67. Extenfor carpi radialis longior ; 67, its tendon.

69. Exitenfor carpi radialis brevior ; 69, its tendon.

Extenfor primi internodii pollicis.

72. Exteufor fecundi internodii pollicis.

74. Extenfor tertii internodii pollicis,

. Extenfor communis digitorum, with its tendons.

77. Extenfor carpi ulnaris, and its tendon.

79. Flexor.carpi ulnaris, and its tendon.

. Palmaris longus.

. Flexor digitorum fublimis.

—_—_—_——— profundus.

$4. Indicator, and its tendon.

. Supinator brevis.

* Ligamentum carpi commune dorfale. The interoflei are
not marked with any numbers.

64.
65.
66,
68,

C. In the Lower Extremities.

86. Gluteus maximus.

$7, $8. Gluteus medius, and its tendon.
8g. Pyriformis. ‘

go. Geminus fuperior.

gl. inferior.

gz. Obturator internus.

93- externus:

94. Coccygeus.

95. Levator ani.

96. Sphinéter ani externus.

97- Traniverfus perinei.

98. Quadratus femoris.

99- Tenfor vagine femoris.

1oo. Valtus externus.

101—103. Biceps femoris; 101, long head; 102, fhort

head ; 103, tendon.
304. Semi-membranofus.
105. Semi-tendinofus.
106. Adduéior magnus.
107. Gracilis.
108. Tendon of the fartorius.
10g. Vattus internus.
110. Inner head of the gaftrocnemius.
i111. Outer head of the gaftrocnemius. In the left leg thefe
are removed.

112. Tendo Achillis.
113. Soleus.
114, 115. Plantaris, and its tendon.
116, 117. Peroneus longus, and its tendon.
118, 119. brevis, and its tendon.
120. Flexor longus pollicis.

121. Tendon of the tibialis pofticus.

122. Popliteus.

123. Adductor minimi digiti.

124. Flexor brevis digitorum.

Plates XIV. and XV. A back view of the more deeply-
feated mufcles: thofe of the firft and fecond orders have
been removed. The mufcles of the third layer are repre-
fented on the right, and thofe of the fourth on the left
fide.

A. Inthe Head, Neck, and Trunk.

i1—4. Biventer cervicis; 1, the firft belly ; 2, the middle
tendon; 3, portion derived from the fpinous procefs of
the firft dorfal vertebra; 4, the fecond belly attached by
tendon to the occiput.

5- Complexus.

6, Trachelo-maftoideus.

7. Tranfverfalis cervicis.
8. Cervicalis defcendens.
g. Scalenus medius.

10. potticus.

11. Common origin of the facrolumbalis and longiffimus
dorfi.

12. Diyifion of the common origin.

13—15., Sacrolumbalis; 14, tendon inferted into the 11th
rib; 15, tendon inferted into the 1ft rib. The inter-
mediate tendons are not numbered.

16. Longiffimus dorfi.

17. Semifpinalis dorff.

18. Spinalis dorfi.

19. Semifpinalis cervicis.

20. Interfpinales cervicis. 'Two only are numbered; the
others are ealily diftinguifhed.

21. Tranfverfus abdominis.

22. Common tendon of the obliquus internus abdominis and
ferratus pofticus inferior cut through.

23. Reétus capitis pofterior minor.

4. ———_-—__——_ major.
25. Obliquus capitis fuperior.
26. —————_-—- inferior.

27. Left multifidus fpine. Its upper part is covered by the
femifpinalis cervicis.

28. Intertranfverfarii lumborum; of which two only are
numbered.

29. Levatores coftarum breves.

30. ———-__-. longi.

31. Intercoftales externi. :

32, interni. Thofe of the left fide only are

numbered, ;

- Quadratus lumborum.

B. In the Upper Extremities.

. Subfcapularis.

. Teres major.

- Biceps brachii.

. Inner head of the triceps.

. Outer head of the fame cut through.
. Remaining portion of the long head.
. Common tendon of the three heads.
. Brachialis internus.

42, 43. Extenfor carpi radialis longior, and its tendon.
44, 45- brevior, and its tendon.
46. Supinator brevis.

47. Flexor longus pollicis.

48. Pronator quadratus.

. Flexor digitorum profundus.
. Pronator teres.
. Tendons of the extenfor communis cut off.

“52. Tendon of the abductor minimi digiti cut off.

. Adduétor offis metacarpi digiti minimi.

. Flexor brevis pollicis.

55- Adduétor pollicis.

a—d. Interoffei interni.

e—zg- externi.

56. Common tendons formed by the junétion of thofe of
thé extenfor communis, interoffei, and lumbricales.

C. Inthe Lower Extremities.

57- lliacus internus.

55. Pfoas magnus. :

59- Common tendon of the two preceding mufcles,
60. Glateus minimus.

61, 62. Obturator internus, and its tendon.

63, 64. -externus, and its tendon.

8 65, 66.

MUSCLE.

65, 66. Semimembranofus, and its tendon.

67, 68. Gracilis, and its tendon. -

69. Adduétor magnus femoris. The tendon is marked with
an * on the left fide.

70—72. Biceps femoris; 70, the fhort head; 71, the
tendon; 72, cut edge of the long head.

73> 74- Divided heads of the gaftrocnemii.

75. Plantaris cut off.

76, 77- Popliteus, and its tendon.

78, 79. Tibialis pofticus, and its tendon.

80, 81. Flexor longus digitorum, and its tendon.

82, 83. pollicis, and its tendon.

84, 85. Peroneus longus, and its tendon.

86, 87. brevis, and its tendon.

88. Extenfor brevis digitorum.

8g. Flexor accefforius.

Pigte XVI. Lateral view of the mufcles.
A. In the Head, Neck, and Trunk.

1, 2. Occipital portion of the epicranius ;
dinous origin; 2, the flefhy part.

3- Frontal portion.

The aponeurofis.

5. The middle thin part of the aponeurofis.

6. Part of the temporal fafcia.

7, 8. Attollensauricule ; 7, the tendinousorigin; 8, the
flefhy portion.

g. Retrahentes auriculz, three in number.

ro. Anterior auricu'e.

11, 12. Orbicularis palpebrarum.

13. C mpreffor nafi.

14 Orbicularis oris.

15. Zygomaticus major.

16. Depreffor anguli oris.

17. Buccinator.

18, 19. Mafleter; 15, the anterior; 19, the pofterior
portion.

20. Pterygoideus internus. Between 20 and 24 the
ftylo-hyoideus and ftylo-gloffus are partially feen.

21—23. Platy{ma myoides; 21, the lower part arifing
from the cheft ; 22, acceffory fafciculi from the fide of
the neck ; 23, riforius of Santorini.

24, 25. Sterno-cleido-maftoideus ; 24, the flefhy ; 25, the
tendinons part.

26. Biventer cervicis.

27. Splenius capitis.

colli.

29. Scalenus medius.

30. Levator fcapule.

31—33. Trapezii; 31, the flefhy part ; 32, tendinous at-
tachment to the occiput ; 33, to the {pine of the fcapula
and acromion.

34-38. Lariflimus dorfi; 35, tendinous attachment to the
ilium ; 36, 37, 38, attachment to the ribs.

39, 40. Peétoralis major; 40, its attachment to the apo-
neurofis of the obliquus externus abdominis.

41. Peétoralis minor.

42 —48. Serratus magnus ; 42, the origin from the 3d rib;
43 —48, origin from the 4th to the gth ribs

49—54. Obliquus externus abdominis; 49, the flefhy por-
tion ; 50—53, the aponeurofis; 50, projeétion of the
obliquus internus; 51, of the reétus; 52, tendinous in-
terieétions of the rectus; 53, prominence of the pyra-
HAGAN

54. Abdominal ring.

55. Cremalter.

1, the ten-

B. In the Upper Extremities.

56. Infrafpinatus.
57- Teres minor.
58. - major.

59. Sieleoides

60. Acromion. «

61, 62. Biceps and its tendon.

63. Brachialis internus.

64—66. Triceps; 64, the long head; 65, the outer; * the
inner head ; 66, the common tendon.

67. Olecranon.

68, 69. Supinator longus and its tendon.

70. Pronator teres.

71. Flexor carpi radialis.

a. Palmaris longus.

b. Flexor fublimisa

72. Flexor longus pollicis. :

73, 74. Flexor carpi radialis longior, and its tendon.

Tien Os brevior, and its tendon.

77 -79- Extenfor communis digitorum, with the extenfor
proprius auricularis; 77, the extenfor communis; 78,
extenfor proprius ; 79, their tendons.

80. Extenfor carpi ulnaris.

81. Flexor carpi ulnaris.

82, 83. Extenfor primi internodii pollicis; 83, its divided
tendon.

84, 85. Extenfor fecundi internodii, and its tendon.

‘86. Tendon of the extenfor tertii internodii.

87. Common ligament of the back of the wrift,

8S. Abduétor pollicis.

89. Opponens pollicis.

go. Addu@or pollicis.

gt. Abduétor indicts.

g2- Prior interoffeus indicis.

93—97- The thumb and fingers.

C. Inthe Lower Extremities.

98. Peétineus.

99. Addué€or longus.

100—101. Sartorius and itstendons: 100, * fartorius of the
right thigh.

102, Tenfor vagine femoris, with its tendon cut from the
fafcia.

103. Gluteus medius.

104, 105. Gluteus maximus, and its tendon.

106, 107. Semitendinofus, and its tendon.

10o8—1ro0. Biceps; 108, the long head; r1og, the fhort
head ; 110, tendinous infertion in the fibula.

III, 112. Vaftus externus, and its tendon.

113, 114. Reétus femoris, and its tendon.

115. Ligamentum patellz.

116, 117. Valtus internus, and its tendon.
the right vaftus internus.

118. Tendon of the gracilis.

119. ————- femimembranofus.

120. Outer head of the gaflrocnemius.

121. Inner head of the gaftrocnemius,

122. Soleus.

123. Tendo Achillis.

124. Tendon of the plantaris.

125, 126. Peroneus longus, and its tendon.

127. Peroneus brevis, and its tendon.

c, tendon of

.

e. Ligament of the tendons of the peronei.

128—132. Extenfor longus digitorum pedis ; 129—132, its
tendons proceeding to the four {maller toes ; the tendons
of the extenfor brevis appear between them.

133)

MUSCLE.

1335 134: Peroneus tertius, and ils tendons.

135. Tendon of the extenfor longus pollicis.

136. 137. Tibialis anticus, and its tendor.

138, 139-. Abductor digiti minimi, and its tendon.

140. Tendon of the flexor brevis digiti minimi.

141. Annular ligament of the ankle.

142, 143. Flexor longus pollicis; 143, its tendon contained
ina peculiar fheath.

144, 145- Flexor longus digitorum, and its tendon.

146. Tendon of the tibialis pofticus.

147. Ligamentum laciniatum malleoli interni.

148. Abdudtor pollicis.

149. Flexor brevis pollicis.

150. — digitorum.

Phenomena of the AGion of the Animal Mufcular Syflem.—
We have fpoken hitherto of the power of motion belonging
to the mutcles ab{tra€tedly from the phenomena, which it
prefents when in exercife, The latter will engage our at-
tention at prefent. They are referrible to contraétion, as
that is the effentially active ftate of a mufcle, relaxation
being merely a paflive condition of the organ.

Contraction is by no means an uniform phenomenon.
When a mufcle is divided, or its antagonift is paralyfed, it
takes place flowly and infenfibly: the power which prefides
over this we have called the contradtlity of tiffue. The
ation of an irritating body in the mufcles of an animal re-
cently killed, caufes a quivering of the flefh, an ofcillation
affeGing the fibres throughout, but not producing any very
fenfible effe& on the whole mafs, not bringing together its
attachments. ‘he fibres are drawn from the ends towards
the centre, and then reftored; and thefe motions are re-
peated with great rapidity; the mufcle is thrown into a
tremulous flate. This kind of motion is exemplified in the
fhaking caufed by cold, by fear, on the accefs of intermittent
fevers, &c. The operation of the will, or irritation of a
nerve, caufes a fudden contraGtion of the whole mufcle. A
permanent ftate of contra€tion is called fpafm: quickly re-
peated contraétions are called convulfions,

When a mulcle contracts, all its fibres are rendered fhorter,
and, confequently, the length of the whole organ is dimi-
nifhed: hence the points, to which its extremities are con-
need, are drawn towards each other, and move refpeCtively,
more or lefs, according to their relative firmnefs. The
furface of the fibres is alfo obferyed to be wrinkled, or
folded tranfverfely. As its fibres are drawn from the ex-
tremities towards the middle, it becomes thicker, and ap-
pears to fwell. Hence the prominence of” the fuperficial
mufcles, when the body is in a ftate of exertion. The
ftatuary and the painter know that the character of the fur-
face is very different ina man at reft, and one in any violent
action ; they are aware that the mufcles, employed in any
particular motion, fwell and caufe prominences, which
mutt be carefully difplayed in their reprefentations ; to ex-
prefs thefe faithfully is one of the great difficulties of their
art. The fwelling is accompanied with a hard and rigid
ftate of the mufcle, which is more clearly charaéerifed, in
proportion as the exertion is greater. If we place the hand
on the maffeter, and fhut the mouth, thefe phenomena are
immediately rendered apparent.

As the mufcle is fhortened and fwells in its middle, do
thefe two changes compenfate each other, fo that the bulk
remains the fame? or is it rendered on the whole larger
or fmaller? All thefe opinions have been maintained. Borelli
placed a man in equilibrio on a piece of wood, and then
made him contra& the mufcles of the lower limbs : the ba-
lance was not deftroyed, and he concluded that the mufcles
gain nothing in their contraétion. The arm has been im-

Vor. XXIV.

merfed in a jar of water, and fome of its mulcles thes
contraéted: the height of the fluid has not been changed
There feems no reafon to conclude that the bulk of thefe
parts undergoes any change in their contraétion: but it muft
be difficult to prove the point fatisfactorily : fortunately it
is unimportant.

The colour of the mufcle is not changed in its contrac-
tion. We have already mentioned that the ftream of bleod
from an opened vein is increafed by exerting the mufcles,
either from the preffure of their bellies on the venous trunks,
or from that of their fibres on the veins ramifying in their
fubltance. The colour of the mufcle does not depend on
the blood circulating in it, but on that which is combined
with its {ubftance; and it cannot therefore be affected by
contraction of the organ.

None of the changes, which we have juft defcribed as oc-
curring in the mufcular fibres, affect the tendons: they are
completely paffive, and merely follow the impulfe given te
them by the former.

When the will ceafes to at on a mufcle, a feries of phe-
nomena exactly oppofite to the foregoing ones is exhibited.
It becomes fofter ; the {welling of its middle fubfides; and
all the wrinkles are deftroyed: it recovers, in a word, its
original {tate, in which it continues until new irritation, or
frefh exertion of the will, occurs. This is called the relaxa-
tion of a mufcle. In this condition of the mufcular or-
gans, parts of the body often execute metions fimply ir
confequence of their weight; fuch is the nodding of the
head forwards when we fall afleep in the ere& pofture ;
the falling of the whole body to the ground when we faint,
&c. When the limb is not {upported, its weight often pre-
vents it from being brought into the middle ftate. Paralyfes
prefent numerous phenomena of this defcription.

Relaxation, therefore, is that condition of a voluntary muf-
cle, in which it is not affected by the will, nor by any
exertion of the brain or nerves ; in which its tiffue is quite
paffive, fo that it will yield to any moving power. When
the elbow has been bent by the biceps, the ceflation of the
volition leaves the mufcle in a relaxed ftate, although the
elbow may ftill continue bent: if the triceps contra¢ts, and
extends the joint, the biceps is elongated, and thus reftored
to the ftate that it was in before the bending of the arti-
culation. The mufcle may be confidered as relaxed in the
bent ftate of the joint, as well as in the extended: but in
the latter it is alfo ftretched. It does not affume this elon-
gated form from any power of its own; but fimply fromthe
motion of the bone, to which its aatagonift is affixed. Now
the term relaxation is fometimes applied to that ftate of the
mufcle, which is produced by approximating its twe infer-
tions, when the will is not exerted: in this fenfe it is op-
pofed to ftretching of the mufcle, or its ftate when the two
infertions are moved to a diftance from each other.

Phyfiologitts have attempted to calculate the fhortening
of a mufcle in its contraGtion: Bernouilli, and the other
mathematicians, ftated the lofs of length at one-third. From
obfervations on the intercoftals, Haller affirmed that they
might lofe one-half. The {phincters are clearly capable of
greater contraction than this. The mufcles of the extremi-
ties do not experience in general fo confiderable a dimi-
nution: yet they contra& much beyond their ordinary ex-
tent in fraGtures ; as the extenfors of the knee in fractures
of the patella, &c.

A remarkable difference is obferved in the duration of the
contractions, according as they are excited naturally or ar-
tificially. When the mufcle itfelf or its nerve is irritated in
a living or recently flaughtered animal, the contraétion is
followed almoit fuddenly by relaxation: neither ftate con-

SF tingiecs

MUSCLE.

tinues long, although the ftimulus be kept up. The fame
phenomena are produced whether galvanifm, mechanical,
or chemical agents are employed. The contraction or con-
vulfion is more forcible and rapid at firlt: it gradually
languifhes ; and foon the mufcle remains at relt. When,
on the contrary, contraction is produced by the will, it can
be maintained for a confiderable time. The fupport of
burdens, the aét of ftanding, and the maintaining a limb in
any attitude, &c. &c. prove this fact. Tetanus affords us
a terrible example of the permanence of contraction under
morbid irritation. This continued exertion;however, fatigues
the mufcle much more than alternate contraétion and relaxa-
tion: hence, when we are itanding a long time, we throw
the weight of the body alternately on the two limbs, foas to
reft the mufcles of each fucceflively. The law of intermif-
fion, to which the animal mufcular fy {tem is particularly fub-
je&t, prevents the mufcles from continuing in a contracted
ftate beyond acertain time: the fenfe of fatigue admonifhes
us of the neceflity of relaxation, and very quickly becomes
fo urgent that it cannot be negleéted ; it foon rifes to intole-
rable pain, which forces us to intérmit the exertion. A per-
fon may foon convince himfelf of this by holding a weight
in the hand with the arm and fore-arm horizontally extended ;
after a fhort time tremulous motions occur in the mufcles,
and the limb finks in fpite of the moft refolute exertion of
the will.

Various circumftances influence the velocity of the con-
traGtion. When ftimuli are dire€tly applied to an expofed
mufcle, the contra¢ticns depend on the itate of vitality of the
mufcle, and on the nature of the flimulus. They are per-
formed, and fucceed each other fo quickly at the beginning
of the experiment, that the eye can hardly follow them ;
they gradually become weaker, but may be excited by a
more powerful ftimulus, which alfo foon lofes its effect. Ir-
ritation of the nerve produces a more rapid contraétion than
that of the mufgle itfelf; and the velocity is very confider-
able when an aétive animal, and an active ftimulus,as galvanifm,
are bothemployed. The velocity or force of the contraction
are not greater when all the nerves.of a muf{cle are irritated,
than when one only is a€ted on. ‘The velocity of mufeular
contraction produced in obedience to the will is very variable,
and is regulated by volition. There are great differences
between individuals in this refpe&t, and thele differences are
foreign to the general flrength of the mufcular fyitem. We
thall gain a general notion of the powersof mufcles by re-
fle&ting on the motions of the racer, the greyhound, era
practifed runner ; of the fingers in playing on mufical in-
itruments, asthe violin, flute, piano-forte, in writing, &c. 5
of the lower limbs, in jumping, kicking, &c. The poffible
rapidity of mufcular contra¢tion depends much on exercife.
What can be more awkward than the firit attempts at
writing, drawing, playing on a mufical imftrument, or per-
forming any of the mechanical proceffes in the arts? and
what can be a greater contraft to thefe efforts than the cele-
rity and precifion which praétice never fails to confer in any
of thefe departments? In running, jumping, or any other
motions of the body, one man can perform with eafe, what
another, with ih original powers, cannot poflibly effect,
merely becaufe he has never made the attempt. Jn all fuch
exertions there is a potht beyond which we cannot go; and
we foon arrive at this point.

By confidering the motions employed jn tranfporting the
body in the examples of the fleeteft horfes, Haller concludes
that the elevation of the leg muft have been performed in ,',th
of a fecond. He calculates that the rectus femoris is fhort-
ened three inches in ,{,th of a fecond in the moft rapid mo-
tions of aman. He fays that the quickeft motions are exe-

cuted by the mufcles concerned in articulation; in an expe-
riment he pronounced 1500 letters inaminute. The relaxa-
tion of a mufcle occupies as much time as its contraétion ;
therefore the contration of a mufcle in pronouncing a letter
muft be executed in ~4,.dth of a minute, and in much lefs
time in fome letters, which require repeated contraGtions of
the fame mufcle, as. If the tremors occurring in the pro-
nunciation of this letter are ten, the ftylogloffi muft con-
traé in ,,45,dth of a minute, or in {th ofa third. Accord-
ing to fome accounts of diftances, which pigeons have per-
formed, an agitation of the wing muit have been executed ir
the 7th of athird, or within 54 fourths. Element. Phy-
fiolog. tom. iv. p. 483- :

There is a great difference in the force of contraétion of
the animal mufcles, according as it is excited by irritation or
by the influence of the brain. By ftimulating an expofed
mufcle we produce a rapid and abrupt, but, tm general,
feeble contraction, which is always far behind that energy
which is communicated through the brain. The organic
mufcular fy{tem is principally fet in motion by the immediate
application of fttmuli, and never exhibits exacerbations of
power correfponding to thofe which the animal contraGtility
prefents under certain circumftances. We have already feew
that the latter property may be brought into aétion by irri-
tating the brain in experiments, or by its excitation through
the will or by fympathy. In the firlt cafe the a¢tion is never
very energetic, whether we irritate the brain or the nerves s
a rapid convulfive motion is produced, analogous to that
caufed by exciting the mufcles themfelves. Galvanifm is
the moft powerful means of exciting fuch contraétions ; the
effect of which is beft appropriated by irritating a fingle
nerve ; for, when the brain or {pinal marrow is aéted on,
the whole fy{tem is thrown into convulfions, and the con-
tractions of the antagonift mufcles deltroy each other.

Two caufes, namely, the itate of the mufcles and of the
brain, influence the force of mufeular contraGion during
life. If the energy of the brain be equal, a ftrongly marked
mufcle, of which the outline can be traced through the fin,
becaufe its fibres are well nourifhed and ftrong, will con-
tra&t much more powerfully than a thin and flat one, with
foft and pale fibres. In ftatues, which reprefent ftrength,
the mufcular forms are always energetically developed.

The influence of the brain has again a great effe& in aug-
menting the energy of muicular contraction. In pa |
the will determines the degree of power developed in the
voluntary motions, and adapts. it exaétly to the effeé
which we defign to produce: if we fimply eleyate the
arm, or raife by its elevation one pound or a hundred.
pounds, the force of the contraétion is precifely adequate
to the object. Various caufes will give to the will of one
circ a greater energy and {fteadinefs than to that of
another, and therefore enable him, with equal mufcular
powers, to produce much more confiderable effets. Many
excitations, which are foreign to the will, very greatly exalt
the power of the brain, as we fee in maniacs, in men tran&
ported by rage, in the delirium of fome fevers, kc. The
flender mufcles of a woman in fuch ftates often furpafs
in energy thofe of a powerful man in his ordinary con-
dition.

Calculations of the foree of mufcles cannot arrive at much
accuracy, becaufe the data, on which they are founded, can-
not be precifely afcertamed. The vital forces. vary in-
finitely ; they are not the fame in two individuals; the in-
fluence of the brain and the ftrength of the mufcular
organifation are conftantly varying in their. relative pro-
portions in the fame fubjec. Vital phenomena elude cal-
culation, and prefent, like the forces from which they are de-

9 duced,

MUSCLE.

duced, a charaGter of irregularity, which diftinguifhes them
effentially from phyfical phenomena. We may, however,
conclude, that a mufcular effort, carried to its higheft de-

e by excitation of the brain, is capable of producing
aftonifhing effets ; fuch are the rupture of ftrong tendons,
of the patella, &c. and the refiftance often oppofed to
the violent extenfions employed for the reduétion of dif-
locations.

We fhould alfo remark here the furprifing correétnefs
with which the contraction of the muifcle is adapted to
the extent Of motion which we with to produce in a bone.
« Let us fuppofe,” fays Dr. Barclay, “the circumference,
in which a bone can be moved, to be twenty-four inches,
that each of the inches is equally divided into twelve parts,
and that the bone may be arrefted at each of the divi-
fiens, which we know to be poffible ; with what accuracy
mutt the mufcles contra& towards the centres in order to
xegulate their extent of motion, with fo muédfi precifion,
towards the circumference! In producing the feveral mu-
fical notes, by changes in the {mall aperture of the glottis,
or in balancing the body on the tight or flack ropes, we
know that the mufcles muft contract with fuch minutenefs
and accuracy, as frequently to regulate their extent of decur-
tation by {maller meafurements than the two hundred thou-
fandth part ef an inch.’’ The Mufcular Motions of the
Human Body, p. 299.

Thus it appears that the power of mufcular contraétion
is in a compound ratio of the ftrength of organifation in the
mufcles, and of the excitation which they receive from the
brain. When both thefe are fmall, the motions are feeble;
when both are elevated to their higheft pitch, we can hardly
fet a limit to the effects which they may produce. If
energetic nervous influence be combined with a weak muf-
cular tiffue, or vice ver/a, the phenomena of contra¢tion hold a
middle place ; and this is the kind of arrangement which we
generally obferve in nature. Women and children, who
have weak mufcles, have a nervous fyftem eafily excited ;
men, on the contrary, particularly athletic ones, have nerves
lefs readily moved.

We cannot afcertain, with any degree of accuracy, the
power of a given bulk of mufcular fibres, as mufcles do not
a& feparately, and the mechanical difadvantages, under
which they are placed in the living body, take off a great
deal of their effet. Yet numerous familiar phenomena
enable us to conclude that their power is very great. The
extenfors of the knee and ankle break refpe¢tively the pa-
tella and tendo Achillis by their contraction. When a perfon,
with a burthen on his back, ftands on tiptoe on one foot,
the whole weight of the body and of the burthen is fuf-
tained by the extenfors of the foot. In jumping, thefe
muf{cles proje& the body, either in length or breadth, with
vaft power. Three hundred pounds have been elevated by
the mufcles of the lower jaw; and Thomas Topham lifted
in this way a table of fix feet in length, with fifty pounds
attached to its fartheft end. Haller informs us, that a man
was drawn up fix hundred feet, fufpended by one finger.
This author has colleéted in his Elementa Phyfiologiz,
lib. xi. fect. 2, § 26, a great number of inftances of mufcular
exertion, to which the reader is referred.

The preceding examples, however, will give us but an
imperfe& notion of the power poffeffed by mufcles. We
have {tated the fats as if the whole force of the mufcle
were effeCtually employed in Trae the weight, as ina
balance the whole weight of one fcale aéts in raifing the
other. But the cafe is quite different in the human body,
where we always have a great expence of force for the pro-
dudtion of a trifling effet. There are numerous caufes

tending to diminifh the operation of thefe forces. In the
firft place, almoft all the mufcles are fixed to the bones near
to the centre of motion; while the weight, which they have
to move, is applied ufualhy at the extremity of the lever.
If we regard the bones as levers, the joints as the fulcra,
and the mufcles as the moving powers, it will follow, from
the well known laws concerning this fubjeét, that the nearer
the mufcle is inferted to the fulcrum, the lefs effe@ will it
have in moving the part. Suppofe we fupporta weight on
the elbow by the aGtion of the deltoid mufcle: the fulerum
is here in the fhoulder joint, and the infertion of the mufcle
is much nearer to that part than to the end of the bone on
which the weight refts ; let us ftate this proportion as one to
three. Now if we raife 55 pounds in this way, and add five
pounds for the weight of the limb, which, in order to fim-
plify the matter, we conceive to operate entirely at the end
of the bone, the power which the deltoid muft exert in
order to produce the effe&t, is not equal to 6olbs., but to
60 x 3 = 18o0lbs. A great number of the mufcles have
infertions much lefs favourable, much nearer to the lever than
this. The biceps and bra@hialis internus, for example, are
fixed to the fore-arm, at leaft eight or ten times ‘nearer to
the elbow than to the extremity of the lever at the writt.

Secondly, mufcles are fixed to the bones at unfavourable
angles: if they were inferted at right angles, their whola
force would be effeGiually applied in moving the joint, as a
weight placed in a fcale depreffes the arm of the balance.
If the mufcle were parallel to the bone, the refiftence would
be infinite, and no effet could be produced. There are
very few mufcles of the former, and none of the latter kind
in the animal body: almoft all join the bones at angles much
{maller than right angles. The deltoid is implanted in the
humerus at an angle of about 10°. A power aéting ob-
liquely is to one a&ting perpendicularly as the fine of the
angle of inclination is to the whole fine. In the prefent
example, this proportion is as 1,736,482 to 10,000,000.
Wherefore, if the mufcle in the former cafe exerted a power
equal to the elevation of 18olbs., in elevating s5lbs. it will, in
the prefent view, exert a force equal to 1058lbs.

Again, the direGtion of the fibres, with refpe& to the
tendon, has an important influence on the power of the
mufcle. The flefhy fibres have the fame dire¢tion with thofe
of the tendon, only in a few inftances ; and they lofe more
of their power in proportion as the angle, at which they are
fixed to the tendon, is greater: if it were a right angle,
they would have very little effet. The force exerted is to
the effective force (i. e. to the force which aéts in moving the
limb) as the whole fine is to the fine of the angle at which
the fibres join the tendon. If the angle be of 30°, thefe
proportions are as 100 to 87; if of 45°, as 100 to 70; if
26°, as 100 to 89, &c. The largeft angle formed by the
outer fibres of the deltoid is about equal to 30°; the fmalleft
by the inner fibres about 8°. If this be taken inte the ac-
count, with the two preceding circumftances, the force ex-
erted by the deltoid in the elevation of sslbs. would lift
1284lbs., if no caufes diminifhed its efficacy.

It is contended further, that the force of the mufele, as
eftimated in the preceding calculations, muft be doubled, b@®
ceaufe it will have to exert as much force in refifting the
bone, which affords a fixed point at one end, as in elevating
the weight at its other extremity : the force of the deltoid, in
raifing the 5slbs., muft therefore be carried up to 2568lbs.
This is ttated by Borelli, and admitted and explained at
length by Haller, See Element. Phyfiol. lib. xi. fet. 2,
§ 30.

Mufcles, which go over two or more joints, cannot act
wpon the bone, in which they are inferted, without moving

3F2 the

MUSCLE.

the intermediate articulations. Thefe motions are refifted
by the antagonift mufcles, yet they confume a certain por-
tion of the force exerted in the contraction.

The advocates of final caufes have prepared an an{wer to
thefe objeCtions, which a view of the foregoing circumftances
inthe mufcular fyftem might give rife to. « It may be in-
quired,”’ fays Haller, ‘* why the all-wife Creator admitted in
the animal frame a principle of ftru€ture, according to
which fo large a portion of the power produced is loft.
The explanation is not difficult. All the contrivances of
human {kill end in this, that the moving power pafles through
a large f{pace, while the refiftarice defcribes a {mall one.
In the human body, on the contrary, the effe&t to be pro-
duced is that the refiftance fhould defcribe a large, and the
power a {mall arc of a circle. The foot in ftepping, and
the hand in feizing, move over a large {pace : in all cafes, in
fhort, the object is, that the weight fhould be carried over a
large, while the power moves within a {mall extent. Hence
the velocity is increafed at the expence of the power; and
the lofs of the latter was not regarded by the Creator, in the
conftruGion of the frame, becagele it was rendered fubfer-
vient to the accomplifhment of a more important object.

« The origins of the mufcles muft neceflarily be derived
from the trunk and adjoining parts ; and they mutt be inferted,
if the parts are to be moved, beyond the lait articulation.
Thus, as the wants of man required a limb compofed of fe-
veral moveable pieces, it neceffarily followed that mufeles
mutt pafs over fome joints.

«¢ The limbs are round, and of a conical figure, that
they may be lighter towards their extremities. ‘The joints
could not therefore be made thick enough to elevate the
mufcles far from the centre of motion; and that part of the
force, which is loft from the {mallnefs of the perpendicular
line drawn from the centre of motion to the diretion of the
mufcle, was neceflarily facrificed.

“ Again, as the muicles are carried over a limb conftantly
decreafing in fize and weight, as it is neceflary to unite many

fibres in a {mall tendon, and to bring them together from.

different parts, fo as to bear on one point, the radiated and
penniform arrangements are neceflary, although attended
with lofs of power.’ Elem. Phytiol. lib. xi. fe&. 2,
§ 35: :

Phere are, on the other hand, many circumftances that
augment the mechanical power of the mufcles, when it can
be accomplifhed confiftently with the views juft alluded to.
The angles formed by the mufcles at their infertions are ge-
nerally increafed in eonfequence of the articular ends of the
bones being made thick ; this increafes the diftance between
the courfe of the tendon and the centre of motion. The
projecting procefles for mufcular attachments ; fuch as the
trochanters, the protuberance of the os calcis, &c. and the
bones placed in the courfe of tendons, as the patella and
fefamoid bones, have a fimilar but more powerful effect.
The fmoothnefs of the cartilaginous furfaces of the joints,
and the unétuous fluid lubricating them, by diminifhing the
effect of friftion, augments the power. The different con-
trivances of the pulley kind a& only in changing the direc-
tion of the force without augmenting its amount.

The motions produced by the mutcles are either fimple or
compound. We fhall confider the former, as it occurs in
ftraight mufcles, in thofe which are refleted in their courfe,
and in circular ones. In the firft cafe, where the mufcle has
an elongated form, and is terminated by a tendon, each fibre
by its contration draws the te:don in its own direction ;
the whole will therefore bring it towards the centre of the
mufcle, The whole effe& of the contraétion, in a long
mufcle, is concentered in a fingle point, that is on the ten-

don. In moft of the broad mufcles, on the contrary, as
the attachments at both ends are generally made to different
points, all the fibres do not concurin one effet. The va-
rious parts of the fame mufcle may have different, and even
oppofite ufes ; and they are capabl2 of contracting feparately.
The fimpleft method of determining the effe&, which a
ftraight mufcle is capable of producing on the bones to which
it is fixed, is, toexamine the direction of the mufcle from its
fixed to its moveable part, and to take the inverfe of that
direGtion : the latter is always the dire€tion of the motion.
Where two bones are alternately moveable and fixed, they
are moved in oppofite dire€tions. When the whole of a
broad mufcle is brought to bear ona fingle point, as in the
deltoid, the middle line of direGion of ail the fibres muft be
taken for the purpofe of eftimating the aGlion. Where a
mu{cle is reflected, as the trochlearis, the peronei, &c. its
aGtion is in the line drawn from the point of reflexion to the
infertion ; a¢a force a€ting upon a rope which paffes over a
pulley, aéts in a ftraight line from the pulley to the weight.
The circular mufcles furrounding the mouth, eye, &c. have
no fixed or moveable points; they contraé the apertures,
which they furround.

The inftances are very few, in which mufcular motion is
of the fimple kind juft defcribed, or confined toa fingle
mufcle. The mufcles belonging to the fame part combine
their a€tions very varioufly. ‘The four ftraight mufcles of
the eye correfpond nearly to the four cardinal points of a
{phere : where any two neighbouring ones are contraGted to-
gether, the part is moved in a diagonal, of which the fides
are the lines of direction of the two mufcles contra&ed.
According as the one or the other mufcle is exerted moft
powerfully, the eye may be moved in any line between thofe
of the two mufcles. A fimilar combination occurs in all the
joints, where motion is admitted in various directions. Whem
it has a radiated form, a fingle mufcle may execute oblique
motions, the lateral fibres on one fide of the middle line a@-
ing more ftrongly than the oppofite ones: the deltoid is an
example; it can elevate the arm towards the front or the
back of the trunk.

Again, when a part moveable in various direétions is
arrived towards any point, it muft be rendered fleady, and
prevented from deviating materially, by the mufcles on each
fide ; and the extent of its motion mutt be limited by the
antagonift mufcle. Thus the head, neck, and vertebral co-
Jumn, may be moved forwards, backwards, to the right and
left. Suppofe that they are bent forwards; there muft be
mufcles, not only to move them in that direétion, but alfo
to prevent inclination to the right or left, and to limit
the motion forwards. Thus the different powers employed
on this occafion may be clafled under the heads of dire&
movers, dire&tors, and moderators.

When we confider the effects, which may be produced
by varioufly combining the ations of the mufeles, and fur-
ther, that the force, extent, duration, and order of fuccef-
fion of the contraétions may be almoft infinitely varied by
the will, we fhall be able to account moft fatistaCtorily for
the number of motions produced. If there are ten mufcles,
and each had only two degrees of contraction, the different
effe€ts produced by their combinations would be not lefs
than 1,048,575.

Another fource of the combinations of mufcular motions
is in the neceffity of rendering one of the attachments fixed.
Excepting thofe, which go from a bone to fome foft part, as
the eye, tongue, or pharynx, the mufcles feldom have one
extremity perfectly immoveable ; and, in moft cafes, one end is
firmer, the other loofer ; the former being towards the trunk,
the latter towards the extremities. Even very diltant mufcles

may

MUSCLE.

may be concerned in fixing the attachments of mufcles, fo
that thefe powers are conneéted over almoft the whole
body, and may affift or impede each other’s aétions. If
the deltoid ated alone, it would draw down the feapula and
clavicle, as well as elevate the humerus; if, therefore, we
with to produce the latter effect, the former bones muft be
fixed by the levator fcapule, rhomboidei, trapezius, &c.
But thefe mufcles come from various vertebra of the neck,
which are themfelves moveable: if thefe vertebre were
drawn downwards by the mufcles juft enumerated, the del-
toid would ftill not have a fixed point to a&t from. The
neck muft therefore be fixed by its extenfors ; by the mul-
tifidi, facrolumbales, longiflimi, cervicales defcendentes,
and all the numerous mufcles lying on the back of the fpine.
~ By the combined ation of fo many mufcles, the deltoid
will at laft be enabled to produce its full effe&, and to exert
its whole force in elevating the humerus. Let us fuppofe
a perfon lying on the ground, and endeavouring to raife
himfelf by feizing any obje& above him. The hand, being
retained by its Mice: is rendered as firm as the object
which it holds. The deltoid will now elevate the fcapula
and clavicle; we confine our view to this mufcle, to make
the ftatement more fhort; for all the mufcles pafling be-
tween the humerus and the fcapula and trunk will concur
with it. The deltoid, then, elevates the fcapula and cla-
vicle, and through them the trunk of the body; all the
mufcles between the hand and the humerus are employed in
fixing the latter for the ation of the deltoid. If a perfon in
the recumbent pofture endeavour to bend the head forwards,
‘the re&ti abdominis are immediately rendered tenfe: they
are exerted for the purpofe of fixing the fternum, and af
fording a firm point for the aCtion of the fterno-cleido-maf-
toidei. If the trunk be bent forwards, the latter mufcles
fix the fternum for the action of the re&ti. Thefe in-
flances are fufficient to exemplify the mode in which
the mufcular motions are combined ; the fame principle ex-
tends throughout the whole body. The combinations are
Rill more numerous and complicated in cafes where she
whole body is moved.

“© As all the motions that vary the pofition of the head,
neck, trunk and extremities, muft likewife vary the centre
of gravity, anumber of mufcles muft be thrown into aétion,
merely on purpofe to preferve the equilibrium, if a perfon
be fitting, or ftanding, or moving from one place to an-
other: thefe mufcles, if a name were neceffary, might be
called librators. In general, we are not confcious of their
aGtion, unlefs when a ftate of morbid fenfibility happens to
fhew a conneétion between them and the mufcles employed
in changing the pofitions; or unlefs, when happening to
perform a motion which we did not intend, we fall to the
ground; or all ona fudden change the librators with a violent
jerk of the whole fyftem. It is from the general and prompt
co-operation of the different mufcles in harmonifing the
flexions and extenfions, the fixations and librations through-
out the feveral parts of the fyftem, from the yielding yet
fteady flexibility of the joints, from the oblique appofition
of their furfaces, from the angles, the curves, and the varied
direGtions of the bones united by articulation, and from the
elaftic fubftances interpofed, that the fyftem is enabled to
refift fo fuccefsfully the violent concuffions to which it is
expofed in running, leaping, ftopping fuddenly, or falling
from aheight. By thefe contrivances, under the dire€tion
of the vital principle, concentrated forces are fo admirably
and fuddenly difpofed and diffufed throughout every part,

- that even the functions of the moft delicate are, in ordinary
cafes, feldoin impeded. To thefe, therefore, more than to
the ftrength of the bones and mufcles, are we frequently in-

debted, in cafes of concuffion, for the fafety of the vifcera
contained in the cranium, thorax and abdomen; for the
fafety of the blood-veffels, nerves and abforbents; and even
for the fafety of the bones and mulcles. This mult be ob-
vious, from the violent fhocks to which men are expofed,
from the want of libration, when they are intoxicated ; from
the violent jerks we often receive in attempting fuddenly to
recover our balance ; from the diftortions of the joints and
the bones in cafes of rheumatifm; from the great number
of luxations and fractures arifing from unequal aétion in
the mufcles, when not prepared to meet with the accident ;
and alfo from the praétice of bending iron bars over the
forearm when the mufcles are every way prepared for the
refiftance.”’ Barclay on the Mufcular Motions, p. 3o1.
The effe&t produced by the aétion of each particular
muf{cle is confidered in its defcription; we fhall point out
here the mode, in which the individual mufcles co-operate,
in fome cafes where a great number of them are employed,
as in ftanding, walking, &c. The mechanifm of thefe at-
titudes and motions, fo far as the bones and joints are con-

-cerned, is explained in th@article ExTREMITIES: our prin-

cipal obje@ at prefent is to point out the part which the
mufcles perform. :

Standing is that condition of the body, in which an ani-
mal is fupported by his legs extended and fixed. If aman
in the erect pofture fuddenly dies, or difcontinues from any
caufe thofe efforts which are neceflary to maintain the ereét
attitude, the joints of the lower limbs would yield to the
weight of the body, bend, and allow the trunk to come to
the ground. Standing, then, is produced by the continued
action of the extenfor mufcles of all the joints; and, for
this reafon, it is fo much more fatiguing than walking, in
which the muicles are alternately contracted and relaxed.
If the trunk were held immoveable in this attitude, the
mufcular exertion neceflary for its continuance could be
fupported only for a very fhort time, as any perfon may con-
vince himfelf by itanding perfectly ereét and motionlefs.
Generally, however, there is aferies of vacillations, of very
fmall alternate flexions and extenfions, to which the nume-
rous and eafily moving joints of the body are excellently
adapted, and by which the fatigue of a conftant extenfion
is avoided : we accomplhifh the fame object, too, by throw-
ng the weight of the trunk alternately on the oppofite
egs.

50 beftow on an animal the power of maintaining his
body in a vertical pofition, all its parts fhould be fo dif
pofed, as to be ealily held in a ftate of equilibrium; the
mufcles fhould have the power of corre@ing continually the
movements of aberration; the line of gravity of the whole
body fhould fall within the place covered by the feet, and
laftly, the feet themfelves fhould be fo conftruGed as to
feize, ina manner, the inequalities of the ground, and fix
themfelves to it. Man is the only animal, in which all
thefe conditions are united in the neceflary degree. See
Extremities.

In the attitude of ftanding, the fole of the foot is firmly
prefled again{ft the ground by all the mufcles which bend
the toes (flexor longus and brevis digitorum pedis, and pol-
licis pedis, lumbricales, interoffei, flexor brevis minimi di-
giti), and by thofe, which extend the foot (the gaftrocne-
mius, foleus, plantaris, tibialis poiticus, peroneus longus et
brevis). The weight of the body would bend the leg on
the foot ; itis extended and maintained erect by the mufcles
of the calf.. This motion in the direGtion backwards is
limited by the flexors of the ankle (tibialis anticus, exten-
fores digitorum et pollicis, peroneus tertius), which prevent
the leg from being carried too far in that direCtion : gn. tbe

ee

MUSCLE.

fides the leg is fixed by the tibialis, the peronei, and the
eppofite forces of the flexors of the great and the fmaller
toes, which corre&t any tendency to lateral deviations.
Thefe mufcles, then, furrounding the leg in all direétions,
fuftain it firmly on the foot, like fo many cords pafling from
it to be fixed to the earth. i

The powerful vafti and cruralis extend the knee-joint, and
preferve the femur in the fame vertical line with the leg,
preventing that flexion of the knee, which the inclination
forwards of the thigh, and the pofition of the pelvis behind
a ftraight line drawn from the knee, would tend to produce.
Thefe powers are balanced and limited by the flexors of
the knee (the biceps, femitendinofus, femimembranofus,
gracilis).

The pelvis is extended on the thighs by the glutei magni
moderated by the reétus cruris, pfoas magnus et iliacus in-
ternus.

The trunk, taken altogether, would fall forwards if left to
itfelf : the pelvis may be carried freely forwards on the heads
of the thigh bones, and the cheft may be bent on the pelvis ;
but thefe parts cannot be moved in the oppofite direétion.
The weight of the head, the ordinary pofition of the upper
limbs in front of the body, and the prominence of the abdo-
minal vifcera, give to the trunk this inclination forwards. The
glutei magni, the facrolumbales, the longiffimi dorfi, and all
the extenfors of the fpine, correct this tendency. The
pifoas and iliacus, the rectus cruris, and the rectus abdo-
minis in fome degree, are the moderators of this exten-
fion.

The vertebral column gives the point of fupport for the
head ; which, as it is produced confiderably in front of its
articulation with the atlas, and confequently always falls
fpontaneoufly forwards ina perfon dropping afleep, requires,
Sor fupporting it in equilibrio, numerous extenfor mutcles,
as the recti pottici, obliqui fuperiores, trachelo-maftoidei,
complexi, fplenii capitis, trapezii. Thefe are balanced by
few and weak mufcles in front ;—the re¢ti antici and longi
colli. Several mufcles on the lateral afpeéts prevent either
the head or neck from deviating towards the fide.

We have not enumerated all the powers exerted in ftand-
mg: fince they are fo numerous, and mutt be conftantly
contraéted to maintain the body ere&t, we fhall no longer
wonder at the fatigue produced by that attitude, and the
neceflity for refting the mufcles alternately by varying the
bearing on the lower limbs.

Walking. —All the motions, in which the body is tranf-
ported from one place to another, require that an impulfe
fhould be made, in a certain direétion, on its centre of
gravity. To this end, a number of articulations more or
lefs bent are extended ; thefe are fo placed, that their ex-
tenfion is free in the dire¢tion of the centre of gravity, and
confined in the oppofite one; fo that the movement pro-
duced takes place in the firft of thefe direétions. ‘The
body may be compared to a fpring compofed of two
branches, one of which refts on animmoveable fupport. If
thefe branches, after being approximated by an external
force, are fet at liberty, they feparate, until they again form
the angle which they formed before the compreflion: but,
as the fupported branch cannot force the obf{tacle, the mo-
tion takes place altogether in the oppofite direction, and
the centre of gravity of the {pring is moved away from the
obftacle with more or lefs velocity. In the prigecve mo-
tions of the body the flexor mufcles are the force which
comprefles the {pring ; the extenfors are the elafticity which
tends to feparate its branches; and the refiftance of the
ground is the obftacle. In walking, the centre of gravity

is alternately moved by one limb, and fupported by the
other, without the body being ever entirely detached from
the ground: by the latter circumftance it is diltinguifhed
from leaping.

Suppofe the perfon to be ftanding, and to ftep forwards
with the left foot, the ankle and hip of that limb are bent
by their refpe@tive flexors; the fole of the foot is detached
from the ground by the mufcles of the calf and the other
extenfors. The hip is then bent to a more acute angle, the
extenfors of the knee advance the leg to a ftraight line with
the thigh, and thus fufpend the foot over the part on which
it is to reft: they then are relaxed, and allow the foot to
come to the ground. The body is now fupported on both
limbs ; the left thigh is inclined forwards, the right back-
wards, on the pelvis: the former leg forms an obtufe, and
the latter an acute angle with the foot. The extenfors of
the right foot now aét; the end of this member cannot
move the ground ; the heel, the leg, and the thigh are con-
fequently elevated, and the impulfe thus given to the pelvis
moves forward the trunk of the body, which defcribes a
{mall circle round the fixed point afforded to it by the left
leg. « That leg is now carried forwards on the foot by the
flexors of the ankle, the femur is advanced by the exten-
fors of the knee, and the trunk by the flexors of the hip.
The right leg, having given this impulfe to the trunk, is
advanced by the flexors of the hip, and extenfors of the
knee, in front of the other, and brought to the ground’;
when the extenfion of the left foot in its turn propels the
trunk on the right limb. The motion of the body is affifted,
by inclining the trunk forwards over the advanced limb :
this is effected by a relaxation of the extenfors, and the
contraétion of the flexors of the hip, the rectus and obliqui
abdominis of the fame fide. This attitude of the trunk in
progreffion, which we avoid as ungraceful, particularly fa-
cilitates the afcent of an inclined furface. In this cafe, the
body muft not only be thrown forwards at each ftep, but
elevated againft its own weight by the extenfors of the ad-
vanced knee, and of the foot left behind: hence this mode
of progreffion is very fatiguing.

In leaping, the whole body is elevated from the ground,
and projected, as it were, into the air, where it remains
without any fupport for a certain time, which is longer or
fhorter according to the force of projeftion. It is per-
formed by a fudden extenfion of the lower limbs, which are
previoufly bent to the greateft degree. ‘The tibie are car-
ried forwards on the feet by the flexors of the ankle, fo
that the heels project in an acute angle; the knees are ad-
vanced, and the thighs inclined backwards ; the pelvis and
trunk are bent forwards on the thighs. By this bent ftate
of the ankle, knee, and hip, the whole body is fhortened
as much as poflible. The leap is performed by a fudden
extenfion of all thefe articulations, by the mufcles of the
calf, tibialis pofticus, peronei, and flexors of the toes in
the ankle, by the reétus, vafti and cruralis in the knee, by
the gluteus magnus, biceps, femimembranofus, femitendi-
nofus, gracilis in the hip. The impulfe produced by this
extenfion 1s communicated to the centre of gravity of the
body, and urges it in a direGtion more or lefs oppofed to its
own weight ; all the motion mutt take place in this direction,
as the other end of the extremities refts on the immoveable
earth. The extent of the leap muft depend on the propor-
tionate length of the bones, and the power of the mufcles.
Its direétion is influenced by the pofition of the centre of

ravity in relation to the limb, from which the impulfe is
derived confequently, the human fubject can leap verti-
cally, as its trunk is placed pecphtidicnlény over the lower
limbs; it can, moreover, throw the body forwards, by
making

j MUSCLE,

making the chief exertion in extending the thigh, or back-
wards, by employing chiefly the extenfion of the leg.

Running is a fucceffion of low jumps performed alternately
by each leg. It differs from walking in the circumftances
of the body being projeéted at each ftep, and the hind foot
being elevated before the advanced one is fixed. It is more
rapid than the quickeft walking, becaufe the velocity is
preferved and augmented at each ftep by the newly pro-
duced quantity : confequently, we cannot {top fuddenly in
running, as in walking. This velocity favours jumping for-
wards, as it adds to the force, which the jump itfelf pro-
duces in that direétion; but it injures, or even entirely im-
pedes, a vertical leap. The body and arms are inclined
ferwards, that the centre of gravity may be in the moft
favourable pofition for its propulfion by the hind leg: hence
the latter muft be quickly carried forwards to prevent falling.
Even in walking, where the motions are performed flowly,
and the trunk is nearly vertical, the centre of gravity is ad-
vanced at the time that the hind leg fhould be carried for-
wards, and a fall is produced by any obftacle which pre-
vents the latter motion. In running, however, the {malleft
obftacle, which retards the advance of the foot in the
foot degree, brings the trunk inftantly to the ground.

n climbing objects are feized by the extremities, which
are thus rendered fixed points to which the trunk can be
moved by means of the mufcles, which pafs between it and
the limbs, as the peCtorales, latiflimus dorfi, &c. The ex-
iftence of long and feparate fingers, and of thumbs capable
of being oppofed to the fingers, favours the holding of any
bodies, and confequently facilitates climbing. Thefe con-
ditions exift in a very favourable degree in the hands of man ;
but he is a bad climber becaufe he has no prehenfile power
in the feet.

In /wimming the body is moved forwards by a fudden
extenfion of the previoufly bent limbs; but the motion
imparted to the body is not equal to that produced in walk-
ing, &c. becaufe the ends of the limbs, -inftead of refting
on a folid furface, are oppofed by the fluid, which is itfelf
eafily moved. The impulfe, therefore, partly throws the
water into motion, and partly propels the trunk. The
lower limbs urge the body forwards, and the upper fupport
the head and fhoulders. The weight of the latter parts is
fo greatin man, that more exertion of the arms is required
in him than inany animal; and he is almoft the only initance
fh which fwimming cannot be performed naturally.

There are many other motions, the defeription of which
would lead us into interefting and inftruétive, but too long
details: the preceding will ferve as a {pecimen, and enable
the reader to develope the powers employed on other occa-
fions. We have only a few remarks to add on the fubjedt.

The moving powers of the human frame are able to pro-
duce much more numerous and diverfifted effects than what
are exhibited to our obfervation under ordinary circum-
ftances. Thefe dormant capabilities, when excited by ne-
ceffity, aftonifh and may inftru@ us. Perfons born without
hands are often able, with the ftumps,-by which their limbs
are terminated, to execute the numerous offices, and even
thofe requiring the greateft exactnefs and delicacy, which
are ordinarily performed by the fingers. Others can do
with their feet, what is commonly executed by the hands,
fuch as writing, drawing, fpinning, &c. &c. The feats
of the rope-dancer, the harlequin, the tumbler, and all the
varied exertions derived from the leffons of that fuccefsful in-
ftruCtor Neceffity (ingenii largitor venter), do not flow from
any properties peculiar to the individuals, but are the off-
{pring of powers common to all, and are chiefly worthy of
attention, as exhibiting to us what the body can perform.

-

They fhew us, in a very ftriking manner, the admirable
mechanifma by which the equilibrium of the body is main-
tained; by which fo many feparate pieces, with the arene
power and facility of relative motion, are conftantly adjulted,
amidft the moft rapid changes, fo as to maintain the necefla
bearing by which the folidity of the whole is ile a
In all the motions, whether gentle or violent, the actions
of the mufcles are fo regulated, as to prevent any fhock;
we are unconfcious of the exertion by which this is effected,
but we are immediately rendered fenfible of its importance
by what happens when it is omitted. If our ftep is either
fhorter or longer than we had calculated upon, if we de-
{cend two fteps of a ftair inftead of one, &c. we experience
a jar in the whole frame which admonifhes us of the wrong
calculation.

The effe& of education is very ftriking in this fyftem, both
in the force and duration, as well as in the kind of con-
traction. Pracétice will enable us to lift a much heavier
weight, to bear a greater burthen, to projeét the body far-
ther in leaping, or advance it more rapidly in running, than
we could do on the firft trials, and that to a very great ex-
tent. It is equally efficacious in enabling us to bear pro-
tracted exertion of any kind, as in running, walking, &c.
Motions, to which the mufcles have not been accuftomed,
are at firft performed difficultly, merely from that caule ;
we can affign no other reafon for the awkwardnefs of the
firft attempts at writing, drawing, playing on a mufical in-
ftrument, or exerciling the various mechanical procefles of
the arts ; and in thefe cafes nothing but very long praétice
will confer facility, although all the powers exift in the firft
inftance.

Developement of the Mufeular Syftem of the Animal Life.—
In the firft months of feetal exiltence, it is confounded, with
the others, ina homogeneous mucous mafs, in which we can
hardly trace any line of demarcation. Mufcles,. aponeu-
rofes, tendons, &c. have all the fame appearance. The
limits of thefe different fyftems are gradually eftablifhed,
and the mufcular tiffue is rendered evident at firft by its
affuming a deeper tint. The interior of the bones is redder
than the mufcles in the foetus, while the difference is juit of
the oppofite’ kind in the adult. In conneétion with this
circumftance we may remark the ina¢tive ftate of the
mufcles before birth ; although a few motions announce the
prefence of the foetus in the uterus in the latter months of
pregnancy, thefe are inconfiderable in number and extent
when compared to what will take place afterwards. The
bent ftate of the limbs and body, and the confined {pace
in which they lie, particularly in the latter periods, when the
waters of the amnios are fo much diminifhed, account for’
this want of motion.

The mufcles of the chickens in the fhell exhibit but flight
marks of irritability, either under the a¢tion of the more com-
mon irritants, or of the galvanic influence. Bichat has afcer-
tained the fame circumftance in experiments on guinea-pigs,
both when he irritated the mufcles dire&ly, or through the
medium of the nerves, {pinal marrow, or brain ; the nearer
the ahimal is to the time of conception, the lefs effect is
produced. During feetal exiftence alfo, the mufcles lofe
their irritability very quickly after death: this property
remains rather longer immediately before parturition, but
its duration is ftill much lefs than after birth. In the adult,
the nutrition, the bulk and rednefs of the mufcles are in
proportion to the motions which they execute: their light
colour and flender fize correfpond very well to their inaéti-
vity in the foetus. Can the inaétivity of the foetal mufcles
be at all conneéted with the black blood that circulates
through them at this time ?

The

MUSCLE.

The fmall fize of the foetal mufcles is as remarkable as
their pale colour: the bulk of the limbs at this time de-
pends chiefly on the fubcutaneous ftratum of fat. The
cavities and proceffes of bones for mufcular attachment are
hardly vifible.

Some have afferted that the flefhe part is more developed
in proportion than the tendinous ; but this is not fupported
by obfervation. There is the fame proportion between thefe
parts as in the adult. The mufcles, at the time of birth,
undergo the fame change as all other organs; red blood is
fent to them inftead of black. ‘The brain too, which has
been hitherto inaétive, is excited, and reaéts on the organs
of motion. All the mufcles are exerted, and produce more
or lefs marked agitations of the limbs and motions of the
trunk and face, very foon after birth. The circulation of
red blood does not, however, fuddenly change the colour
of thefe organs: they retain for fome time see birth, the
lividity which chara¢terifed them before, as their colour at
all times depends, not on the blood which circulates in their
veffels, but on that which is combined with their tiffue. Their
fubftance gradually acquires a red tint, and they grow more
in proportion than the other parts; but this growth does
not affeét their thicknefs, they do not produce thofe pro-
minences which are fo remarkable in the adult.

Many faéts prove to us that there is a confiderable dif-

ference between the mufcular fubftance of young and old
animals, although we do not know exaétly what that dif-
ference is. The flefh of young animals produces a more
gelatinous and infipid broth, and has hence been fuppofed
to contain le‘s fibrine. The crifpation on expofure to heat
is lefs fenfible, &c. :
~ After the growth of the body in length is finifhed, it ftill
increafes in thicknefs; and this circumftance is particularly
obfervable in the mufcles. To the flender figure and
rounded outlines of the yeuth fucceed the ftrong forms and
mufcular prominences of the man. Thefe organs elevate the
fkin, and produce rifings and depreffions of the furface :
they are now more ftrongly marked in the ftate of reft, than
they were before in the greateft exertion of the body. The
time at which the genital organs are developed, and the
covering of hair is produced on fome parts of the body, is
that at which the mufcles aflume this prominence in the male ;
for no analogous phenomenon occurs in the female: there
the outlines of the body preferve their roundnefs and foft-
nefs. This increafe in the mufcles of the adult affects the
mufcular, and not the tendinous or aponeurotic part. The
augmentation of thicknefs is attended with increafed denfity.
A fenfible difference may be perceived by the hand, between
a mufcle of a child and of an adult in contraétion; and the
latter will fupport, in the dead fubje&t, heavier weights than
the former.

The red colour of the mufcles begins to be lefs bright after
the middle period of life. The tint is very variable in the
adult. Slow difeafes make it tawny or pale: in dropfy,
when long continued, this is clearly feen. In general, what-
ever gradually debilitates the vital powers, has the fame
effe&. Acute difeafes affeé& it but little; nor is it changed
in fevers, however marked the proftration of ftrength ma
be, if they are quickly fatal. It is affeted only by nutri-
tion, the phenomena of which funétion take place very
flowly.

Incld age the mufcles become hard and tough: they are
not ealily chewed. ‘They contraé flowly ; the influence of
the brain over them is diminifhed, and they are foon tired;
yet they feel loofe and flaccid, when compared to thofe of
the bdule There is a firmnefs in the latter, which makes
them preferve their form, and gives them a refiltance to the

feel: this feems to arife from a cohefion of their particles
conneGed with the vital influence, and retained for fome
time after death. The contractility of tiflue is much lefs
in the old than in the young man: in the latter the mufcles
are firm, and do not move under the fkin; there is a flabbi-
nefs in the former, and a vacillation is obferved in all the
great motions.

The colour of the mufcular fubftance, in the old fubje&,
is often converted into a light yellow, fo as to give it an ap-
pearance like fat: yet ebullition or combuftion do not fhew
the exiftence of animal oil in fuch mufcles. Thofe on the
back of the {pine undergo this change moft frequently,
which, however, only affects particular mufcles, and never
the whole fyftem. A nearly analogous appearance is fome-
times feen in wafted limbs. In recent paralyfes, even to the
date of three, four, or fix months, there is very little change
in the limbs, the colour and bulk of the mufcles being pre-
ferved: but after a longer time, the abfence of motion, and
perhaps the want of nervous influence, affect nutrition; the
mufcles lofe their colour, and are contracted in fize. But
this change is not obferved in all cafes. Long continued
external preffure will caufe diminution and change of colour
in mufcles.

The ftate of the animal mufcular fyftem after death varies
confiderably. While the body retains its heat, the mufcles
are foft, as in the ftate of relaxation during life, and allow
the parts to be moved in any direétion : they then become
rigid, fo as to fix the joints, and retain them firmly againit
any efforts at bending them. This rigidity does not take
place invariably, and its abfence has been noticed in partis
cular kinds of death; for example, in perfons or animals
killed fuddenly by eleétricity or lightning, or by a violent
blow on the ftomach, in malignant fevers, in animals hunted
to death, in cafes of a fudden and violent fhock to the whole
fytem, in afphyxia by deleterious gafes, as the carbonic
acid, and, according to Dr. Adams, (On Morbid Poifons,
Prel. Remarks, p. 34.) in death by wounding the medulla
fpinalis clofe to the brain. In thefe cafes, too, the blood
does not coagulate after death. :

Where the mufcles become fliff, they prefent this appear-
ance in every variety of degree. Sometimes, if the fubjeét
be placed upright againft a wall, the rigidity is fo great that
it retains its pofition, and a very great force is required to
bend the thigh or leg. Some mnfcles may be fliff, while
others continue foft. Thofe which have become very rigid
are eafily torn by forcible flexions; while this rupture can-
not be produced, where they remain relaxed, by any motion
of the limbs.

The conne@&tion between different kinds of death, and
their various appearances in the animal mufcular fyftem, and
the circumftances which attend, produce, or modify the
latter, afford an interefting fubject of refearch. Hitherto
we poffefs too few fa&ts for any general conclufions.

Mofcular tiflue is never accidentally developed in organs,
where it does not exift naturally, as the offeous, carti-
laginous, and even fibrous fyftems are. If it were fo pro-
duced, it muft belong to the organic life, becaufe cerebral
nerves are neceflary to the animal life.

The mufcular Syflem of the organic Life,—This ie not fo
generally diftributed over the body as the preceding, and
differs from it alfo remarkably in forming a much {maller
fhare of the frame. It is concentraced in the cheit, where
the heart and c@fophagus belong to it; in the abdomen,
where the alimentary canal is partly formed by it; and in
the pelvis, where it compofes part of the urinary bladder.
Whether the uterus poflefs any of this texture is rather a
doubtful point, Thus it occupies the middle of the trunk,

3 is

MUSCLE.

is foreign to the limbs, and is removed from the aétion of
external bodies; while the animal fy{tem is placed fuper-
ficially, forms almoft the whole bulk of the limbs, and ap-
pears in the trunk as much defigned to proteét the other
organs, as tu execute the various motions of the animal.
No part of the organic mufcular fyitem is found in the
head.

The mufcles of the preceding fyftem have almoft univer-
fally ftraight fibres; in this, on the contrary, they are
curved, fo as to form mufcular cavities of various fhapes.
They are never attached to bones, and have no tendinous
fibres: the white threads conneéted to the flefhy columns
of the ventricles of the heart differ from tendons in many
refpe€ts. The organic is diftinguifhed from the animal muf-
cular fyftem by the circumitance of its fibres not arifing
from, nor terminating in, fibrous organs: thofe of the latter
are always continuous either with tendons, aponeurofes, or
fibrous membranes; the orzanic come frem cellular tiffue,
and end in that again, after finifhing their courfe. Some-
times the fibres feem to encircle the organ completely ; but
generally they are interrupted, fo as to be conneéted at the
ends with a different tiffue from themfelves.

The forms of this fy{tem can hardly be confidered in a
general manner: they depend entirely on that of the organs,
in the formation of which it concurs. It is never callected
into infulated fafciculi, as in the animal life; and, excepting
the heart, does not form more than the third, fourth, or
even ftill {maller fhare of a vifcus. The arrangement is
generally in thin flat membranous plates, conitituting more
or lefs broad ftrata, and {carcely ever ftrongly marked fafci-
culi. The fibres are difpofed fide by fide, and confequently
not accumulated in any one fpot: though the extent may
be confiderable, the voluine is {mall. All the fibres of the
ftomach, inteftines, and bladder, would not equal the bulk
of the gluteus magnus.

Organifation. —This is not fo uniform as in the foregoing
fyftem: there the varieties affect the form, and not the tex-
ture of the organ; here, on the contrary, there are marked
differences of texture.

The organic mufcular fibres are in general much more
flender than the animal, and not colleéted into fuch large
fafciculi: red in the heart, and whitifh in the gaftric and
urinary organs; the colour, however, varies very much.
The direGtion is never uniform, as in the animal mufcles;
the fibres decuflate in all ways, and the fafciculi interfe&
each other at every variety of angle, fo as to conlftitute a
true net-work of mufcle. Hence arifes their power of con-
trating the cavities to which they belong in every direction.
They are always fhort: when, as in the cafe of the longi-
tudinal fibres of the cefophagus and rectum, they extend
through a long courfe, they are not continuous, but arife
and terminate within fhort fpaces, then arife and terminate
again, always in the fame line. They cannot be compared
for length, in any inftance, to thofe of the gracilis or far-
torius.

We know their nature no more than we do that of the
animal fibres; but they exhibit nearly the fame phenomena,
on the application of the different re-agents. The crifpa-
tion (racorniffement ), which occurs at the initant of ebulli-
tion, is the fame whether the fibres were previoufly dilated
or contracted. The refiftance of the fibres is proportionally
greater than in the animal fy{tem: the hollow organs are
hardly ever ruptured during life by the greatelt diitention.
This phenomenon is feen in the bladder only, and there very
rarely.

The quantity of cellular tiffue between the fibres is very
{mall: they are conne¢ted in the heart, rather by juxta-

Vor. XXIV.

pofition, than by this kind of union. The quantity is
rather more confiderable in the gaftric and urinary organs.
The organic fibres are never the feat of anafarcous effufions ;
they never pafs into the fatty ftate, which is fometimes feen
in the animal mufcles; nor do they ever exhibit the yellow
colour,

The blood-veffels are numerous: in thefe, as well as in
the exhalants and abforbents, there is nothing peculiar to be
obferved. The nerves are derived both from the brain and
the ganglia: the latter predominate every where, except in
the ftomach and lungs, where the par vagum is diltributed ;
they are the moft numerous in the heart, and exift aloue in
the inteftines ; they exceed the nerves derived from the {pine
at the end of the rectum and in the bladder. ‘The cerebral
nerves are interwoven with thefe, as they enter the organic
mufcles. The nerves of the ganglia, which enter the or-
ganic mufcles, are not exclufively diftributed to them ; they
form a net-work clofely furrounding and belonging to the
arteries. It has even been concluded that the nerves of the
heart are entirely loft upon the arteries, and cannot be traced
to the mufcular fubftance. (Behrens, Differt. Cor Nervis
carere ; in Ludwig’s Scriptores Neurolog. minores.) The
fize of the nerves is, at all events, very much below that of
thofe which are diftributed to voluntary mufcles.

Properties. E_xtenfibility—Numerous phenomena exem-
plify this property: in the alimentary canal, diftention by
the food, or the gafes liberated from it; in the bladder, ac-
cumulations of urine, &c. It can be brought into exercife
very rapidly, and carried to a very great extent. The
{tomach and inteftines pafs in a few moments from the con-
tration of complete emptinefs to very great di{tention, and
the urinary bladder can be extended to tae or four times its
natural fize in a fhort time. The animal mufcles are never
diftended with fuch rapidity: hence, when the abdomen is
opened after death in tympanites, the intettines fet at liberty
occupy a much larger fpace than when they were confined
by the abdominal mufcles. The degree of extenfibility in
the organic mufcles may be eftimated, by comparing the
empty ftomach, which is often not larger than an intettine,
to the fame organ containing five, fix, or eight pints of
fluid; the bladder retired behind the pubes, to its condition
when it has reached the umbilicus, in confequence of diften-
tion, &c. The rapid extenfion in the organic, and the
limited power of increafe in the animal mufcles, bear an evi-
dent relation to the fucceffive order in which the gattric
vifcera become diltended in executing their funétions: the
ftomach is filled, when the inteftines are empty ; and the
latter are diftended by the matters difcharged from the
former, &c.

A different kind of extenfibility is obferved fometimes in
the organic mufcles, as in the heart, for example, in aneu-
rifm. The left fide of the organ has twice or thrice its
natural fize, and is at the fame time proportionally increafed
in thicknefs: this is not diftention, but preternatural
growth. The enlargement of the uterus in pregnancy
arifes, in the fame way, from a greater attivity of nutri-
tion,

The contraGility is in proportion to the extenfibility. By
virtue of this property, the ftomach, inteftines, bladder, &c,
when empty, contraét upon themfelves, and are reduced to
a {mall volume. The extremes of diftention and contraction
are never feparated fo widely in the animal as in the organic
mufcles. This power, although not dependent on, is modi-
fied by the vital forces. An empty ftomach, in a fubjeét
who has cied fuddenly, is very contraGed; but this organ
is much larger and flaccid, when death has been preceded
by a lingering and debilitating difeafe.

3G The

.

MUSCLE.

The matters contained in the hellow mufcles of the or-
ganic life are their antagonitts : fo long as they are diftended
by them, the contraétility of tiffue is not exerted; when
this diftention ceafes, that property is immediately brought
into a@tion. The expulfion of thefe contents is effected by
a very different property, wiz. the organic contraétility.
The latter is fudden, and confifts of a feries of contra€tions
and relaxations; the former, flow and gradual, goes on with-
out any alternation of relaxation. When the organic con-
tractility has emptied the hollow mufcles, the contractility
of tiffue reduces their dimenfions. This latter property is
in proportion to the number of mufcular fibres; hence the
ventricles will be more contraéted, when empty, than the
auricles, &c.

Vital Properties. Animal . Senfibility—This exifts only
in a flight degree. In the inftance mentioned by Har-
vey, where a caries of the fternum had expofed the heart,
it could be irritated almoft without the perfon being con-
{cious. If the peritoneum be removed from the back of the
bladder in a dog, and the mufcular ftratum irritated, the
animal fhews very little fymptoms of pain. It does not ap-
pear that thefe mufcles are the feat of ‘any feeling analogous
to the fenfe of fatigue experienced in thofe of the animal
life.

Animal contraaility is foreign to the mufcles of the organic
life. Inthis property we require an influence in the brain
and nerves to fetthe mufcle in aGtion, and an excitation of
the brain, by the will, by ftimuli, or by fympathy, none of
which conditions exift in the prefent cafe. Every individual
knows that the funétions of the organic mufcles are not in
the flighteft degree influenced by his will; that the motions
of the heart, or bowels, cannot be fufpended, accelerated
or retarded by volition, &c. Irritation and compreffion of
the brain, inftead of convulfing or paralyfing, have no ef-
fe& upon thefe mufcles. Circulation is carried on perfeétly
well in acephalous feetufes. After the blow which has
felled an animal, and rendered his voluntary mufcular fyftem
motionlefs, the heart is ftill agitated for fome time, the
bladder and re€tum expel the urine and feces, aud the {to-
mach fometimes rejects the food. Opium, which deadens
the animal life, becaufe it a&ts particularly on the brain,
which isits centre, which paralyfes all the voluntary mufcles,
does not ftop the contraétions of the others. The a¢tion of
wine, and of other narcotics, exhibits analogous pheno-
mena.

The inferences afforded by difeafe are the fame. De-
preffion of the cranium, extravafations on the brain, apo-
plexy, &c. excite, debilitate, or annihilate the aGtion of the
voluntary mufcles: but the organic are unaffected. Ina
paroxyfm of mania, or an isace of malignant fever, ana-
logous phenomena may be noticed.

Affections of the head are fometimes attended with vo-
miting ; and the a€tion of the heart is accelerated in cere-
bral inflammations. Thefe are merely fympathetic pheno-
mena, which may be prefent or abfent, and which are irre-
gular in all refpeéts; while the contraction of the animal
mufcles from affeGtion of the brain is a conftant and invaria-
ble occurrence.

On the other hand, affeétions of the organic mufcles do
not influence the brain; that organ is not deranged in vo-
miting, diarrhea, palpitation of the heart, &c. In fyn-
cepe the brain is influenced, becaufe the heart’s a€tion is en-
tirely ftopped: it no longer fends blood to the brain, nor
excites it by the motion imparted to the bafis.

Irritation or divifion of the branches, which the eighth pair
fends to the heart, does not affe& its motions. Divifion of
hoth trunks is indeed fatal at the end of fome days; every

thing fhews the exiltence-of great dilturbance in the pulmo-
nary funétions, fo that the circulation feems to be affected
indirectly.

The divifion of one nerve does not ordinarily interrupt the
funétions of the ftomach; while the fection of both caufes
very great difturbance. It produces vomiting, which con-
tinues for the two or three days during which the animal fur-
vives the experiment. This refult affords a ftriking contraft
to the fudden immobility of an animal mufcle, confequent
on dividing its nerve. Irritation of the par vagum caufes
contraction of the ftomach. :

The bladder and rectum approach more nearly to the vo-
luntary mufcles, in their relations to the brain, than the fto-
mach and heart. Falls on the facrum, producing concuffion
of the lower part of the medulla fpinalis, paralyfe the blad-
der as well. as the lower limbs, and thus caufe retention of
urine. Yet the bladder is fo much affilted by feveral volun-
tary mufcles, that the phenomenon may arife partly from the
effets of the accident on them. For irritation of the lower
part of the medulla fpinalis, which throws all the mufcles of
the lower limbs into convulfions, has no effeé on the bladder ;
and the involuntary jets of urine produced by violent pain in
animals, are caufed by contraétion of the abdominal mufcles.
If the bladder be ever fo full when the abdomen is opened,
the urine will not be expelled. Hence, although the blad-
der may be regarded asa voluntary mufcle, fo far as its
nerves, derived from the facral plexus, are concerned, it is
brought under the action of the will chiefly through other
organs, of which the “aéticn is acceffory but effential to its
funGtions.

In the re€@tum, while the contained matter is in {mall
quantity, the fenfible organic contractility is not fufficiently
excited to expel it: the a¢tion of the furrounding voluntary
muf{cles is required. When the feces are coille¢ted in larger
quantity, they produce an irritation which ends at la‘t in the
voluntary evacuation of the gut.

Thus it appears, that the bladder and re&tum, although
they receive nerves from the brain, are lefs influenced by that
organ than we fhould fuppofe on the firlt view. They can-
not be deemed, as fome have called them, mixed mufcles ;
and there is reafon to doubt, whether, if no acceflory power
acted on and comprefled them, we could ever produce volun-
tary contraGion of them through the nerves derived from
the facral plexus. Bichat fays that he never faw'an animal
void his excrements after the abdomen had been laid open.

We may conclude that the cerebral nerves going to or-
ganic mufcles, have over them an influence, which does not
at all refemble that of fuch nerves diftributed to the animal
mufcles. The nature of this influence feems at prefent to
be unknown. :

Cutting, tying, or irritating any of the nerves coming
from ganglia to organic muicles, or the ganglia themfelves,
does not afleét the contraCtions of the muicles, Bichat tried
galvanifm with thts view, but found it as inefficacious as all
other irritants.

The nature, therefore, of the cerebral and nervous influ-
ence on the organic mufcles is unknown to us: it is quite
different from the effe&ts produced in the animal mufcles.

The organic fenfibility is very ftrongly marked in thie fyf-
tem; and its exercife muft precede that of the fenfible or-
ganic contractility.

Infinfible organic contraéility, or tonicity, exiftsin the muf-
cular fyitem, to the degree neceflary for its nutrition; but
there is nothing peculiar to be obferved concerning it.

The leading property, however, on which almoft all the
funétions reft, as thofe of the animal mafcular fyitem do
upon the animal contraétility, is the /en/ible organic contratii-

lity.

MUSCLE.

lity. This property, for the illuttration of which phyfio-
ogy is fo much indebted to Haller, may be confidered un-
der three points of view: 1, in the exciting caufes; 2, in
the organs ; and 3, in their mutual action.

I. The exciting caufes are either natural or artificial.
The former aét conftantly during life: the organic pheno-
mena partly depend on them: they fet in action the mufcles,
which would otherwife remain motionlefs. The others are
applied for the moft part only im experiments.

1. The natural ftimuli are, the blood for the heart, urine
for the bladder, aliment and excrement for the gattric
organs. Some fubftance is habitually in contact with every
organic mufcle, and keeps up its motions; as the animal
mutcles, conneéted with the brain, derive from it the princi-
ple of their movements. So long as thefe ftimuli continue
the fame, they maintain their refpective organs in the fame
aptitude for motion. If the organs are in the fame ftate,
the pulfe, the digeltive periods, the intervals of the urinary
excretions are uniform, while the blood, chyle, and urine are
unchanged. But, as thefe fubftances vary almoft infinitely,
the motions of the organs undergo frequent changes. When
the chyle enters the ianguiferous fyftem in digeftion, the
pulfe is changed: analogous changes occur from abforption
of pus, from injeétion of fluids into the veins, from the in-
flammatory affection of the blood, &c. The only obvious
way of explaining thefe phenomena is by an alteration of the
mode of aétion of the heart, produced by the change of
ftimuius.

The influence of the degeneration of the fluids may have
been exaggerated, and patholoyifts may have placed in this
clafs of caufes too frequent a fource of morbid changes.
Yet we cannot deny chat fluids may impart a different ex-
citation to the folids, according to the changes which they
undergo. In the fame individual, and with the fame quan-
tity of food, the duration of digeftion varies according to
the quality ; fome kinds pafs quickly, others are retained.
Ass the urine differs in its properties, the bladder holds it for
a longer or fhorter time. .How variable are the effects of
different emetics and evacuants on the inteftinal tube. The
quantity of fluid contained in an organic mufcle has, too, a
decided influence on its contraCtility. The heart’s action is
accelerated, when the mafs of blood is augmented by tranf-
fufion ; or when it is returned rapidly upon the heart from all
quarters, in confequence of flreng mufcular exertion, as in
running. ‘The quantity of urine and feces is an important
circumitance in determining involuntary contra¢tion of the
bladder and retum. A fingle glafsof warm water will not
excite vomiting, when three or four will have the effect with
certainty.

2. In the clafs of artificial ftimali may be included all the
fubftances in nature. That a mufcle in contaét witha body,
to which it is not habituated, fhould immediately contrac,
belongs to the very eflence of organic contrattility. The
contaét of the furrounding organs has no influence of this
kind ; perhaps habit has deadened the feeling : but, if they
are removed from the body and cooled, and then applied to
the organic mufcles, they caufe contraGtion. Heat or cold,
air, and ail kinds of liquids, excite the organic mufcles.

Thefe artificial ftimuli aét in various ways: 1, by fimple
contact. In this view, fluids are more efficacious than folids,
as they ftimulate more points. Solids operate according to
their extent of furface, their hardnefs, the preffure they
produce, &c. Nature almoft always employs fluids as fti-
moult in the natural ftate. 2. Laceration is more effectual than
mere contact. Whenatouch with the fealpel has no effect,
puncturing with its point excites the organ forcibly. 3. Che-
mical excitation is in general the moft powerful. But here

we mult diftinguith between crifpation and irritability. A
itrong or concentrated acid diforganifes the part entirely ; a
very diluted one caufes alternate contra¢tion and dilatation,
leaving the texture uninjured ; the former is a chemical, the
lattera vital phenomenon. There is every intermediate de-
gree of effect between thefe two extremes: but we cannot
eltablifh arigorous|limit between the racorniffement and the
irritability. 4. There are ftimuli, the mode of ation of
which is entirely unknown ; as eleétricity.

Il. The fenfible organic contraétility, confidered in the
organs, prefents numerous varieties, according to the diver-
fity of tiffue, age, fex, temperament, &c.

The animal contraétility is uniform in the voluntary
mufcles, becaufe the organifation is uniform: in this fyftem
the varieties of ftructure determine correfponding varieties in
the properties. There is a relation between each organic
mufcle and the fluid which commonly excites it. The blood
alone maintains regularly the motions of the heart: foreign
{ub{tances introduced by the veins difturb the contraétions.
-The urine, which excites naturally the motions of the blad-

-der, would caufe trouble in thofe of the heart ; while the

blood will produce convulfive motions of the bladder.
Thefe, and the numerous other phenomena of the fame de-
{cription, are conneéted with the different fenfibilities of the
mucous membranes (fee MemBraNneE); they prove that every
mufcle has a degree of organic contraétility peculiar to it-
felf, and excited into a¢tion in a natural way, exclufively by
fome particular fluid.

We arrive at the fame refult with refpe&t to extraneous
fubftances : an emetic, which caufes contra¢tion of the fto-
mach, may be introduced with impunity into the bladder :
purgatives do not caufe vomiting, &c. This relation of cer-
tain fubitances to the fenfible organic contractility of parti-
cular organs is apparent, both when they are direétly ap-
plied to the correfponding mucous furfaces, or when con-
veyed by the circulation ; as in the injeétion of different
fubftances into the veins. Although the emetic or purga-
tive in the latter cafe is prefented to all the organs, the fto-
mach or inteftines alone contraét. They have the fame effe&
when introduced into the body by cutaneous abforption.

Age modifies very remarkably the fenfible organic con-
tractility. It is eafily excited in infancy. The urinary
bladder retains its contents only for a fhort time; the heart
contracts with a rapidity, of which the pulfe affords a cri-
terion; all the digeftive phenomena go on fafter, fo that
hunger returns more quickly. This fufceptibility of the or-
ganic mufcles is conftantly diminifhed after the period of in-
fancy, and this change is evinced by the pulfe, the length of
time occupied in digeftion, and the retention of the urine.
The aétion of the organic mufcles is weakened in the old
man: the bladder and rectum particularly prove this, and
hence the retentions of urine, and the accumulations of
feces, fo common at this age. The funétions of the ftomach,
and of the reft of the inteftinal canal, do not languith fo foon.
The heart holds out.the longeft : it is the ultimum moriens,
as it was the firft in exercife: its pulfations are the exa
meafure of the duration of the organic life.

Temperament is another fource of confiderable modifica-
tions in this property: the pulfe and the digeftive pheno-
mena are quick in fome, flow in others, &c. ‘Che variations
in the force of the organic do not coincide with thofe of the
animal mufcles ; the one may be weak when the other is
{trong ; the heart, however, more frequently bears relation in
point of ftrength to the external mufcles, than the ftomach.
inteftines, or bladder. A full and ftirong pulfe generally
coincides with an athletic conftitution; and thefe are fre-
quently joined to a weak gaftric fyftem; while, on the con-

3G 2 trary,

MUSCLE,

trary, ftrong gaftric organs are often jomed to external
weaknefs.

The variations of ftrength in this fyftem are partial: one
part predominates over the reft: the heart, the ftomach, or
the bladder may take the lead. Sometimes all the gaftric
vifcera are not at the fame level of ftrength: the ftomach
may be weak while the inteftines have their natural ftrength,
and vice verfa. In the animal fyftem, the varieties are gene-
ral: we may ftrengthen this or that region by exercife ; but
the natural differences of force affe& the whole. This dif-
ference appears to arife from the circumftafice that the con-
traGtility of the animal mufcular fyftem is derived from a
common centre, the brain; while that of the organic has its
principle infulated in each organ.

Women approach to children in the charaéters of their
fenfible organic contractility: the movements are weaker
and more rapidly executed in this fex.

Thefe obfervations on the different degrees of irritability,
are not applicable to the organic mufcles exclufively ; they
apply alfo to thofe of the animal life, and to the animal con-
tractility of that fyftem, as well as to the fenfible organic
contractility. We may obferve, in general, that the fame
ftimulus, applied in the fame manner and extent, will pro-
duce different effets on different mufcular organs ; that it
will even affect them differently in the fame individual at dif-
ferent times. They are more eafily excited after a great
proftration of ftrength, lofs of blood, violent aétion of pur-
gative remedies, &c. There feems to be a natural difference
in the degree of thefe powers, fo that of individuals of the
fame general appearance, fome are much more irritable than
others.

III. We have confidered feparately the ftimulvs and the
organ ftimulated : the exercife of the fenfible organic con-
tractility takes place when they are brought together. We
no more know what happens on this occafion, than what
takes place when a body attra&s another, when an acid
combines with an alkali, &c. In attra¢tion, affinity, and
irritability, we can only purfue the phenomena to the action
of bodies on each other: this ation is the term of our re-
fearches.

The aétion is in no cafe direét: an intermediate tiffue,
which receives the irritation, is always interpofed between
the {timulus and the organ aéted on. This isa very fine
membrane in the heart ; a mucous furface in the gaitric
vifcera and the bladder. We even find that this interme-
diate organ is more fufceptible of excitation than the mufcle
itfelf. More lively contraétions of the heart are produced
by irritating the internal furface of the cavities, than by
flimulating the mufcular fabftance, after expofing it by re-
moving the ferous membranes. Irritation of the ferous furfaces
alfo excites the organic mufcles. Ann altered {tate of the me-
dium changes the effeéts produced by ftimuli, as difeafes moft
abundantly evince. The aétion of a ftimulus, too, extends to
fibres, which cannot be affected even through the intermediate

rgan: by irritating a {mall fpot of the inteftine, the canal
will often be thrown into contraction for a confiderable
length.

he exiftence of this intermediate organ conititutes a
ftriking difference between the fenfible and infenfible organic
contra¢tilities. The fame fy ‘em in the latter receives. the
impreflion and reaéts: in the former, one fy {tem is imprefied
or perceives, and another moves. The laft is more analogous
to the cafe of the animal life, where the organs of the fenfes
and of motion, totally different, are alfo widely feparated
from each other.

This property continues much longer after death than the
animal contraétili'y. The internal organs may’ ftill be ex-

12

cited to contraétion, when irritation of the medulla fpinalis
has no effet on the external mufcles. This fa& is fo fami-
liarly known, and the experiments in proof of it have been
fo multiplied, that it feems no longer neceffary to enter into
a detailed proof of what no perfon contelts. To this per-
manence are owing the evacuation of the feces and urine
after death, and the expulfion of the contents of the {fto-
mach, which are often driven into the mouth. In fudden
deaths, preduced either by violent injury of the brain, as in
apoplexy, concuffion, compreflion, or by an affection of the
heart, asin fyncope, the bur{ting of an aneurifm, &c. or by
ceflation of the action of the lungs, as in afphyxia, the per-
manence of this contractility is very remarkable: general
death occurs firft, and the organs then die partially, each vital
force being in a manner extinguifhed fucceffively. In all
flow deaths, particularly where a debilitating difeafe has
preceded, each vital force is gradually weakened, and the
partial death of every organ comes before the general death.
When the latter happens, therefore, none of the particular
organs retain their life. Bichat itates, that in dogs, killed
by hunger, the contractility was extinguifhed at the time of
death, and that in feveral, who died of a debilitating epide-
mic complaint, the fame circumftance was obferved.

Sympathies—No organs are more eafily influenced by
others, than the organic mufcles: but all are not equally
fufceptible. The heart holds the firft rank ; then come
the ftomach, the inteftines, and laftly, the bladder.

The ation of the heart is fuddenly changed by every af-
fection, which is at ali decided, in the animal economy: a
very flight wound or pain is often {vfficient to produce this
effe@. Sometimes the aétion is {topped for a moment, and
hence refults fainting, which isa common effe& of fudden
and violent pain. More frequently it is accelerated; and
hence the febrile attacks common in all local affeétions :
they are merely fympathetic, and ceafe when the local caufe
isremoved. We cannot deny that this accelerated a¢tion
may depend on a foreign fubftance mixed with the blood,
and rendering it more irritating, or that it may arife from
an affection of the fubftance of the organ, caufing it to be
moce irritable: yet certainly it is often purely fympathetic,
or derived from that unknown relation, which connects to-
gether all our organs, from that confent (confenfus partium),
which unites all their ations, and brings them intoa ftate of
reciprocal dependence.

Sympathetic affection of the ftomach is not fo common as
that of the heart. Inflammations are often accompanied
by vomiting ; and feveral fevers have this fymptom at their
outfet. It does not arife from bile being introduced into
the ftomach ; for that fluid is found naturally in the empty
ftomach ; nor does it arife from unhealthy fecretions of the
mucous coat, for they frequently do not exift. If there are
fuch fecretions, or if bile be contained in the ftomach, they
are rejected by the a& of vomiting. Howy it will be afked,
does the ftomach come into action in confequence of the
lung, the pleura, or the fkin being affefted ? By fympathy ;
that is the convenient word under which we fhelter our real
ignorance of the mutual relations of our organs. The vo-
miting is an effeét analogous to the augmented aétion of the
heart in fevers, or to the difturbance ot the brain that caufes
delirium. Thefe phenomena thew that other organs, fome-
how or other, feel the ftate of that which is difturbed.

The bladder is the organic mufcle lea{t frequently affected
by fympathy. In fevers there is fometimes a paralyfis,
latting for a fhort time, and producing retention: inconti~
nence occurs lefs frequently.

The fenfible contractility is very ative in this fyftem. In-
deed, the organic mnfcles are contantly in aétion; and they

are

MUSCLE.

are very eafily influenced by other organs. This is the vi-
tal property deranged in fuch cafes: the infenfible contrac-
tility, which does not perform an effential part in the pheno-
mena of thefe organs, is feldom affected. Difeafe generally
affects the prevailing vital power of any part ; as the animal
contraétility, for inftance, in the fy (tem lait deferibed. The in-
fenfible contradility, or tonicity, exifling only to the degree
neceffary for nutrition, is very feldom influenced ; that func-
tion is therefore uniform, and confequently alterations of the
mufcular tiffue are rare, and feem to be produced, when
they do occur, rather by communication from the mucous
furface, as incancers. In fy{tems where the infenfible con-
traGtility is conftantly exerted, as in the cutaneous, ferous,
mucous, and glandular, where it prefides over the fundtions
of nutrition, exhalation, and fetretion, that property is al-
tered in difeafes. Hence all the changes of tiffue, which
are properly enough called organic difeafes, are as common
in thefe fyftems, as they are rare in thofe where the infen-
fible contractility exifts only in the degree neceflary for nu-
trition. The unfrequency of acute inflammation in the muf-
cular fy{tems, and its very common occurrence in the cata-
neous, ferous, mucous, &c. mutt be explained on the fame
principle. We hardly ever find the mufcular tiffue of the
heart inflamed. Inflammation of the ferous and mucous
membranes of the alimentary canal is very common ; we
know nothing of this affeétion in the mufcular fibres.

Organic mufcular Syftem confidered in Adion.—The force of
the contraétion is never raifed to the pitch which that of the
animal mufcles fometimes attains. Between the ftrongett
and the weakeft pulfe, or jet of urine, there is nothing even
approaching to the difference between the Janguor of the
voluntary mufcles in fome women, and their energy ina
maniac, or a manenraged. The heart and the deltoid are
nearly equalin volume. What would become of the circu-
lation, if the former fhould ever exert, in expelling the blood,
the force which the latter often difplays in elevating the arm.
The organic mufcles, on the contrary, are never expofed to
the proftrations of ftrength fo common in the voluntary ;
they are not expofed to paralyfis, becaufe they are not un-
der the influence of the brain. The irregular agitations of
the heart, preducing fo many varieties of the pulfe in acute
fevers, bear fome relemblance tu convulfions.

The force produced by the contraétion of thefe mufcles,
is not fubject to the diminutions which affeé&t that of the vo-
luntary mufcles : it is all exerted in accomplifhing the object,
and confequently does not admit of the diftin@ion into ab-
folute and effe@ive, which is effential in the other cafe.
According as the body to be expelled from a hollow mufcle
is folid or fluid, a greater or lefs contractile energy 1s re-
quired. Hence the longitudinal mufcular fibres are more
ftrongly pronounced in the large, than in the {mall inteftine,
and in the retum than in the colon. Hence the flighteft ef-
fort is fufficient to expel the fluid matter of diarrhoea; while
the ftrongeft exertion of the refpiratory powers is neceflary
in aid of the fibres of the rectum, to get rid of hardened
feces.

The force of the organic mufcles is much greater in the
vital phenomena than in our experiments: when the heart
is expofed, its motions become weak and irregular. There
is no comparifon between the contraGtion, which throws a jet
of blood feven or eight feet from the carotid, and that which
ftimuli produce in the heart taken out of the body. In every
individual this force varies from a thoufand caufes; exercife,
repofe, a tranquil or difturbed ftate of the mind, fleep, &c.
&c. modify it inceflantly. Perhaps we hardly digelt twice
in the fame period; retain the urine for the fame length of

time, or expel it with the fame force. Hence all calculations
mutt be very uncertain.

The force of the organic mufcles often remains at the fame
pitch, or is even augmented, while a gentral debility affects
the animal mufcular fyftem. A ftrong pulfe, vomiting,
diarrhoea, &c. frequently coincide with proftration of ftrength
in difeafes.

The velocity of the contraétion varics very much; it is
very great in experiments with ftrong ftimuli, but much lefs
confiderable in the natural ftate. We might almoft fay that
it is in an inverfe ratio to the ftrength. The contradions
become much quicker in feveral difeafes, and here this {tate
is not ‘hai with ftrength. When the force of the heart is
increafed, there is generally a little additional velocity ; but
a diminution of {trength often coincides with increafed quick-
nefs, or the latter is augmented, the former remaining the
fame. The higheft degrees of ftrength and quicknefs are
perhaps hardly ever united.

In each individual there is probably a certain natural and
peculiar rate of velocity. In two examples of the fame fever,
with the fame fymptoms, and the fame general degree ot
difturbance, there will be confiderable difference in the quick-
nefs of the pulfe.

Every organic mufcle has its own peculiar velocity : the
heart, ‘tomach, inteftines, and bladder differ from each other
mott widely in this refpect.

The organic mufcles are never permanently contraéted like
the animal. We fee a conftant fucceffion of contraétions and
relaxations in the heart. The contracted {tate of the ftomach
and inteftines, when empty, arifes from the contractility of
tiffue. The alternation of contra€tions and relaxations cha-
racterifes the fenfible organic contractility, and diftinguifhes
it from animal contractility, or contractility of tiffue.

The phenomena of contradtion are the fame in this fyftem
as in the animal mufcles. Some differences, bearing a manifett
relation to the funétions of the parts, are obfervable between
the heart and the abdominal organic mufcles. In the former,
as in the voluntary mufcles, there isa fudden contraGtion of
the whole, projecting the blood in the execution of the na-
tural fun&tions, and producible by ftimuli, while the animal
is {till alive; and there is an ofcillation, agitating all the
fibres, but not producing any general movement, not pro-
pelling the blood for inftance. In the alimentary canal and
bladder there is merely a flow, and often obfcure motion,
which is well enough calculated for propelling the contents
of thofe cavities, but would be altogether untit for projecting
the blood. When this has ceafed, no ofcillation can be
produced by ftimuli.

What is the relaxation of the organic mufcles? What is
the nature of that ftate, which fucceeds contraction, and al-
ternates withit? After the contraétion of a voluntary mufcle
has ceafed, it 1sin a paffive ftate, and is reftored to its ori-
ginal condition by the aétion of its antagonift on the bone to
which it is fixed. As there are no antagonifts in the organic
mufcvlar fy{ftem, the phenomenon of dilatation muft be pro-
duced in fome other way. Phyfiologifts have generally ad-
mitted, as the caufe of dilatation, the introduction of a frefh
fupply into the mufcular cavities, to fill the place of what
has been expelled by the contraction. Thus a new quantity
of blood, and of food, have been regarded as the means of
dilatation in the heart and alimentary canal, of which the
mufcles were fuppofed to be completely paffive in this bufi-
nefs. There are fome doubts of the corre€tnefs of this re-
prefentation ; we have mentioned them in the article Heart :
the obfervations are moftly applicable to the alimentary canal
as well as to the heart.

Develope-

MUS

Developement of the organic mufcular Syfiem. —The progrefs
of this fytem in ts fortéation Sa eacybecehs to that of the
preceding. The heart 1s the firft point in which motion can
be obferved ; it forms the punétum faliens of the embryo,
when the reft of the frame is merely a homogeneous jelly.
The internal mufcular parts of the abdomen are difcerned
later, but they appear before the mufcular coverings of the
cavity : they contribute, with the liver, to the confiderable
fize of the abdomen at this time. The heart is firm in its
tifflue, and red, while the fibres of the alimentary canal are
foft and pale. The contraétions of the heart are very rapid,
but its contractility is not fo eafily excited after death, nor
for fo long a time in the foetus, as after birth. The latter
obfervation is applicable alfo to the fibres of the alimentary
canal. The urine remains in the bladder, and the meconium
in the large inteftines, without exciting any contraction of
thofe organs.

At the time of birth the gaftric and urinary organs difplay
an aGtive interior motion: the introduétion of food into the
ftomach, the evacuation of the meconium and urine evince
this. The organic mufcles grow lefsin proportion than the
others after birth. The predominance of the organic fyftem
is however lefs ftrongly marked in the foetus than that of the
nervous; the brain has a much greater relative fize than the
heart.

We have ftated that there are two diftin@ periods in the
growth of the animal mufcles ; one terminating their increafe
in length, and the other in breadth. The former does not
feem equally applicable to the organic mufcles; the general
ftature is already fixed, where the gaftric and urinary organs
full grow confiderably.

In the phenomenon of growth each fyftem feems to havea
different limit. The general ftature is determined by the
bony, animal mufcular, fibrous, cartilaginous fy{tems, &c.
But this does not at all influence the lencth of the inteftines,
the capacity of the ftomach, heart, bladder, &c. The glan-
dular, mucous and ferous fyftems are equally independent
of the general ftature. Its varieties, therefore, affeét the
limbs much more than the abdomen and cheft. The end of
growth in height is the end of the increafe of the mufcles,
bones, and their dependencies: the internal vifcera {till in-
creafe, as may be afcertained by comparing them in a man
of eighteen and another of thirty or forty years.

The organic mufcles are not fubjeét to the irregularities of
growth, which are obferved in the others: the general fta-
ture is fometimes at a ftand for feveral years, and then fud-
denly increafes. We fee nothing of this fort in the organic
muf{cles ; the regularity of the internal funétions, in which
thefe mufcles are concerned, is inconfiftent with fuch irregu-
larities, which do not interfere with the bufinefs of locomo-
tion.

The organic mufcles have acquired their full developement
about the twenty-fixth year ; the cheft and abdomen, which
contain them, have then arrived at their perfeé fize. ‘Their
denfity is more confiderable, and their colour deeper than in
the youth. The colour varies confiderably in the heart ; but
is more uniform in the alimentary canal.

With the advance of age this fyftem is weakened like all
the others; yet its aétion is more durable than that of the
animal mufcles. When the old man can {carcely move, his
pulfe and digeftion retain much of their vigour. This dif-
ference between the two fyftems is the more remarkable, as
the time of aétivity of the organic is nearly twice as great
as that of the animal fyftem; fleep fufpends the voluntary
motions, leaving the involuntary unaffected. ‘This pheno-
menon feems to be nearly the fame on a large fcale, as the

| MUS

laffitude produced by any particular motion is on a {mall
one; a convulfion of half an hour in length completel
exhaufts the animal mufcles, and leaves the perfon incapable
of moving, while the heart, after being long agitated in a
fever, returns to its natural type of contraGtion. Thefe
phenomena of the two fyftems prove manifeftly that that of
the animal life is fatigued much the fooneft ; and hence arife
the intermiffions of its a@tion. We cannot therefore be fur-
prifed at finding that this, although lefs frequently exercifed
than the other, fhould fooner exhauft the powers given to it
by nature, and fhould be fooner extinguifhed. Life is a
great exercife, which gradually confumes the organs of mo-
tion, and induces a neceflity for their repofe; this repofe
is death. Every moving organ arrives at it fooner or later,
according to the different degree of force which it has to ex-
pend, and its greater or lefs difpofition to become tired by
this exercife.

The organic mufcles, however, are gradually weakened.
The pulfe becomes flower, and digeition languifhes: the
bladder and the re&tum firlt ceafe toa; then the inteftines
are ina¢tive ; the ftomach, and particularly the heart, die the
laft. For along time before death the mufcular cohefion
is weakened in this, as in the preceding fyitem; the tiflue
becomes flaccid ; the fides of the heart, which fupport them-
felves in the young fubje&, collapfe in the old, and analogous
phenomena may be obferved in the gaftric and urinary or-

ans.

The beft works on the ftru€ture and phyfiology of mufcles
are Haller’s Elementa Phyfiologie, t. iv.: his Opera Mi-
nora, t. 3. Muys,-Mufculorum Artificiofa Fabrica, 4to.
Prochafka, de Carne Mufculari, Vienne, 8vo. 1778. Bichat,
Anatomie Générale, tome iii. Soemmerring, de Corporis
Humani Fabrica, t. iii. In the Iaft work there is a lift of
various publications concerning the application of eleétrical
and galvanic agents to\the mufcles. On the defcription and
actions of mufcles, the mo{t important fources of information
are Albini, Hiftoria Mufculorum, gto. and his Tabule
fceleti et Mufculorum Corporis Humani, folio. Haller’s
Elementa Phyfiologiz, on many parts of the fubje@. Win-
flow’s Expofition Anatomique de la Struéture du Corps
Humain. D’Agoty Effai d’Anatomie en Tableaux im-
primés, qui répréfentent au naturel tous les Mufcles; fol.
Paris, 1746. Sandifort Defcriptio Mufculorum Hominis,
4to. L. B. 1781. Barclay on the Mufcular Motions of the
Human Body. The Anatomical Sy{tems of Soemmerring,
Boyer and Bichat. Barthez Nouvelle Méchanique de
VHomme. Particular parts of the fubje& have been illuf-
trated by fome writers; the mufcles of the face and peri-
neum in the Tabule Pofthume of Santorini, the latter alfo in
Camper's Demonttrationes Anatomico-pathologice, lib. ii.
thofe of the palate by Haafe, and the diaphragm by Haller.

Muscie, in Lchthyology. See Myritus.

Muscie Bank, in Geography, a fifhing bank on the E.
coa{t of Newfoundland, at the entrance into Trinity bay or
harbour.

Muscie Bay. See Mosser Bay.—Alfo, a bay in the
ftraits of Magellan, half-way between Elizabeth’s bay and
York road; in which is good anchorage with a wetterly
wind.—Alfo, a bay called ‘ Meffilones,”? on the coaft of
Chili or Peru, in South America; five leagues S. by W.
from Atacama. See MessiLones.

Muscve Shoals, a name given to a part of Teneflee river
in America, extending about 25 miles, diftant about 250
miles from its mouth, and fo calied from the number of foft
fhell turtles and frefh water clams found there. Here the
river fpreads to the breadth of two or three miles, and forms

a aumber

MUS5

a number of iflands, rendering the paflage difficult. From this
place to the Whirl or Suck, where the river brauches through
the Great Ridge, or Cumberland mountain, is 250 miles ;
the navigation of which is excellent. From thefe fhozls to
the navigable waters of the Confee is a diftance of 40 miles,
and thence to Mobile bay 350.

Musctns, in Agriculture, a fort of fhell-fifh which abound
on the rocky fhores on the borders of the fea in many parts
of the ifland, adhering to the rocks. Where they can be
collected in large quantities they may be made ufe of as an
excellent manure, either alone or in the ftate of compoft with
earthy fubftances. ‘They were formerly much employed on
the fea coalts of Lancafhire, but have lately been much on the
decline.

MUSCO, in Geography, a town of South America, in
the viceroyalty of New Granada; 30 miles N. of Santa Fé
de Bogota. N. lat. 5° 16’. W. long. 73° 30!.

MUSCOIDES, in Botany, a name derived from Mu/eus,
amofs, and «do:, form or a/ped?, which might feem to autho-
rize the Greek etymology of the former, (fee Muscr,) if
botaniits were always attentive to fuch propriety. Unfor-
tunately they too often tag Latin, or even barbarous, names
with this Greek termination, when they wifh to compare a
plant to any thing already known. Names fo conftruéted
are however not allowed at all at prefent, except for {pecies ;
by no means for genera. Micheli ufed the above, fora fup-
pofed genus of his own, confilting of fuch Jungermannie as
have three, four, or five rows of leaves, including ftipu-
laceous feales; like J. dilatata, tamarifcina and platyphylla ;
but nobody has foliowed his example, as to the genus or its
name ; except that the latter may be found occafionally em-
th ep by writers, to exprefs the moffy habit of certain
plants.

MUSCONECANK, in Geography, a river of New
Jerfey in America, which empties into the Delaware, fix
miles below Ealfton.

MUSCONISI, or Mresconisr, two {mall iflands in the
gulf of Adramytti, near the coaft of Natolia; 15 miles S.W.
of Adramytti. N-lat. 39° 20’. E. long. 26° 44’.

MUSCOVADO, in Commerce, fugar that has been cured
in the Weft Indies, in the manner defcribed under the ar-
ticle Motosses, and is the raw material from which the
Britifh fugar-bakers chiefly make their loaf, or refined lump.
See SuGar. i

MUSCOVITE Bisre. See Breve.

MuscoviteE Coinage. See Coinace.

Muscovire Glafs. See Mica.

MUSCOVY. See Russia.

MUSCULAR, or Muscutous, fomething that relates
to the mufcles, or that partakes of the nature of them. See
Muscte. ‘

In which fenfe we fay, mufcular fibre, mufcular coat, muf-
cular flefh, mufcular veins, mufcular arteries, &c.

MUSCULO Couraneus, in Anatomy, a mulcle belong-
ing tothe arm. See NERVE.

Nuseoxus Faftia Late. See Mempranosus and Fascia
Lata.

Muscutus Latus. See Larus Mu/culus.

Muscutus is alfo a name By which {ome call the common
fea mufcle, more properly called mytilus.

Muscutus, Wo.reanc, in Biography, a celebrated
German Lutheran divine, was born in 1479. His father,
who was a cooper by trade, perceiving in his fon, while
very young, an inclination for learning, was defirous of
gratifying his wifhes, but, being in humble circumitances,
he could afford little towards Fis maintenance at {chool,
and left him to previde his own fubfiftence, by finging from

MUS5

door to door, according to the cuitom of poor fcholars at
that time. With the aid of what he thus obtained, he was
enabled to fupport himfelf at different feminaries till he was
fifteen years of age. He now fet out with the view of vifit-
ing his parents, and happening to enter a convent of Bene-
dictines, at the time of evening fervice, he particularly ftruck
the fuperior by the excellence of his finging, and the come-
linefs of his perfon. He accordingly offered the youth an
admiffion into the convent free of all expence, and promifed
likewife that he would furnifh him from his own. purfe with
clothes and other neceflaries. Mufculus inftantly, with the
permiffion of his parents, accepted the offer, and having
taken the monaltic habit, {pent thirty-three years of his life
diligently employed i ftudy, and a fhining example to the
community of regularity, temperance, and obedience to the
duties of the cloilter. His firft obje&t was the attainment
of claffical learning, in which, and in the other departments
of the belles lettres, he made great progrefs. At the age
of twenty he devoted himfelf moft affiduoufly to the ftudy
of theology, facred criticifm, and the fcriptures. Thus
furnifhed, he entered the pulpit, and obtained a high repu-
tation as an eloquent preacher. About the year 1518, he
became a conyert to the Lutheran doétrines, and zealoufly
advocated the opinions of the great reformer ; hence he ob-
tained the name of the “* Lutheraa Monk.’ On account
of his zeal in the caufe of the truth, he would have drawn
upon him the heaviett punifhments, had he not been pro-
tected by Richard a Rottenburg, governor of the caftle of
Lutzelftein, and the patron of the convent, who was a per-
fon of great weight and authority in the Palatinate. In
1527, he was elected prior of the convent, but he refufed
the honour, and foon after, to free himfelf from the danger
to which he felt he was expofed, quitted the houfe in which
he had lived fo long, and went to Strafburg.. He almait
immediately married, and for his f{upport bound himfelf te
a weaver, in order to learn his bufinefs, but a fondnefs for
difputation diffolved the conneéion between Mufculus and
the weaver, and he had now no other profpeét left, but that
ot gaining his livelihood by joining the labourers who were
employed in repairing the fortifications of Strafburg : upon
this drudgery he had prepared to enter ; but on the evening
before he was to commence the labour, he received a meflage
to meet Martin Bucer, who intimated to him that the magif-
trates of the city defigned that he fhould preach every
Sunday at the village of Dorlifheim. He was delighted
with the profpeét before him, and became earneitly attached
to the duties of his profeffion. At this, period he was en-
tertained in Bucer’s houfe, who gave him his board as an
equivalent for his affiftance in tranicribing his MSS. for the
prefs. After a relidence here of a few months, he went to
Dorlifheim; where he continued twelve months, zealoufly
employed in the daties of the gof{pel miniftry, and fuitaining
the rigours of extreme poverty with the moft admirable con-
ftancy. He had no houfhold furniture, but a little bed
brought by him from his convent, which was occupied by
his wife during her confinement, while be himfelf was con-
tented with ftraw on the bare ground, and a few uteniils
which the humanity of his parifhioners fupplied him with.
To fuch great diitrefs was he, at one time, reduced, that he
muft have perifhed for want, had not the magiltrates of
Strafburg ordered him {mall fums of money frova their
public treafury. At the end of the year he became deacon-
minifter of the principal church of Strafburg ; and in 1531
he removed to Augfburg, where he at firit officiated as
minifter in the church of the Holy Crofs, and afterwards in
that of the Holy Virgin. He was for fome years involved
in continual difputes either with the Papilts or Anabaptilts.

2 He

MUS

He fuccefsfully refiited the cruel defign of putting the latter
to death, and was the inftrument of reclaiming, by the forcible
weapons of reafon and argument, feveral of the deluded fol-
lowers of Muncer. He retained his fituation at Augfburg
till the year 1547, and during this period he made himfelf
matter of the Greek and Hebrew languages, to which he
had been before a ftranger. He gave evidence of his fill
in thefe languages by the publication of various well-exe-
cuted tranflations, particulariy of the commentaries of
Chryfoftom, on the epiltles of St. Paul; fome of the
works of Bafil, Athanafius, St. Cyril, Eufebius, Socrates,
Theodoret, and others. In the years 1540 and 1541, he
was deputed by the fenate to attend the conferences held
between the Proteftant and Catholic divines during the diets
of Worms and Ratifbon ; and in the conference during the
latter diet, between Melan&hon and Eckius, he was ap-
ointed one of the fecretaries, and drew up the acts of it.
When Charles V. came to Augfburg, in 1547, to hold a
diet, after the defeat of the league of Smalkalde, Mufculus
was deprived of his church, but he {till maintained the pri-
vilege of preaching the tenets of the reformed religion,
though it was often at the hazard of his life. He after-
wards preached decidedly againft the Inrerim (which fee) ;
but as the magiltrates of Augfourg chofe to fubmit to it,
he thought it prudent to withdraw to Switzerland, and oc-
cafionally officiated as preacher at Conftance, St. Gall,
and Zurich. While he was at the laft-named place, he was
invited to England by archbifhop Cranmer, but the ill health
of his wife, and the largenefs of his family, confifting of eight
children, led him to decline the prelate’s offer. - In 1549,
he became profeffor of divinity in the univerfity of Berne,
the duties of which office he difcharged with great reputa-
tion for more than fourteen years. In 1552, when Augf-
burg had recovered its liberty, he was recalled, and about
the fame time he had invitations from Strafburg, the
eleétors palatine Otho-Henry, and Frederic, and the land-
grave of Heffe, to pofts of honour and emolument, but his
gratitude to Berne was fo great, for affording him an
afylum in the hour of his diftrefs, that he refufed, without
hefitation, the advantageous propofals made to him. He
died in 1563, at about the age of fixty-fix. His works
were chiefly theological, and they gave him a high chara¢ter
among the Proteftants of his day. Moreri. Bayle.
Muscutus, in Zoology, broad-nofed whale, a fpecies of
Balena ; which fee. 'Vhis has a double pipe on the fore-
head, and a very broad under jaw. It is the balena, with
three fins, a round fnout, and wrinkled belly of Ray. The
mufculus inhabits the Scottifh feas: it is fometimes 78 feet
long, and above 35 in circumference. The lower jaw is
femicircularly turned at its extremity, and is much broader
than the upper jaw, which ends in a fharp fnout: the open-
ing of the mouth is enormous, and contains a number of
lamine of black whale-bone, but the longeft do not exceed
three feet : the fpiracle, or blowing-pipe, is of a pyramidal
form, divided into two orifices by a feptum, or partition,
and is fituated on the forehead: the back is black, and is
furnifhed with a foft raylefs fin; and the belly, which is
white, has a number of folds of the fkin. This whale is
very deftruétive to the fhoals of herrings which vifit the
‘Scottifh coalt, and which, with proper exertion, might
prove an immenfe fource of wealth and indu(try to Bri-
tain. From long experience the Norwegians are fo tho-
roughly convinced of the benefits derived to their ftheries,
by the whales’ driving the fifh into the creeks and firths on
their coa(t, that they are protected by the law, under fe-
vere penalties.
Muscutus, among the Romans, a military machine, un-

MUS

der cover of which the foldiers approached and undermined
the walls of places befieged, or filled the ditches.

MUSCUS, in Botany. See Musct.

Muscus, in Natural Hijlory, a name given to feveral
{pecies of zoophytes. (See MiLLErora, Sponaia, Fius-
TRA, TUBULARIA, CORALLINA, SERTULARIA.) Marfigli
has defcribed feveral of thefe marine fubitances, under the
erroneous denomination of fea-plants. See CoRALLINE.

MUSDEREE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Bahar; 16 miles S.W. of Rotalgur.

MUSEAU, in Natural Hiflory, aterm applied by M.
de Reaumur to a fort of bladder, which the infeéts of the
fly clafs are provided with, to make their way out of the
fhell, after their laft transformation into the nymph fate.

The word is French, and literally fignifies a /nout or
muzzle. 5

The flies to whom nature has given this inftrument, have
it only during that fhort ftage of their lives which is be-
tween their being inclofed in the membrane which covers
them in the nymph ftate, and their firft flying about at
liberty, At this time, in order to their getting out of
their fhell, nature gives them a power of inflating and
{welling out their head to a great fize, and throwing out
this fort of bladder to its anterior part, by which means
the cap of the cafe or fhell is thrown off, and the end of it
opened by the two longitudinal lines giving way. The
creature, after this, as it has no ufe for this fingular piece of
mechanifm, has no power to exert it during the remainder
of its life. Reaumur, Hift. Inf. vol. iv. p. 340. See TRaNns-
FORMATION.

MUSEBYTER, in Ichthyology, a name given by fome to
the fifth called by authors dobulo, a German fifh, found in
feveral parts of Germany, much approaching to our com-
mon dace. See Cyprinus Dobula.

MUSEIA, Muze, in Antiguity, feflivals in honour of the
Mufes at feveral places of Greece, efpecially among the
Thefpians, where folemn games were celebrated every fifth

ear.

The Macedonians had alfo a feftival in honour of Jupiter
and the Mufes, which was celebrated with ftage-plays and
games, and lafted nine days, according to the number of the
Mufes.

MUSES, Muss, in Mythology, Mevexs, fabulous divi-
nities of the ancient heathens, who were fuppofed to prefide
over the arts and {ciences.

The word, according to Phornutus, is derived from the
Greek, pwe8as, which fignifies the fame with @nray, to fearch :
others derive it from opowois, fimilar, or alike; all the
{ciences being bound and united together. Eufebius de-
rives it from pvew, fo inititate, to inflru@; Plato and Scali-
ger from pamwe$xs, ob/fetricare; becaufe to them is attributed
the invention of arts; and by them arts were produced.
Diodorus derives the name from mifin, which fignifies to
teach things fublime. Huetius deduces it from Mofes.
Laftly, Heinfius aud Voffius derive it from the Hebrew
“wd, mufchar, fcience, ri The Mufes are called
by various names: Camana, Heliconiades, Parnaflides, Ao-
nides, Citheriades, Pierides, Pegafides, Aganippides, Thef-
piades, Libethrides, and Caltandes.

They were called Camane from‘Cano, as their principal
employment was to celebrate the adtions of the gods and
heroes: Heliconiades from Helicon, a mountain in Bootia ;
Parnaffides from mount Parnaffus, in Phocis, which they
much frequented ; Aonides from the Aonian mountain in
Beeotia ; Citheriades from mount Citheron; Pierides, or
Pieria, from mount Pierus, or the name of a city, or from
that part of Macedonia called Pieria ; Pegafides and Hippo-

crene

MUS

erenz from the fountain which Pegafus caufed to {pring out
of the earth witha blow of his foot; and from the fame
fountain they were called Aganippides: Thefpiades from a
town in Beeotia, called Thefpia ; and Libethrides from Li-
bethra, the city where Orpheus was born.

The ancients admitted nine Mufes, and made them the
daughters of Jupiter and Mnemofyne, or Memory. At
firft, indeed, their number was but three; viz. Melete,
Mneme, and Acde; Greek words, fignifying meditation,
memory, and finging: but a certain fculptor of Sicyon, ac-
cording to Varro, having orders to make three ftatues of
the three Mufes forthe temple of Apollo, and miftaking
his inftru@tions, made three feveral {tatues of each Mufe:
thefe, however, were found fo beautiful, that they were all
fetup in the temple; and from that time they began to
reckon nine Mufes; to whom Hefiod afterward gave
names; viz. Calliope, Clio, Erato, Thalia, Melpomene,
Terpfichore, Euterpe, Polyhymnia, and Urania.

Diodorus Siculus fays (1. iv.) that thefe goddeffes, fo fa-
mous among the Greeks, were fine fingers whom Ofiris car-
ried about with him in his conquetts, and that he gave to
two of kis generals, Apollo and Hercules, the name ef Mu-
fagetes, becaufe they were the conductors of thefe fingers.
According to M. Le Clere they were the nine virgins who
formed Jupiter’s Royal Academy of Mufic in Crete. He
adds, as a reafon why that god paffed for the father of the
Maufes, that he was the firft among the Greeks who, in imi-
tation of Jubal, had a regular concert ; and that thefe finging
virgins had Mnemofyne, or Memory, for their mother, be-
caufe fhe furnifhes the fubjeéts of verfes and poems. *

Each of thefe was fuppofed to prefide over her refpe&-
ive art; Calliope over heroic poetry ; Clio over hiftory ;
Melpomene over tragedy ; Thalia over comedy; Euterpe
over wind-mufic; Urania over aftronomy; ‘Terpfichore
over the harp ; Erato, the lute ; Polyhymnia, rhetoric.

They are painted as young, handfome, and’modeft; agree-
ably dreffed, and crowned with flowers. ¢Their ufual abodes
were about mount Helicon in Beeotia, and mount Parnaffus
in Phocis. Their bufinefs was to celebrate the victories of
the gods, and to infpire and affift the poets; and hence
the cuftom of invoking their aid at the beginning of a
poem.

It mut not, however, be imagined, that the deities, thus
invoked, are confidered, even by the ancient poets them-
felves, as divine perfons, from whom they expect any real
help. Under the name of Mufe they pray for the genius of
poetry, and all the talents and circumftances neceflary for a
happy execution of their undertaking.

Their addreffes to the Mufes are mere allegories, and man-

ners of exprefling themfelves poetically : as when they make.

gods of fleep, of fame, of revenge, and other natural and
moral things.

Accordingly, the Mufes are of all ages, countries, and
even of all religions : there are Chriftian as well as Heathen
Mufes ; Latin, Greek, Englifh, and French Mufes. There
are alfo new Mufes, who appear every day in favour of thofe,
who, di{daining things too trite and common, choofe to ftrike
out of the road.

When Virgil wrote his Eclogues, he invoked the Sicilian
Mufes, becaufe he imitated Theocritus: and the Sicilian

t having fucceeded, the Roman begged for a genius as
appy as that of this iflander.

The Mufes of the poet Lucretius had never infpired any
perfon before him. It is plain, from the doétrine of his
book, what kind of divinity it was he invoked. He addreffes
himfelf to Venus ; but, at the fame time, tells us, that nene

Vou. XXIV.

MUS

of the deities trouble themfelves with human affairs. His
Mutes, therefore, muft of neceflity be mere allegories.

MUSESTRE, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
Trevifan; 8 miles E.N.E. of Trevigis.

MUSET, Cotin, in Biography, was a fimple jongleur
or minftrel, whofe wit advanced him to the rank of aca-
demician of Troyes and Provence. It is believed that the
king of Navarre would not fuffer him to ftroll about the
country as a ballad-finger or a piper, but took him into
his fervice.

According to a very ancient tradition, Colin Mufet con-
tributed to the expence of building the church of St. Julien
des Menetriers, which ftill, fubfifts in the ftreet of St.
Martin at Paris, and that one of the figures in front of that
church reprefents him with a violin in his hand: but this
inftrument feems fo much to refemble a modern violin,
aes it ia fufpe&ted to have been added to the building long
after.

MUSETTE, in Jnftrumental Mufic, a bagpipe. It was
called by the Latins ‘¢ibia utricularis. This initrument has
two pipes on one fide, two flutes or two pipes pierced with
four or five holes, and on the other nine pipes, which ap-
pear fixed in one piece of wood. Thefe pipes are difpofed
like reeds of the fyrinx or Pan’s pipe, always diminifhing
in length. All nations claim this initrument. The Greeks
and Romans had it. The Scots and the Irifh difpute the
title to it, as they do of Offian’s poems. ;

MUSEUM, Movceioy, was originally ufed to fignify a
palace of Alexandria, which took up, at leaft, a fourth -

' part of the city; fo called, as being deftined and fet apart

to the Mufes and the fciences.

Here were lodged and entertained a great number of
learned men, who were divided into companies or colleges,
according to the fciences or feéts of which they were pro-
feffors. And to each houfe or college was allotted a hand-
fome revenue. This eftablifhment is attributed to Ptolemy
Philadelphus, who here fixed his library.

Musgum has hence paffed into a general denomination,
and is now applied to any place fet apart as a repofitory
for things that have fome immediate relation to the arts,
or is the Mufes. See Reposirory and Casinet.

USEUM, Account of the progreffive Hiflory of, in Eng-
land.—The firlt eee cerehins eae fone
cabinet of natural and artificial curiofities in England was
fir John Tradefcant, who lived in the reign of Charles I.
This gentleman poffeffed large phyfic gardens in Lambeth,
and travelled over a confiderable portion of the globe with the
diftin& view of improving himfelf in natural fcience, and
procuring fpecimens of whatever appeared rare and curious.
The fon having imbibed the fpirit of his father followed
his example, and by their joint exertions, a very valuable
colle&tion was framed, which afterwards became the pro-
perty of Mr. Elias Afhmole, and was comprifed in his
noble donation to the univerfity of Oxford. Among the
more remarkable of the venerable remains of this original
cabinet, ftill preferved in the Afhmolean Mufeum, is the head
of the bird called a Dodo, or Didus, (fee Dinus,) the
only one in Europe, and moft probably in the world, the
fpecies being {uppofed to be entirely extin&. (See Pen-
nant’s Account of London.) The next colleétion, after
that of the Tradefcants, appears to have been Dr. Wood-
ward’s, which fubfequently came to be included in the fu-
perb and {plendid one of fir Hans Sloane, and, of courfe,
now conftitutes a part of the Britifh Mufeum. About
this time the Royal Society feem alfo to have begun their
colleétion ; and fhortly afterwards, Mr. Leman, of the

3H Poultry-

MUSEUM.

Poultry-Compter, eftablifhed the firft mufeum of birds pre-
fervedin their prefent manner. About forty years ago Mr.
Rackftrow made a fine colleGtion, not only comprifing many
curious fpecimens of natural hiltory, but likewife a great
variety of anatomical preparations. A few years fubfe-
quent, fir Afhton Lever opened his moft magnificent cabi-
net to the public, in Leicefter-fquare, which had coft him
upwards of thirty thoufand pounds in colleéting. This
mufeum for fome time was one of the moit fafhionable
places of refortin London; and when difpofed of by lot-
tery, became the property of Mr. Parkinfon, who erected
a building fuitable for its reception on the Surrey fide of
the river Thames, near Blackfriars-bridge, London. ‘The
fituation, however, was injudicioufly chofen, being at too great
4 diflance from the refidence of that clafs of people moft
likely to afford fupport to fuch an inftitution ; and in confe-
quence, the proprietor not meeting with the encouragement
he expeéted, was induced to difpofe of the whole by auc-
tron, in feveral thoufand lots, in the fpring of 1806. Mr.
Bullock, of Liverpool, next removed to the metropolis about
three years afterwards, and opened his interefting mufeum of
natural hiftory and other curiofities in a large apartment in
Piccadilly. That collection, from the very ntimerous, choice,
and beautiful fpecimens it contained, as well as from the
{cientific and piéturefque manner in which they were ar-
ranged, foon attracted univerfal attention, and excited a
predile€tion for the ftudy of natural hiftory totally un-
known in this country before. This fuccefs has lately
induced Mr. Bullock to ere&t a magnificent edifice, in the
Egyptian ftyle of architeSure, near the end of Bond-{treet
in Piccadilly, to which the mufeum is now transferred, and
where it continues to be exhibited with fuperior advantage,
under the liberal and well-merited patronage of a difcern-
ing public. The expence of the colleétion, and the build-
ing together, is eftimated at 46,000/. ; and the proprietor,
we underftand, is ftill affiduous in augmenting the number
of his {pecimens; fo that this mufeum promifes to be a
lafting fource of gratification and rational inftruétion to the
curious, as well as an ornament to the Englifh metropolis.

Museum, Britifh. The bafis of this national repofitory
was the extenfive colleétion of the celebrated fir Hans Sloane.
After the demife of this indefatigable colle€tor in 1753, his
mafeum was purchafed by parliament, who, having, about
the fame time, obtained full poffeffion of feveral libraries of
MSS. and printed books, to be mentioned hereafter, vetted
the fame, together with a confiderable fum for the per-
manent fupport of the eftablifhment, in an incorporate body
of truftees; conferring on them ample powers to take fuch
meafures as fhould be deemed expedient for the difpofal,
pre‘ervation, and management of the inftitution, which it
was now determined fhould bear the name of the Briti/
Mufeum. The firft a& of thefe truftees was to purchafe,
for the reception of the colleétions confided to their care,
the noble manfion built, about the year 1680, by Ralph,
firft duke of Montague, who, being at that time ambaffador
at Paris, fent over the celebrated architect Peter Puget, and
other French artifts, for erefting and adorning the edifice
he had in contemplation. The collections being removed
thither, and properly arraned, the mufeum was opened for
infpeGtion in Janvary 1759. Ever fince that time, the
treafures of this noble repofitory have been confiderably in-
ereafed, not only by various royal and pariramentary gracts,
to be mentioned in courfe, but by many additions made ‘by
the trult, and by private donations. Within the laft ten
years an additional building has been ereéted, for the recep-
tion of ancient fculptures, &c.

The following is a fhort account of the contents of the
thirty-eight rooms, in which the various colleétions are ar-
ranged.

The ground-floor of the old building, confifting of twelve
rooms, contains the library. The original library, at the
time of the foundation ef the mufeum, comprifed the col-
leGtion of books formed by fir Hans Sloane, and that of
major Arthur Edwards, which latter was obtained to
gether with the Cottonian library of MSS. In 1757, king
George II. made over to the Britifh Mufeum the whele of
the very choice and important library of printed books and
MSS., which had been gradually colleéted by the fovereigns
of thefe realms, from Henry VII. down to William III.,
and which alfo contains the library of archbifhop Cranmer,
and thofe of Henry Fitzalan, earl of Arundel, and his fon-
in-law Richard, lord Lumley, of fir John Morris, and of
Ifaac Cafaubon. This library alfo contains abundance of
old and rare editions, many of them being prefentation
copies to the fovereigns from their refpeétive authors; and
among the MSS., the venerable Alexandrian codex of the
Bible. His prefent majefty made a valuable addition to the
library, by a numerous colleétion of pamphlets and periodical
papers, publifhed in the convulfive interval between the
years 1640 and 1660. This collection confifts of upwards
of 30,000 traéts, moft of which are now become un-
commonly fearce, and many of them probably uniqae-
This department of the mufeum has alfo obtained con-
fiderable acceffions, in the fele&t and valuable-hbraries_be-
queathed to it by Thomas Tyrwhit, efq-, fir William Muf
grave, and efpecially by the Rev. Mr. Cracherode, who
ranks among the moft generous benefactors of the iaftitu-
tion.

The upper ftory comprehends the faloon and twelve
rooms. The firft room contains objects of but little im-
portance with regard to fcientific information, except the
curiofities from the iflands of the South fea, the eaft and
weft coaft of North America, &c. moft of which were
brought from thofe parts, and depofited in the mufeum, by.
celebrated Briuifh circumnavigators.

The fecond room is at prefent appropriated to the ufe of
the readers. Perfons, not wholly ftrangers, are freely ad-
mitted to this reading-room, and there fupplied with what-
ever books or MSS. they may defire to confult.

With the third room the department of MSS. com-
mences. In it is depofited the Lanfdown library of MSS.,
confifting of 1352 volumes, of which 114 contain an ample
collection of lord Burleigh’s ftate papers ; 46 volumes of fir
Julius Cefar’s papers relative to the time ot Elizabeth and
James I.; 108 volumes of hiftorieal colle@ions of Dr.
White Kennet, bifhop of Peterborough, &c.

The fourth room contains the Sloanean and Dr. Birch’s
colletions of MSS.; the former confifting of g100 vo-
lumes, principally on phyfic and natural hiltory ; the latter,
which was bequeathed to the mufeum by Dr. Birch, confiits
of 337 volumes, chiefly on hiftory, biography, divinity, and
literature. In this room are alfo placed Mr. Halhed’s
Oriental MSS., confifting of 93 volumes, ng of whicli are
in the Sanfcrit language, and the relt chiefiy Perfian: to
which are added fome other colleétions, relative to the fame
deparrment of literature; fuch as that of coloue! Hamilton,
the collection which came with the trophies of our Egyptian
expedition, &c.

The fifth and part of the fixth rooms contain the Har-
leian library of MSS. "his hbrary, which, together with
the Cottonian colle@ion of MSS., formed part of the ori-
final ‘collections of the mufeum, confilts of upwards of

4 7600

MUSEUM.

7600 volumes, many of them containing a great number of
feparate articles, and upwards of 40,000 original rolls,
charters, and other initruments, among which there are
many of great antiquity; the whole chiefly relating to the
political, parliamentary, and ecclefiaftical hiltory of Great
Britain and Ireland. in the fixth room are alfo depofited
many additions by gift, bequeft, and purchafe; among
which are a valuable colleétion of Icelandic MSS., prefented
hy fir Jofeph Banks, a colle€tion of authographs, and many
other curious articles relative to the art of writing, on pa-
pyrus, &c.

The feventh room contains, in 33 preffes, the royal li-
brary of MSS., prefented by king George II., together
with the colleétion of printed books above mentioned. In
the remaining 59 prefles of this room is depofited the Cot-
zonian library of MSS., collected by fir Robert Cotton, in
the times of queen Elizabeth and James I., and increafed
by his fon, fr Thomas Cotton, in the fubfequent reign.
‘This colleétion chiefly abounds in authentic documents, re-
lating to the hiltory, the antiquities, the laws, and confti-
tution of thefe realms; and alfo in many ancient and fpleadid
biblical and liturgic volumes, chronicles, and a variety of
political traéts; the whole confifting of 861 volumes, of
which $4 are fo much damaged by a fire, which happened
in the year 1731, as to be almoft ufelefs. In this room
are alfo depofited, as an addition to the Cottonian library,
494 volumes of extra€ts, &c. chiefly relating to the ex-
chequer, colleéted by Thomas Maddox, efq.; and on the
table is the original of the Magna Charta, belonging to the
Cottonian library. The original of the ariicles, preparatory
to the figning of the great charter, perfect with the feal, is
likewife depofited in this room.

Between the feyenth and eighth rooms is the {aloon, a mag-
uificent apartment, which, before the ereétion of the new
gallery, contained fir William Hamilton's colle&tion of
Greek vafes and other antiquities, but is now deftined for
the reception of the confolidated mineral colleétions of the
mufeum. The original inconfiderable mineral colleétion
of fir Hans Sloane was, in 1798, incorporated with the more
perfeét one of Mr. Hatchet, which was purchafed by the
truftees at that period; and foon after, this part of the re-
pefitory was farther increafed by the very ufeful and ele-
gant colle¢tion which formed part of the bequeft of the
Rev. Mr. Cracherode. Thefe colleétions, together with
fome {maller ones, were, and are. till partly preferved in the
ninth room; but the very extenfive and {plendid colleGion
ef minerals which belonged to the late right honourable
Charles Greville, having, in 1810, been purchafed by par-
liament for the Britifh Mufeum, the truftees pitched on
the faloon for the future exhibition of thefe treafures,
which, when the arrangements fhall be completed, will, it
is fuppofed, not be furpafled by any other public collection
either in utility or {plendour.

The ninth.room, inwhich part of the old colle&ion of
minerals is {till exhibited, will, as foon as the arrangement
in the faloon is completed, -be fitted up for the reception of
rocks and geological {pecimens in general.

The ninthroom contains an initructive colle€tion of petri-
faGtions ; together with the Cracherodean and the old col-
leétion of -fhells: the latter, though lefs {plendid, is more
general and {etentific than that bequeathed tothe mufeum
by the late Mr, Cracherade.

In the tenth room is-depofited the Sloanean collefion.of
infects, fome of them rather jinjured by the tooth:of time,;
and the fame may be‘faid of a colleGion .of vegetable fub-
ftances, prefervedin this room. In.afar better {tate of pre-
fervation are ‘the mollufoa and the numerous-zogphytes, and

the infe&ts preferved in {pirits. Along the bottom of the
tables in this and the preceding room are depofited a great
number of volumes, containing dried plants, among which
there are feveral of.confiderable importance, fuch as fir
Hans Sloane’s Jamaica plants, Kampfer's herbarium, Bud-
dle’s Britifh plants, &c. Very remarkable are alfo the two
fern trees placed over the chimney of this room.

The eleventh room contains the birds and a few mamma-
lia; the former difpofed, fo far as conyenience would ad-
mit, according to the Linnzan mode of arrangement. On
the tables are preferved the nefts and eggs of various
birds.

The twelfth room contains a general and extenfive col-
le€tion of fifhes, ferpents, tortoifes, lizards, frogs, &c. as
well as many {pecimens of quadrupeds preferved in fpirits.

From this laft room, on defcending the back ftaircafe, we
proceed to the gallery of antiquities, an edifice lately ere€ted,
forming a wing on the weft fide of the main building. The
bafis of this excellent repofitory of antiquities was formed
by the exquifite colleG@ion of Greek and Roman ftatues,
bufts, and other f{culptured marbles which belonged to the
late Charles Townley, efq. and were purchafed by parlia-
ment, in 1805, for the fum of 20,000/. To thefe were
added the colleGtion of fir William Hamilton, and feveral
others to be mentioned hereafter, which, tovether with thofe
articles of antiquity which originally belonged to the ma-
feum, conftituted an aflembfage too confiderable and exten-
five not to demand the additional building, which is now
open to the infpection of ftrangers, as well as for the im-
provement of artifts; an advantage which the ftudents in
the fine arts have never before enjoyed in this country.

The firlt room of the gallery of antiquities contains the
terracottas, moft of them baffo-relievos, fymmetrically ar-
ranged along the walls; with fome ftatues, among which is
the mufe Urania, one of the largeft ftatues which have been
found of terracotta.—The fecond room contains Greek and
Roman fculptures : the attention of the {peCtator, on enter-
ing the gallery, is particularly arre‘ted by a mott exquifite
ftatue of Venus naked to the wailt, and covered with dra-
pery from thence downwards; it was found in the maritime
baths of Claudius at Oftia. Other ftriking features of
this room are, a ftatue larger than life of a canephora,
being one of the cariatides which fupported the portico of
a temple dedicated to Bacchus; two coloffal heads of Her-
cules, one of them in avery ancient ftyle of Greek feulp-
ture; and two eoloffal heads of Minerva, one of which is
a fine {pecimen of very early Greek work. The Engravings
of the contents of thefe two firft rooms have lately been pub-
lifhed.—Among the Greek and Roman {culptures of the
third room are feveral valuable baffo-relievos in marble: of
the many exquifite ftatues in this room we mention only the
graceful recumbent Diana, and oppofite to it the fpirited
ftatue of a youth holding with both hands a part of an arm,
which he is biting: this flatue belonged to a group, origi-
nally compofed of two boys who had quarrelled at the game
of talus, as appears-by one of thofe bones called sali, re-
maining in the hand of the figure which is loft—The fourth
room, equally appropriated to Greek and Roman antiquities,
contains only fifteen {culptures, the moft itriking of which
are, a ftatue of Thalia, found at Oftia, in the maritime
baths of the emperor Claudius, and a ftatue of Diana:
both. in a peculiar ftyle with regard to the execution of
the drapery ; and a group of Bacchus and Ampelus,—
The fifth room is fitted up afier the manner of an ancient
fepulchral apartment, or columbarium; in itis depofited
a confiderable_ number of cinerary urns and ollx, bearing
monumental infcriptions, and) baflo-relieyos: fome niches

gH: In

“MUSEUM.

ih the walls exhibit earthen ollz, placed in the manner of
thofe which contained the afhes of the flaves, and the in-
ferior orders of the Roman people. In the centre of the
floor of this fepulchral room is a Mofaic pavement, lately
difcovered in digging the foundation for the new buildings
at the bank of England—Among the numerous Greek
and Roman fculptures of the fixthroom, confifting of baffo-
relievos, bufts, ftatues, farcophagi, and other fepulchral
monuments, votive altars, &c. may be particularifed, a baffo-
relievo, reprefenting a female bacchante holding with one
hand a knife, with the other the hind quarter ofa kid; a head of
Jupiter Serapis, in which the paint with which the face was
anciently covered, is {till difcernible ; a head of Apollo Mu-
fagetes, refembling, in the difpofition of the hair, and in the
chara@ter of the face, the head ofa mufe; a ftatue of Libera,
holding a thyrfus over her right fhoulder, and a bunch of
grapes in her lefthand, with a panther at her feet; a frag-
ment of a magnificent farcophagus, reprefenting an elderly
man, with amanufcript rollin his hand, a mufe ftanding be-
fore him; the front of the cover of another fuperb farco-
phagus, reprefenting a group of cattle, on one fide of which
is an old faun, and on the other a young faun, both recum-
bent ; a fepulchral cippus richly ornamented on the four
fides with feftoons of fruit.—The feventh room contains a
few Roman antiquities, among which there are four pigs or
prifmatic maffes of lead ; one, with the name of the emperor
Domitian iafcribed upon it, was difcovered, under ground,
on Hayfhaw moor, in the Weft Riding of Yorkfhire ; another
infcribed with the name of L. Aruconius Verecundus, found
at Matlock bank, in Derbyfhire ; two others, each with the
name of the emperor Hadrian infcribed upon it, the one
found in the parifh of Weftbury, ten miles from Salop, the
other in Cromford moor, in Derby fhire—In the eighth room
we find, among other highly interefting Egyptian antiquities,
two mummies with their refpeCtive coffins, in excellent pre-
fervation; the one fent to England by Edward Wortley
Montagu, efq., and prefented to the mufeum by his ma-
jelty ; the other found in one of the catacombs at Sakkara,
and fent to England, inthe year 1722, by Col. William
Lethieullier : one of thefe mummies has been elaborately and
beautifully ornamented with coloured beads, the greater part
of which ftill remain ; the face of the other mummy is gilt,
and the body ornamented with painting ; the coffins are made
of fycamore wood, and covered with paintings and hiero-
glyphic figures. There are alfo depofited in this {mall room
many canopufes, idols in bronze, bafalt, marble, porcelain,
and wood, fearabei, the fkeleton of an ibis, &c.—The
Egyptian antiquities contained in the ninth room are princi-
pally thofe which were colle&ted by the French in different
parts of Egypt, and came into the poffleffion of the Englifh
army, in confequence of the capitulation of Alexandria, in
the month of September 1801. They were brought to
England in February 1802, under the care of Col. Turner,
and were fent, by order of his majefty, to the Britifh Mufeum.
Among the moft remarkable of thefe articles are, the far-
cophagus brought from the mofque of faint Athanafius, at
Alexandria, being the largeft and moft valuable monument
known to exift of the breccia, called breccia verde d’ Egitto;
and another large farcophag us of fienite (covered, like the pre-
ceding, with her aA hice both within and without), which
was brought from Grand Cairo, where it was ufed as a cif-
tern called “the lover’s fountain ;” various figures of Ifis
and other Egyptian deities; a coloffal fill, executed in
ranite, of enormous dimenfions; the celebrated Rofetta-
one, containing three infcriptions of the fame import, one
in hieroglyphics, another in the ancient vernacular language

of Egypt, and another in the Greek language: thele in.
6

{criptions record the fervices which Ptolemy V. had ren-
dered his country, and were engraved by order of the high -
priefts, when they were affembled at Memphis for the purpefe
of invefting him with the reyal prerogatives.—The tenth
room contains Greek and Roman fculptures, and moft of
them of exquifite workmanfhip. The. firft which attra&ts
our attention is the Difcobolus, who is reprefented at that
precife moment of time which immediately precedes the de-
livery of the difcus; this fine ftatue is an ancient copy in
marble from the celebrated bronze ftatue, executed by Myro.
The torfo of a {mall Venus is one of the greateft ornaments
of thisroom. Among the more remarkable bufts is that of
an unknown Grecian lady, in the character of Ifis; it is
gracefully terminated by the flower of the nymphza lotus,
on which it refts, and which having, by fome antiquarians,
been miftaken for a fun-flower, has given rife to the erro-
neous idea of a Clythia being reprefented by this buft. The
terminal head of Homer, reprefented in an advanced age, is
equally a mafterpiece of Grecian art. Remarkable both on
account of their form and their excellent prefervation are, an
oblong fquare bafin of a fine granite, fimilar to fuch as were
ufed in the temples for facrifical purpofes ; and a ciftern of
greenifh-black bafalt, anciently ufed as a bath. ‘The lat-
ter was formerly in the poffeffion of Chriftina, queen of
Sweden.

On afcending the ftairs of the gallery we arrive at the
anti-room, in the centre of which is placed the celebrated
Barberini vafe, which was, for more than two centuries, the
principal ornament of the Barberini colleGion. This vafe
was purchafed of fir Wm. Hamilton, nearly thirty years ago,
by the duchefs of Portland, fince which period it has been
more generally known by the name of the Portland vafe.
It was found, about the middle of the fixteenth century, two
miles and a half from Rome, in the road leading to Frafcati.
At the time of its difcovery, the vafe was enclofed in a mar-
ble farcophagus within a fepulchral chamber, under the
mount called monte del Grano. The material of which the
vafe is formed is glafs; the figures which are executed in re- ’
lief are of a beautiful opaque white, and the ground is of a
dark tranfparent blue. This fuperb {pecimen of Greek art
was depofited in the Britifh Mufeum in 1810, by his grace the
prefent duke of Portland. —The firft room of this upper ftory
(the eleventh of the gallery) contains the coins and medals, of
which more will be faid under the article NuMISMATOLOGY.
(See aifo Mepars.)—The antiquities in the twelfth room are
principally thofe which belonged to the colleétion of fir Wil-
liam Hamilton, who, during a long refidence at Naples, as
his majefty’s envoy, had acquired a great number of articles
of Greek and Roman antiquity, particularly the largeft
ftore then known of ancient vafes, vulgarly called Etrufcan,
the whole of which was purchafed, by parliament, for 8400/.
in order to be depofited in the Britifh Mufeum. The con-
tents of this twelfth room are a good collection of bronzes,
among which there isa raven as large as life, and of moft
exquilite workmanfhip ; alfo various fpecimens of ancient
armour, veflels, &c. &c. in bronze; curious fpecimens of
ancient glafs, fuch as cinerary urns, lachrymatories, &c. 5
various necklaces, ear-rings, armille, &c. in gold; en-
graved gems; fragments in terracotta; a very rich collec.
tion of lamps in terracotta; fpecimens of fculpture in ivory,
eryftal, agate, &c. and other articles too numerous to be
{pecified, are depofited in the cafes of this fpacious apart-
ment, which derives particular intereft from the great col-
le&tion of Greek vafes above alluded to, the greatelt number
of which was found in fepulchres, in Magna Grecia.—The
thirteenth room is appropriated to the reception of the ex-
tenfive and valuable colle@tion of prints and drawings, the

moi

MUSEUM.

molt important part of which was bequeathed by the Rev.
. M. Cracherode.

We now proceed to give a fhort account of two cele-
brated national mufeums in France, viz. the Mufée Napo-
Téon, and the Muféum d’Hiftoire Naturelle.

The Mufee Napoléon, in the Louvre, is a very f{plendid
eftablifhment ; it contains above 1000 paintings of the Ita-
lian, Flemifh, and French fchools ; a colleétion of defigns
of great matters ; and above 300 ftatues and other articles
of antiquity. This lait department of the mufeum is par-
ticularly remarkable, on account of the many celebrated
works of Greek and Roman art which it contains, and
which are difpofed in fix diftin@ apartments of the gallery
of antiquities. The firft room is called Salle des Saifons,
becaufe the ceiling exhibits the feafons painted by Roma-
nelli, and in it are principally depofited the rural divinities,
&e. ‘The following are among the more remarkable articles
of this room ; a young faun with the finte, fuppofed to be an
antique copy of the celebrated faun by Praxiteles, in
bronze; the celebrated fpinarius or tireur d’épines, in
bronze ; Venus rifing from the bath, with the fpurious in-
{cription Bourados eros, in Pentelic marble, formerly pre-
ferved in the Mufeo Pio-Clementino; Amor and Pfyche
embracing each other, from the Mufeo Capitolino, in Parian
marble; a ftatue of Ceres, and another of Flora, in Pen-
telic marble.—The fecond apartment is entitled Salle des
Hommes ote ; it is ornamented with eight antique columns
of granitello, which formerly fupported the ceiling of that
part of the church at Aix-la-Chapelle, where the tomb of
Charlemagne was fituated. The principal ftatues in this
room are, that of Demofthenes fitting, formerly in the
Muleo Pio-Clementino ; a fitting figure of Trajan, in the
adi of a philofopher, holding a globe in his left hand, alfo

rom the Mufeo Pio-Clementino; Menander and Moridip-
pus, both fitting ftatues, in Pentelic marble, from the fame
mufeum ; a {landing ftatue of a Greek philofopher, gene-
rally taken for Zeno, in Greek marble (grechetto), for-
merly preferved in the mufeum of the Capitol—The third
apartment is La Salle des Romains. The paintings of the
ceiling, by Romanelli, reprefent the rape of the Sabine
women, Mutius Scevola, and other fubjets of Roman
hiitory. The articles in this room are all relating to Roman
hiftory and manners; the moft curious among them are the
following ; a beautiful head in bronze of Publius Cornelius
Scipio the elder, with eyes of filver; a female ftatue in
Parian marble, generally fuppofed to be Ceres, but which
is probably the mufe Clio; the drapery of this ftatue, which
was formerly in the mufeum of the Vatican, is of fuperior
beauty ; a Roman matron, with the pad/a or cloak, is one of
the beit preferved ftatues we are acquainted with, and re-
markable on account of the tafte which the artift has dif-
played in the management of the drapery ; the wounded
warrior, commonly called the dying gladiator, from the
mufeum of the Capitol; the celebrated Antinous of the
Capitol, formerly in the poffeffion of cardinal Alexander
Albani.—The fourth apartment bears the title of Salle de
Laocoon ; it is decorated with four large columns of verde
antico, which formerly belonged to the maufoleum of
the conftable Anne de Montmorency, in the church of
Montmorency. Befides the celebrated group from which
its name is derived, the more remarkable objets in this
room are, a Difcobolus in a repofing attitude, formerly in the
Mufeo Pio-Clementino ; a beautiful ftatue of an amazon,
from the fame mufeum; a moft charateriftic head of a
youthful Bacchus, generally known under the name of
Ariadne of the Capitol ; a graceful {mall ftatue of a prieft
of the god Mithra, remarkable on account of the tafte dif-

played in the drapery, from the mufeum of the Vatican,
where it was known under the name of Paris; the Difcobo-
lus from the mufeum of the Vatican, a copy of the fame
ftatue in bronze, by Myro.—The fifth ‘apartment is the
Salle de ? Apollon; it is ornamented with four columns of a
beautiful red granite, two of which were formerly in the
church at Aix-la-Chapelle, which contained the tomb of
Charlemagne; the floor is inlaid with beautiful and {carce
varieties of marble. Among the treafures of this apart-
ment are, the Apollo of Belvedere, and the Venus of Me-
dici (the two moft perfe& models of the human form ever
produced) ; the Mercury, called the Antinous of Belvedere,
and confidered as a firft rate produétion of art, worthy of a
place near the Apollo; Venus Capitolina; the Venus of
Arles, fo called from Arles in Provence, where it was
found ; a beautiful group reprefenting Hercules and his fon
Telephus, from the Belvedere of the Vatican; the Egyptian
Antinous, from the mufeum of the Capitol; the ftatue of a
Bacchus in a repofing attitude, equally remarkable on ac-
count of the excellence of the workmanfhip, and its high
ftate of prefervation; a Bacchus, perfe&tly naked, caelalehy
refting with his left arm on the trunk of a tree: this ftatue,
executed in the marble called Greco duro, is not furpaffed
by any other ftatue of Bacchus we are acquainted with,—
The fixth apartment, called Salle des Mujfes, contains, be-
fides the complete collection of Mufes which belonged to
pope Pius VI., the bults of various philofophers and
poets, who were particularly favoured by thefe goddeffes.
The {tatues of the Mufes here preferved, are Clio, fitting, in
Pentelic marble ; Calliope, fitting as meditating and pre-
paring to write; Melpomene, with her left foot refting on
a rock, again{t which fhe leans, holding in one hand the
dagger, and with the other the heroic mafk of Hercules ;
Polyhymnia, entirely wrapped up in a mantle, in excellent
prefervation; Erato, ina theatrical garment, with a lyra in
her left arm; Terpfichore, with the lyra of tortoife-fhell ;
Thalia, fitting. Thefe feven ftatues were found in 1774,
at Tivoli, in the villa of Caffius, called Pianella di Caflio,
together with the ftatue of Apollo Mufagetes; and pope
Pius VI. having purchafed this beautiful colle€tion for the
mufeum of the Vatican, caufed a magnificent faloon to be
prepared for their reception. The itatues of the two re-
maining Mufes, Euterpe and Urania, which were not
among thofe found at Tivoli, were taken from the palazzo
Lancellotti, at Veletri. The Apollo Mufagetes, difcovered
in the Pianella di Caffio, is fuppofed to be an antique copy
of the ftatue of Apollo Cithareedus, by Timarchides, which,
according to Pliny, was placed in the portico ef Oftavia,
at Rome, together with the nine Mufes by Philifcus, of
which thofe of the Mufée Napoléon are perhaps antique
copies. Among the butts of illuftrious men in this room
are thofe of Hippocrates, of Socrates, Homer, Virgil, and
fome others, moft of them executed in Pentelic marble.

Befides the antiquities and the great collection of paint-
ings and drawings above mentioned, there is ftill a con-
fiderable number of articles not yet incorporated with that
part of the mufeum which is exhibited for public infpec-
tion. The colle@tion has alfo lately been added to by the
exquifite articles of antiquity of the Villa-Borghefe, among
which are the celebrated gladiator, the group of Cen-
taurs, &c.

Another mufeum) at Paris, which is exclufively dedi-
cated to natural hiftory, is the Mu/éum d’ Hifloire Naturelle,
known alfo by the name of Jardin des Plantes, it having ori-
ginally been jintended for a botanical garden alone, which
was inftituted in 1633, according to a plan laid down by
Guy la Broffe, phyfician to Louis XIII. After the sate.
°

MUSEUM.

of La Broffe, the original profeflor of botany of this infti-
tution, a chemical laboratory, and an anatomical theatre,
together with profefforial chairs in thefe fciences, were added
to it, and the foundation was laid for the feveral collections.
The name of Jardin des Plantes was altered into that of
Mufeum National d’ Hifoire Naturelle, by a decree of the Na-
tional Affembly, in the year 1793, when the inftitution re-
ceived its prefent organifation. Wee fhall confine ourfelves
to a fhort account of the colleétions, and refer the reader for
a complete hiftory of this interefting eftablifhment to
Fifcher’s National Mufeam der Natur-Gefchichte zn Paris,
1802, and Juffieu’s Notice hiftorique, &¢., in the Anaales
du Muféum d’Hiftoire Naturelle, vols i. and it.

The upper ftory of the building is fet apart for zoology.
Here we find not only the fy{tematic and trivial names affixed
to all the {pecies, but alfo tickets defcriptive of the families
and orders into which the animals are diftributed. Thus,
for inftance, on entering the apartment containing the mam-
malia, the following infcription is feen above the glazed
cafes at the right hand fide.

1 Divifion.
Point d’ailes membraneufes ni de nageoires
Quadrupédes proprement dits,

1 Sousdivifion.
Les quatre pieds en forme de main

Quadrumanes.
x Ordre.

Dents incifives laniaires et molaires.
1 Genre: Simia ; Singe.
@uatre dents incifives 4 chaque machoire ; angle facial
de 65 degrés; point d’abajoues, ni de queue.
After which follow the {pecies of the genus Simia.

The mammalia are in glazed cafes, on which the light is
thrown from above, as isthe cafe in all the rooms. Some
fpecies of confiderable magnitude, fuch as the giraffe,
brought by Vaillant from Africa, the rhinoceros, &c. are
without covering, and placed in the middle of the apartment.

The great faloon, adjoining the mammalia room, contains
the remaining animals, all of them fyftematically arranged
and ticketed, in the fame manner as the mammalia. The
number of birds is very confiderable. ‘The amphibious ani-
mals are claffed after Lacépéde’s fyltem, as are the fifhes.
The animals without vertebra are difpofed after Lamarck’s
elaffification: the mollufea which belong to this clafs are
preferved in fpirits, and to each fhell is added the animal
thus preferved, where it could be obtained. Between the
mollufca and craltacea are placed the annelides, one of the
claffes of Lamarck’s arrangement, comprifing amphinome,
aphrodite, nereis, &c. The cruftacex are preferved in {pi-
rits, and alfo in a dried ftate. The complete collection of
{piders, feparated by Lamarck from the infects which under-
goa metamorphofis, are depofited in glazed cabinets. ‘The
colle&tion of infeéts is particularly enriched by the many
{carce and beautiful fpecies formerly in the poffeffion of
Réaumur and Dombey. Ina feparate glafs cafe are con-
tained the moft rare and beautiful caterpillars, both in
{pirits, inflated with air, or modelled in wax. The intettinal
wormeare not numerous ; but the colleétion of the radiatres
is remarkably complete. The polypi are depofited in four
large glafs cafes, and comprehend many fearce fpecies.

Tne firft room on the ground floor is allotted to the vege-
table productions, which are difpofed in large gla{s cales.
Among the more remarkable objeéts in this room are, the
colleétion of fpecimens of wood in large fquare pieces ; the

colleGtion of fruitsin fpirits, which are partly preferved, and
in a dried ftate, partly modelled in wax; a collection of
gums and refins; and, in an adjoining {mall room, the her-
baria, which, among others, contain Tournefort’s, Wail-
lant’s, and Hialler’s plants, together with the treafures col-
leG&ted by Dombey, Commerfon, Forfter, &c.

In the two adjoining apartments are depofited the mine-
rals, arranzed after Haty’s fyftem, in fixty upright glafs
cafes: the firft room contains, in thirty-one cafes, the acidi-
ferous fubftances, the earthy fubftances, and thofe mine-
rals whofe nature and affinity are not yet fufficiently well un-
derftood ; the twenty-nine cafes of the fecond room contain
the inflammable fubftances, the metals, the various aggre-
gated minerals or rocks, and the volcanic productions. This
colleGtion is particularly well calculated to make the ftudent
acquainted with the method of the celebrated Haiiy.

The next room contains the colleétions of foffil bones and
petrifactions, the greater part of which were brought to-
gether by the exertion of M. Faujas St. Fond.

The library, on the fame floor with the mineral and vege-
table rooms, is very rich in works relative to natural
hiftory, chemiftry, and anatomy. In it are alfo preferred
Commerfon’s and Plumier’s drawings and mahufcripts, the
Chinefe drawings of fifhes, and the velins, or that beautiful
colleGtion of drawings which was begun as early as the time
of Vallot (one of the firft direCtors of the Jardin des Plantes),
and which, a few years ago, conftituted fixty-four volumes,
forty-nine of which contain drawings of plants. Among
the artifts who have contributed to them are, Robert, Au-
briet, Abeille, Desfontaines, Joubert, Madelaine, Baffeforte,
Van Spaendonk, Marechal, Redouté, fen. and jun., Ou-
dinot, &c. The drawings laft finifhed are always exhibited
to the public in the library. In the faloon of the library
we fee an exquifite ftatue of Buffon, with the infcription,
MAJESTATI NATURE PAR INGENIUM.

A molt valuable part of this repofitory is the cabinet for
comparative anatomy. In the firft room of it, adjoining
Cuvier's houfe, are depofited the anatomical preparations
belonging to white-blooded animals, being a colleGtion of
the moft delicate preparations, almoft all of them by the
hands of Cuvier. Each animal is exhibited both in its
natural ftate, and difplayed by diffeGion. In this firft room
is alfo preferved the fuperb colleCtion of models in wax of
the animals reprefented in the “* Teltacea utriufque Siciliz,””
by Poli, under whofe fuperintendance they are executed :
during the revolutionary wars this collection had found its
way into Hermann’s cabinet at Strafburg, from whence
it was afterward obtained by the Mufeum for the moderate
fum of 6000 livres. Thefe preparations are exquifitely
beautiful, and fuperior even to thofe of Fontana.

The fecond room contains the organs of red-blooded
animals preferved in fpirits, and claffed, in fome meafure,
according to their functions. Among the human brains is
the cerebrum of Daubenton.

In the third room are depofited the fkeletons of birds,
Pinfon’s preparations in wax, and various other objects of
comparative anatomy.

The fourth room contains a confiderable colle€tion of
fkeletons of fifhes and amphibious animals, executed by the
indefatigable Rouffeau with unparalleled care; alfo a very
inftrutive colleétion of crania and teeth of various animals,

The fifth room is appropriated to {keletons of the larger
ruminating and other animals, among which is that of the
giraffe, from the colleétion of the ftadtholcer.

The fixth room contains fkeletons of ruminating animals
of the genera bos, antilope, capra, and ovis; in the feventh,
are depofited thofe of the fere, didelphis, fying mammalia,

{pecies

MUS

fpecies of myrmecophaga, armadillos, elephants, rhinoceros,
and tapir. In the eighth room is depofited the rich col-
leGion of fkeletons of fimix, of glires, &c.; alfo the well-
proportioned fkeleton of Bebe, the dwarf; fkeletons of
mummies, &c.

In the ninth large room are preferved the large offeous
frames of whales, fkeletons of dolphins, crania of the narwhal,
&e.

The menagerie of the National Mufeum is kept in a good
ftate, and generally very rich in fearce and curious animals.
The botanical garden of this inftitution is among the moft
celebrated in Europe. For a detailed account of it, we refer
to the works above quoted. :

Museum at Oxford, called the Afbmolean Mufeum, is a
noble pile, erected at the expence of the univerfity, for the
promoting and carrying on feveral parts of curious and
ufeful learning. It was begun in 1679, and finifhed in
1683, at which time a valuable colleétion of curiofities was

refented to the univerfity by Elias Afhmole, efq. and the
bie day there repofited, and afterwards digefted and put
in a juft order by Dr. Plott, who was conttituted firft keeper
of the mufeum.

Divers confiderable acceffions have been fince made to
the mufeum; as of hieroglyphics, and other Egyptian anti-
quities, by Dr. Huntingdon ; and of an entire mummy, by
Mr. Goodyear; of a cabinet of natural curiofities, by Dr.
Lifter; alfo of divers Roman antiquities, altars, medals,
lamps, &c. ; May Ba 48.3;

Over the entrance of the mufeum is this infcription;
MUSEUM ASHMOLEANUM, SCHOLA NATURALIS HISTORIA,
OFFICINA CHYMICA.

MUSGRAVE, Wixttam, M. D. in Biography, a
learned phyfician, was born at Charlton-Mufgrave, in
Somerfetfhire, in 1657. He was educated at Winchetter,
and afterwards at Oxford, where he was made probationer
fellow of New college in 1675. His firft intentions were
to ftudy the law ; but he afterwards adopted the profeffion
of medicine, and was ele¢ied a fellow of the Royal Society,
of which body he was appointed fecretary in 1684. In
this capacity he edited the Philofophical Tranfaétions,
from N° 167 to N° 178 inclufive : he likewife communicated
feveral papers on anatomical and phyfiological fubje&s to
the fociety. In 1689, he took the degree of dottor of
phyfic, and became a fellow of the College of Phyficians.
Ultimately, however, he quitted London, and fettled at
Exeter, where he practifed his profeffion, with confiderable
reputation and fuccefs, for nearly thirty years, and died in
1721. Beyond the circle of his prattice, he made himfelf
known principally by his two treatifes on gout: the one,
«De Arthritide Symptomatica,’? Exon. 1703; the other,
“De Arthritide Anomala five Interna,’’ ibid. 1707; both
which were feveral times reprinted. They contain nume-
rous cafes of the difeafe, under all its forms and irregu-
larities ; but the author not unfrequently afcribes to gout,
fymptoms which probably were not connected with that
malady. Neverthelefs, thefe are valuable practical works.

Dr. Mufgrave was alfo a diftinguifhed antiquary, and
publifhed feveral learned tra€ts upon the fubje& of his re-
fearches in this way; efpecially one, entitled « Belsium
Britannicum,” 1719, oftavo, which treats of the topo-

raphy, hiftory, and antiquities of Hampfhire, Wilthhire, and
Bomalttiive, which were anciently in the poffeffion of a
tribe of Belga. He likewife publifhed “« Julti Vitalis Epi-
taphium cum Commentario,’? 1711 3 ates De Legionibus
Epiftolai ;” “ De Aquilis Romanis Epiltsla,” 1713; “ In-
fcriptio T'arraconenfis, cum Commentaria3” “ Geta Britan-

MUS

nicus,"” &c. 1715; and * Differtatio de Dea Salute,”
1716. Gen. Biog.

MUSHAKEN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Irak ; 35 miles N.N.W. of Ifpahan.

MUSHIEDAU, a town of the kingdom of Candahar ;
60 miles W. of Ghizni.

MUSHROOM, in Botany. See Funct, Puauyuvs, and
AGanic.

Matthiolus mentions mufhrooms which weighed thirty
pounds each, and were as yellow as gold; Fer. Imperatus
tells us, he faw fome which weighed above a hundred pounds
a-piece ; and, to add no more, the Journal des Scavans fur-
nifhes us with an account of fome growing on the frontiers
of Hungary, which made a full cart-load.

The poifon of mufhrooms has been much talked of by
feveral perfons ; but there feems to be no certain account
of any body’s ever having been injured by gating the
common mufhroom, unlefs by accident, as from the eating
too many at once, and thereby over-loading the ftomach ;
or by their being eaten by perfons who had a particular dif-
like to them, as fome perfons have to the moft innocent
aliments, particularly to cheefe. If thefe mufhrooms had
any poifonous quality, it muft have been often found out
by the phyficians in fuch a place as London, where there
are annually fuch vaft quantities of them confymed, yet no-
thing of this kind is obferved ; and there feems, upon the
whole, to be nothing hurtful in this fpecies ; though there
may be many others which are truly poifonous. Nor is
it_ more wonderful, that the different fubje€ts of this clafs
of vegetables fhould differ in their virtues, than that thofe
of other kinds fhould. The roots of carrots and parfnips
are daily found a very wholefome food, while thofe of other
plants of the fame clafs, fuch as the water-hemlock, the
dropwort, and others of the umbellifere, are known to be
poifonous.

The ancients have taken great pains to diftinguifh the
feveral kinds of mufhrooms, that the world might know the
hurtful from the fafe. The boletos mentioned by Juvenal,
on account of the death of the emperor Claudius, is fuffi-
ciently defcribed by Pliny. Clufius, among the moderns,
has defcribed a vaft number of different {pecies, every where
diftinguifhing the efculent and wholefome from the poifonous
or pernicious kinds. The feveral authors who have treated
of them fince the time of Clufixs, have all mentioned the
effets of fome or other of the poifonous kinds ; and there
are numerous inftances of the mifchief done by them at one
time or other. Some have been wilhing to afcribe this mif-
chief to animalcules inhabiting the plant ; but this feems
erroneous, and particularly from the following inftance:
we have one kind of muthroom growing in England, called
the white acrid fungus. This is fo extremely fharp, that
it ftimulates the tongue, as if it had been touched with
fpirit of nitre: and Tournefort obferves, that. if rubbed on
blue paper, it turns it red in the fame manner as that
liquor, or any other of the violent acid {pirits would ; this
cauftic quality remains in the plant even after drying ; and
it is very evident, that we need look no farther than this
for the origin of the poifonous quality in this {pecies.
There is another kind which is obferved to kill the ve
flies as they fettle upon it. It is not probable that fuch
plants as thefe fhould be inhabited by any kind of animal-
cules, nor is it neceflary to have recourfe to fuch caufes of
the mifchief which enfues from the eating them, when their
own juices feem fo very able to have occafioned it. Philof.
Tranf. N° 473. p.54.

Mr, Miller fays, that the true eatable mufhroom is diftin-

guifhed

MUS

guifhed from the poifonous and unpleafant kinds by thefe
marks ; when young, it appears of a roundifh form, like a
button, the ftalk as well as the burton being white, and
the flethy part very white, when broken, the gills within
being livid. As they grow larger, they expand their heads
by degrees into a flat form, and the gills underneath are at
firft of a pale flefh-colour ; but as they ftand long, become
blackifh. See AGaric and PraLtvs.

In order to propagate mufhrooms, the meadows and
paftures fhould be fearched for them in Auguft and Sep-
tember; and wherever they are found, the ground fhould
be opened all about the roots, where there will be found
abundance of {mall white knobs. Thefe are to be taken
up with,lumps of earth about them. The mufhroom beds
fhould be made of dung, in which there is good ftore of
litter ; but this fhould not be thrown in a heap to ferment,
that dung which hath lain {pread abroad for a month or
longer is the beft. Thefe beds fhould be made on dry
ground, and the dung laid upon the furface: their width
at bottom fhould be about two and a half, or three feet, and
length in proportion to the quantity of mufhroom defired ;
then lay the dung about a foot thick, covering it about
four inches with ftrong earth; upon this lay more dung
about ten inches thick ; then another layer of earth, {till
drawing in the fides of the bed, fo as to form it like the
ridge of a houfe, which may be done by three layers of
dung and as many of earth; when the bed is finifhed, it
fhould be covered with litter, or old thatch, to keep out
the wet and prevent its drying: in this fituation it’ may
remain eight or ten days, by which time the bed will be
in a proper degree of warmth to receive the fpawn; the
litter fhould then be taken off, the fides of the bed {moothed,
and a covering of light rich earth, about an inch thick,
fhould be laid over the bed ; upon this the fpawn fhould be
put, laying the lumps two or three inches afunder ; then
gently cover them about half an inch thick with the fame
light earth; and again put on the covering of litter.
When thefe beds are made in the {pring or autumn, as the
weather is in thofe feafons temperate, the fpawn will take
much fooner, and the mufhrvoms will appear perhaps in a
month after they are made; but thofe beds which are
made in fummer, when the feafon is hot, or in winter, when
the weather is cold, are much longer before they produce.
The great fkill in managing thefe beds is to keep them in
a proper temperature of moifture: during the fummer
feafon, the beds may be uncovered to receive gentle fhowers
of rain at proper times ; and in long dry feafons, they fhould
be now and then gently watered: during the winter feafon
they muft be kept as dry as poflible, and fo clofely covered
as to keep out cold. In frolty, or very cold weather, the
growth of the mufhrooms will be promoted by laying over
them fome warm litter, fhaken out of a dung heap, inter-
pofing a covering of dry litter between the bed and this
warm litter: and as often as the litter is found to decay, it
fhould be renewed with frefh; and as the cold increafes,
the covering fhould be laid fo much thicker. In this way
plenty of mufhrooms will be produced all the year; and
thofe raifed in beds will be much better for the table than
any which are gathered in the fields. A bed thus managed,
if the {pawn takes kindly, will continue good for feveral
months, and produce great quantities of mufhrooms ; from
thefe beds, when they are deltroyed, you fhould take the
fpawn for a frefh fupply, which may be laid up in a dry
place until the proper feafon of ufing it, which fhould not be
fooner than five or fix weeks, that the fpawn may have time
to dry.

MUS

The vaft variety of known fungules, which are found
regularly every feafon in their proper foils, are not all that
the naturalift has to enquire into the nature of ; there are
others whofe produdtions are much more furprifing. Thefe
are fuch as are only feen once or twice in an age, and that
in places where it is very difficult to account for the manner
of their produétion. One of thefe we had fome years ago,
which appeared upon an old piece of wood in a black{mith’s
cellar in the Haymarket, and grew to twelve inches or
more in height ; and, when cut down, appeared again at
the fame time the next year, and fo on for feveral fucceedin
years, as if, contrary to the nature of the generality of thefe
plants, it had a perennial root, and grew regularly from the
old ftock. This appeared to us a fingular production, and
a wholly new fpecies ; but fo long ago as in the year 1692,
Mr. Tournefort found fuch a one growing on an old beam
in the abbey at St. Germains. His defcription of it iz
very accurate; and its refemblance with our’s as great as
could be expeéted, in fo loofe a growing plant as an irregular
fungus. The beam on which this mufhroom grew was very
firm and found in all other places, but juft where it was
rooted there was a crack, out of which moilture oozed ;
and probably the beam was in that part rotten, or worm-
eaten within. The fmell of the plant was like that of others
of the fame kind, and an infufion of a piece of it turned an
infufion of turnfole to a bright red; fo that it manifeitly
abounded in acids. ;

It is not eafy to account for the appearance of thefe plants
which are feen fo rarely, and that in places where no plant
could be expected to grow; the only probable folution of
the point feems this, that as the feeds of the mufhroom kind
are all very minute, and generally in thefe fpecies which
have no lamellated heads, cover the whole furface of the
leaves, the number of feeds produced by one fuch plant muft
be numerous beyond all account, and at the fame time light
enough to float about in the air. Thefe muft be at times
thrown again{t a thoufand different bodies where there is no
proper nourifhment for them, and muft therefore perifh ;
whereas, if any accidents are required to concur, to make a
foil proper for it to grow in, wherever fuch foils happens to
be produced, as the air has free accefs every where, it is not
impoffible but that, at one time or other, one of thefe {mall
feeds may happen to be properly depofited. Mem. Acad.
Par. 1692.

The Laplanders have a way of ufing fungufes, or com-
mon toad-{tools, as we call them, as the Chinefe and Japo-
nefe do the moxa, to cure pains. They colle& the large
fungufes which they-find on the bark of beech and other
large trees, and dry them for ufe. Whenever they have
pains in their limbs, they bruife fome of this dried matter,
and pulling it to pieces with their fingers, they lay a {mall
heap of it on the part neareft to where che pain is fituated,
and fet it on fire. In burning away, it blifters up the part,
and the water difcharged by this means generally carries off
the pain. It is a coarfe and rough method, but generally
a very fuccefsful one, efpecially when the patient has pru-
dence enough to apply it in time, and refolution enough to
bear the burning to a neceflary degree.

Musnroom, bs a See Perrer.

Musuroom Galls, in Natural Hiffory, a name given by
authors to a {mall {pecies of galls very common on the leaves
of the oak in September and OGober, and refembling the
common efculent mufhroom, They are placed on the
upper furface of the leaf, and are often in great numbers on
it. The leaves which bave confiderable numbers upon them
make a very beautiful figure, and appear as if ornamented

by

MUS

by art with a number of elegant figures. Thefe galls are
ufually about a fixteenth, though fometimes a tenth of an
inch in the diameter; they are compofed of an orbicular
head, which adheres to the leaf by a very fhort pedicle, fo
that its edges which droop a little in the manner of thofe
of the common mufhroom, ufually touch the furface of the
leaf all round. Thefe little galls are of various colours, ac-
cording to their different degrees of maturity; they are of
a greenifh-white at firft, after that they become of a yel-
lowifh tinge, from which they pafs through all the fhades of
orange and flame-colour to a very beautiful red, which is al-
ways their colour when perfectly mature. When they are
obferved by the microfcope, their furface appears hairy,
and the feveral hairs all {tand near one another at their bafes,
and diverge at their points, as is the natural confequence of
their ftanding on a convex body. Reaumur, Hilt. Infeéts,
vol. vi. p. 194.

The ufe, as well as the figure, of this gall is very fingu-
Jar. Malpighi and M. Reaumur have both defcribed it,
and the former of thefe authors defcribes a cavity in the
centre of the head; but this feems to have been done at
random, and rather fuppofed from analogy, than feen in
fa& ; for the latter author, who is perhaps one of the moft
accurate obfervers that ever wrote, could never find any
cavity in any one of the great numbers he diffected ; but he
obferyed what was an ufe of the fame kind with that of the
other galls, in this, though performed in a different manner;
they are plainly all deitined for the lodgment and fecurity
of {mall animals; not to be diftinétly feen without the help
of glafles; but they are of the nature of thofe worms
which turn into two-winged flies.

The flies into which thefe worms are finally transformed,
have not yet been difcovered; but this is no wonder, fince
the animals themfelves are fo minute as to require glafles to
view them. It is probable that they undergo their change
in the chryfalis ftate in fome other place, for they are never
found in it under the galls ; but this is common alfo to many
other fpecies.

Mesuroom Worms. The various fpecies of mufhrooms
are fubje& to be eatentand deftroyed by a great variety of
infe&ts. There is, however, one {pecies which is more fre-
quent than all the reft, and which has therefore obtained,
among authors, the name of the mufhroom worm. This is
a white worm, with a hard fcaly black head; it has fome
flefhy tubercles, which it throws out at pleafure from the
under part of its feveral rings, and which ferve it as legs.
This is found indifferently in almoft all the {pecies of muth-
rooms; but in none fo frequently as in the great wood-
fungus, which is porous and greenifh underneath. It is
found to change to a tipula or long-legs of no great beauty,
being of a dufky brown colour, and middling fize.

The other {pecies of fungufes have alfo their worms ; but
there is one of a very fingular nature which is found fre-
quently on the agaric which grows on the ftumps of oak
trees ef{pecially near the roots. This is a long and flender
worm, fomewhat flattened, and refembling a {mall leech, but
that it has a hard and fcaly head of a blackifh colour. The
body is compofed of many rings, in the manner of the
earth-worm, and looks very bright and gloffy, being al-
ways covered with a vifcous liquor. This creature is eafily
found, for it never eats into the fubftance of the fungus,
but only crawls about its furface; the traces, wherever it
has been, are marked with a coat of a fhining varnifh, and
refemble the places over which {nails have crept.

This worm makes a very beautiful objeét for a micro-
fcope. When young it is as tranfparent as glafs, and the

Vou. XXIV.

MUS

motion of its internal parts is very eafily diftinguifhed,
When this creature is to pafs into the chryfalis ftate, it
does not remove from the fungus, but fpins itfelf a web,
and remains upon it. This web is compofed of the fame
matter with the covering or habitation under which it
ufually refides, but it is thicker, more opaque, and of a
coarfer ftruéture.

The creature remains about a fortnight under this
covering, and then comes forth in the form of a fly,
which is evidently a fpecies of tipula. It has very long
legs, and a long and flender body ; the body is brown,
and the breaft yellowifh; the wings are long and flender,
and the antenne are of a very fingular and remarkable
figure; they are broad and flat, and yet terminate in a
point. Thefe are compofed of feveral articulations, and
make a very Beautiful figure when examined by the
microfcope.

Befides thefe, this fly has, in the manner of the other ti-
pulz, a pair of beards placed on the anterior part of the
head, which it at pleafure bends down over the face, and
completely covers with them the longitudinal fiflure, which
is the mouth, fituated in this as in the other tipule. Reau-
mur, Hift. Inf. vol.ix. p. 23, feq.

MUSIC, as well defined by Rouffeau, is the art of com-
bining tuneable founds in a manner agreeable to the ear.
This art becomes a profound fcience, when rer is
called in to find and to afcertain the principles of thefe com-
binations, and the ratios of thofe affeGtions which they ex-
cite. Ariftides Quintilianus defines mufic the art of finding
the beautiful and decorous in mufical tones, and in their mea-
fure. It is not furprifing, that with definitions fo vague
and general, the ancients have given a latitude fo extenfive
to the art which is thus defined.

It is generally fuppofed, that the word mufic comes from
mufa, becaufe it was imagined that the art was invented by
the Mufes; but Kircher, from Diodorus Siculus, derives the
title from an Egyptian word, pretending that it was in
Egypt that mufic began to be cultivated after the deluge,
and that the firft found that was heard came from the reeds
on the banks of the Nile, when blown into by the wind.
Whatever etymology may be adopted, the origin of the art
certainly came from fomething nearer man, and if {peech
has not begun by finging, it is certain at leaft, that whenever
men {peak, they fing.

Mufic naturally divides itfelf into theoretical or fpecula-
tive, and practical. Speculative mufic may, perhaps, be
called a knowledge of mufical materials, that is, of the
different ratios of grave and acute, quick and flow, harfh
and {weet, loud and foft, of which founds are fufceptible ;
relations which comprehend all the combinations peflible of
founds and of mufic, and feem alfo to include every caufe
of thofe impreffions which their fucceffion can make upon
the ear and the foul.

Pradical mutic is the art of applying and judicioufly
making ufe of f{peculative principles, that is to fay, of con-
duéting and difpofing founds with refpe& to their confo-
nance, duration, and fucceffion, in fuch a manner, that the
whole may imprefs upon the ear the effeét propofed ; it is
this art which is called compofition, which fee. With refpe@
to the natural produCtion of founds by voices or inftru-
ments, which is called execution, it is merely a mechanic
operation, which only fuppofes the faculty of producing
jut intervals, accurate duration of notes, and giving to each
found the degree prefcribed by the key, and the value re-
quired by the time; all which rigoroufly requires no other

su knowledge

MUSIC,

knowledge than that of mufical charaGters, and the habit of
exprefling them.

Speculative mufic confifts of two parts; knowledge of the
ratio of founds or their intervals, and of their relative dura-
tion, with refpeét to time or meafure.

The firft is what the ancients called harmonics. It teaches
in what melody confifts, and marks what is confonant, agree-
able or difpleafing in modulation. It fhews, in fhort, the
different ways by which founds affe& the ear by their qua-
lity of tone, their force, and their intervals; all which is
equally applicable to their accord and fucceffion. The
fecond has: been called rAythmic, becaufe it treats of founds
with refpeé to time and quantity. It contains the explica-
tion of rhythm, of time, of long and fhort meafures, lively
and flow, of times and their different proportions into which
they are divided, in applying them to founds in their fuc-
ceffion.

Pra@tical mufic, likewife, divides itfelf into two parts,
which corre{pond with the two preceding.

That which anfwers to harmonic mufic, and which the
ancients called me/opeia, contains the rules for combining
and varying intervals, confonant and diffonant, in an agree-
able and melodious manner. See Metopraera.

The fecond divifion, which anfwers to rhythmical mufic,
and which is called rhythmopeia, contains rules for the appli-
cation of accents, feet, and meafures, indeed for the practice
of rhythm. See Ruytum.

Porphyry gives another divifion. of mufic, confined to
motion, whether filent or founding; and without diftinguifh-
ing it into {peculative and pra€tical, he finds the fix parts
following :

Rhythmic, for dancing movements.

Metrical, for the cadence and numbers in verfification.

Organic, for the practice of inftruments.

Poetic, for the tones and accents of poetry.

Hypocritic, for the attitudes of pantomimes, and Harmonic
for melody.

Mulic, at prefent, divides itfelf more fimply into melody
and harmony ; for with rhythmic we have no longer any
concern, and very little with the metric, as our verfes in
finging take their meafure folely from mufic, and lofe the
little they have in themfelves. :

By the melody, we dire the fucceffion of founds in
fuch a manner as to produce agreeable airs. See MELopy,
Arr, and Mopurarion.

Harmony confilts in uniting to each of thefe founds, ina
regular fucceffion, two or more other founds, which ftriking
the ear at the fame time, flatter it by their concord. See
Harmony.

We might, and we ought, perhaps, to divide mufic ftill
further, into natural and imitative ; the firft, confined to the
mere phyfical property of founds, and a&ting only upon
the fenfe, does not carry its impreffion to the heart, and can
only give fenfations more or lefs agreeable. Such is the
mufic of fongs, hymns, canticles, and all the airs which
are only combinations of melodious founds, and in general,
all mufic which is only harmonious. (1)

The fecond by lively inflexions or paffages accented, and
in a manner fpeaking, which exprefs all the paffions, paint
all fcenes, reprefent all obje¢ts, fubmit all nature to its
learned imitations, and thus penetrating the heart of man
with fentiments which have the power to move it. This
mufic, truly lyrical and dramatic, was that of the ancient
poems. And it is that of our own times, in which we try
to dramatife in fong. It is only in this mufie, and not in
mere harmony and agreeable combinations, that we fhould

feek to account for the agreeable effets it produced for-
merly. As long as we feek for moral effe&ts from phyfical
caufes of found, we fhall never find them, and only reafon
without knowing what we are talking about.

Ancient writers differ very much among themfelves con-
cerning the nature, objeét, extent, and depar:ments of mufic.
In general they give to this word a fenfe much more ex-
tenfive than that which it retains at prefent. They not only
comprehend under mufic, as we have elfewhere obferved,.
dancing, gefture, and poetry, but even the aggregate of all
the fciences.

Hence all that fublime mufic of which philofophers {peak ;
mufic divine, human mufic, celeftial mufic, terreftrial mufic,
active mufic, contemplative- mufic, mufic enunciative, in-
tellectual, oratorical, &c.

It is under thefe vaft ideas that we mult underftand many
paflages of the ancients concerning mufic, which would be
unintelligible in the fenfe which we give this word at pre-
fent.

It appears that mufic has been one of the earlieft arts ;
we find it among the mof ancient monuments of human
kind. Tt is alfo very probable that vocal mufic was found
before inftrumental, if ever there was among the ancients
any mufic purely initrumental, that is, compofed purpofely
for inftruments. Not only before any inftrument was found,
men mutt have obferved a difference in the tone of humau
voices, as well as early learned, from the natural concerts of
birds, to modify their voices in a melodious and agreeable
manner: after that, wind inftruments might have been firft
invented; Diodorus and other authors afcribing the inven-
tion to obfervations that were made of the whiitling of the
wind in reeds, and in the pipes of other plants. This was
alfo the opinion cf Lucretius.

«© At liquidas avium voces imitarier ore
Ante fuit multo, quam levia carmina cantu
Concelebrare homines poffint, aureifque juvare ;
Et zephyri cava per calamorum fibila primum
Agretteis docuere cavas inflare cicutas.”’

With refpect to other inftrumests, founding ftrings are
fo common, that men mutt have obferved their different
tones very early ; and this of courfe muft have given birth
to ftringed inftruments. See StrINnG.

Inftruments of percuffion, {uch as tabors and drums of
different kinds, muit have originated from the fonorous
ringing of hollow bodies, when itruck.

It is difficult to diveft ourfelves of thefe general ideas, in
order to have recourfe to other means for the invention of
mufic as.an art. Without mounting higher in the hiftory of
the world than the deluge, many of the ancients attribute
the invention of mufic itfelf to Mercury, as well as the lyre.
Others make the Greeks obliged to Cadmus, who, in flying
from the court of the king of Phoenicia, brought Hermione,
or Harmony, into Greece. Whence it follows, that the
art was known in Pheenicia before the time of Cadmus. In
one part of Plutarch’s Dialogue on Mutfic, Lycias fays that
it was invented by Amphion; in another place, Soterius
fays that it was Apollo ; and in {till a third place, he feems
to give the honour to Olympus. They hardly ever agree
on the fubjeét, nor is it of much importance that they
fhould.

To thefe firft inventors fucceeded Chiron, Demodocus,
Hermes, and Orpheus, who, according to fome, invented
the lyre. After thefe came Pheemius; then Terpander, con-
temporary with Lycurgus, who furnithed rules for mufic.
Some afcribe to him the invention of the firft modes. At

length

MUSIC.

length Thales is added, and Thamyris, who is faid to have
been the inventor.of inftrumental mufic. ;

Moft of thefe great muficians lived before Homer.
Others more modern were Lafus of Hermione, Melanip-
pides, Philoxenus, Timotheus, Phrynnis, Epigenius, Ly-
fander, Simmicus, and Diodorus, who have all confiderably
contributed to the perfection of mufic.

It is pretended that Lafus was the firft writer on the art,
in the time of Darius Hyftafpes; that Epigonius invented
the inftrument with four ftrings, which bore his name.
Simmicus invented alfo an inftrument of thirty ftrings, called
Simmicium.

Diodorus perfe&ted the flute, and increafed the number
of holes ; and Timotheus the lyre, by adding a new ftring
to it, for which he was fined by the Lacedemonians.

As ancient authors explained themfelves very obfcurely
concerning the inventors of mufical inftruments, they are
alfo very unintelligible concerning the inftruments them-
felves, of which we know little more than the names. See
INSTRUMENT.

Mufic was in high eftimation among many people of an-
tiquity, but principally the Greeks; and this efteem was
proportioned to the power and furprifing effeéts which they
a{fcribed to the art. Their authors thought they could not
exalt it fufficiently, without ‘lifting it up to heaven, and
affuring us that it was the principal amufement of the gods,
and reward of the bleffed.

Plato has the courage to fay, that no change can be made
in mufic, without affecting the conflitution of the flate; and
pretends that there are founds which excite meannefs of foul,
infolence, and their contrary virtues. Arriftotle, who feems
to have written his Politics only to oppofe the fentiments
of Plato, agrees with him, however, concerning the power
which mufic has over morals. The judicious Polybius tells
us, that mufic was neceflary to foften the manners of the
Arcadians, who inhabited a country where the air was cold
and impure; that thofe of Cynethia, who negleéted mnfic,
furpaffed all the Greeks in cruelty, and that there was no
city in which fo many crimes had been perpetrated. Athe-
neus affures us, thac formerly all laws divine and human,
exhortations to virtue, knowledge of what concerned the
gods and heroes, the lives and attions of illuftrious men,
were written in verfe, and fung publicly in chorus to the
found of inftruments. And we fee by our facred books,
that fuch were, from the earlieft times, the ufages among
the Ifraelites, as more efficacious had not been found, of
engraving in the mind of man the principles of morality and
love of virtue; or rather, this was not the effect of a pre-
meditated plan, but of the grandeur of fentiment and ele-
vated ideas, which fought by proportionate accents to form
a language worthy of them. (2)

Mufic made a part of the {tudy of the Pythagoreans:
they ufed it to infpire the heart with laudable aétions, and
to inflame it with the love of virtue. According to thefe
philofophers, our foul was in a manner compofed of har-
mony} and they believed that they could eitablifh, by
means of the harmony of fenfe, the intellectual harmony and
primitive faculties of the foul; that is to fay, that which,
according to them, fubfifted in its pre-exiltent ftate, before
it animated our bodies, and when it inhabited the heavens.

Mufic iis at prefent fallen from this degree of majefty and
power, fo low as to make us doubt of the truth of thofe
wonders which it operated formerly, though attelted by the
moit judicious hiftorians and moft grave philofophers of an-
tiquity. However, we find in modern hiftory fome fimilar
fa@ts. If Timotheus excited the fury of Alexander by the

Phrygian mode, and calmed it by the Lydian, a mufic more
modern is faid to have extended this power ftill farther, in
exciting in Eric, king of Denmark, fuch a fury as to kill
his beft domettics. Doubtlefs thefe unfortunate domettics
were lefs fenfible to the charms of mufic than their prince,
otherwife he might have run the rifk of fharing half the dan-
ger. D'Aubigny relates another ftory, quite fimilar to
that of Vimotheus. He fays, that in the reign of Henry III.
of France, the mufician Claude le Jeune, playing at the nup-
tials of the duke de Joyeufe in the Phrygian mode, ani-
mated, not the king, but a courtier, who forgot himfelf fo
far as to put his hand to his fword in the prefence of his
fovereign; but the mufician, haftening to calm him, had
pa 3 to the Hypo-Phrygian mode. This is faid with as
much confidence, as if the mufician Claudius knew exaCtly in
what the Phrygian mode and the Hypo-Phrygian confifted !

If our mulic has but little power over the affections of the
foul, it is at leaft capable of ating phyfically upon the
body: witnefs the hiftory of the tarantula, too well known
to be mentioned here. (3). Witnefs, too, the Gafcon
knight, mentioned by Boyle, who, at the found of a bag-
pipe, could not retain his water; to which we muit add,
what the fame author relates of thofe females, who burft into
tears when they heard a certain tune, which had no uncom-
mon effect on the reft of the audience. Roufleau adds,
* and I knew at Paris a woman of condition, who could not
bear any kind of mufic, without being feized with an in-
voluntary and violent fit of laughter."” We read, in the
Hiltory of the Academy of Sciences, of a mufician who was
cured of a violent fever by a concert at his bed-fide. Sounds
act even upon inanimate bodies, as is manifefted by the
vibrating and refonance of a fonorous body, when another,
with which it is perfe@tly in tune, is caufed to found. Mor-
hoff mentions a certain Dutchman, of the name of Petter,
who broke a glafs by the found of his voice. Kircher
{peaks of a great ftone, which vibrated at the found of a
certain organ-pipe. Pere Merfenne alfo {peaks of a certain
flag-ftone in the pavement of a church, which trembled at
the found of an organ, as much as if there had been an
earthquake. Boyle adds, that the flalls tremble often at
the found of the organ in a cathedral; that he has felt them
tremble under his hand, at the found of the organ or a voice ;
and he has been affured, that thofe which were firmly put
together, vibrated at fome determinate tone. Every one
has heard of a famous pillar in the church at Rheims, which
trembles fenfibly at the found of a certain bell, while the
other pillars remain motionleis ; but what bereaves found of
the marvellous in this cafe is, that this fame pillar equally
fhakes, when the clapper is taken from the bell.

All thefe examples, the chief part of which belong more
to found than mufic, and of which phyfics can give fome
explanation, render not the marvellous and almoft divine ef-
fe&ts, which the ancients attributed to their mufic, more
intelligible or worthy of credence. Many authors have tor-
mented themfelves in trying to account for this. Wallis at-
tributes it greatly to the novelty of the art, and the exag-
geration of authors. Some bettow all the honour upon
poetry ; while others again fuppofe tht the Greeks, having
more fenfibility than we, from the conftitution of their cli-
mate or their manner of living, might be moved by things
which we never feel. M. Burette, even in adopting all
thefe tales, is of opinion that they prove nothing as to the
perfection of the mufic that has produced them: he fees no-
thing in their performance but what miferable village
ferapers might have achieved, according to him, as well as
the firft mulicians in the world.

31 2 Mot

MUSIC.

Mott of thefe fentiments arife from our perfuafion of the
excellence of modern mufic, and from the contempt which
we have for the ancient. But is this contempt as well
founded as we imagine? It is a fubjeét that has often been
difcuffed, and which, from the obfcurity of the matter, and
from the infufficiency of the judges, is {till in need of better
difcuffion. Of all thofe who have entered the lifts in this
confli&, Ifaac Voffius, in his treatife ‘«* De Poematum
cantu, et de Viribus Rhythmi,” feems beft to have dif-
cuffed the queftion, and approached the neareft to truth. (4).

The world has fo long wifhed to fee fome fragments of the
mufic of the ancients, that father Kircher and M. Murette
have laboured to gratify the public on the fubjeé&t. (5)
But who fhall dare, fays Roufleau, to judge of ancient
mufic by fuch fragments? I fuppofe them faithful, but
fhould with that thofe who examine them fhould fufficiently
know the genius and accent of the Greek language; that
they fhould recolleé, that an Italian is an incompetent judge
of a French air, and that a Frenchman is utterly ignorant of
Italian melody: then let them compare times and places,
and pronounce, if they dare.

Thus far, in this important article, which furnifhes a text
for almoft all other articles in our mutical department, we
have faithfully tranflated Rouffeau, preferring him to all
other mufical lexicographers, for his eloquence, good tatte,
and enlarged views on imitative or dramatic mufic. We
mutt however own, that he has fome ftrong prejudices, per-
haps bordering on paradox, as in his other writings; and in
fome few inftances, there is a want of recent and accurate
information. Thefe, however, we fhall point out, to put

-our readers on their guard againft error as much as we are
able, particularly in writers of eminence.

Notes to Rouffeau’s article Mujic.

(1). We think that Roufleau’s partiality here for imitative or
dramatic mufic, made him forget that there was any other.
To imitate the human fpeech and paffions, it is doubtlefs the
higheft ftyle of mufical compofition and performance ; but
as there are three diftinét ftyles of mufic, as mujfica di chiefa,
church mufic ; mufica teatrale, theatrical mufic ; and mu/ica
di camera, chamber mufic, we fhall, therefore, plead the
caufe of all. As we cannot always be ina theatre, is har-
monic mufic to be banifhed the church and the-chamber ?
In the church its reverential and folemn fimplicity render it
fitteft for the place and purpofe of its performance. Imi-
tative mufic is not precluded the chamber in cantatas and
opera fcenes ; but mere inftrumental mufic brought to its
prefent degree of perfeétion in the trios, quartets, quintets,
and fymphonies, fuch as thofe of Haydn, Mozart, and
BeGthoven, can amufe, intereft, and delight cuitivated ears
even to rapture. Yet this fublime mufic is not properly imi-
tative, there being no words to explain it, or fix its meaning.

(2). The numerous {tories of the extenfive ufe and miracu-
lous powers of ancient mutic have been lately fo often told by
mufical hiftorians and others, that our lexicographer might
have {pared himfelf the trouble of repeating them.

(3). Rouffeau had not heard that this medical and mira-
culous power of mufic, fo long believed and afferted,
«“ has not the leaft truth in it.’? See Phil. Tranf. vol. lx.
for the year 1770, letter from Dr. Cirillo; and “ Lezioni
fopra la T'arantula,’’ Nap. 1770.

(4). ‘This partiality for Lfaac Voffius will be further con-
fidered under the biographical article of this credulous cham-
pion for the mulic of the ancients.

(5) But Vincenzo Galilei, and Dr. Fell, bifhop of Ox-
ford, were the firft editors of thefe fragments of ancient
Greek mufic.

The article Mujic of Rouffeau is in faét a compendium of
its hiftory. After an eloge on Ifaac Voffius, he mentions
the national tunes given on the plates of his di€tionary-
The celebrated Swifs tune, called the ‘* Rans des Vaches,’”
an air, he fays, fo dear to the Swifs, that it was forbidden
under the pain of death to play it to the troops, as it immedi-
ately drew tears from them, and made thofe who heard it de~
fert, or die of what is called Ja maladie du pais, {o ardent a de-
fire did it excite to return to their country. It is in vain to
feek in this air for energetic accents capable of producing fuch
aftonifhing effets, for which ftrangers are unable to account
from the mufic, which is in itfelf uncouth and wild. But it is
from habit, recollections, and a thoufand circumftances re-
traced in this tune by thofe natives who hear it, and remind-
ing them of their country, former pleafures cf their youth,
and all thofe ways of living, which occafion a bitter refletion
at having loft them. Mutic, then, does not affe&t them as
mufic, but as a reminifcence. This air, though always
the fame, no longer produces the fame effects at, prefent
ai it did upon the Swifs formerly ; for having loft their
tafte for their firft fimplieity, they no longer regret its lofs
when reminded of it. So true it is, that we muft not feek
in phyfical caufes the great effects of found upon the human
heart. ;

Rouffeau, wifhing to have no important part of the
fcience or art of mufic unnoticed in his long article on
the fubje&t, fpeaks of the Greek mufical notation, upon
which, however, he has been able to throw no new light.
See the articles Musica -datiqua, CHaRacters, Bor-
tHIus, Pope Grecory, Guipo, Points, Starr, and
GammMUT. :

The invention of modern mufical charaGers has been long
afcribed to John de Muris, but erroneoufly. See Time-
rasLe and Dre Muris, where he acknowledges himfelf,
that Franco was the inventor of the firft charaéters ufed for
time in counterpoint. See FRANco.

Rouffeau, in the recapitulation of his elaborate article, gives
a lift of Greek, Roman, and modern writers on the fubje&
of mufic of the greatelt eminence ; but thefe will be found
detailed in their feveral alphabetic places. As all the writers
on mufic from Ariltoxenus to the prefent time, that could
be found, have been procured and confulted, and for others,
which we were unable to appropriate, it may appear oftenta-
tious to fay, however true, that we have had recourfe to moft
of the great libraries in Europe, fuch as the Vatican, the Am-
brofian library at Milan, the Imperial library at Vienna, the
Bibl. du Roi at Paris, the Bodleian, and principal college li-
braries of our univerfities, his majefty’s library at the queen’s
houfe, the Mufeum library, &c. &c. in which, befides MSS.
we have found almoft all the printed books on mufic men-
tioned in the lifts of Broffard, Padre Martini, Salmafius,
Fabricius, and others. In none of thefe fearce books,
however, nor in others in general circulation, has the deri-
vation of the word mujic, or the inventor of the art, been
fettled to fatisfa€tion. Some make the mufical found that
was likely to have been firit noticed by man, animal, and
fome vegetable. ‘The dried finews of the dead tortoife, ac-
cording to fome, fuggefted the method of producing founds
from the tenfion ot /rings; and zephyrs, it has been ima-
gined, breathing through broken reeds on the banks of the
Nile, were the firlt flutes or wind-in{truments. But we fhould
rather fuppofe, that in a ftate of nature, even before the in-
vention of language, mankind communicated their fenfations
of pain or pleafure to each other by the mere cries of na-
ture: in pain and affliction, the expreflions would be groans,
f{creams, and howling, which could never be tuned; but in

joy»

MUS

joy, pleafure and affection, they would be pleafant to hear,
Fons. not formed into mufic, from the ideas which they
would excite in the hearers, in reflecting on their own hap-
pinefs when fimilar effufions {pontaneoufly efcaped them
in their moft happy moments. Wifhing to renew fuch grate-
ful founds at pleafure, even by reminifcence of what they
had felt in uttering them, they wouid try to revive them in
moments of tranquillity ; and as nature gives more pleafing
and touching voi¢es to one creature of the fame fpecies than
another, finding themfelves liftened to with pleafure by
others, the natural fingers would confequently try to render
their vocal expreffions of internal fatisfaGtion as pleafant as
poflible. Hence the firft language, as well as firft mulic,
was intuitive, and all improvifla.

OF all to whom the invention of mufic has been affigned,
there is no one to whom we are more inclined to give our
fuffrage than another ; all we could do was to prefent them
to the readers, and beg of each to pleafe himfelf by voting
for him whom they fhall deem the moft worthy.

Musica Antigua, Ital., mufic of the ancient Greeks
and Romans down to the eleventh century, when Guido Are-
tino, about the year 1024, invented or revived mufic in parts,
or counterpoint, which may, with propriety, be called an-
tica moderna; ancient with refpect to the Greeks, and
modern with refpeé to us.

Musica 4rithmetica, that part of the fcience which con-
fiders founds by the aid of numbers. Thefe numbersare 2,
3, and 5, together with their compofites. They are fo
called, becaufe all the intervals of mulic may be exprefled
by fuch numbers. See INTERVAL.

This is now generally admitted by mufical theorifls. M.
Euler feems to fuppofe, that 7 or other primes might be in-
troduced; but he fpeaks of this as a matter doubtful and
difficult. It is to be obferved, that 2 correfponds to the
o€tave, 3 to the fifth, or rather to the twelfth, and 5 to the
third major, or rather the feventeenth. From thefe three
may all,other intervals be found.

A table of mufical numbers within any propofed limit
may be thus expeditioufly formed.

Place the terms of the progreffion 1, 5, 25, 125, &c. in
a column under each other ; and multiply every term of this
progreffion by 3, continually, till you forefee that the pro-
duéts will exceed the propofed limit. Then if all the num-
bers thus found be doubled continually, till it be forefeen
-that the doubled numbers would exceed the propofed limit :
all thefe produéts together, with the powers of 2, will give
the mufical numbers required,

Thus, if it were required to find all the mufical numbers
within the compafs of eleven o€taves; that is, between
1 and 2048; form the column 1, 5, 25, &c. and mul-
tiply every term by 3 continually, as in the annexed ex-
ample ;

I 3 9 27 81 243 729, &c.
5 15 458 FS 5 405 1215, &c.

25 75 225 «9675 «©2025, &e.

125 375 1125, &e.

625 1875, &c.

&e.

The numbers of which being doubled as often as poffible
within the limit 2048, and colleéted and ranged in order
with the powers of 2, will give the following numbers,
Ip 2) 3949 5 6- 8, Q, 10, 12. 155 16. 18. 20. 24, 25, 27-
30, &c. as in the following table.

MUS

‘Tawze of mufical Numbers, contained in eleven Oftaves.

Chord | Chord Chord | Chor nor hor
Num-| “ate, | Dete. | Num} ae Date sae rm Dae
2 hed 150 |G* | A»
2) F! 160 /A G 79 al r
piace 621A |G | fés\B | E
: A 180/B | F | 800/C* | EP
Ae 192 }C | E | s10/C* | EP
3| Fs 200 |CX | E> 864|D >
G A 216 D D 4 D* D
9 225 |Dx | Dp» | 90° D
10] A |G 5 E
12} C io agp | E Cc ae ‘
fe) BP WG fh 54d [Bs nf BEI= » a] Ss
16} FY} BY? 250") EX | Er] 1000 us Et
£8 | GM dieay6" EN i BPs ye ae eae
“ x S 270 |F | B 1080 ae ew
Foi posi pats abet, | Coca baal oe B
5 Tei bint hase G* | A» Jir52/G A
4 Ele 320 |A G |1200/G* | A
32| F) | Bs [324 |A |G |r215|G* | a
36|G | A |360|B | |1250|G%* A»
40 a a 375 oh F* T1280} A A»
45 384 E
48| C E J] 400 /C* | Ek ee aa c
50 CX | E> 405 Cx E* =ag0 .
54|D |D Ti > |1440|B G
Go (siento en 487 ee Ee cy
: Dx | D> | 145 3
6 FS BS 45° * Bx
Sioa el ace ESR CRY Bee roll fe
; :
75 | GX] A> | 486 /E es 1600 Cx E
ele Vie |S [ale [e
I : = 1728 E>
90| B F 540 | Fx B 1800 | D* | D
96 | ee ee §76 Ee Sf 1875 D** D®
708 | D D Ga GX) A» ag : C
120| E & 640 |A G 944 EX |@
125 | EX | Cc 648 A G 2000 au f
128| F7 | B7 i x | @» |2025|E Cc
Ex B 675 A G 2048 Fu Bu
135 | edilianbe bins B
144 | i

To underftand this table, it is to be obferved, that by
dividing a given ftretched {tring or chord, by means of a
moveable bridge, the founds produced by its parts will be
higher in pitch than thofe produced by the given chord.
And on the contrary, if we multiply a chord, that is, by @
moveable bridge lengthen the founding part of a chord, we
fhall have founds lower in pitch than the given chord.
Hence we have the foundation of an afcending, and of a de-
fcending fcale of mufical founds. The firft column of each -
divifion of the table, marked Num., expreffes the mufical
numbers; the fecond column, marked 4/é., the names of
the notes in the afcending fcale; and the third column,
marked De/c., the names of the notes of the defeending
fcale. Thus, if the given chord be unity, and called F,
then will 15 be E in the fourth oftave, afcending of F ;
45 will be B inthe fixth o€tave of F, &c. In the defcend-
ing fcale, unity will be B; 25 will be C in the fourth oc-

tave

MUS

tave defcending from B; and 45 will be F of the fixth
octave, &c.

The reafon why unity is marked F in the afcending fcale,
and B in the defcending fcale, is, becaufe, according to the
received notation of what is called the natural fcale among
muficians, F has no fourth in afcending, nor B a fourth in
defcending. Now it is plain that no aliquot divifion of a
fring can give a fourth, or any of its octaves afcending ;
nor can any multiple of a {tring give the fourth, or any of
its oGtaves, in defcending. For the fourth being exprefled
by 4 in afcending, and by 3 in defcending, its octaves will
be 3, YY, 37, &c. in the firft cafe, and 2, 3, 43, &c. in
the fecond cafe, none uf which numbers can be multiples, or
fubmultiples of a given ftring.

F and B being the given founds, their o¢taves will be ex-
prefled by F’, F*, F’, &c., and B', B*, B3, &c. which
are refpectively, the firft, fecond, and third o¢taves, above
the F, and below B.

A dot marked over a letter fhews that it fignifies a found
higher by a comma than the found expreffed by the letter
itfelf. And a dot placed below, denotes the found to be
lowered by acomma. ‘Thus, in the table I find 81 to be

A | G, which denotes that A, or the fharp in the feventh

oftave of F, afcending, is raifed a comma; and that G, or
the fharp third from B, defcending, is lowered by the fame
interval.

If B in the defcending fcale be {uppofed to be a tritonus,
that is, two tones major and one tone minor above F of the
alcending fcale, then will A in one of thefe fcales cor-
refpond or be denoted by the fame numbers with G in the
other feale, and C will correfpond to E, but D in the
afcending fcale will not be exprefled by the fame numbers as
in the defcending fcale: for in the former, D will bea tone
major above C; whereas in the latter, D muft by analogy
be a tone major below E, and therefore only a tone mmor
above C, which is the reafon why J is in italics in the de-
{cending fcale.

Mr. Henfling has mentioned the diftin@ion between an
afcending and a defcending fcale in the Mifcel. Berolinenf.
He places unity in the afcending fcale in F, as it ought;
but in the defcending fcale he places umty in E, which dif-
turbs the analogy of the two {cales.

The trampet and French horn, not having (commonly) a
compafs beyond four o¢taves; and their founds bemg
formed in a manner analogous to thofe produced by the di-
vifion of a itring, it follows, that all the true notes of thefe
inftruments will be reprefented by the mufical numbers 1, 2,
30 41 5, 6. 8, 9, lo. 12. 15, 16, &c. This is a fa@
well known; anda confirmation of the truth of that theory,
which derives all mufical proportions from the elements 2,
3, and 5. Phil. Tranf. N° 195, and N° 481. See Trum-
PET.

Music, Chromatic, mufica chromatica, among the Italians,
is ufed to exprefs that kind of mufic in which there are many
chromatic figns, as flats or fharps, and intervals, &c. See
CuRromartic.

Music, Diatonic. See Diaronic.

Music, Didadic, mufica didadica, that part of {peculative
mufic which only confiders the quantity, proportions, and
different qualities of founds.

Music, Dramatic, mujfica dramatica, feenica, theatrale,
among the Italians, is ufed to denote fuch compolitions of
mufic as are particularly made and fitted for theatres. Sce
Daamartic and Recirativo

Music, Enharmonic. Sce EXHARMONIC.

I

‘ MUS

Musica Enunciativa, or Enarrativa, is ufed in much the
fame fenfe as mujica fignatoria.

Music, Figurate, mufica figuralis, figurata, or colorata ;
figurate mufic, that in which the notes are of~different
values, and the motions various, now flow, then quick,
&c. -

Music, Harmonic, mufica harmonica, among the Italians,
is ufed for pieces confifting of many parts, which, though
very different, yet, when played together, make an agree-
able whole. This we call mufic in parts.

Music, Aiflorical. See Historica.

Music, Hyporchematic, or Choraic, is ufed by fome authors
for a fort of mufic fit for ballads and dancing.

Music, Jnflrumental, is ufed to denote mufical compo-
fitions, made to be executed by inftruments.

Music, Meli/matic, or Melodic, is ufed to denote a fong,
or fingle part, merely for a voice or for an inftrument.
Broflard. See MELopy.

Music, Melopoetic, is the fcience or art of ranging and
difpofing founds in fucceffion in an agreeable manner; or
the art of making melody. See Meropy ard Meto-
PIA. ,

Music, Meafured, mufica mifurata, among the Italian a-
thors, a kind of mufic, the notes of which are unequal. It
is contrary to mujica piena, or chorale.

Music, Metabolic, mujica metabolica, among the Italians,
is properly mufic tranfpofed, as when the piece goes out of
its natural mode into a tranfpofed one, the better to exprefs
the words, or to diftinguifh fome change in the ation, paf-
fion, motion, &c. :

Music, Metric, mufica metrica, is ufed, by Italian au-
thors, to denote the harmonious cadence of the voice, heard
when any one declaims, or repeats verfes ; or it isan air com-
pofed to verfes.

Music, Modern. See ANTE.

Music, Modulatory, mufica modulatoria, among the Ita.
lians, that part of mulic which teaches to compofe or modu-
late, i. c. that fixes rules for the ufe of modes, and teaches
either to fing or play well. See Mong, and Mopura-
TION.

Music, Odic, mujfica odica, among the Italians, is the fame
with Ayporchematic, or choraic.

Music, Organic, mufica organica, among the Italians, is
ufed to denote mufical compofitions defigned to be per-
formed by inftruments only.

Music, Pathetic, mufica pathetica, is a moving and affe&-
ing kind of mufic, that caufes emotions in the mind, either of
love, grief, or pity.

Music, Poetic, mufica pens is fometimes ufed for the
art of inventing fongs, of modulating concords and difcords
together agreeably, and making what we call compofi-
tions, &c.

Music, Recitative, mujfica recitativa, fcenica, or dramatica,
a fort of mufic ufed in operas, &e. irregular as to time,
being a declamation in finging, to exprefs the paffions.
T'rom its being thus irregular in its time, the Italians of-
ten place the phrafe a tempo giu/lo, when the recitative ends,
and an air, be it minuet, jig, or any other, follows, to
fhew that the time is then ftriétly to be obferved. See Re-
CITATIVO.

Music, Rhythmic, mufica rhythmica, is ufed for the har-
mony or cadence of the words in profe; or a fong com-
pofed to words in profe.

Music, Scenic, the fame with recitative.

Music, Signatory, mufica fgnatoria, is ufed for that part
of mufic which teaches the knowledge of the charaéters,

Totes,

MUS

notes, figures, paufes, and all other figns and marks what-
ever, ufed in mufic. .

Musica Tran/falpina, the title given by N. Yonge to a
colleGtion of Italian madrigals with Englifh words, pub-
lifhed in 1588.

« Mufica Tranfalpina, Madrigales tranflated of four, five,
and fixe Parts, chofen out of divers excellent Authours; with
the firft and fecond Part of La Virginella, made by Maitter
Bird upon two Stanzas of Ariolto, and brought to {peak
Englith with the reft.””. The editor was an Italian merchant,
who having opportunities of obtaining from, his cor-
refpondents the neweft and belt compofitions from the con-
tinent, had them frequently performed at his houfe, for the
entertainment of his mufical friends.

Thefe being feleGted from the works of Paleftrina, Luca
Marenzio, and other celebrated mafters on the continent,
feem to have given birth to that paflion for madrigals which
became fo prevalent among us afterwards, when the com-
pofers of our own nation fo happily contributed to gra-
tify it.

The tranflator of thefe madrigals, whoever he was, for
the editor does not tell us, feems in general to have imitated
the original Italian meafure and ftructure of verfe, as well as
ideas ; and though they abound with concefti, to which not
only Italian poets, but thofe of all the reft of Evrope, were
then fo much addif&ed, the general tafte of the times was
indulged in poetry as well as mufic, and metre and melody
were at once furnifhed with new models.

In 1597, Yonge publifhed a fecond colleGtion of madri-
gals, out of fundry Italian authors ; in which, among others,
there are three by Croce, three by Luca Marenzio, and fix
by Ferabofco. The words of thefe have as little claim to
poetical merit as thofe of the former fet.

Music, Vocal, mujfica vocalis, or that compofed for the
voice, in oppofition to organical or inftrumental, which is
intended to be played on in{truments only.

Mustc-Shell, in Natural Hiffory, the name of a {pecies of
fhell-fith of the murex kind, remarkable for its variegations,
which confift of feveral feries of {pots placed in rows of lines,
like the notes of mufic.

Music, Academy of. See AcapEMY.

Music, Charaéers in. See CHARACTERS.

MUSICAL Accent. See Accent.

Musica Faculties. See Music.

Musicat Glafés. See Armonica.

Musicav /nffruments of India, or Indian mufical inttru-
ments, in the hands of the performers. In Plate V. Mufic,
is the reprefentation of a mufic-gallery over a triumphal arch,
through which the Great Mogul paffed at Agra or Delhi,
before his fall. The proceflion confifted of the emperor,
mounted on anelephant ; his wives and concubines, eunuchs,
great officers of ftate, &c. all exquifitely painted. As to the
heads of the females, fir Jofhua Reynolds and fir Robert
Strange, to whom the painting on ivory was fhewn, thought
each head fufficiently high finifhed to be fet in aring. This
original painting is in the poffeffion of Dr. Burney.

Musicat Modes. See Mone.

Musica Notes. See Notes.

Musicat Proportion. See PRoPoRTION.

Musica Sound. See Sounn.

Musicat String. See SrRinG.

MUSICALEMENT, Fr., in a mufical manner, ac-
cording to the rules of mufic.

MUSICIAN, a title given equally to him who compofes
and to him who performs mufic. The firft is, however,
more frequently and more civilly ftyled compofer ; which
fee.

MUS

Muficians, among the ancients, were poets, philofophers,
and orators of the firft clafs.~ Such were Orpheus, Ter-
pander, Stefichorus, &c. Nor would Boethius honour
with the name of mufician him who only in a fervile manner
practifed mufic mechanically with his fingers or voice, but
him who pofleffed the fcience of mufic by reafon and {pe-
culation,

« Muficorum et cantorum
Magna eft diftantia,
Ifti dicunt, ili fciunt,
Quz componit mufica, &c.”

ss Between a finger and mufician
Wide is the diftance and condition :
The one repeats, the other knows,
The founds which harmony compofe.
And he who a¢ts without a plan
May be defined more beaft than man.”

Guido has quoted thefe verfes in the Prologue to his
‘¢ Antiphonarium :”’ and in his fhort traét, ‘* De Conftitu-
tionibus Mufica,”’ he is very fevere on the fingers of his
time: ‘ Temporibus noltris fuper omnes fatui funt can-
tores.”

“And it feems,’” fays Rouffeau, “that to mount to
elevated expreflion in oratorical and imitative mufic, the
human paffions and the language of nature muft have been
made a particular ftudy. However, the muficians of our
times, bounded for the moft part by the praCtice of notes,
and a few paflages, will not, it is hoped, be offended, if we
fhould not hold them to be great philofophers.”’

MUSICKE’s Monument, the title given by Mace to
his treatife on the lute. See Mace.

MUSILLIM, or Mustim Att, in Geography, a nume-
rous tribe of Arabians on the borders of the Perfian gulf,
between Omar and Lachfa.

MUSIMON, in Natural Hiflory, the name of an animal
efteemed a fpecies of fheep, defcribed by the ancients as
common in Corfica, Sardinia, Barbary, and the north-eaft
parts of Afia. It has been fufpected, whether the animal
defcribed under this name is now any where to be found in
the world ; not that it is to be fuppofed that any {pecies of
animal once created is become extinct, but that this probably
was a {purious breed between two animals of different {pe-
cies, perhaps the fheep and goat, which, like the mule,
not being able to propagate its fpecies, the production of
them may have been difcontinued.

Belon ftyles this fpecies of goat, which has large horns
bending back, clofe at their bafe, diftant at their points,
with circular ruge, the tragelaphus, from\the mixture it
feems to have of the goat and deer. Buffon fuppofes it to
be the fheep ina wild ftate; and as fuch defcribed by Mr.
Pennant. Thefe animals live in the mountains, and run with
great {wiftnefs among the rocks. Thofe of Kamtfchatka are
fo ftrong that ten men can {carcely hold one; and the horns
are fo large as fometimes to weigh 30 pounds, and fo ca-
pacious, that young foxes often fhelter them{elves in the hol-
low of fuch as by accident fall off in the deferts. See Ovis
Ammon.

MUSIMPOUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Bahar, near the right bank ot the Ganges; 14 miles S.E.
of Patna.

MUSITAU, Cuartes, in Biography, a phyfician, was
born at Caftrovalle, in Calabria, in January 1635. He
received his medical education, and took the degree of
doétor, at Naples, where he likewife fixed his refidence, and
obtained confiderable reputation as a practitioner. He was

honoured

MUS

honoured by being eleéted into the different learned focieties
of Italy, and by the appointment to a profefforfhip in the
univerfity of Naples. He’combined the two profeffions of
theology and phyfic in his own perfon; and as his fuccefs
excited the jealoufy and rancour of his lefs fortunate bre-
thren, the afferted indecency of this combination was made
a pretext for attempting to interdiét him altogether from
the praétice of medicine. His merits, however, obtained
for him the patronage and prote&tion of pope Clement IX.,
and of cardinal Pignatelli, archbifhop of Naples, (and af-
terwards the fovereign pontiff, under the name of Inno-
cent XII.) who permitted him to hear confeffions. He
lived in the general efteem of his fellow citizens, and died
regretted in 1714, at the age of 97. In his pathological
creed, he was a {taunch adherent of the chemical fe@, and an
avowed enemy to’Galenifm. His defcriptions of difeafe are
prolix and obfcure ; and his hypothefes and praétice abound
with the errors of the fchool, to which he was attached.
The following is a catalogue of his writings. « Pyreto-
logia, feu de Febribus,” Naples, 1683. Del Mal Fran-
cefe,” in four books, 1697. ‘¢ Chirurgia Theoretico-
pradtica, feu, Trutina Chirurgico-phyfica,’’ Genev. 1698.
*¢ Apologia celeberrimorum Virorum,” ibid. 1700. “ Tru-
tina Medico-phyfica,”’ ibid. 17o1. ‘¢ Mantiffa ad Hadriani
a Mynficht Thefavrum et Armamentarium Medico-chy-
micum,” ibid. r7o1. ‘ De Morbis Mulierum,” 1709.
‘Thefe works were publifhed colleGtively at Geneva, in
two vels. 4to. 1701, and in two vols. folio, 1716. The
latter edition contained alfo fome other traéts by the author.
Eloy Dict. Hitt. de la Med. :

MUSITRAN, in Geography, a town of South America,
in the province of Tucuman; 42 miles S.E. of Rioja.

MUSIVUM Arcentum. See ARGENTUM.

MUSK, Moscuus, derived from the Arabic mo/cha,
mufk, whence was formed the common Greek porxo:, mujk,
a kind of perfume of a very ftrong {cent obtained from va-
rious animals; only agreeable when moderated by the mix-
ture of fome other perfume.

Mufk is found in a kind of bag, or tumour, growing about
the bignefs of a hen’s egg under the belly, towards the
genital parts of a wild beaft of the fame name ; and appears to
be nothing elfe but a kind of bilious blood there eongealed,
and almott corrupted. It is formed of a membranous and
mufcular fubftance, provided with a fphinéter. Many
glands are obfervable within, which feparate the tumour.

The animal, which produces it, is pretty common in
the kingdom of Bantam, Tonquin, and fome others, as
Cochinchina, &c. But the moft efteemed are thofe of
Tonquin and the kingdom of Thibet. See MoscuirERuM
Animal.

They inhabit the woods and forefts, where the natives
hunt them down: when the beatt is killed, they cut out
the bladder under the belly, feparate the coagulated blood,
and dry it in the fun, where it is reduced into a light friable
fubftance almoft of the nature of a powder, and of a dufky
reddifh colour, and acquires a very {trong and difagreeable
fmell. It is then tied up again in bladders, and exported
to other countries ; and this is the mufk which we ufe.

The mufk itfelf is dry, with a kind of un@tuofity; of a
dark reddifh-brown, or rufty-blackifh colour; in {mall
round grains, with a very few hard black clots; perfectly
free from any fandy, or other vifible foreign matter.
Chewed, and rubbed on paper, it looks bright, yellowifh,
f{mooth, and free from grittinefs, Laid on a red-hot iren
it catches flame, and burns almoft entirely away, leaving
only an exceeding {mall quantity of light greyith afhes: if
any earthy fubftances have been mixed with the mufk, the

MUS

quantity of the refiduum will difcover them. Genuine
mufk ought to be confumed totally upon hot coals.
From 30 grains of mufk, water extraéts 12 grains, and
fpirit of wine ten grains, .Spirit of nitre and oil of vitriol
totally diffolve it: the former deftroys the whole of its
f{mell and the latter the greateft part of it. Spirit of falt,
diluted fpirit of vitriol, and vinegar, have no effeé& upon it.
Spirit of fal ammoniac diffolves a little of it. Oil of tartar
{carcely acquires any tinge from mufk, but extricates from
it a vitriolic urinous fmell. Mufk is not foluble in oils ex-
preffed or diftilled. By diftillation in a retort it yields the
animal principles, empyreumatic oil, volatile {pirit, and falt.

In the diftillation of odoriferous waters and fpirit, a {mall

portion of mufk, included in a linen cloth, is generally hung
in a ftill-head, the vapour of both liquors extraéting its
fcent. Spirit, diftilled with mufk immerfed in it, acquires
little of its fmell ; but water by this method acquires both
the fmell and tafte. A minute portion of mufk greatly im-
proves the fragrance of the diftilled odoriferous waters, as
thofe of lavender and rofemary, and heightens the {mell of
other odoriferous ingredients, without communicating any
of its own peculiar {mell. The quantity of liquor, which
may be flavoured by macerating a certain known propor.
tion of mufk, for a few days, in reétified fpirit of wine, ap-
pears to be the beft criterion of the genuinenefs and good-
nefs of this commodity; a commodity, which is not only
faid to vary according to the feafon of its being taken from
the animal, but which is fometimes fo artfully fophifticated,
that the abufes cannot be difcovered by any external
chara&ters, or by any other means than the degree of its
{pecific fmell and tafte, which the above experiment affords
the beft method of eftimating. Neumann and Lewis.

From the refult of chemical experiments, mufk appears
to contain albumen, gelatine, muriate of ammonia, phofphate
of foda, and an uncombined acid; but the greater part of
it confifts of a refin combined with a volatile oil, and a
mucilaginous extraétive matter.

Mufk is in confiderable ufe among the perfumers and
confectioners, though much lefs now than it was formerly.
It is fuppofed to fortify the heart and brain, and is good
againft deafnefs, and is now received in general practice in
different convulfive diforders ; and its dofe has been increafed
with advantage to a feruple and half a drachm, every four or
fix hours.

Mufk and other perfumes of the fame tribe, have been
long celebrated as antifpafmodics, but were formerly or-
dered in fnch {mall quantities as to have little effe@. Pra@ti-
tioners thought four or five grains a large dofe. But the
Chinefe have taught us to be more bold; the tenth part ef
an ounce is a ufual dofe among them. ‘The remedy in the
Eaft for the bite of the mad dog contains 16 grains of
mufk, and this they repeat frequently.

The effeéts of mufk are eafe from pain, quiet fleep, anda
copious diaphorefis. Hence it has been found of great ufe
in fpafmodic diforders, petechial, malignant, putrid fevers,
the gaol diftemper, hiccoughs, fubfultus tendinum, &c.
For the particular cafes, we refer to the Philofophical
Tranfactions, N° 474. § 18. and vol, xliv. p. 75, &c.
Inftances occur. in which it has been of very great benefit
in convulfive diforders, in the London Med. Obf. &c.
vol. iii, art. 21, 31.

It has alfo been found ufeful in fpafmodic diforders given
by way of clytter, as Dr. Wall obferves, in that Tranfac-
tion. The operation of mufk, in fome refpeéts, refembles
that of opium ; but is in this much preferable, that it does not
leave behind it any ftupor or languidnefs, which the latter
often does. Musk, therefore, feems likely to anfwer in

9 thofe

MUS

thofe low cafes where fleep is much wanted, and opiates
are improper.

It is faid to be beft given in a bolus, and that thofe, who
are moft averfe to perfumes, may take it in that form with-
out inconvenience. For as Etmuller and others have long
ago obferved, the fmell of the perfume is often found to be
of differvice, where the fubftance inwardly taken produces
‘good effects.

It is pity, that a medicine of this confequence fhould be
fo liable to adulterations, and that the criteria of its genu-
inenefs are ill fettled.

In a paper read before the Royal Society, March 17,
1747—8, feveral cures performed by mufk, on diftempered
cows, were mentioned.

When mufk begins to decay, it is a praétice ufed in the
Ealt Indies to put it into a bladder or bag, in which many
{mall holes are made with a needle, and hang it in a necef-
fary-houfe, but not low enough to touch the filth. Others
keep it wrapped up in linen, well moiftened with rank
urine.

Mr. Boyle fays, of his own knowledge, that mufk has
greatly contributed to the prefervation of flefh. Works,
abr. vol. i. p. 30.

Musx-dnt. See Ant.

Musk-Boar, in Zoology. See Tasacu.

Musk-Hyacinth. See HyacintHu.

Musk-/nfed. See Insecr.

Musk-Julep. See Jurer.

Musx-Mixture. See Mixture.

Musx-Rat. See Rat.

Musx-Seed, in the Materia Medica, the name of the
feed of the alea Egyptiaca villofa; or hoary Egyptian
vervain mallow. See Syrian Matiow.

It is a {mall feed of about the bignefs of a pin’s head,
of a greyifh-brown in colour, and of the fhape of a kidney,
and when frefh it has a perfumed {mell. It is brought into
Europe from Egypt, and from Martinico. The Egyptians
ufe it internally as a cordial and provocative ; but in Europe
it is of very little ule, being wholly negleéted in medicine ;
but the perfumers in France and Italy ufe it among their
compofitions.

MUSKERRY, in Geography, a barony in the county
of Cork, Ireland, the chief town of which is Macromp. It
is fituated on the river Sullane, and is in the new road from
Cork to Killarney. Its caftle is very ancient, having been
built in the reign of king John; but having been much
injured by fire in 1641, it was altered into a more modern
ftru€ture by the earls of Clancarty ; 141 miles S.W. from
Dublin, and W. from Cork.

MUSKET, or Musquet, properly a fire-arm borne on
the fhouider, and ufed in war; to be fired by the applica-
tion of a lighted match.

The length of the mufket is fixed to three feet eight
inches from the muzzle to the touch-pan, and its bore is to
be fuch as may receive a bullet of 14 in a pound, and its
diameter differs not above ;4th part from that of the
bullet.

Mufkets were anciently borne in the field by the infantry,
and were ufed in England {o lately as the beginning of the
civil wars. They are faid to have been firlt invented in
the year 1520 or 1521.

The Spaniards in the time of Philip II. caufed mufkets to
be made of a very great calibre, and fuch that a ftrong and
vigorous foot-foldier might carry them: but they were fo

heavy, that they could not be prefented, without the affitt-
ance of ftaves fhod and pointed at the bottom, and which
they fixed into the earth, making ufe of a fork that was at

Vor. XXIV.

MUS

the top, as a prop to fuftain the end of the mufket: of thefe
they made ufe, not only in fieges to fire over the walls, but
alfo in battles: thefe large mufkets carried to a great dif-
tance, and by the fize of their balls inflicted dreadful
wounds: but on account of their weight, they left off ufing
them in the field, and reftriéted them to fieges. The incon-
fiderable execution done by pieces of {mall calibre probably
caufed the introdu@tion of the mufket, which was a long,
heavy piece, carrying large balls, and on account of its fize
and weight fired on a kind of fork, called a reft: the re&
continued in ufe for a confiderable time ; but on certain occa-
fions, being found unwieldy and inconvenient, a lighter kind
of piece was introduced, generally known by the name of
the caliver, which was fired without any fuch affiftance.
This culiver was a lighter kind of matchlock piece, between
a harquebufe and a mufket, and fired without a reft. But
before the entire difmiffion of the reft, divers attempts were
made to convert it to a defence againft cavalry, whilft the
mufketeer was loading, by arming it with a proje¢ting {pike
from one of the prongs of the fork, ferving for the head,
or part on which the mufket was laid ; or by enclofing a
tuck in the fhaft of the reft, whick, on opening a {mall
valve, fprung out: refts thus armed were called the Swines
or Swedifh feathers, and were contrivances preceding the
ufe of the bayonet. At prefent mufkets are little ufed,
except in the defence of places; fufees, and fire-locks,
having taken their place and name.

From an ingenious military treatife, entitled “ Englifh
Military Difcipline,” and printed in 1680, we learn that the
fufil or firelock was then in ufe in our army, efpecially
among the fufileers and grenadiers ; and probably the appel-
lation of fufileers was given to thofe troops that were armed
with fufils. Perhaps the fufileer regiments were originally
a fort of grenadiers, as like them they wear caps, and have
no enfigns. Fufileers are foot-foldiers armed with fufees
with flings to fling them. There are four regiments in our
army, which have always been called fufileers, and pafs
under the name of Englifh, Scotch, Irifh, and Welth fufi-
leers : but now we have none but fufileers abroad, for the
pikes are quite laid afide. The firft defign of fufileers was
to guard the artillery, to which end the regiment of fufi-
leers, commanded by fir Charles O’Hara, was firft raifed.
To fupply the want of pikes, and to fecure themfelves againft
horfe, the fufileers ufed to carry turnpikes along with them,
which in a camp were placed along the front of a battalion,
and on a march were carried by the foldiers, each carrying
one of the fhort pikes, and two, by turns, the fparr through
which they are thruft, fo that they were quickly put toge-
ther. According to Millan’s fucceflion of colonels, the 7th
regiment, or royal Englifh fufileers, were raifed June 11th,
1685; the 21ft regiment, or royal North Britith fufileers,
23d September, 1679; the 23d, or royal Welfh fufileers,
17th March, 1688; but there is no Irifh regiment bearing
the appellation of fufileers. (See Fusireer.) The ufe of
cartridges, which feems to have taken place about the fame
time as the firelock, introduced the cartridge-box initead of
the bandeleers, which is a great improvement, both with
refpeét to the more commodious carriage of the ammunition,
and alfo the quicknefs of firing, as the foldier may fire at
leaft three times the number of fhot which he could dif-
oe when loading from his bandeleers.

USKET-Bafkets, in Fortification. See Baskets.

MUSKETEERS, foldiers armed with mufkets; which
were formerly fired with matchlacks.

Mufketeers of the reign of James and Charles I. carried
their powder in litcle wooden, tin, or leather cylindric
boxes, each containing one charge. Twelve of thele fixed

3K to

MUS

to a belt worn over the left fhoulder were called bandeleers ;
a contrivance which feems to have been borrowed from the
Dutch or Walloons. See Marcu.

MUSKETOON, a mufket fhorter, though thicker,
than the ordinary mufket. It is fired by the collifion of a
fteel and flint in the lock: whereas the mufket is fired by a
match. Its bore is a thirty-eighth part of its length, and
carries five ounces of iron, or feven and a half of lead, with
an equal quantity of powder. This is the fhorteft fort of
blunderbufles. See Fire-lock.

MUSKINGUM, an Indian name denoting the “ Elk’s
eye,”’ in Geography, a county of the ftate of Ohio, bounded
N. on the Indian boundary and Columbiana, S. on Wafhing-
ton, E. on Columbiana, Jefferfon, and Belmont; and W.
on Fairfield.—Alfo, a large river of the fate of Ohio, the
principal branch of which, called the “ Tafcarawa,” rifes
from a fmall lake near the head-waters of the Cayahoga,
a boatable river emptying into lake Erie, with a portage of
_74 miles between the two rivers. After purfuing its courfe
in a gentle current, without much overflowing its high
banks, it falls into the Ohio, 181 miles below Pittfburg, as
the river runs, and is 250-yards-wide at its mouth. This
river is fupplied by a variety of confiderable ftreams, which,
when the waters are high, extend the navigation in various
direGticns into the interior of the country. This river alfo
forms a communication with the lakes, which will in time
become very ferviceable to the growing fettlements on its
fertile banks. The plains and hills bordering on the river
and its various branches are reprefented as being of fuperior
quality to any in the ftate. Near it are fome productive and
valuable falt-fprings; and its banks, in fome places, contain
immenfe beds of pit-coal, and in others, a variety of ochres
and pigments. The river abounds with fifh, of which the
yellow cat and fturgeon are the moft efteemed. Hiarris’s
Tour 1805.

MUSKOGEES. See Creeks.

MUSKONGUS, a {mall river of America, which
{prings from ponds in the town of Maine, in the county of
Lincoln and ftate of Maine, and enters the fea, after a
courfe of about 20 miles, through the adjoining town of
Weldeborough.

Musxoncus Bay, a bay forraed by Briftol or Pema-
quid point on the W. and Meduncook plantation on the E.
In this bay is an ifland of the fame name, containing about
1000 acres. This Indian name is alfo applied to a grant or
claim of land called “ Mufkongus Patent.”

MUSLIN, or Mussrin, a fine fort of cloth, wholly cot-
ton; fo called as not being bare, but having a downy knap
on its furface refembling mofs, which the French called
moujfe.

There are various kinds of muflins brought from the Eaft
Indies, chiefly from Bengal; betelles, tarnatans, mulmuls,
tanjeebs, terrindams, doreas, &c.

Jacconott, or jacconett, is a {pecies of muflin of fabric be-
tween the coffac and mulmul, being lighter and thinner than
the former, and ftouter than the latter. The name is faid to
be acorruption of Jaghernout, the diftri€t in India where
muflins of this defcription are chiefly made. The jacconott
is perhaps the moft univerfal fabric of the lighter defcrip-
tions of muflin, being more fhowy and open than the coffacs,

long-cloths, or cotton cambrics, and more durable than the
ails and bukes. It is alfo from this quality the beft fitted
for the ornamental figures of tambour and needle-work, the
lighter fabrics, although very beautiful when well executed,
being too flimfy to bear the fatigue of wafhing, dreffing,
or clearing often, when loaded with needle-work of any kind,
and the opacity of the ftouter fabrics diminifhing very fenfi-

MUS

bly both the fhow and beauty of the work. Jacconott
muflins are, therefore, made in great abundance both in Eng-
land and Scotland. In England, befides thofe which are
worn plain, a very great number is ufed for the finer kinds
of printed goods, both as garments and fhawls. In Scot-
land, befides plain wearing and printing, they are employed
for the needle-work of various kinds, of which that country
is the chief feat of manufa@ture. The Scotch jacconotts
are in general made confiderably lighter in the fabric than
thofe of England, and this is very proper when the different
ufes to which they are generally applied are taken into con-
fideration. A yery great proportion of the jacconotts made
in England are either worn plain or ufed for printing; in
both thefe cafes a clofe ftout fabric is moft economical, and
in the latter the colours will appear with more brilliancy and
effect when there is a clofe body to receive and abforb the
colour in confiderable quantity. In every fpecies of needle-
work, on the contrary, the lightnefs and tranfparency of the
fabric forming a contralt with the clofe appearance of the
work, gives it a degree of what painters call relief, which
greatly heightens its appearance.

MUSMURREAH,, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in the circar of Gohud; 1o miles W. of Calpy.

MUSNIKI, a.town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Wilna; 14 miles S. of Wilkomierz.

MUSO, a town of South America, in the viceroyalty
of New Granada; 70 miles N. of Santa Fé de Bogota.

MUSOLENTE, a town of Italy, in the Trevifan; 9
miles S.E. of Cifmone. é

MUSONE, a river of Italy, which runs into the Adri-
atic, at a {mall diftance N.E. of Loreto.

MUSONIUS, in Biography, ranked by Eunapius as one
of the moft virtuous ad excellent of the modern Cynics, a
Babylonian by birth, flourifhed in the fecond century of
the Chriftian era. He was an excellent philofopher; and
Philoftratus {peaks of him as next to Apollonius in wifdom.
He was at Rome during the reign of the emperor Nero,
where, by animadverting on the vices of the court, he
excited the refentment of the tyrant, and was committed to
prifon. His confinement was, probably, not very fevere,
as he was enabled, during its period, to contract a friendfhip
with Apollonius, and to enter into a correfpondence with
him. He was, however, at laft banifhed into the ifthmus of
Greece, and condemned to daily labour with the fpade, in a
{tate of flavery. While he was in this condition, he was
vifited by Demetrius of Corinth, who deplored the unworthy
treatment to which he was fubjeét ; upon which Mufonius,
ftriking his fpade firmly in the ground, exclaimed, ‘* why
do you lament to fee me digging in the Ifthmus? You
might, indeed, have jult caufe for lamentation, if you faw me,
hke Nero, playing on the harp.”’ Julian fpeaks with ap-
plaufe of the magnanimity of this philofopher. ‘The time
of his death is uncertain, and none of his writings have
come down to us. Enfield Hitt. Phil. vol. ii.

Mvusonius, Carus, furnamed Rufus, a Stoic philofopher,
a Tufcan by birth, of the equeftrian order, who enjoyed
military honours. He took much pains to difleminate the
principles of his philofophy, and the precepts of found
morality among the Roman youth, particularly among the
officers of the army. On this account, he excited the ridi-
cule of fome, while he gave offence to others.’ He likewife
incurred the difpleafure of Nero, probably becaufe he had
the virtue to fpeak the truth refpecting that fovereign, and
truth being then, as it is now, regarded as a heinous offence,
though intended to corre& the manners of the age, the
philofopher was banifhed. A more virtuous prince, Vel-
pafian, recalled Mufonius, and took him into his favour.

His

MUS

His philofophy, like that of Socrates, was adapted to the
practical purpofes of life and manners, as has been inferred
from a differtation which he left, «« On the Exercife of the
Mind,” which is preferved in Stobzxus’ Colle€tion. Moreri.
Enfield Hift. Phil.

MUSQUABASTON Lakg, in Geography, a lake of
Canada. N. lat. 51°40’. W. long. 87° 30’.

MUSQUAKIES, Indians who inhabit the fouthern
fhore of lake Michigan, having, fome few years ago, 200
warriors.

MUSQUATONS, Indians inhabiting the vicinity of
lake Michigan. .

*MUSQUETEERS, Mousqueraines, in France, are
troopers who fight fometimes on foot, fometimes on horfe-
back: they are gentlemen of good families, and are divided
into two troops, the one called the grey-mufqueteers, the
other the black mufqueteers, from the colour ‘of their
horfes.

MUSQUETOES, in Entomology. See CuLex.

MUSQUITO River and Bay, in Geography, lie at a
{mall diftance N. of cape Canaverel, on the coaft of Eaft
Florida. The banks of the river towards the continent
abound in trees gnd plants common to Florida, with orange

roves ; but towards the fea the narrow ftrips of land are
mottly fand hills.

MUSQUITONS, Indians in the vicinity of the Outta-
gomies ; which fee.

MUSSA, Mora. See Moor.

MUSSENDA, in Botany, the vernacular name of the
original fpecies in the ifland of Ceylon, which, though of
barbarous origin, has obtained univerfal fuffrage, perhaps
cuphonie gratia. Term. Zeyl. 36. Linn. Gen. 96.
Schreb. r30. Willd. Sp. Pl. v.1. 997. Mart. Mill. Dié.
y. 3. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 1.372. Juff. 200. La-
marck Dic. v. 4. 391. Illuftr. t. 157. Gertn. t. 28. —
Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat.Ord. Rubiacez,
Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, in five deep, taper-
pointed, deciduous fegments. “Cor. of one petal, funnel
fhaped ; tube long, cylindrical, more or lefs hairy ; limb
flat, in five deep, ovate, acute, equal fegments. Stam. Fila-
ments five, very fhort, inferted into the tube; anthers awl-
fhaped, long and narrow, concealed within the tube. Pi/?.
Germen inferior, ovate ; ftyle thread-fhaped ; ftigmas two,
fimple. Peric. Berry ovate, of two cells, crowned witha
margin. Seeds very numerous, minute, dotted, difpofed in
four feries, on cloven receptacles.

Eff. Ch. Corolla funnel-fhaped, externally hairy. Stigmas
two, fimple. Berry ovate, inferior. Seeds difpofed in four
feries, dotted.

1. M. frondofa. Hairy Leafy Muffeenday Linn. Sp.
Pl. 251. (M. formofa, by miftake; Linn. Mant. 338.
M. zeylanica, flore rubro, fruétu oblongo poly{permo, folio
ex florum thyrfo prodeunte albo ; Herm. Zeyl. 165. t. 76.)
—Calyx-teeth linear, half as long as the tube of the corolla,
one of them often frondofe, Hairs of the corolla fpreading.
—Native of Ceylon, and other parts of the Eatt Indies.
We have a fpecimen gathered by the Moravian miffionaries
at Tranquebar. Stem fhrubby, with round hairy branches.
Leaves oppolite, on fhortifh hairy footftalks, ovate or ellip-
tical, two or three inches long and one broad, with a fmall,
narrow, taper point; entire, but flightly wavy, at the margin;
furnifhed with a mid-rib, and numerous tranfverfe, curved,
parallel veins ; more or lefs hairy on both fides, efpecially
the rib and veins; paler beneath. Stipulas between the
footftalks, fimple, hairy, broad at the bafe, with a taper
point. Panicle terminal, forked, corymbofe, hairy, efpecially

MUS

at the forks. Braéteas {mall, oppofite at each divifion of
the panicle, very hairy. Flowers ere&t. Germen obovate,
clothed with feattered hairs. Segments of the calyx up-
right, half as long as the full-grown tube of the corolla,
linear, taper-pointed, very narrow, hairy externally, {mooth
within ; one of them, in two or three of the firit flowers,
transformed into an elegant white long-ftalked leaf, of the
fhape of the proper foliage, but rather larger, and having
its principal veins or ribs {pringing chiefly from the bafe ;
its margin and veins hairy, Tube of the corolla above an
inch long, gradually {welling upwards, denfely clothed in
every part with longifh lax hairs; limb three quarters of an
inch broad, horizontal, or rather deflexed, externally downy
or hairy, internally, in our dried fpecimen, of a rich orange
colour, granulated or glandular, with a denfe pale-yellow
tuft about the mouth of the tube, its fegments abrupt,
each tipped with a {mall taper point.

We have been particular in the defcription of this plant,
which feems rare and but little known, though it appears
to be the original MM. frondofa of Linneus, who in his:
fynonyms codfontided with it the following, which is what
moit authors miitake for it. Burmann’s figure is charac-
teriftic, and the only one that accords with our {pecimen.

2. M. glabra. Smoothifh Leafy Muffenda. Vahl. Symb.
v. 3.38. Willd.n.2. (M. frondofa; Lamarck Dié. v. 4.
395. t. 157. f. 1. Folium principiffe ; Rumph. Amb. v. 4.
book 6. 111. t. 51. Belilla; Rheede Malab. v. 2. 27.
t. 18.)—Calyx-teeth ovato-lanceolate, unequal, many times
fhorter than the tube of the corolla, one of them often
frondofe. Hairs of the corolla ereét,—Native of various
parts of the Eaft Indies. The Malays call it Daun putri,
and a fpecimen fo named is preferved, as M. frondofa, in
the Linnean herbarium ; but this fpecimen is of later date
than the publication of the Species Plantarum. The prefent
fpecies is much {moother in its branches, leaves, and ffalks,
than the foregoing, and the panicles appear to be more nu-
merous or aggregate. The germen is more ribbed or angular.
Segments of the ca/yx widely different, being unequal,
fpreading, fearcely a fifth part fo long as the tube of the
flower, broad at the bafe, and fuddenly tapering to a blunt
point. ‘Tube of the corsa an inch long, clothed, principally
in the upper part, with ere& or clofe hairs; limb one-third
the fize of the former, moderately fpreading, downy, de-
{cribed by Rumphius as deep yellow. The leaf which is
{dinetimes produced by the ca/yx initead of a fifth tooth,
is of a broader and fhorter figure than in AZ. frondofa. The
fecond or narrow-leaved fpecies of Rumphius, probably a
mere variety, beft anfwers to our plant. The fynonym of
Rheede belongs either to this, or to a third fpecies, certainly
not to. the firft, if the calyx be faithfully drawn. The
flowers are there defcribed as of a beautiful {carlet.

3. M. pubefeens. Chinefe Muffenda. Dryandr. in Ait.
Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 1. 372.—* Branches and leaves
downy. ‘Tube of the corolla many times longer than the
fegments of the calyx.’?—Native of China. Brought in
1805 to Kew, where it is kept ini the greenhoufe, flower-
ing from May to September.. We know nothing more of
this fpecies, which feems moft akin to the laft, though more
downy.

4. M. arcuata. Jafmine-flowered Muffenda. Pouret in
Lamarck Diét. n. 1. (Landia ftelligera ; Commerf. MSS.)
—Leaves elliptical, fmooth. Calyx-tecth linear, nearly equal.
Limb of the corolla externally fmooth ; tube with five hairy
lines. —Native of the ifland of Mauritius. Lam. ‘Com-
merfon met with it cultivated in the gardens of Java. This
is a yearly {mooth /brub, with ellintical, pointed, fhining
leaves. Panicle {mooth, forked. Flowers tragrant, refem-

3K 2 bling

MUS

bling fome of the larger fpecies of Ja/minum, defcribed by
Commerfon as white, with a yellow eye; ina dried ftate
the Jimb is entirely yellow, {mooth externally, but glandular
on the upper fide, with five hairy, radiating {tarry points ;
tube {mooth on the outfide, except five hairy lines. Seg-
ments of the calyx linear, {mooth, a little recurved, not one-
fifth fo long as the tube, fomewhat unequal, but it does not
appear that any of them, in this or the remaining {pecies,
is ever transformed into a leaf. Fruit obovate, fmooth, the
fize of a {mall goofeberry. An afcending curvature in the
bafe of the fower-/lalks gave occafion to the fpecific name.—
This plant was called Landia flelligera by Commerfon, in
compliment to his friend De la Lande, the aftronomer,
who had no pretenfions to botanical honours. ‘The flowers
in Lamarck’s t. 157. f. 2, are moft like this {pecies in their
limb and its dimenfions, though done for the following,
with which their calyx, all the diffeéted parts, and the leaves
agree.

a M. Zandia. Broad-leaved Muffenda. Lam. n. 2.
Iluftr. t. 157. f. o.—Leaves broad-ovate, fmooth, with
hairy ribs. Calyx-teeth ovate, with long recurved points.
Corolla externally filky ; internally downy; its fegments
taper-pointed.—Native of the ifles of Mauritius and Bour-
bon. The /eaves are of a broad or roundifh ovate form,
entire, {mooth or nearly fo, with hairy veins, their dimen-
fions fometimes eight inches by four. Foot/alks, flower-
fralks, and germen clothed with feattered clofe-preffed hairs.
Stipulas cloven, hairy in the fame manner. Segments of
the calyx more denfely hairy, ovate, with a long recurved
point of their own length. Corolla probably | white ; its
tube above an inch long, being four or five times the length
of the calyx, denfely clothed with clofe filky hairs ; fegments
of the limb an inch long, ovate, with long taper points, their
outfide filky, inner finely downy, with an elevated central
line; throat lined with foft hairs. Style briftly.—The
flowers in Lamarck’e figure are too {mall, and the tube in
the feparate corolla is {carcely long enough, nor the fegments
fufficiently pointed.

6. M. holofericea. Silky Muffenda.—Leaves ovate,
pointed, filky beneath. Calyx-teeth ovate, acute, ftraight.
Corolla externally filky, internally downy, its fegments
taper-pointed.—Gathered by Commerfion in the ifle of
Bourbon. This is the plant alluded to in Lamarck, under
the defcription of the lalt. We are at a lofs to account for
his being poffeffed of a few detached flowers only, when
there are magnificent fpecimens from Commerfon in the
herbarium of the younger Linneus. The /eaves are ovate,
about four inches or more in length, tapering into a long
fharp point ; their upper furface clothed with minute, de-
preffed, fcattered hairs; the under finely filky ; ribs and
numerous veins on both fides hairy. Svipulas hairy, in two
deep, narrow, taper-pointed divifions. Fvoi/talks, flower-
Sflalks, brafeas, and young branches, finely filky. Germen,
calyx, and tube of the coro/la, more denfely covered with
rather longer hairs. Panicle forked, corymbofe, many-
flowered. “Segments of the calya fhorter, and much broader,
than in the lalt, acute, but not taper-pointed, nor recurved.
Corolla {aid to be white; its tube two inches long, fegments
of the limb one inch, taper-pointed, hairy at their backs,
finely downy at the margins, as well as on the upper fide ;
round the mouth are five apparently reddifh f{pots, fringed
with long radiating hairs. Svyle brillly. This is a very
handfome fhrub, not unlike fome of the finelt fpecies of
Gardenia.

>. M. lanceolata. Lanceolate Muffenda. Lam. n. 3.
« Leaves lanceolate-wedge-fhaped. Flowers oppofite, ra-
cemofe. Calyx abrupt, with five {mall teeth,’”’— Native of

MUS5

the ifland of Mauritius.—We have from that country a
fpecimen partly anfwering to the defcription in Lamarck,
but we dare not take it for the fame plant. The corolla is
defcribed as {mooth, and the inflorefcence as racemofe, neither
of which charaéters have occurred to our obfervation in any
true Muffenda. ;

8. M. citrifolia. Citron-leaved Muffenda. - Lam. n. 4.—
‘‘ Leaves three ina whorl, ovate, nearly feffile. Calyx-teeth
long and permanent.’’—Native of Madagafcar, where it is
called charro. The corolla of this is faid to be {mooth, and the
fruit a dry cap/ule, both circumf{tances adverfe to the generic
chara¢ter. The flowers are defcribed as cymofe, {mall,
yellow, and very numerous. Leaves coriaceous; fmooth
and fhining above; flightly downy beneath.

9. M. longifolia. Long-leaved Muffenda. Lam. n. 5.—
‘« Leaves three in a whorl, crowded, lanceolate or oblong.
Capfule ribbed, crowned with the calyx.’’—Native of
Madagafcar, where it is called tamba-racha. Said to re-
femble the laft, except that its /eaves are narrower, and
twice or thrice as long. Cap/ule pear-fhaped, membranous,
with fix or eight longitudinal ribs.

10. M. glomerulata. 'Tufted-flowered Muffenda. Lam.
n. 6.—** Leaves ovate, acute. Flowers terminal, in denfe
round heads.’"—Gathered by Richard in Guiana. The
habit is faid to refemble the Zachia, in A\ublet’s t. 29, but
the inflorefcence, by the above chara¢ter, is totally difli-
milar. Corolla flightly downy at the outfide.

Poiret, who defcribed the laft, feems to have been doubt-
ful of its genus; and though Lamarck himfelf determined
the two immediately preceding, it is manifeft that they have
not the chara&ters of MJuffenda, at lealt as we underftand the
genus. We have feen no certain fpecimens of any of thefe
four laft, and therefore infert them here merely for future
enquiry, as they are not in Willdenow.

M. fpinofa and formofa, Linn. Mant. 45. Jacq. Amer.
t. 49 and 48, are now referred to Gardenia. S.

MUSSAHIR, in Ornithology, a bird mentioned by Ara-
bian writers. It is faid that this creature, after having em-
ployed the day in feeking its food, fpends the whole night
In finging ; its notes are faid to be fo melodious as to banifh
all thoughts of fleep from thofe that hear them.

MUSSALEE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the Carnatic; 16 miles W.N.W. of Tritchinopoli.

MUSSAON, a town of Hindooftan, in Baglana; 33
miles S. of Damacen.

MUSSARA, a town of Bengal; 50 miles N.W. of
Midnapour.

MUSSATO, Axsertino, in Biography. Sce ALBER-
TINO.

MUSSAXO Cosa, in Geography, a town of Afiatic
Turkey, in the province of Diarbekir; 40 miles S.W. of
Tecrit.

MUSSCHENBROECK, Perer pk, in Biography, an
eminent mathematician and natural philofopher, was born
at Leyden in 1692. He became profeffor of mathematics
and natural philofophy at his native place, in which depart-
ments he greatly diftinguifhed himfelf. He was elected a
member of the Royal Society of London, and alfo of the
Academy of Sciences at Paris. He died in 1761. His
Courfe of Natural and Experimental Philofophy is a very
valuable work, and has been popular in this country. Maufi-
chenbroeck was author of * Tentamina Experimentorum ;”
« Tnftitutiones Phyfice ;” and Compendium “Phyfice
Experimentalis.”’

MUSSELBURGH, in Geography, afea-port town and bo-
rough, fituated on the fouthern coatt of the Frith of Forth, in
the county of Midlothian, Scotland, derived its name from an

II extenfive

MUSSELBURGH.

extenfive mufcle-bank, which lies in the fea below the town,
and was probably the caufe of its early population. This
place may be faid to confilt of three villages. On the eatt
fide of the river Efk, and near to the fhore, ftands Muffel-
burgh, properly fo called, confifting of a broad well paved
ftreet, with fome adjoining lanes. The houfes here are
moftly two or three itories high, and are all built of ftone,
and covered with flate or tiles. Above Muffelburgh, more
inland, but connected with it by detached houfes, is the
village and church of Inverefk, which gives name to the
vaitadh' and along the fhore, on the weltern bank of the
Efk, is the village of Fifherrow. This laft is upwards of
half a mile in length; and here the only port or harbour
belonging to the town is fituated.

Muffelburgh is not a royal borough, but what is called a
borough of regality; that is, an incorporation in which a
fubje€t, velted with regal privileges, is the fuperior. Pre-
vious to the reformation, the abbot of Dunfermline was the
lord of regality. It afterwards became the property of the
family of Lauderdale, and continued in their poffeffion till
the year 1709, when it was purchafed by the duchefs of
Monmouth and Buecleugh. Accordingly, the borough
now holds of her defcendant, the prefent duke of Buc-
cleugh, as fuperior lord, and pays to him certain fums an-
nually in name of quit rent, or pew duty. The government
is vetted ina council of eighteen members, ten of whom are
chofen for Muffelburgh, and eight for Fifherrow. Thefe
ele& their own fucceflors, and alfo nominate from among
themfelves two bailies and a treafurer. The bailies, by
virtue of their charters, of which the oldeft extant 1s dated
in 1563, are empowered to hold a court of record, and to
iffue precepts for the execution of their decrees, and of con-
tracts regiltered in their books; but enfeoffments of pro-
perty muit be recorded in the county regiiter. Upon the
whole, however, this borough poffeffes all the immunities
of any royal borough in Scotland, except thofe of voting
for a member of parliament, and fending a delegate to the
convention of boroughs. Its annual revenue is eftimated at
fomewhat more than 1500/. arifing from the few duties paid
by all proprietors of houfes within their territories, and
from their land and mills, and the fhores of their harbour.
Thefe laft have of late years confiderably increafed, in con-
fequence of the great refort of fhipping with grain for the
Clements-Well diltiilery. It is not a little remarkable,
that this town, though excellently fituated for the purpofe,
carries on no extenfive manufaéture. Some {mall manufac-
tories, however, of cloths, foap, itarch, and pottery, have
been e(tablifhed, and all forts of ordinary tradefmen are to
be found here as in any country villages. In Fifherrow are
a number of falt-works, but all upon a very trifling {cale,
their whole produce being either fold to dealers in the neigh-
bourhood, or carried by the women in creels to Edinburgh,
where they generally difpofe of it, by crying it about
the ftreets in the fame way as fifh are by fifh-women.
Of the latter a great number likewife belong to this town,
who {till retain the fame charaéter and manners which dittin-
guifhed them a century ago. They are the wives and
daughters of fifhermen, who generally marry in their own
caft or tribe. On the days not occupied in carrying, their
bufinefs is to gather baits for their hufbands, fathers, or
brothers, and to bait their lines. In their dealings with
the public, they {till pertinacioufly retain the ancient pra€tice
of {mall traders, of demanding three times the fum they will
take for their goods. This, however, is not the refult of a
difhoneft principle, but merely of cuitom, for it is remarked
by thofe who have ftudied their chara¢ter, that in all other
tranfactions they are ftriétly honeft; and that though fcan-

dalous to a proverb in their language, they are neverthelefs
virtuous and chafte in their perfons. From the aétive fhare
thefe women have in the maintenance of their families, their
{way in them, as might be fuppofed, is great. As their work
is mafculine, fo are their fentiments and manners. Their
{trength is not inferior to that of their hufbands, nor are
they lefs capable than they of enduring fatigue, or the
feverities of a northern climate. On holidays, their chief
amufement is playing at golf, and on Shrove Tuefday there
is always a ftanding match, at foot-ball, between the married
and unmarried women, in which the former are generally the
winners. This match ufually takes place on the ‘ links,”
or open downs, lying between Muffelburgh Proper and the
fhore, where are likewife held the annual fair, and the horfe
races.

Maffelburgh contains four places appropriated to public
worfhip ; the parifh church, the epifcopal meeting-houfe,
a burgher’s feceding meeting-houfe, and a church of relief.
The duke of Buccleugh is patron of the ettablifhed church.
Here is alfo an excellent grammar-{chool, under the patron- |
age of the magiltrates and town council, who allow the
maiter a falary of 28/. per annum, in addition to the fees he
receives from his pupils, which in the aggregate are pretty
confiderable. Several private feminaries in this town are
likewife in high eftimation, and there are Sunday-fchools
fupported by the duchefs of Buccleugh, and other cha-
ritable ladies, both in Muffelburgh and Fifherrow. The
market day in the former is Friday, and in the latter
Tuefday.

In this town and its neighbourhood, many Roman re-
mains have been difcovered at different times; which
Chalmers, in his Caledonia, fays, ‘ fhew that the Romans
had a polt at Fifherrow, and a poft at Inverefk.’? Some
Roman coins, and an altar with this infcription, polloni
Granio, were found in levelling the adjacent grounds feveral
centuries ago, and within thefe laft twenty years, the ruins
of a Roman bath were laid open by the workmen employed
to erect a new parterre to the manfion of tke proprietor of
Inverefk villa. Similar ruins of hypocaufta have been fince
difcovered nearer to the fhore, befides many foundations of
private houfes.

The church of Inverefk has been lately rebuilt, and is
faid to be one of the fineft parifh churches in Scotland.
The old ftruGture, however, was more interefting as an ob-
je& of curiofity ; its antiquity having been undoubtedly
very remote. At the eaft end of Muffelburgh formerly
{tood the chapel of Loretto, a cell to the abbey of Dun-
fermline. Of this building there are very few remains, ex-
cept one {mall apartment covered by an artificial mount in
a garden of a villa ‘till called the Loretto. It muft, how-
ever, have been an edifice of very confiderable extent, as
the prefent tolbooth of Muffelburgh was wholly built from
its materials. Near the eaft end of the town is the houfe in

‘which the great Randolph, earl of Murray, died in 1332.

Among the other remains of antiquity in this town, the
bridge is the moft remarkable, being, according to Dr. Car-
lifle, moft probably a work of the Romans. The Scottifh
army pafled over this bridge on the day of the fatal battle
of Pinkie, which was fought near the houfe fo called, for-
merly the refidence of the Setons, earls of Dunfermline.
Carberry hill, immediately adjoining to the fcene of aétion,
was afterwards noted for the conference held by the unfor-
tunate queen Mary with Kirkcaldy of Grange, which ter-
minated in placing her perfon in the power of Morton, and
the confederate lords, who, regardlefs of their renewed
oaths of allegiance and fidelity, confined her a prifoner till
fhe was enabled to effect her efcape from Lochleven cattle.
The

MUS

The fituation of the parifh of Inverefk is one of the moft
beautiful in Scotland ; and fo celebrated is the village for
its healthy climature, and the delightful profpeéts it com-
mands, that it was diftinguifhed of old by the name of the
Montpellier of Scotland. Muffelburgh, as a fafhionable
fummer retreat, however, is now comparatively abandoned
for Portobello, fituated between it and the metropolis,
where large and commodious baths have been lately ereéted.
The fcite of this now populous village, only a few years
ago was a defert and barren heath. ' ‘

According to the parliamentary returns of 18o1, this
parifh contained 1469 houfes, and 6604 inhabitants. Sin-
clair’s Statiftical Account of Scotland, vol. xvi. Chal-
mers’s Caledonia, vol. i. 4to.

MUSSIDAN, a town of France, in the department of
the Dordogne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri&
of Riberac. The place contains 1176, and the canton
6454 inhabitants, on a territory of 140 kiliometres, in 10
communes.

MUSSIN, a town of the duchy of Warfaw; 10 miles
S. of Pofen. ;

MUSSINIA, in Botany, dedicated, by Willdenow, to
the honour of the Ruffian count Muffin Pufkin, who under-
took an arduous expedition to the Caucafus in purfuit of
botany, and in which he difcovered many new plants. This
genus confifts of feveral fpecies referred by Thunberg to
Gorteria. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 2263.—Clafs and order,
Syngenefia Polygamia Fruftranea. Nat. Ord. Compofite Ca-
pitate, Linn. Corymbifere, Jufl

Gen. Ch. Common calyx of one leaf, cylindrical, naked,
toothed in the margin, Cor. compound, radiated. *Florets
of the difk numerous, perfe€, with a funnel-fhaped five-
cleft corolla; thofe of the radius fewer, female, with a ligu-
late lanceolate one. Stam. (in the perfect florets only) Fi-
laments five, fhort ; anthers united into a cylindrical tube.
Piff. (of the perfe&t florets) Germen hairy ; ftyle thread-
fhaped, the length of its own little corolla; ftigma cloven.
In the female florets, the germen is obfolete and abortive ;
ftyle none ; ftigma none. eric. none, except the calyx,
falling off entire. Sveds to the perfe& figrets only, folitary,
roundifh. Down fimple. + Recept. villous.

Eff. Ch. Receptacle villous. Down fimple, compofed of
hairs. Florets of the radius ligulate. Calyx of one leaf,
cylindrical, toothed.

1. M. linearis. Willd. (Gorteria linearis ; Thunb. Predr.
162. Aé. Soc. Nat. Scrut. Haf. v. 4. 2. t. 1.)—Leaves
linear, {mooth, with fringed teeth at the bafe. Stalk fingle-
flowered. This, as well as all the following fpecies, are na-
tives of the Cape of Good Hope.—JZeaves pointed.
Flower-flalk longer than the leaves. Caly.x-teeth linear-awl-
fhaped, very long, fringed at the bottom.

2. M. uniflora. Willd. (Gorteria uniflora; Linn.
Suppl. 382. Thunb. Prod. 162. .\G. Soc. Nat. Scrut.
Haf. v. 4. 3. t. 3.)—Leaves oblong-fpatulate, entire, downy
beneath. Stem decumbent. Stalks fingle-flowered. Lin-
nus fufpected this'to be a variety of Gorteria rigens, which
he fays it greatly refembles in appearance. Stems about a
fpan long, fimple, herbaceous, decumbent, leafy on all
fides. Leaves alternate, feffile, lanceolate, undivided, en-
tire; white and downy beneath. Sva/ fi igle-flowered, ter-
minal, Jonger than the leaves. Radius yellow. Willde-
now defcribes this fpecies as having the aves of Gorteria
rigens only undivided, and fometimes, but rarely, trifid.
Radius narrow, lanceolate. We have feen no fnecimen

3. M. /peciofa. Willd, (Gorteria rigens 8; Thunb. Act.
Soc. Nat. Scrut. Haf. v. 4. 4. t. 4. f 1.)—Leaves either
pinnatifid or undivided, downy beneath; fegments linear-

MUS

lanceolate. Stalk fingle-flowered. Calyx downy.—Root
fubdivided, fibrous. Leaves entirely radical ; green above
and flightly downy; white with down beneath; revolute at
the margin. Stalks downy, fingle-flowered, twice as long
as the leaves. Florets of the radius yellow, with a flight
ftreak on their lower fide, and a dark fpot at their bafe on
the upper. Willdenow obferves, that this differs from
Gorterta rigens, in the ftructure of its calyx, in having no
ffem, as well as on account of its annual root, and whole
habit.

4. M.incifa. Willd. (Gorteria incifa; Thunb. Prodr.
162. A€. Soc. Nat. Scrut. Haf. v. 4. 6.)—Leaves either
pinnatifid or ‘undivided, hairy, downy beneath. Stalk fin-
gle-flowered, the length of the leaves. Calyx fmooth.—
Root annual, defcending very deep. Leaves moltly radical,
on ftalks, oblong, entire ; when pinnatifid, their fegments
are ovate-oblong, green and rough above, downy-and white
beneath, with reflexed margins; they are all ere&, about
three inches long, their ftalks and ribs fprinkled over with
white hairs. Sva/é round, flightly ftriated.

5. M. Othonna. Willd. (Gorteria othonnites; Thunb.
Prodr. 163. AG. Soc. Nat. Scrut. Haf. v. 4.7. t. 4. £2.)
—Leaves pinnatifid, fmooth. Stalk fingle-flowered. Calyx
turbinate—Of this we find an unnamed f{pecimen in the Lin-
nzan herbarium. It hasno flem. The leaves are all radical,
two or three inches long, {mooth, and fomewhat glaucous,
deeply pinnatifid ; their fegments linear, with a cartilaginous,
prickly-toothed margin, and a terminal briftle. #/ower-
fialk four inches high, ereét, fimple, with one linear dra@ea
above the middle. F/ower terminal, folitary, ereét, an inch
in diameter. Calyx {triated, {mooth, with two rows of
marginal teeth; the innermoft furnifhed with long points
but much fhorter than the radius, the florets of which ap-
pear to be yellow, witha brown ftripe underneath.

6. M. pinnata. Willd. (Gorteria pinnata; Thunb.
Prodr. 162. Aét. Soc. Nat. Scrut. Haf. v. 4. 6.t. 5.)—
Leaves pinnate, villous, downy-white beneath; leaflets el-
liptical, the terminal one larger and fubdivided. Staik fin-
gle-flowered. Calyx villous. —Having no fpecimen of this,
and being obliged to rely on Willdenow for his reference of
the prefent, as well as of all the other fpecies, to the Co-
penhagen Tranfa@tions, we are unable to defcribe it further
than the {pecific character.

MUSSITANDI, inthe Greek church. While the prieft
ftands with his face towards the ealt, and repeats the prayers
in a fubdued voice, the choir is almoft conttantly finging
hymns, without the congregation being fuppofed to pray
themfelves, or hear his prayers. (Rites and Ceremon. of
the Gr. Church, by Dr. King, p. 46.) Perhaps the mu-
fical performance in the churches of Italy, during the mu/fi-
iandi, or meffa-baffa, had the fame origin,

MUSSO, Cornettus, in Biography, a famous Italian pre-
late, and one of the molt celebrated preachers of the 16th
century, was born at Placentia in the year 1511. When
but nine years old, he was permitted to dedicate himfelf
to the order of St. Francis, and entered a monattery in his
native city. He fpeedily difcovered an excellent genius, a
prodigious ftrength of memory, and talents apparently well
adapted to the pulpit. He was accordingly educated in
fuch a way as to render him qualified as a preacher. He
was in due time fent to Venice with letters of recommenda-
tion, and though his exterior was much again{t him, yet he
had fcarcely entered upon the fervices of the church when
he effaced all unfavourable impreffions, and captivated his
audience by the charms of his voice, the fublimity of his
conceptions, and the graces of his delivery. He now found
many zealous patrons, and was particularly honoured with

the

MUS

the friendfhip of the famous Peter Bembo, afterwards car-
dinal, who aflifted him in his rhetorical ftudies.
period, applied himfelf diligently to the oriental languages,
after which he refumed his pulpit labours, and rofe to a
mott decided pre-eminence among his contemporaries. He
obtained the efteem of the duke of Milan, Francis Sforza,
by whom he was appointed profeflor of metaphyfics at the
univerfity of Pavia, and he even condefcended to attend his
le&tures.. Upon the death of the duke, Muffo was chofen
profeffor of metaphyfics at Bologna. Here he likewile read
le&tures on the epiitles of St. Paul. In 1541 he was,
through the intereft of cardinal Campegio, appointed by
pope Paul IIL. bifhop of Bertinozo, in the Romagna ;
after this, purely on account of his merit as a preacher, he
was tranflated to the fee of Bitonto, in Apulia; and in 1545,
the pope fent him to the council of Trent, where he diftin-
guifhed himfelf by a Latin fermon at the opening of the
council. After the death of pope Paul III. he was feleéted
by the two fucceeding pontiffs as domeftic prelate and
affiftant. In 1560, he was fent nuncio into Germany with
the pope’s nephew, and executed his commiffion at the
court of Ferdinand with great reputation. He was, after
this, employed at the court of Rome, on various fubjects,
till the diffolution of the council of Trent, when he retired
to his bifhopric, and applied himfelf to the reformation of
abufes, and the diligent difcharge of the duties of his holy
calling. Having refided ten years on his fee, he went again
to the metropolis, and was detained by pope Gregory XIII.
as his affiftant, till his death, in 1574, when he was in the
fixty-third year of his age. He was author of feveral
theological works, which were printed after his death,
among which are “‘ Commentaries upon St. Paul’s Epiftle
to the Romans,”’ in Latin; an Italian «¢ Commentary upon
the Magnificat ;?”? ‘* De Hiftoria Divina:” but the works
for which’ he is moft celebrated are his ‘¢ Sermons,” pub-
lifhed at Venice, in four volumes 4to. in 1582 and 1590.
He is mentioned by Dupin as a “ polifhed and eloquent
writer :”” and Tirabofchi fays, in {peaking of his fermons,
if they do not prove that the bifhop of Bitonto was the firft
reformer of pulpit eloquence, they at leait teftify that he
contributed greatly toward fuch a reformation. They
abound in folid matter, beautiful images,, and eloquent
expreffions,. Gen. Biog.

Musso, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the depart-
ment of the Lario; 25 miles N. of Como.

MUSSULMAN, or MusutMAn, written in Arabic
moflem, mofleman, or mofolman, a title by which the Maho-
metans diftinguifh themfelves; fignifying, in the Turkith
language, true believer, or orthodox.

The appellation was firft given to the Saracens; as is ob-
ferved by Leunclavius. There are two kinds of mufful-

mans, very averfe from each other; the one called Soznites, ©

and the other Shiites. The Sonnites follow the inter-
pretation of the Koran given by Omar; the Shiites are the
followers of Ali. The fubjects of the king of Perfia are
Shiites; and thofe of the grand fignior, Sonnites. See
Sonna, and Arcoran.

Some authors will have it, that the word muffulman fig-
nifies faved, that is predeftinated ; and that the Mahometans
give themfelves the appellation, as believing they are all pre-
deltinated to falvation. Martinius is more particular as to
the origin of the name ; which he derives from the Arabic
TDD; mufalam, faved, fnatched out of danger: the Ma-
hometans, he obferves, eltablifhing their religion by fire and
fword, maffacred all thofe who would not embrace it, and
granted life to all that did, calling them muffulmans ; g. d.
erepti e periculo ; whence the word, in courfe of time, be-

He, at this ©

MUS

came the diftinguifhing title of all thofe of that fe&, who
have affixed to it the fignification of true believer.

MUSSY, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Aube, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
triét of Bar-fur-Seine ; 9 miles S.S.E. from it. The place
contains 1691, and the canton 7068 inhabitants, cn a terri-
tory of 117+ kiliometres, in 8 communes.

MUSSYR, one of the Kurile iflands, which is round
and {tony, and lies at the diftance of 35 verfts from Syaf-
kutan ; its diameter is not more than three verits. It is
deftitute of water, but is neverthelefs frequented by great
numbers of birds. Sea-lions abound here.

MUST, Mustum, {weet wine newly prefled from the
grape; or the new liquor preffed from the fruit before it has
worked or fomented.

Must of Rhenifh Wine. This is a liquor that, though’
drank by fome, is found extremely to affect the brain ; for
not having pafled the natural effervefcence which it would
have been fubjeét to, in the making of wine, its falts are
locked up, till the heat of the ftomach fetting them to
work, they raife their effervefcence there, and fend u
abundance of fubtle vapours to the brain. The Rhenifh
mult is of two kinds, being made either with or without
boiling. That made without boiling is only put up fo clofe
in the veffel, that it cannot work ; this is called tumm-wine.
That by boiling is thus prepared: they take itrong veflels
not quite filled, and putting them ito a cellar, they makea
fire mild at firft; but increafed by degrees, and afterwards
they gradually leffen it again, that the boiling may ceafe of
itfelf. This operation is finifhed in thirty-fix or forty hours,
according to the fize of the veflel; and the wine-boilers,
inftead of common candles, which would melt by the heat,
ufe thin pieces of {plit beech wood. Thefe alfo ferve for a
double purpofe, not only lighting them, but giving them
notice of the boiling being enough; before that time, the
quantity of vapours thrown up with them burn dim; but as
foon as it is finifhed, the vapours afcend in lefs quantity,
and the lights burn brifk and clear. About feven or eight
days after this boiling, the muft begins to work, and after
this working it 1s called wine. ‘They have alfo another kind
of Rhenifh mutt, which is thus prepared : they boil the li-
quor to half the quantity, and put into it the medicinal in-
gredients they are molt fond of ; fuch as orange-peel, ele-
campane-root, and juniper-berries, or the like ; being thus
medicated, the whole works much more flowly than it other-
wife would. If the boiled muft, by too violent an effer-
vefcence, ca{t out its lees, it will on this become vapid and
dead, unlefs this feparation is ftopped by fome fatty fub-
flance, fuch as frefh butter, or the like: they put this in
upon a vine-leaf, or elfe apply lard to the mouth of the
veffel.

A Must for artificial Wine may be thus made: take
twenty pounds of fine fugar, five gallons of water, four
ounces of white tartar, finely pulverized, or cream of tartar,
and boil them in a large veflel over a gentle fire.

MUSTACEUM, among the ancient Romans, a kind
of cheefe-cake. It was compofed of cheefe, anifeed, cum-
min, and fuet added to flour, moiltened with mufum, or
new wine.

MUSTACHIO, or Mistacnio, a Venetian meafure
for fluids: 38 muitachi make a muid, and 76 an amphoras

MUSTAFA Pacua Korat, in Geography, a town of
European Turkey, in Romania, on the Marin, over which
is a celebrated itone-bridge, built by Muftapha Pacha; 18
miles N.W. of Adrianople.

Mustara Pacha Palanka, a town of European Turkey,
in Bulgaria; 56 miles W.N.W. of Sofia.

2 MUSTAN,

MUS

MUSTAN, atown of Hindooftan, in Bengal; 32 miles
N.N.E. of Nattore. °

MUSTAPHA L., in Biography, emperor of the Turks,
afcended the throne, in 1618, at the age of twenty-five, on
the death of his brother Achmet, but his negle& of public
bufinefs and grofs fenfuality, caufed him, in four months,
to be depofed, and committed to the ftate prifon of the
Seven Towers. His fucceflor and nephew, Ofman, was as
little adapted to the duties of government as his predeceflor,
and was, in 1622, depofed and put to death. Muftapha
was now taken from the dungeon, and replaced on the
imperial throne, but he had {carcely been in that fituation
fifteen months, when he was again depofed, and brought
to an ignominious end, being carried on an afs through the
ftreets of Conftantinople, conduéted to his former prifon,
and ftrangled.

MustapnHa II., fon of Mahomet IV., fucceedéd Ach-
met II., his uncle, in 1695. He was in the prime of life
when he afcended the throne, and was impatient to diftin-
guifh himfelf as a warrior : his principal ation was with
the imperialifts, whom he defeated at Temefwar. He made
war with fuccefs againit the Venetians, Poles, and the Ruf-
fians ; but at length fortune turned againft him, and he was
obliged to make peace, under the mediation of England
and Holland. This treaty, which is called that of Carlo-
witz, was figned in January 1699. Muftapha returned to
Conftantinople, humiliated in the eyes of his fubjeéts, com-
mitted the management of public affairs to his vizier, and
retired into the country, where he fpent his time in hunting
and other amufements. Difcontents at length broke out
among the foldiery, which produced a complete revolution in
the government of Conftantinople. The emperor was foon
after depofed by his fubje¢ts, and died, in 1703, of melan-
choly. He was well difpofed, and poffeffed talents {uperior
to moft of his fucceffors.

Musrapua III., the fon of Achmet III., fucceeded to
the throne in 1757, having lived in a ftate of confinement
ever fince the depofition of his father in the year 1730. He
had contraéted all the luxurious habits of an inmate of a
feraglio ; but his great paffion was his love of money. He
was, neverthelefs, humane and juft, and difplayed great
moderation towards his Chriftian fubje€ts. But with all his
good qualities his reign was unfortunate, becaufe the public
affairs were left to the management of his minifters, and the
controul of a fifter, who poffeffed an unbounded influence
over him, but who was ill calculated for the bufinefs of a
ftate. The difturbances in Poland occafioned a war with
Ruffiain 1768, which was attended with numerous difafters,
fuch as the lofs of Bender and Crim Tartary, the revolt of
the Greeks in the Morea, and the deftruction of a Turkifh
fleet in Leffler Afia. He died in January 1774

MUSTAPHABAD, in Geography, atown of Hindoo-
ftan, in the circar of Sirhind; {even miles N. of Tannafar.
—Alfo,atown of Hindooftan, in Oude; 10 miles N.N.W.
of Munichpour. N. lat. 25° 58’. E. long. 81° 36’.

MUSTAPHINA, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Upha; 11 miles S. of Sterlitamatfk

MUSTARAH, atown of Hindooflan, in the circar of
Gooty ; 33 miles S.W. of Gooty.

MUSTARD, in Botany, Gardening, and the Materia
diatetica and Medica. See SINAPIS.

Mustarp, in Agriculture, a plant of the annual kind, fome-
times cultivated in the field asa crop. It is a fort of plant
that may, in fome cafes, where the foil is fuitable, be grown
to much advantage

It has been ftated by Mr. Young in his Calendar, that in
breaking up the rich common of Marfhland Smeeth, in Nor-

MUS

folk, the crop that was fuppofed to pay better than any other,
was muftard. The foil is arich filt and clay, worth 60s. an
acre. It was ploughed once, and harrowed twice, and fown
one-fourth of a peck of the feed per acre, from Candlemas
to the end of March, according to the weather. Few farmers
have a foil that anfwers for this crop, but where markets are
promifing, they fhould have it in their mind. It may alfo
be added, that itishand-hoedtwice. The crop is reaped in
the beginning of September, being tied in fheaves, and left
three or four days on the ftubble. Itis then ftacked in the
field. It is remarked that rain damages it. A good crop is
fix or feven combs an acre; the price from 7s. to 20s. a
bufhel. -Three or four crops, it is obferved, are taken run-
ning.

And in Kent, according to the furvey of Mr. Boys, white
muttard is cultivated for the ufe of the feedfmen in London.
In the tillage for it, the ploughed land is harrowed over, and
then furrows are ftricken about eleven or twelve inches apart,
fowing the feed in the proportion of two or three gallons per
acre in March. ‘The crop is afterwards hoed and kept free
from weeds. It is ufually ripe about July, when it is reaped
and threfhed out upon a fail cloth in the field.

In order to fave the feeds of this plant, fow a {pot of
ground with it in the {pring ; thin the plants when they have
about four leaves, and at the fame time hoe down the weeds,
asis practifed for turnips. This hoeing is to be repeated in
about a month after, and the plants are then to be left about
eight or nine inches afunder, which will be fufficient {pace
for the growth of this f{pecies. If thefe hoeings are well
performed, in dry weather, they will keep the ground clean
t#l the muftard feeds are ripe. Thi ftalks of this plant,
which are branched and hairy, will then be about two feet
high, and the ripening of its feed is indicated by the pods
changing to a brown colour ; immediately after which they
fhould be cut dewn, dried upon cloths for two or three days,
and then threfhed out for ufe. And the larger kinds of muf-
tard are to be treated in the fame manner; excepting that,
as they grow much larger, a proportionably greater fpace
mutt be left between the plants; and as their feeds will not
ripen fo foon as thofe of the {maller kind, three hoeings, or
rather good deep ftirrings of the ground, may be requilite.

The common muttard grows naturally in many parts of
this kingdom ; but is cultivated in the fields for its feeds, of
which the condiment called muftard is made

In the Annals of Agriculture, Mr. Young fuggelts, that
muitard feed fometimes turns out predigioufly profitable,
that is, three or four, and even five quarters, at 4/. a quar-
ter. But itis hazardous, and has a very great evil, of rifing
afterwards in fucceflive crops, and is hardly ever completely
eradicated afterwards from the land.

Mustarp, Baflard. See CLEoME.

Mustarp Buckler, or Baflard Mithridate.
TELLA.

Mustarp, Hedge. See Erysimum and SisymBriuM.

Musrarp, Hedge, in the Materia Medica. The Eryfimum
officinale, referred by fome botanical writers to /i/ymbrium, is
common on dry banks and wafte places, and flowers from
June till September. The tafte of this herb, and particularly
of the tops of the flower fpikes, is fomewhat acrid. Its
feeds’ are confiderably pungent, and appear to poflefs the
fame quality with thofe of muftard, in a weaker degree. It
is faid to be attenuant, expectorant, and diuretic, and has
been ftrongly recommended in chronical coughs and hoarfe-
nefs. Rondeletius informs us, that the latter complaint, oc-
eafioned by loud {peaking, was cured by this plant in three
days. Other teftimonies of its good effeéts in this diforder
are recorded by writers on the Materia Medica, and among

others

See Biscu-

MUS

others by Dr. Cullen, who, for this purpofe, recommends
the juice of the eryfimum to be mixed with an equal quantity
of honey or fugar. In this way it is alfo faid to be an ufeful
remedy in ulcerations of the mouth and throat. In mott
cafes of difeafe, perhaps the feeds of eryfimum, as being more
pungent, fhould be preferred to its leaves. The Ery/imum
alliaria, fauce-alone, or ftinking hedge-muttard, is common on
hedge-banks, and flowers in May and June. The leaves of
this plant havea moderate acrimony, and a {trong flavour re-
fembling that of garlic or onions; they give the fame kind
of taint to the breath as thofe roots, and have been ufed for
the fame culinary purpofes ; whence the name alliaria. On
drying, however, their fenfible qualities are confiderably di-
minifhed, or entirely loft. ‘ The juice, expreMed from the
frefh leaves,”’ fays Lewis, “is ftrongly impregnated with
their active matter, but lofes the greatett part of it ou being
infpiffated to an extraG with the gentleft warmth ; in its li-
quid ftate, duly fecured from the air, it may be kept unin-
jured for many months. On diftilling the frefh herb with
water, there arifes a {mail portion of eflential oil, which taltes
and {mells very ftrongly. The medicinal charaéter of alliaria
is that of a powerful diaphoretic, diuretic, and antifcorbutic ;
and as partaking of the qualities of garlic, it has been deemed
_ ufeful as an expeCtorant and deobftruent, in humoral afthmas,
and other cafes of dyfpnza. It has alfo been much eiteemed
as an external application, to promote fuppuration; and
Boerhaave informs us, that he cured a gangrene of the leg,
arifing from a neglected fracture and contufion, by applying
the bruifed leaves of alliaria with wine. Woodville Med.
Bot.

This fpecies of eryfimum was formerly eaten as a fallad
herb by the poorer fort of people, who gave it the name of
Sauce-alone. The only officinal preparation of this plant is the
“© Syrupus de eryfimo."’ It is recommended by Dr. Stahl
for {chirro-cancerous tumours, taken internally, and alfo ap-
plied externally to the tumours. We have an account ofits
good effects by M. Bingert, in A&. Med. Berol. Dec. 3.
vol. i. p- 59, '

Mustarn, Mithridate. See THLAsrI.

Musrarp, Rough-podded. See SisyMBRIUM.

Musrarp, Tower. See TurRITIs.

Musrarp, Baffard-Tower. See ARABIs.

Mustarp, Treack. See Tuiaspi and CLyPeova.

MUSTELA, in Natural Hifory, a genus of the clafs
Mammalia, and order Fere. The generic charaéter is, that
it has fix upper fore-teeth, ereét, acuter, diftin& ; and fix
lower, which are more obtufe, and crowded ; two are placed
within ; the tongue is fmooth.

In a variety of cireumftances otters and weefels re-
femble each other; their bodies are long, and of the fame

thicknefs; their feet are fhort, hair fhining and claws im- ’

moveable ; they burrow in the ground, prowl and prey by
night ; but the otters live moftly in water, {wim on the fur-
face and under it, and feed chiefly on fifth. ‘They do not
climb, nor leap with the body curved, and tail ftretched, like
the weefels; the head is larger and thicker; the tongue is
ftrewed with foft prickles; otters have five grinders in each
jaw, on each fide; weefels have four, five or fix.

Naturalifts are very much divided in their methods of
claffing animals of the kind now under confideration. Mr.
Pennant, who is followed by Dr. Shaw, unites the genus
Mufela with the Viverra; but Mr. Pennant includes in his
genus the race of otters; Dr. Shaw preferves the otters or
lutre diltin& from both. We fhall in this cafe, as in others,
follow the Linnzan diyifion, and, according to Gmelin,
there are 28 {pecies, which are divided into thofe that have

Vou. XXIV.

MUS

hind-feet palmate, as otters; and thofe whofe feet are cleft,
as in the cafe of weefels.

A. Hind-feet palmate. Otters.

Species.

Lurris; Sea-Otter. In this fpecies there are two va-
rieties; 1. Hind-feet hairy ; tail one-fourth part as long as the
body. | 2. Black, with a yellow fpot; the firft inhabits the
coafts of Afia and America; the fecond is found in the
rivers of South America. This is one of the largeft of the
otters, meafuring about three feet from the nofe to the tail,
and the tail 1s thirteen inches long. The colour of this
{pecies is a deep, glofly, brownifh-black; the fur being
extremely foft and very fine; the hind-feet refemble thofe of
the feal, the toes being connected by a ftrong granulated
membrane, with a fkin fkirting the outward toe, as in fome
of the water-fowl; the tail is fhort, broad, depreffed, and
pointed at the end. ‘The fea-otter has been found to weigh
70 or 8o pounds. tis met with in great abundance in Beh-
ring’s iflands, Kamtfchatka, the Aleutian and Fox iflands,
between Afia and America. They will fometimes come on
fhore in the Kurile iflands, but are never feen in the channel
between the north-eaft of Siberia and America. They breed
once a year, and are fuppofed to bring but one at a time;
they are extremely harmiefs animals, and fingularly affec-
tionate to their young. This animal is killed for its. {kin ;
which is one of the moft valuable of furs, being fometimes
fold for 25/, tothe Chinefe. Sea-otters are fometimes taken
with nets, but more frequently deftroyed with clubs and
f{pears. They feed chiefly on lobfters and other fhell-fith.

ParaGuensis. This fpecies is mixed with grey and
black; the feet are palmate. It inhabits on the Rio de la
Plata ;, is the fize of a cat; the furis velvety, and the flefh
very delicate.

Cuivensis. The tail of this {pecies is long, round; the
feet very hairy. It is found on the coafts of Chili.

* Lurra; Common Otter, The hind-feet of this {pecies
are naked ; the tail is half the length of the body, This is the
Greater Otter of Pennant, and is found in almoft every part
of Europe ; as well as in the colder regions of Afia; inha-
biting the banks of rivers, and feeding principally on fith.
It is alfo to be met with in the northern parts of America,
where it grows to a much larger fize than the European
{fpecies ; but in the river Euphrates, it is found no larger
than acommon cat; this, perhaps, is a different {pecies, though
fometimes denominated the Lutra. The ufual length of
the common otter is nearly two feet, with a tail of fixteen
inches. The colour of the whole animal is brown, with
fome patches of different colours; the head is broad and
flat ; the mouth {mall ; the teeth ftrong ; the lips very muf-
cular; the ears fhort and rounded; the eyes are {mall, and
the neck very thick; the legs are fhort and thick, loofely
joined to the body, and fo placed as to be capable of being
brought on a line with the body, and of performing the office
of fins; the toes, which are five in number on all the feet,
are connected by broad {trong webs. and the whole foot is
naked, or without hair, The otter fhews great fagacity in
forming its habitation; it burrows under ground, in the
banks of fome river or lake; and always makes the entrance
of itshole under water ; working upwards to the furface of
the earth; and, before it reaches the top, makes {everal
lodges, that in cafe of floods it may have a retreat; to all
thefe he forms an orifice for the admiffion of the air. The
natural food of the common otter is fifh, but when the wea-
ther is hard, and it is hardly driven for food, it will attack the

3 L fmaller

MUSTELA.

{maller quadrupeds, as well as poultry. The female pro-
duces four or five young at a birth; it is faid that otters,
when taken very young, may be trained up to hunt and fifh
for their mafters. The male calls the female by a foft mur-
muring cry.

Canapensis. This is black ; the furis {mocth ; the tail
long and tapering. It inhabits North America, particu-
larly Canada, and is about two feet long ; the tail ten
inches.

Lurreota ; Leffler Otter. The fpecific charaéter of
this is, that it has very hairy feet, equal toes, anda white
mouth. This fpecies very much refembles the M. lutra,
but is confiderably fmaller ; the body is of a dufky colour,
but with a tawny cait; the chin and throat are white ; the
ears are roundifh ; the feet broad, webbed, and covered with
hair, inftead of being naked, asin the former animal. in
North America this {pecies is known by the name of minx,
and is faid fometimes to leave the water, and prey on poultry,
&c, in the manner of a pole-cat; but in Poland and other
parts of Europe, where it is found, it lives chiefly on fifh,
frogs, &c. Its fur is very valuable, and next in beauty to
that of the fable.

CayeEnnensis; Cayenne Otter. Toes on the fore-feet,
unconneéted ; taillong, taper, naked. This fpecies inhabits
Cayenne, and is feven inches long. ;

Minx. The body of this fpecies is of an entirely deep
chefnut. It inhabits North America, on the banks of
rivers; feeds on fifh, birds, and mice, and fometimes haunts
farm-yards.

B. Feet cleft. Weefels.

Species.

Barsata; Guinea Weefel. Black; a white three-lobed

{pot under the neck. This fpecies is found in Guinea and -

Brazil; and is the fize of a martin. ‘The hair is coarfe, the
ears rounded and hairy ; the {pace between the eyes is cine-
reous ; it has four teats.

Ga.era ; Brown Weefel. The body is uniformly
brown. It inhabits Guinea and Madagafcar; burrows like
a rabbit, and is deftruétive to game and poultry. The body
of this fpecies is fhaped like a rat.

Arra; Madagafcar Weefel. The body above is brown,
beneath it is of a pale yellow; the tailis blackifh at the tip.
It inhabits, as its trivial name imports, the ifland of Mada-
gafcar ; and alfo the interior parts of Africa.

Vison. The body of this is bright tawny ; tail dufky.
It inhabits North America; andrefembles the martin, which
will foon be defcribed.

Canapensis; Pekan. Body blackifh-tawny ; but on
the breaft there is a white fpot. Tt inhabits Canada, and is
about two feet long, the tail is ten inches in length.

* Forna; Martin. Body blackifh-tawny ; throat and
breaft white. his is an animal of very elegant appearance.
{ts length from nofe to tail is about eighteen inches, and the
tailis ter inches. Itis a native of mott parts of Europe, in-
habiting woods and fields, and preying on birds and other
fmall animals. If taken young it may be eafily tamed, and
even rendered domettic. It breeds in the hollow of trees,
and brings forth from three to five young atatime. The
fkin is ufed asa fur.

Manres; Pine-Martin. Body blackifh-tawny ; throat
and breaft yellow. This fpecies is found in the northern parts
of Europe, Afia, and America, and is very rarely found in
the fouth; it preys by night; lives by day in hollow trees,
and {quirrels’ nefts ; it feeds on young fquircels, mice, berries,

1

ripe fruits and honey: in the winter it will watch for and
devour pigeons and poultry ; it brings forth feven or eight
young ata time.

Gutanensts; Guinea Martin. Dark-brown; the fore-
head is white; the neck has a long narrow ftripe along the
fide. It inhabits Guinea, is about two fect long, with a tail
of five inches. The fur is fprinkled with black and white.

Lanicer; Woolly Martin. The body of this fpecies
is covered with woolly hair ; the tailis long and tapering. It
inhabits Cayenne, and is fixteen inches long, with a tail of
five inches.

ZIBELLINA 3 Sable. There are three varieties of this
fpecies; 1. Body dark-tawny ; forehead white ; throat cine-
reous ; the 2d is fnowy white; the 3d has a collar of
white or yellow fpots round the neck. This fpecies inhabits
the northern parts of Afia and America, Siberia, Kamt-
{chatka, and the Kurile iflands. it fleeps by day; preys by
night on {maller weefels, {quirrels, and hares; in winter on
birds, particularly on partridges ; in autumn on berries: its
fur is very precious. Formerly, in the Ruffian empire, the
hunting of thefe animals was the tafk impofed on thofe exiles
who were banifhed into Siberia. As that country became
more populous, the fables have, in a good meafure, quitted
it, and retired into the defert forefts and mountains. They
ufually refide on the banks of rivers, or on the {mall iflands
near them. At prefent the fable hunters form them-
felves into parties or troops, from five to forty each ; the laft
fubdivide into leffer parties, and each choofes a leader, but
there is one commander-in-chief that direéts the whole. A
fmall covered boat is prepared for each party, laden with
provifion, a dog and a net for every two men, and a vefiel to
bake their bread in. Each party has alfo an interpreter for
the country they intend to penetrate. Every party then fets
out, according to the courfe their leader points to them. They
afcend the rivers, drawing up their boats, till they arrive in
the hunting country. ‘There they ftop, build huts, and wait
till the waters are frozen, and the feafon commences. Be-
fore they begin the chafe, their leader aflembles them; they
join in a prayer to the Almighty for fuccefs, and then fepa-
rate. The firit fable each party takes is called God’s fable,
and is dedicated to the church.

They then penetrate into the wocds, and mark the trees
as they advance, that they may know their way back. In
their hunting-quarters they form huts of trees, and bank up
the {now around them. Near thefe they lay their traps ;
then advance farther, and lay more traps ; {till building new
huts in every quarter, and returning fucceffively to every old
one, to vifit the traps, and to take out the game, and to fkin
it, which none but the chief of the party muftdo. During
this time they are fupplied with provifions by perfons who
are employed to bring it on fledges from the places on their
route, where they are obliged to form magazines. The
traps are a fort of pit-falls, with a loofe board placed over
each, baited with fifh or flefh, When fables grow fearce, the
hunters trace them on the new fallen {now to their holes,
place their nets at the entrance, and fometimes wait, watch-
ing two or three days for the coming out of the animal,
It has happened that thefe poor people have, by the failure
of their provifions, been fo pinched with hunger, that, to
prevent the cravings of appetite, they have been reduced to
take two thin boards, one of which they apply to the pit of
the ftomach, the other to the back, drawing them tight to-
gether by cords placed at the ends. Such, fays Mr. Pen-
nant, are the hardfhips our fellow creatures undergo, to fup-

ly the wantonnefs of luxury !

The feafon of chafe being finifhed, the hunters re-affemble,

report

MUSTELA.

report to their leader the number of fables each has taken,
make complaints of offenders again{t their regulations, punifh
delinquents, and fhare the booty. They then continue at
the head-quarters till the rivers are clear of ice ; when they
return home, and give to every church the dedicated furs.
The price of thefe furs varies from one to about ten pounds
fterling. Fine and middling fkins are fold without the
bellies ; the coarfe ones with them. The fineft fables are
fold in pairs perfectly fimilar ; and fuch pairs are dearer than
fingle ones of the fame goodnefs; for the Ruffians want thofe
in pairs for facing caps, cloaks, and tippets. The blackeft
are reputed the beft. Sables are in feafon from November
to February ; thofe caught at any other time of the year are
fhort-haired. The hair of fables differs in length and qua-
lity. The more a fkin has of fuch long hairs, and the blacker
they are, the more valuable is the fur. The very beft have
no other but thofe long black hairs. Below the long hairs
there are, in the greater part of fable furs, fome fhorter.
Befide various other particulars refpeCting the fur, the fur-
riers attend much to the fize, always preferring, ceteris pa-
ribus, the biggeft, and thofe that have the greateft glofs.
The glofs vanifhes in old furs; the frefh ones have, what
dealers in furs call, a bloomy appearance ; the old ones are
faid to have done blooming. The dyed fables always lofe
their glofs, and become lefs uniform, whether the lower
hairs have taken the dye or not, and the hairs are commonly
twifted or crifped, and not fo ftraight as the natural ones.
Some fumigate the fkins to make them look blacker ; but
the {mell, and the crifped condition of the long hair, betray
the cheat ; but dyeing and fumigating ar2 both detected by
rubbing the fur with a moift linen cloth, which grows black
in fuch cafes. The Chinefe havea way of dyeing the fables,
fo that the colour not only lafts, which is more than the
Roffian cheats can effet ; but the fur keeps its glofs, fo that
the fraud can only be deteéted by the crifped hairs.

The country about the river Ud affords fometimes fables,
of which one is often fold for twelve or fourteen pounds fter-
ling. The béllies of fables, which are fold in pairs, are
about two fingers’ breadth, and are, like the fkins, tied to-
gether in parcels of forty each. One of thefe parcels fells
from one to two pounds tterling ; tails are fold by the hun-
dred ; the very beft furs mutt have their tails, but ordinary
ones are often cropped. A hundred fell for from four-to
eight pounds. White fables are rare ; they are not common
merchandize, but bought only as curiofities. Some are yel-
lowifh, and are bleached in the fpring on the fnow. The
common fables are fcarcely any thing better in hair and co-
lour than the martin. -

The fable is alfo found in North America. The Ruffians
have often difcovered the fina mixed with thofe of martins
in the fur dreffes, which they get from the Americans by
way of exchange. Their fur is more gloffy than that of the
Siberian fable, and of a bright chefnut colour, but of a
coarfer quality. The length of the American fable is about
twenty inches ; the trunk of the tail is only five; but from
the rump to the end of the hairs eight. His ears are more
pointed than thofe of the A fiatic fable ; its feet are large and
hairy, both above and below ; it “has five toes, with white
claws on each foot. The colour of its head and ears is
whitifh ; its whifkers are fhort and black; its whole body
of a light tawny ; its feet are brown.

AMERICANUS ; American Sable. Body light and tawny,
head and ears whitifh. Jt inhabits North America, and is
about 20 inches long.

Nicra; Fifher Weefel. Back, belly, legs, and bufhy
tail black; the fidesare brown. This ¥s a native of North
America, where it is fuppofed to be pretty common, as not

lefs than five or fix hundred flcins have been brought, in one
feafon, from New York and Pennfylvania. Though the
general colours are thofe that have been defcribed above, yet
they vary, and.in fome inftances the animal is nearly black.

*Purorius; Pole-cat. Body blackifh-yellow ; mouth
and ears white. This is one of the moft remarkable of the
weefel tribe; its colour is an extremely deep blackifh-brown,
with a tawny caft flightly intermixed. It is about feventeen
inches long, exclufive of the tail, which meafures fix inches.
It 1s found in moft countries of Europe, and alfo in many
parts of Afia, and in Siberia; it forms itfelf a fubterraneous
retreat, fometimes beneath the roots of large trees, fome-
times under hay-ricks and in barns. It preys indifcriminately
on the fmaller animals, and is very deftru@tive to poultry.
During the fummer it frequents rabbit warrens, or the hol-
low trunks of trees, and other places of the fame kind. It
is a ftrong and aétive creature, and will {pring with great
vigour and celerity when preparing to attack its prey, or
to efcape from its purfuit. It emits a fmell proverbially
fetid, being furnifhed, like feveral others of the weefel tribe,
with certain receptacles which fecrete a thickifh fluid of a
peculiarly {trong and offenfive odour. The fur is beautiful,
and when properly drefled, is numbered among the com-
mercial furs ufed as articles of drefs.

* Furo; Ferret. Eyes red and fiery: this animal, in
its general form, refembles the pole-cat, but is a good deal
{maller. It is a native of Africa, and fupports with diffi-
culty an European winter ; it is, however, tamed in Europe
for the purpofe of catching rats and rabbits. It alfo breeds
in this and other European countries, and hence is regarded
as natural to us. It fleeps almoft continually, and when
awake, immediately begins to fearck for food ; it is ufually
fed with bread and milk, but its favourite food is the blood
of the fmaller animals. The ferret was brought into Spain
from Africa; probably for the purpofe of freeing that
country from the vaft number of rabbits with which it was
overrun, and from Spain it was gradually introduced into
other European tates. It is very irafcible, and when irri-
tated, his odour, which is at all times offenfive, becomes
far more fo than ufual. The general colour of the ferret is
very pale yellowifh-brown, or cream colour.

SARMATIANA ; Sarmatian Weefel. The upper part of the
body is yellow and brown. It refembles the pole-cat, but
is larger; the hair, excepting on the feet and tail, is
fhorter.

Sririca ; Siberian Weefel. The body is tawny ; and
the feet very hairy. It inhabits the woods of Siberia; is
voracious, devours flefh, and fteals butter from the huts of
the peafants; the tail is hairy, and darker than the body ;
the fur is long and loofe; the face is black; the noftrils
whitifh ; about the eyes it is fpotted, and the throat is fome-
times {potted with white.

* Erminea. Tail black at the tip; there are two va-
rieties : in the firft the body has a reddifh tmge ; this is the
Englih ftoat ; in the fecond, the body is white, and the tail
is blackifh at the tip; this is the ermine. It inhabits Eu-
rope, and the colder parts of America, Afia, and China;
it lives in heaps of ftones, banks of rivers, hollow trees, and
forefts, efpecially of beech; preys on fquirrels, mice, and
fmall animals. In Norway and in Siberia, the fkins are a
great article of commerce; moft of the ermine or white
itoat-fkins being brought from thence. In Siberia, the
{toat is faid to be found in birch forefts, and the fkins are
fold on the fpot, at from two to three pounds per hundred.
The animals are ¢ither taken in traps, or fhot with blunt
arrows. s

* Vuicaris; Common Weefel. Body tawny-brown, be

342 neath

MUS

neath white ; the tailis the fame colour as that of the body ;
there is a variety in which the body is white; tip of the
tail with a few black hairs. This {pecies inhabits the tem-
perate and cold regions of Europe, Afia, and America; in
Ruffia it becomes white in winter; it is about half the fize
of the ermine ; it eats fifh, flefh, mice, eggs, and fungi; but
no other vegetables ; it preys by night, getsinto the holes of
mice, and devours them, leaving the teeth only; in its
habits it is fetid, dirty, and drinks often; it 1s very cunning,
continually looks about, and is not eafily deftroyed by a cat.
From the extreme flexibility of its body, and its wonderful
ativity, it readily afcends the fides of walls, and by this
means purfues its prey into the moft diftant retirements, and
it is a frequent inhabitant of barns and granaries. It brings
forth four or five young at atime, preparing for them a bed
of mofs, grafs, &c.

Metina; Yellow Weefel. Back and belly pale cine-
reous-yellow ; face, crown, legs, and tail black.

Quiaui. Bedy brown ; {nout wedge-form. This {pe-
cies inhabits Chili, living under ground, and feeding on mice ;
it is principally diftinguifhed by its wecge-fhaped fnout ;
the ears are fhort and round, with a white {pot in the middle ;
the legs and tail are fhort ; the feet like thofe of a lizard;
the length of the animal is from nofe to tail about thirteen
inches. :

Musteta, in Ichthyology. See Gavus Muffela.

Musteva Africana, in Zoology. See Scrurus Palmarum.

Mustera Daurica, &c. See Lepus Aipinus.

Musteta Fluviatilis, in Ichthyology. See Gapus Lota,
and Erx-Pout. See alfo Perromyzon.

Musreta Fofflis. See Coziris Fojfilis.

Musrera Lumpenus, a name given by Artedi, from Ray
and others, to that f{pecies of blennius, called fimply /umpen
at Antwerp, and by Gefner galea.

It is diftinguifhed, by Artedi, from the other blenni, by
a {pecific name, expreffing that it has four bifid cirri or beards,
growing under the throat, and tranfverfe areole or ftreaks
onthe back. It is found inthe clayey and fandy bottom of
the European feas, and conceals itfelf among the fuci on the
fhore, where it depofits its fpawn in July. It is fmooth,
with {mall rounded feales, of a palifh colour, the head yel-
lowifh, the body narrow, and the fpinous radii of the dor-
fal fin are marked backwards. See BLENNIUS.

Mustexta Marina. See Perromyzon Marinus.

Musteva Vivipara, the Blennius viviparus. See Ert-
Pout.

MUSTELINUM Genus, in Zoology, the name of a clafs
of animals, fo called from their general likenefs to the wee-
felin fhape: they are all carnivorous animals, and are dif-
tinguifhed from the other guadrupeds of that fort by their
{mallnefs, the length of their bodies, and the {mallnefs and
narrownefs of their heads. Their feet are fmall, and their
legs fhort, whence they are formed for running into holes or
crannies; their teeth are lefs numerous than in many quadru-
peds; in the dog kind there are forty, and in thefe but
thirty-two. Their inteflines are fhort and fimple; they have
no colon nor cecum, nor any diftinGtion of great and {mall

guts. Ray.

MUSTELUS Spinax, in Jchthyology, a name given by
Bellonius, and fome other writers, to the fith called galeus
acanthias, a {pecies of fqualu See Squatus Acanthias,

and SPINAX.

Mustraiyus Levis, aname by which Aldrovandus, and fome
others, have called the fith diftinguifhed by others by the name
of galeus levis, the fmooth hound-hth. See SquaLus Mu/-

telus

MUS

Mustevus Levis, a name of a kind of fhark; called alfo -
the canis galeus, and canofa. See Squatus Galeus.

MUSTER, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Cour-
land; 56 miles S.E. of Seelburg.

Muster, in Military Language, denotes a review of a
body of military forces under arms, in order to take account
of the numbers, condition, accoutrements, arms, &c.

The word is formed of the French, mouftre, /pecimen, a fhow
or exhibition. See Review. ;

It is needlefs to enquire into the antiquity of mufters, fince
they muft have exifted ever fince an army has been aflembled.
Without a mutter it would not be known whether the feudal
tenants, or others liable to furnifh foldiers, had provided
their due number, nor could a general otherwife know the
true ftrength of his army, the ground they would occupy,
the quantity of provifion and forage neceflary for their fub-
filtence, and that of their horfes; nor the money required
for paying them. ‘The objeét of a multer was not only to
afcertain the number of men and horfes, but likewile to exa--
mine their armour and weapons. Great abufes having crept
into the pra¢tice of multering the troops half-yearly, fo that
the real effeCtive {trength of the army could never be exaétly
afcertained, a new regulation has taken place, in virtue of
which the feveral regiments and corps are muttered every
month by the regimental paymatter, and detachments of re-
giments in the refpe¢tive diftriéts in which they are ftationed,
by an officer called paymatter of the diftrid. Thefe have fu-
perfeded the commifiaries of mufters ; and the pay-lifts and
mutter-rolls of the army are thus made to tally with each
other. By 49 Geo. III. c. 12. every regiment, troop, or
company is to multer twice a year, at lealt.

Muster, Fale. See FALSE.

Musrer-mafler-general, or Commiffary-general of Mufters,
is an officer in the army, who takes account of every regi-
ment, their number, horfes, arms, &c. Iu the ordinances
of war made by king Henry V. this officer is mentioned,
and his power and duty are defcribed. See Commissary.

Muster Rolls are lifts of the foldiers in every troop, com-
pany, regiment, &c. delivered by the captains to the com-
miflary : by which they are paid, and the ftrength of the
regiment known.

MUSTERED of Record (ftat. 18 Hen. VI.) denotes a
being enrolled in the number of the king’s foldiers.

MUSTERING, in Sea Language, is the a& of calling
over a lift of the whole fhip’s company, or any particular
detachment thereof, who are accordingly f{ummoned to anfwer
by their names on the occafion. :

MUSTEWAH,, in Geography, a mountain of Algiers ;
40 miles S. of Conftantina.

MUSTYGANNIM, Mosracan, or Moflaganin, a fea-
port town of Algiers, in the province of Maf{cara or Tre-
mecen, fuppofed to be the ‘* Cartenna”’ of Pliny and Pto-
lemy. It is builtin the form of a theatre, with a full pro-
fpeét of the fea; but in every other direGtion it is furrounded
with hills. In one of the vacant {paces about the middle of
it are the remains of a Moorifh caftle. ‘The N.W. corner of
the city, which overlooks the port, is furrounded with a wall
of hewn {tone ; and has another caftle built in a more re-
gular manner, defended by a Turkifh garrifon ; however, the
chief fecurity of the place depends upon the citadel, which is
built on one of the adjoining eminences, and commands both
the city and country. ‘The town is well fupplied with water,
and its haven is commodious and fafe. Neverthelefs, though
it is one of the largeft towns in the province of Mafcara, it
is neither beautiful, nor has any flourifhing trade or manu-
facture. Behind itgrifes mount Magaraba, fo called from a
people of that name, who inhabit it, This mount extends

itfelf

MU T

itfelf about 10 leagues from E. to W. along the Mediter-
ranean coa{t. The occupiers live in tents, feed a great mul-
titude of flocks, and pay 12,000 crowns yearly to the dey of
Algiers. The town is diftant eight miles N.E. from T're-
mecen.- N, lat. 36°6'. E. long. 0 30!.

MUSUELA, atown of Spain, in the province of Jaen,
on the left bank of the Guadalquivir ; feven miles N.E. of
Jaen.

MUSUMA, atownof Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ;
63 miles W. of Meaco.

MUSURUS, Marcus, in Biography, a modern Greek,
was born in the ifle of Crete about the year 1481; from
thence he went to Italy, where he ftudied under the learned
John Lafcaris, and by an almoft inceffant application he
acquired a thorough knowledge of Greek and Latin litera-
ture. In the Latin he was thought by Erafmus to be
better fkilled than almoft any other Greek, excepting his
preceptor, and Theodore Gaza. From 1503 to 1509, he
was Greek profeflor in the univerfity of Padua, where his
falary was trifling, and his labour very great. When the
univerfity of Padua was broken up by the wars, Mufurus
went to Venice, where he publicly taught Greek many
years to a numerous audience with great applaufe. At the
fame time he affifted Aldus Manutius in his editions of the
Greek writers, many of which he correéted, prefixing to
them Greek epigrams or prefaces of his own compofition.
Of thefe, his elegy prefixed to the Aldine edition of Plato,
in 1543, is the moft celebrated. In 1516, he was invited
to Rome by Leo XI., who prefented him with the arch-
bifhopric of Malvafia, but he enjoyed this dignity only a
fhort time. He died in the following year, at the early age
of thirty-fix, juft at the period when the higheft expeéta-
tions were entertained by the learned of his future fervices
in the caufe of literature. Of his epigrams, feveral have
been publifhed, with his Encomium of Plato.

MUT, in Geegraphy, a town of Hindoottan, in Bahar ;
25 miles S. of Patna.

Durum

ee.

Naturale

Sol F plas

femal sist ( £, anaes oP la

1 OE a

See Sormyssation, GAmmMur, and Harmonic Hann.

Mimae) ot lal Nees § mila, is

MUT

Murt-Bedr, a town of Egypt, on the E. branch of the
Nile; four miles $.W. of Manfora.

Mur-Kamar, atown of Egypt, on the E. branch of the
Nile; 23 miles N. of Cairo.

Murt-el-Koli, a town of Egypt; 12 miles S. of Da-
mietta.

MUTABILIS Lapis, in Natural Hiffory, a name given
by fome to the femi-pellucid gem, more commonly called
oculus mundi.

MUTABILITY is oppofed to immutability.

MUTARE Anma. See Arma.

MUTATION, the aé of changing, or fometimes the
change itfelf,

It is one of the laws of nature, that the mutation of motion
is eyer proportional to the moving force imprefled. See
Narure and Motion.

Murations, in Mujfic, are the changes in the names of
the notes in folfaing by the hexachords. Ina feries of fix
founds, in the hexachord of G durum, or G with a major
34, no change of name is required afcending or defcending.
Ut, or do, re, mi, fa, fol, la: la, fol, fa, mi, re, do, are
the names of all the intervals in that compafs; but in com-
pleting the oGtave, which cannot be done without encroach-
ing on the hexachord of C natural, the mutations begin. It
is the fame in the hexachord of C; when a 7th found is
wanted, it muit, if minor or flat, belong to the molle hexa-
chord of F; if major, or natural, to G. See Hexa-
CHORDS.

Dominico Pedro Cerone, in an elaborate work, written in
the Spanifh language, and publifhed at Naples 1613, has
taken great pains to throw a light upon the fubje€@t, which
he fays he found, by his own experience, extremely dark
and difficult. He minutely goes through all the feven hexa-
chords, fhews their connection with each other, and gives
fcales to manifeft the mutations, which, in afcending beyond
ahexachord, are made by the fyllable re, and, in defcending,
by da.

MU T
MUTATIONES, among the Romans, poft ftages, or

places where the public couriers were fupplied with frefh
horfes.

The mutationes were wholly defigned for the ufe of thefe
couriers, or meffengers of ftate; in which refpeé&t they differed
from manfiones.

MUTBUNNY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Bahar; 23 miles S.S.E. of Bettiah. N. lat. 26°28’. E.
long. 85° 2!.—Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 15
miles N.E. of Durbungah. N. lat. 26° 20’. E. long.
86° 16’.

MUTCHANG, atown of Meckley; 104 miles §.5.E.
of Munnypour.

MUTCHKIN, a liquid meafure-ufed in Scotland ; it
contains four gills, and is the fourth part of a Scotch pint.
See Pint, Measure, &c.

MUTE, Dvumz, denotes a perfon that cannot fpeak, or
has not the ufe of fpeech. See Dump.

Mates and dwarfs make their fortune in the grand fignior’s
feraglio. The mutes ferve as executioners to take off per-
fons of the firft rank.

Mute, in Law, a perfon that ftands dumb or fpeech-
lefs, when he ought to anfwer or plead.

A prifoner may ftand mute, two ways. 1. When he {peaks
not at all: in which cafe it is inquired, whether he ftand
mute of malice, or by the act of God; if by-the latter,
then the judge, ex officio, ought to inquire whether he be
the fame perfon ; and of all other pleas, which he might
haye pleaded if he had not ftood mute. 2. When he pleads
not directly, or will not put himfelf upon the inqueft to be
tried. If hebe found to be obftinately mute, then, if it be
on an indi&ment of high treafon, it is clearly fettled that
ftanding mute is equivalent to a conviction, and he fhall re-
ceive the fame judgment and execution. So likewife, in
petty larceny, and in all mifdemeanors, ftanding mute is
equivalent to conviction. But in appeals or indiétments for
other felonies, or petit treafon, it was the cuftom till of late
not to confider him conviéted, fo as to pafs judgment for the
felony ; but for his obftinacy he was to receive the terrible
fentence of penance, or paine forte et dure. Before this was
pronounced, the prifoner was allowed not only trina admonitia,
but alfo a convenient refpite for a few hours, and the fentence
was diftinétly read to him, that he might know his danger ;
and, after all, if he continued obftinate, and his offence was
clergyable, he was allowed the benefit of his clergy, even
though he was too ftubborn to pray it. But in this refpect
the law is now altered ; for by 12 Geo. III. cap. 20. iland-
ing mute in felony or piracy is made a conviction.

To advife a prifoner to ftand mute is an high mifprifion,
a contempt of the king’s court, and punifhable by fine and
imprifonment.

Mure, in Grammar, a letter which is not founded, or
heard in the pronunciation ; ora letter which yields no found
of itfelf, and without a vowel.

The confonants are ordinarily diftinguifhed into mutes,
and liquids or femi-vowels. See Consonant, Liquin, &c.

The mutes in the Englifh alphabet are eleven; viz. B,
C, D, F, G, J, K, P,Q, T, V. They are called mutes,
becaule a liquid cannot be founded in the fame fyllable be-
fore them, as rpo; but a mute may be pronounced in the
fame fyllable before a liquid, as pro.

MUTEFERRIRA, a body of horfe kept up in Egypt,
in the fervice of the grand fignior ; thefe, with the chaoufes.
were originally the guards of the fultans of Egypt. This
is a body of the greatelt dignity, and is exprefled by the
word, which fignifies a chofen people.

MUTHAY, in /chthyology, a {pecies of fith refembling eels,

MU T

in Hudfon's Bay. They are principally caught in winter
with hooks, through openings made in the ice.

MUTHEL, Joann Goprrirn, in Biography, a Ger-
man mufician fettled at Riga, who, though but little known
in his own country, was a mufician of great abilities both as
acompofer and performer. He was a worthy difciple of
Sebaftian Bach, and had refided fome time at Schwerin be-
fore he went to Riga. When a ftudent at Leipfic, he van-
quifhed all the difficulties to be found in the leffons and organ
pieces of his mafter and of Handel; then he feems to have
made Emanuel Bach his model of compofition. Should a
young profeffor on keyed-inftruments, who had fubdued all
the difficulties of his predeceffors, lament, like another Alex-
ander, that nothing more remained to conquer, we would
recommend to him, as an exercife for patience and perfeve-
rance, the compofitions of Mithel, and perhaps Beéthoven,
which are fo full of novelty, tafte, grace, and malterly de-
figns, that we fhould not hefitate to rank them among
the greateft productions of the laft and prefent age.

The firft of Muthel’s works that we can trace were odes,
printed at Hamburgh in 1759; the reft, which are all for
the harpfichord, appeared in the following order: three fo-
natas and two airs, with twelve variations, Nuremberg 1760.
Two concertos, printed by Hartknock, Riga and Mittau,
1767. Duetto for two clavichords, two harpfichords, or two
piano fortes, printed by Hartknock, Riga, 1771.

Though the ftyle of this compofer refembles that of Ema-
nuel Bach more than any other, the paflages are entirely his ~
own, and refle&t as much honour on his head as his hand.
Indeed his produétions abound with difficulties, which to
common hearers, as well as common players, mutt, thirty
years ago, have appeared too ftudied and elaborate ; for
even his accompaniments are fo charged as to require per-
formers for each inftrument of equal abilities to his own,
which is expecting too much, in muficjans of this nether
world.

«© Odi s’io fon finccio ;
Ancor mi fembra bella,
Ma non mi fembra quela
Che paragon non ha,”

Metattafio.

« Nor do thy ftrains, though fweet,
At prefent fo excel,
as thofe which blame defeat,
And have no parallel.”

From having, in 1772, feen few of the works of Vanhal
or Haydn, and none of Mozart, except his childifh pro-
ductions which Bremner printed on fpeculation; we ad-
miredhe taite, invention, high finifhing, complication, and
equality of grace and melody which he gave to all the parts of
his concertos, and praifed them fo highly ; {peaking at the
fame time of the difficulty of their execution, in fuch a way
as frightened ftudents, and perhaps fome able maiters, from
attempting them. But after having loft them for many
years, on recovering and deliberately examining them, we
find the two great laws laid down by Rouffeau, and gene-
rally adopted, infringed: the want of /ymmetry and pire
logy in the number of bars, and unity of melody. ut
«‘ what can we reafon, but from what we know?’ ‘Thefe
laws, we fuppofe, were unknown in Germany at this time.
Mithel’s paflayes are new and difficult ; more in the ftyle of
his fellow ftudent Emanuel Bach than any other; but lefs
phrafed and graceful. His clofes are now become antique.
His graces are mifapplied. Shakes and trills on the firlt and
laft notes of a bar have been long banifhed. Indeed, we be-

lieve

MUT

lieve they have had no admiffion in the vocal mufic of Italy
fince the time of Piccini and Sacchini, who never admitted
them. But the elaboration of his feveral parts furprifes us
now as much as ever; though the difficulty of their execution,
in fome mealure, arifes from the want of phrafeology and
puntuation. How difficult it would be to read Milton’s
blank verfe without ftops; or even Dryden’s and Pope's
heroic verfe, if printed like profe! We thould like to fee
his concertos feored. He found, doubtlefs, that his duet
could not be executed from fingle parts; and it has been
only in looking at fingle parts of his concertos that we have
difcovered what will now be called defects, from laws potte-
rior to the time when Miithel’s compofitions were printed.
Rouffeau would admire his paflages ; but fay, that fimplicity
was wanting. In ‘ La Paffione di Jomelli,”? which we fent
him, he faid it was, ‘*a compofition worthy of being
ranked with the productions of Pergoleli, except in _/impit-
city ;” and he was right.

After having ranked Miithel fo high thirty-four years
ago, it is neceflary that we fhould aflign reafons for the
warmth of our eulogy. If judged by laws which did not
exift in 1772, or at leaft were not eflablifhed throughout
Europe, the cenfure might doubtlefs admit of fome exte-
nuation. Grace, the principal feature in mufic, (and per-
haps in all the fine arts,) depends on phrafeology, fymmetry,
and correfpondent arrangement of paflages with refpeé to
time. ‘This frequently happened by chance in Italy. We
believe it was conftant and inftinétive in Corelli; but not
from refle&tion or principle. Handel, from feeling, feldom
was deficient in phrafeology.

Both Mithel’s concertos were publifhed in 1767: Rouf-
feau’s Lettre fur la Mufique Frangoife in 1751, fixteen years
anterior. His firlt, concerto concertato, conlifts of cembalo, two
violins, tenor and bafe. The fecond of cembalo concerto,
accompanied by two violins, two baffoons or violoncelli,
tenor, and ripieno bafe.

We think Miuthel much inferior to Emanuel Bach in
grace ; but fuperior to him in the folo parts given to the
harpfichord, in which there are many common and unmean-
ing divifions ; which, after the refinement and invention of his
fonatinas, as he calls them, dedicated to the princefs Emilia
of Pruffia, furprifed and difappointed us. But in no one
of Miithel’s folo parts in his concertos is there a fingle com-
mon orvulgar paflage to be found. He is, we believe, the
firit who wrote appoggiature in large notes, the exact length
they fhould be played. The double dot, if noc the firft who
ufed it in Germany, he was, at leaft, the fecond after Ema-
nuel Bach. We ufed it in 1760 in a book of leffons, before
we had feen the produéiions of either.

Having made thefe remarks on his concertos, and reco-
vered his duet for two piano fortes, harpfichords, or clavi-
chords, printed in a four-ftaff {core, we fhall examine it with
equal rigour. :

Rouffeau faw the too great refearch and want of fimpli-
city in Jomelli’s Miferere, and in the Mattutina di morti
of Perez. Our friend Rouffeau, (as a writer on mufic, )
puthed /implicity, and unity of melody, perhaps too far : there
are effects produced by harmony and medulation, occafion-
ally, quite independent of melody.

Mitthel’s works are become very fcarce, and, on account
of their difficulty, were never much known. We cannot
afford plates for examples of what we now object to him ;
and thefe remarks are added to his article here to account for
our unqualified praife at one period of refinement in the art
of mufic, and confeffing him not free from cenfure at another,
The duet is ftill a curious compofition, manifefting a
powerful hand, great fertility of invention, and a talte and

MUT

refinement unknown, at the time, to all Europe, except to
the Bach fchool.

MUTILATED Cornicue. See Cornicue.

Muritaten Medals. See Mepar.

Mutitatep Roof. See Roor.

MUTILATION, the retrenching, or cutting away,
any member of the body. See MAuem.

The ufe of the word is alfo extended to ftatues and
buildings, where any part is wanting, or the projecture of
any member, as a corniche, or an impott, is broken off.

MutIvaTron is fometimes alfo ufed in a more immediate
manner, for ca{tration.

MUTILLA, in Natural Hiffory, a genus of infects of
the order Hymenoptera. The generic character is, an-
tennz filiform; feelers four, of which the articulations are
obconic, feated on the tip of the lip; the jaw is mem-
branaceous at the tip; the lip is projecting obconic; in
mott {pecies there are no wings; the body is pubefcent ;
the thorax retufe behind ; the fting is pungent and concealed.
There are nearly forty

Species.

Hetvora. The colour of this fpecies is pale claret-red ;
the abdomen is cylindrical, pubefcent at the tip; and the
thighs are compreffed. It inhabits the Cape of Good

Hope.
CocctneA. Scarlet; abdomen is marked with a black
belt. It inhabits North America. The wings are black,

but in general it is an apterous infect.

Anticuensis. This fpecies is fcarlet; tip of the ab-
domen black, with white ftreaks. It inhabits Antigua.

Gurneensis. Thorax fubfpinous, variolous, piceous ;
abdomen black, with two white dots, and an interrupted
band. It inhabits Guinea, and is large.

Diavema. Black; abdomen with two large yellow
dots at the bafe, and an interrupted band in the middle;
the tip has a white line. It is found in Surinam, and is

large.
Americana. Black; abdomen with four yellowih
fpots, and three white lines. Found in South America.
Formicarra. Black; abdomen with a line of whitith

dots down the back. It inhabits New Holland. There is
a {pecimen of it in the mufeum of fir J. Banks.

Exutans. Black; abdomen with two yellow dots at
the bafe, an interrupted ftreak in the middle, and a line be-
hind. It inhabits America.

AvraTA. Blueifh; abdomen with a large fpot. In-
habits New Holland, and may be feen in fir J. Banks’
mufeum.

* Europea. Black; thorax rufous; fegments of the
abdomen with white margins. This is defcribed in Mr
Donovan’s interefting work on Englifh infects. The ab-
domen has two white bands, the fecond is interrupted.

Ruricornis. Black; antenne rufous; tail whitifh.
Found in New Holland. A fpecimen is preferved in fir J,
Banks’ mufeum.

Arrata. Black; upper part of the thorax rufous;
abdomen blue, with two white bands. It is an African ine
fed.

Mavra.
rax rufous.

Hungarica.
abdomen with fix white dots, and a ftreak behind.
in Saxony.

CoronaTa.
abdomen with a filvery white dot, with two freaks.
in Saxony.

Black ; abdomen with four white {pots; tho-
Found in divers parts of Europe.
Black; front cinereous; thorax rufous;

Found

Black; front cinereous; thorax rufous;
Found

HALensis.

MUT

Harensis. Hairy and black; thorax rufous; abdomen
with two white dots, and a band behind. It inhabits alfo
Saxony. ie ¢

Arenanta. Hairy, black; front and back of the tho-
rax white; abdomen with four white fpots. Found in the
fandy plains of Spain.

Barpary. Hairy and black; fore-part of the thorax
eae abdomen with two white bands. It inhabits Bar-
ary.

Epuippium. Hairy and blacks thorax rufous on the
back. Inhabits Saxony,

Irarica. Hairy and black; fecond fegment of the ab-
domen rufous. Inhabits Italy.

PpEMONTANA. Hairy and black; fore-part of the

thorax cinereous ; abdomen with two cinereous bands; the
fecond fegment rufous. Inhabits Italy, and is as big again
as the M. italica.

VERSICOLOR.
in the middle, with a white band, ia
It inhabits America.

Recatis. Hairy, black; front cinereous; thorax ru-
fous; abdomen with four white dots, the middle one elon-

Abdomen black at each end, and rufous
which is a black dot.

gated. Found in Hungary.

Rouricottis. Hairy and black; thorax rufous. Found
in Italy.

Ciuiata. Hairy, black; thorax rufous; fegments of

the abdomen edged with a cinereous fringe. It inhabits
Saxony.

ERYTHROCEPHALA. Hairy and black; head rufous;
abdomen with three gold bands.

Graprata. Glabrous, black; thorax and abdomen

rufous beneath. It is found in the Eait, and is a {mall in-
feé.
Rurires. This fpecies is hairy and black; antenne,

thorax, and legs rufous; abdomen with a white dot, and
two approximate bands. It inhabits Saxony, and is
fmall. v

MEeELANoceruALA. Hairy and rufous; head and tip of
the abdomen black. It inhabits France.

Niecrires. Rufous; the tail is black, with approximate
white ftreaks ; legs black. Lt inhabits the Ealt.

Inpica. Black; abdomen with a pale yellow band
and white line. Found in the Eaft Indies and South
America.

Bruta. Black; thorax rufous; abdomen with fix
filvery-white {pots and band. It inhabits Calabria.

Litrorauts. Black; thorax rufous; fore-part of the
abdomen with a two-lobed white fpot; the five hind feg-
ments edged with white. This alfo is found in Calabria.

Spinosa. Yellowifh, varied with black; thorax with
four {pines on each fide; the fecond fegment of the ab-
domen has two teftaceous fpots. It inhabits America.

Cepnatores. Head large and black, fpinous on each
fide ; abdomen with a gold fpot, and three white interrupted
bands. Found in Georgia.

Birascrata. Black; head and thorax red; abdomen
with two red bands; the wings are violet-black. Found in
New York.

6-PUNCTATA.
late ; abdomen with three whitifh dots on each fide.
habits Africa.

6-MACULATA.
with a row of three whitifh {pots on each fide.
habits India.

MUTILUS, the name given by fome to the common
mufcle.

MUTINA, in Ancient Geography, a municipal city of

Black; thorax fubcylindrical, immacu-
It in-

Black ; thorax rufous above; abdomen
It in-

MUT
Gallia Cifpadana, fituated towards the eaft, and near Scul-
tena. It received a Roman colony about the year 5723
now Modena, which fee. J

MUTINY, in a Military Senfe, denotes an infurreCtion
again{t authority.

An aé is annually paffed by parliament, called the mutiny
act, to punifh mutiny and defertion, and for the better pay-
ment of the army and their quarters. 5

This regulates the manner in which they are to be dif-
perfed among the feveral inn-keepers and victuallers through
the kingdom, and eftablifhes a law martial for their govern-
ment. By this, befides other things comprifed in the Ar-
ricLes of War, enumerated and enforced in this a@t, (fee
49 Geo. IIT. c. 12.) it is enaéted, that if any officer or
foldier fhall excite, or join any mutiny, or, knowing of it,
fhall not give notice to the commanding officer ; or {hall de-
fert, or lilt in any other regiment, or fleep upon his poft,
er leave it before he is relieved, or hold correfpondence with
a rebel cr an enemy, or ftrike or ufe violence to his fuperior
officer, or fhall difobey his lawful commands ; fuch offender
fhall fuffer fuch punifhment as a court-martial fhall infli€,
though it extend to death itfelf. :

After the abdication of king James II., and the acceffion
of king William I1I., the military code obtained the fanc-
tion of parliament, though pafled only from year to year,
under the denomination of the mutiny aét- The firft of
thefe a&s pafled on the 12th of April 1689, and was to
continue in force to the roth of November in the fame year.
See Army. te

MUTIS, Josepn CeLEstine, in Biography, a learned
Spanifh Phyfician and Divine, celebrated for his botanical
difcoveries in the country of New Granada, and no lefs:dif-
tinguifhed by the excellence of his charater, than the extent
and variety of his knowledge, was born at Cadiz in 1734, of
an Italian father and a Spanifh mother. His parents placed
him under the tuition of Don Pedro Virgilio, Principal
Navy Surgeon, and Profeflor im the Military Academy of
Cadiz, honourably mentioned in Loefling’s letters to Lin-
neus, /t. Hi/p. 97. Mutis devoted himfelf to the ftudy of
medicine, till his 21ft year, when he entered at the univerfity
of Seville. His late preceptor being foon afterwards fum-
moned, with other eminent medical pra€titioners, to a con-
fultation upon the declining health of Ferdinand VI. and his
queen, Mutis was chofen to accompany him to Madrid:
There the young man procured many friends, and much re-
putation, by the talents he difplayed in various branches of
knowledge conneéted with his proteffion, and was efpecially
patronized by the minifter, Wall, who offered him a penfion
to enable him to travel. This {cheme was defeated by the
death of the king, and a change in the miniltry ; but Mutis
obtained a profefforfhip of anatomy, and fignalized himfelf
by his phyfiological knowledge. He turned his mind to the
foundation of an Academy of Sciences at Madrid, led by
the growing talte for natural knowledge of all kinds, which
the youth of Spain, like thofe of other countries, had, for
fome time pa{t, imbibed in the courfe of their medical
ftudies under Boerhaave. The fame of that great man at-
tracted, from every quarter of the globe, thote who were
defirous of improvement or diftin¢tion in medical or philo-
fophical knowledge. ‘hus did Holland, as became the
feat of light, liberality, and fcience, return good for evil;
to the very country which had defigned its ruin, but whofe
difappointed aim thus redounded to their mutual benefit.
The voyage of Juan and Ulloa to Peru, and the knowled
and tafte which had in confequence for many years been dif-
fufed, in a certain circle, even among the Spaniards, now
gave ‘that nation a degree of {cientific rank in Europe.

Ola wh Some

MUTIS.

Some of its minifters were wife enough to fee the probable
advantages to be derived from its natural refources in the
new world, if the light of fcience were to be direfted that
way. And aitouge the Spanifh throne was encumbered
and polluted with the very dregs of royal fatuity and de-
pravity, the baleful withering {cyons of a rotten worn-out
ttock, {warming with the vermin which there find their na-
tural aliment ; fin the influence of fome honeft and patriotic
charaéters was occafionally felt. We have mentioned the
invitation given to Linnzus to fettle in Spain, and the mif-
fion of his pupil Loefling’to South America. (See Lin-
wus and Loeriincia.) In 1760, the Marquis Della
Vega, being appointed Viceroy of New Granada, folicited
Mutis to accompany him, as his phyfician. This propofal
was joyfully accepted; not probably with any view te a
final fettlement in that diftant region, but rather as a ftep to
future advancement at home, after his curiofity had been in
fome meafure gratified abroad.

Previous to his departure, the fubject of our memoir {pent
fome time with his friends at Cadiz, where it fortunately
happened that the Swedifh conful, Mr. Bellman, was a man
of information and tafte in the fciences in which his country-
men have always been pre-eminent. This gentleman pro-
cured for Mutis fome of the works of Linnzus, and intro-
duced him to an epiftolary correfpondence with that great
man, which continued till his death in 1778, of which me-
Jancholy event an account was tranfmitted to Mutis that
year by the younger Linneus, in a letter, of which a copy
is now before us. The writer takes an opportunity of de-
{feribing to his learned correfpondent the wonders of the
Hedyfarum gyrans, then juit raifed in the ftove at Upfal.

On his arrival at Santa Fé de Bogota, the capital of New
Granada, our ardent and intelligent young philofopher im-
mediately anticipated the probability of his communicating,
as well as acquiring, knowledge. By the permiffion of the
Viceroy, he undertook to introduce the mathematics as a
brarich of ftudy in the univerfity ; and his le€tures on that
fubje& were received with enthufiaftic attention and admira-
tion. But it was not to be expeéted that the monkifh pro-
feffors fhould equally relifh fuch novelties. To acquire or
to diffufe knewledge was neither their aim nor their ambi-
tion, and it was certainly not for their intereft nor their
peace. On this fubjeét the Chriftian church, in every
country and in every age, has been uniformly and fteadily
confiftent, exaétly in proportion to its degree of corruption.
‘Yet we mean not to attribute even this {pecies of fagacity or
vigilance to the monks of Bogota. It was natural that the
hardy adventurer, who diiturbed their dreams and feared
away their flumbers, ‘hould, like thofe who firft roufed the
bats and owls in the caves of Elephanta, be befpattered with
their filth. They declared, what perhaps they believed,
that Mutis was a conjurer, who, by an alliance with the
devil, taught a magical, divinatory, and diabolical art, un-
warranted by law and prohibited by religion. ‘* How elfe,”’
faid they, “ could a mortal meafure the diftance of the fun
or of the moon, or foretell eclipfes?”? Their reprefentations
were not without effect. Some well-meaning, but not well-
informed, perfons forbad their children to frequent the
fchools of a necromancer, and thus the ufefulnefs of the new
proteflor was limited, and his fame in part eclipfed; for
fuch prohibitions could not fail to fofter a certain mafs of
prejudice, againft him and the more enlightened party,
which daily increafed under his genial influence. Nor was
the power of the inquifition allowed to be idle in fo holy and
jolt a caufe. From this however the higher power of the
Viceroy was able to fhield the intended viétim, who gra-
Aually rofe fuperior to prejudice and perfecution, and was

Vor. XXIV.

at length, by the authority of the Spanifh government,
eftablifhed Profeffor of Philofophy, Mathematics, and Na-
tural Hiftory, at Santa Fe. It is to be prefumed that his
own charaéter and conduét were, meanwhile, irreproachable,
conformable to the purity of his principles, and the exem-
plary tenor of his fubfequent life, againft which malice,
even in the days of his adverfity, never dared again to aim
its fting.

Mutis, like a true patriot, was anxious to turn his own
knowledge to the prattical fervice of his country. Con-
fidering the gold and filver mines as the moft important na-
tional objeéts in Mexico and Peru, he direéted his attention
to a more fuccefsful mode than had hitherto been praétifed,
for working the mines of the laft-mentioned metal. Gold
is procured chiefly by patience and manual labour, in a
metallic ftate, from the fands of the rivulets; but filver can
be obtained by chemical means only, from recondite fources
in the bowels of the mountains. Its mines are not only,
like thofe of gold, z fort of lottery, but to derive a due
profit from its ores, requires knowledge and obfervation, as
well as labour and confiderable expence. All mining coun-
tries abound with traditions of their former riches, and
liberal conjeftures refpecting their latent ftores. By thefe
our philofopher was mifled. He {pent many years of inde-
fatigable application, and exhautted his pecLMiary refources,
with the zeal and the difappointment of an alchemift. He
reaped indeed abundance of experience and of natural know-
ledge, as he explored the recefles of the Cordilleras, and
inveftigated the productions of their foil, as well as the fe-
crets of their geology; but his worldly profpeéts were
ruined. Thefe he might have retrieved by accepting fome
civil employment or magiftracy, offered him by his conftant
friend the Viceroy, to whofe propofals of this kind he is
reported to have anfwered, that ‘* he afpired after no go-
vernment, but that of himfelf, nor any authority but over
his own paffions.”” In conformity to fuch fentiments, he
found the clerical profeflion more congenial to his feelings ;
and to that he for a while devoted himfelf, as it appears,
exclufively, refiding for fome time in the capital. But a
miner feldom gives up his purfuit, and the former pro-
penfities of Mutis revived, as he anticipated afrefh the means
of indulging them. His fuccefs was fruitlefs, as before,
with regard to its original objeét, but not as to the future
happinefs and utility of his life. The refidence he had
chofen, for the profecution of his purpofe, was fortunately
one of the moft delightful in the world, at Sapo, in the go-
vernment of Mariquita. His houfe ftood ona rifing ground,
commanding the moft enchanting profpects, over an exten-
five valley, watered by the meandering river Luifa. The
groves of palm-trees, and the rural fcenery of the valley,
are encompafled by a chain of hills, whofe proud tops rife
one above another, till they are loft in the clouds. Here
our philofopher enjoyed a pure air and temperate climate,
equally remote from the cold of the mountains, and the op-
preflive atmofphere of the vale below. In this fequeftered
abode he divided his time between the fuperintendance of
the mines, and the ftudy of natural hiftory; while he ful-
filled his clerical duties, and benefited his neighbours by the
exercife of his original profeffion. He was foon confoled
for his difappointment in the firft of thefe obje&s, by the
general e‘teem and refpeét which his charaéter and condu&
infpired ; infomuch that he refigaed himfelf for life to this
delightful retirement, without a figh for the vanities or
the buftle of the world. Here botany conftituted his moft
favourite amufement. The country within his reach was
found rich in plants, of peculiar beauty as well as fingularity,
which indeed may be faid in general of all the vegetable pro-

3M duGtions

1, AFL i

du&ions of New Mexico. Splendid compound flowers,
fhrubs whofe fhining leaves are invefted. beneath witha denfe
woolly clothing, giving a great peculiarity as well as richnefs
of habit, are itriking characteriftics of the Mexican Flora ;
which is further enriched by no fmall proportion of the
magnificent tribe of Palms. To thefe laft Mutis paid par-
ticular attention ; but the hiftory of them, which he.is faid
to have prepared, has, as yet, not been given to the public.
His correfpondence with Linnzus was as frequent as circum-
ftances would permit, but it appears that many of their let-
ters and communications never reached their ref{pective defti-
nations. ‘To him he fent numerous dried fpecimens, many
manufcript defcriptions, anda folio volume of Indian ink
drawings, quoted in the Supplementum. Among the {peci-
mens were feveral of the noble Muti/ia, firtt defcribed in that
work, to which feveral new {pecies have fince been added ;
fee the next article.

On the 12th of September 1778, Mutis addreffed a long
and very interefting letter to the younger Linneus, in anf{wer
to that in which the latter had informed him of his father’s
deceafe.
till the year 1776. He complains of having fuffered much,
in the following feafon, from the attack of an infeét of the
Oecflrus, or Gad-fly, kind, very common in that neighbour-
hood, which, having lodged itfelf in his leg, produced a
tumour. ‘To this he applied the juice of tobacco, with the
milk of a plant which he terms M/ufa guineenfis. But the
application, though ufual among the country people, nearly
coft him his life, by producing a violent inflammation and
fuppuration. “He gives the following very curious account
of the parent fly. ‘* It is not larger than the Mu/ca domeftica.
The abdomen is covered with a feries of little tubes, re-
fembling a wafp’s nett, in which above fifty minute /arve are
lodged. he likenefs of this fly to what is fo very com-
mon and harmlefs, caufes its pernicious defign not to be fuf-
pe&ted as it fettles on the human body, till its brood has,
with great celerity, found a lodgment inthe fkin. It how-
ever its attack be {peedily perceived, the evil may be removed
without difficulty or danger.”’

The year 1778 makes an epocha in the life of Mutis.
That year a new archbifhop, Don Antonio Caballero y
Gorgora, arrived at Santa Fé, who, among the numerous
letters of congratulation from the fubordinate clergy on his
arrival, had penetration to difcover, and good fenfe enough
to admire, in that of Mutis, fomething very fuperior to the
reft. He vifited the writer in his retirement, and his fa-
yourable prepofleffions were confirmed. He determined that
fuch a man fhould be made ufeful to his country ; and as
Mutis had embarraffed his circumftanees afrefh by his mining
projects, the good archbifhop obtained, from the govern-
ment at home, a fum for the payment of his debts, a hand-
fome penfion, and the appointments of Botanift and Aftrono-
mer to the king. He now became the head of a botanical
{chool as it were, the fuperintendant of a tribe of botanical
adventurers, employed by the Spanifh government to invelti-
gate the plants of America. From their labours, have ori-
ginated feveral publications, efpecially the fplendid Flora Pe-
ruviana ; and the names of Efcallon, Pavon, Ruiz, Valen-
zuela, and Zea, are now celebrated in the botanical hiltory
of that country. Mutis, attended by fome of his pupils,
and feveral draughtfmen, made a tour through the kingdom
of New Granada in 1783. By his diligence much new
light was thrown upon the hiltory of the Peruvian bark, or
Cinchona, and its various f{pecies, as there had. already
been upon that of the Balfam of Peru, the Ipecacuanha,
the Elaftic pum, &e. He alfo taught his countrymen the
culture and the value of Indigo. His health having fuffered

12

By this it appears that he had not fettled at Sapo’

MU T

from the climate of Mariquita, he was direéted to repair to
Santa Fé, and to fix on fome of his pupils, whofe youth and.
conftitutions might be more adequate to fuch labours, In
1791 or 1792, Zea was fent to colle& living plants and
feeds, for the eftablifhment of a public botanic garden at
Santa Fé. But in the political ferment of that period, new
inquifitors arofe, as wife as thofe who had condemned
Mutis for a magician, The innocent Zea was feized, and
laid in prifon; under the charge of fome rebellious con{piracy,
tillthe year 1797, when, with other victims of malice or
folly, he was brought over to Spain to be tried, Their
innocence was readily proved, they were honourably ac-
quitted, and each was rein{tated in his former fituation.
Mutis, with his aceuftomed vigilance, took advantage of
this opportunity to vilit Paris, to confult with Juffieu, and
the other eminent botanifts of that capital, concerning the
compofition of a Flora Bogotenjis, andto make himfelf maf-
ter of all the new improvements and difcoveries. He re-
mained at Paris till 1801, when he went back to Madrid.
Whether he fubfequently returned to his native country, we .
know not, but in 1804 he was appointed to the Profeflorfhip
of Botany, and fuperintendance of the royal garden at
Madrid, in the place of Cavanilles, whofe lamented death
happened that year.

The venerable Mutis was now eftabliflied in fame and re-
putation, but his advancing age made repofe in fome mea-
fure neceflary. He continued however to be ferviceable to
the government of his native country, and to the profperity
of that in which he had fo long been naturalized. He was
regularly confulted by the Viceroys, on all difficult and im-
portant queftions, and conicious that the happinefs of the
people was the real intereft as well as duty of the goyern-
ment, he made it the leading object of all his advice. We
hefitate not in the cafe of fuch a man to conclude, that
his richeft temporal reward was the profpemty of thofe
around him, and the affection and veneration with which
they amply returned his cares. He lived to an advanced
age, but of the precife date of his death we are not inform-
ed. A pleafing and well executed portrait of this excellent
man, his head encircled with a diadem of tars, is prefixed
to one of the late {plendid botanical publications of his
countrymen, which we have occafionally feen, but which is
not at prefent within our reach. We ought not to cor-
clude this article ‘without recording, that Mutis was the
means of introducing {trawberries into the country of New,
Granada. He mentions ina letter to Linnzus, that, on his
departure from Spain, he advifed the Viceroy to take with
him fome of that fruit in a dried ftate, the feeds of which
vegetated in America, and the fubfequent propagation and-
fuccefs of the plant were truly wonderful. He adds that
the tables were daily furnifhed at Santa Fé with this deli-
cious, fruit, and with other products of the kitchen-garden,
all the year round, which the Italians might envy. Our
preceding account is taken from a paper by Don Pedro
d’Oribe y Vargas, in Sims and Konig’s Annals of Botany,
Vv. 1. 490, as well as from the manuicript letters of Mutis
himlelf. . S.

MUTISIA, in, Botany, was fo named by Linnzus, in
honour of Don Jofeph Celeftine Mutis, Spanith ecclefiaftic,
the difcoverer of this plant, and of many other very re-

_markable ones, in the Spanifh fettlements of America: fee

the preceding article.—Linn. Suppl. 57: Schreb, 557.

Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 2068. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 3. Jufl.
178, Lamarck Illuftr, t. 690. Cavan, Ic. 4 67.—
Clafs and order, Syngenofia Polygamia-/uperflua. Nat. Ord,

Compofite Difcoidee, Linn. Corymbifere, Juli.
Gen, Ch. Common Calyx oblong, cylindrical, imbricated
with

MUTISIA.

with lanceolate fcales, the inner ones longeft. Cor. com-
pound, radiated. Florets of the difk thrice as numerous
as thofe of the radius, tubular, two-lipped; the inner lip
in two deep, linear, equal fegments; outer hgulate, three-
toothed. Florets of the atti about eight; their claw
linear, ere&t ; limb horizontal, elliptical, three-toothed, of-
ten briftly at its bafe. Stam. Filaments in the florets of the
dif five, capillary ; anthers united into a cylinder, each
witha pair of dependent briftles at its bafe : in the florets of
the difk fometimes prefent in an imperfeé& ftate. Pi/f. Ger-
men in all the florets fhort; ftyle thread-fhaped ; ftigma
cloven, acute. Peric. none, except the permanent calyx.
Seeds oblong, flightly quadrangular. Down feffile, feathery.
Recept. naked.

Eff. Ch.. Receptacle naked. Seed-down feathery. Ca-
lyx cylindrical, imbricated. Florets of the radius elliptical,
three-toothed ; thofe of the difk two-lipped. Anthers with
a pair of briftles at their bafe.

Obf. Cavanilles remarks, that he once found the receptacle
flightly villous, in what he deemed a variety of his M7. inflexa.
Healfo, m mentioning the briftles which are attached to the
bafe of the anthers, afferts that no preceding author had no-
ticed that charaSter. We find it however in the Linnzan
defcription. The florets of the diflc were firft properly de-
feribed by Cavanilles, as two-lipped, a charaéter {carcely
known perhaps but in fome American Syngenefie.

* Leaves pinnate.

1. M. Clematis. Woolly-leaved Mutifia. Linn. Suppl. 373.
Willd. n. 1. Cavan. Ic. v. 5. 63. t. 492.—Leaves pinnate,
with tendrils ; leaflets elliptical, denfely woolly beneath.—
Difcovered by Mutis in the country of New Granada, in
the year 1762. According to Cavanilles, it was gathered
by Lewis Née, in ftony places, not far from San Buena-
yentura el viejo, in Peru, flowering in June and July. This
noble plant does not appear to have been feen alive in Eu-
rope, any more than the reft. Fine f{pecimens are in the
Linnean herbarium. The fem is fhrubby, branched, leafy,
ftriated, climbing by means of tendrils to a confiderable ex-
tent; very woolly when young. Leaves alternate, pinnate ;
their common ftalks ending m a long thrée-cleft fpiral ten-
dril ; feaflets about four pair, nearly feffile, not quite oppo-
fite, elliptical, or ovate-oblong, obtufe, entire, from one to
two inches in length, nearly one in breadth ; their upper
furface clothed when young with deciduous wool, but
when fully grown green, naked, and f{mooth, except the
rib aud veins; the under denfely covered at all times with
thick foft matted wool, reddifh or rufty in the dried plant ;
but probably white when frefh. A fimilar woollinefs, but
partly deciduous, is found on the branches, falks, and calyz.
Stipulas ovate, in pairs at the bottom of the common fuot-
ftalk, like the leaflets, but much {maller. Flower-/lalks ax-
illary, folitary, fingle-flowered, fhorter than the leaves,
bearing one or two linear bradeas. Flowers dark red, or
purple, with confpicuous yellow anthers, very handfome,
vyeing with the Zagetes, or the Dahlie, but more remark-
able for their imbricated woolly calyx, two inches in length.
The claws of the marginal florets are of the fame length,
their limb one inch.

2. M. peduncularis. Long-ftalked Mutifia. Cavan. Ic-
v. 5. 62.t. 491. Willd. n. 2.—Leaves pinnate, with ten-
drils ; leaflets lanceolate, fmooth, alternate. Flower-ftalks
axillary, very long.—Gathered by L. Née, inthe fame part
of Peru with the preceding, flowering in July. This is
{mooth in all its parts. The /eafets are ten or twelve on
each fide of the common ftalk, alternate, lanceolate, acute,
fomewhat decurrent, near an inch and half long, half an

inch wide. Tendril three-cleft. Flower-ftalks axillary, fo-
litary, a footalong, much exceeding the leaves, each bearing
a {mall lanceolate éraéea near the fummit. ower nearly as
large as the foregoing. Calya {mooth. Radiant florets
{carlet, their terminal teeth very minute; thofe of the difk
yellowith-red, about fifteen innumber. Szeds of both all fer-
tile. Cavanilles. ‘

3. M. viciefolia. Vetch-leaved Mutifia. Cavan. Ic.
v. 5. 62. t. 490. Willd. n. 3.—Leaves pinnate, with ten-
drils ; leaflets lanceolate, {mooth; the lower ones oppofite.
Flower-ftalks terminal—Found near Valparaifo, in Chili,
flowering in May. We have a fpecimen from Cavanilles.
This is very nearly akin to the laft, but fmaller in all its
parts, and it appears to us that the flowers are almoft al-
ways at the ends of fhort, lateral, more or lefs leafy, branches.
The lower Leaflets are not always oppofite, though ufually
fo. The duds, young branches, and fometimes the young
footftalks, are rather woolly. The teeth at the ends of the
radiant florets appear fcarcely different from the latt, of
which fpecies the prefent is perhaps a variety.

** Leaves fimple.

4. M. ilicifolia. - Wex-leaved Mutifia. Cavan. Ic. v,
63. t. 493. Willd. n. 4.—Leaves roundifh-heart-fhaped,
clafping the ftem, bordered with fpinous teeth. Tendrils
fimple.—Native of dry hilly places in Chili, flowering in
January. The /fem is thrubby, branched, climbing, ftriated,
reddifh, three feet or more in height. Leaves alternate,
fefile, clafping the ftem but not decurrent, roundifh-heart-
fhaped, an inch wide, and fomewhat more in length, coria-
ceous, bordered with ftrong, {preading, {pinous teeth, their
termination fingularly abrupt, with two much longer diva-
ricated teeth ; their upper furface fmooth; the uzder fome-
what downy and glaucous, efpecially when young ; their
mid-rib terminates in a fimple fpiral tendril, thrice the
length of the leaf. Flowers purple, on fhort, folitary,
fimple terminal ftalks. Calyx fmooth, hardly more than an
inch in length; its fcales yellowifh, with a membranous
edge. Radiant florets narrower than in any of the pinnated

fpecies.

5. M. runcinata. Lion-toothed Mutifia. Willd. n. 5.
(M. retrorfa; Cavan. Ic. v. 5. 65. t.498.)—Leaves ob-
long, runcinate, decurrent; woolly beneath. Tendrils cloven,
—Gathered by L. Née, flowering in December, in dry
barren fituations, near Port Defire on the coaft of Patagonia.
Stem fhrubby, zigzag, a foot and half long, branched,
round, not winged, except as far as the bafes of the leaves
extend. Leaves lanceolate-oblong, about three inches in
length, acute, ftrongly runcinate, fomewhat revolute ;
fmooth above; denfely woolly beneath ; decurrent and ta-
pering at the bafe; tipped with a divided ¢endri/, about their
own length. lowers terminal, yellow. Calyx about an
‘inch long ; its feales with acute recurved points. Radiant
forets narrow, as long as the calyx.

We prefer Willdenow’s name, though we fhould not, of
our own accord, have changed the original one. His ar-
rangement of the fpecies is alfo preferable to that of Cava-
nilles.

’

6. M. finuata. Blunt-toothed Mutifia. Cavan. Ic. 66.
t. 449. Willd. n. 6—Leaves linear-oblong, bluntly toothed,
decurrent. ‘Tendrils fimple.—Gathered by the fame bota-

nift on the Cordillera del Planchén, Chili, in dry fituations,
flowering in January.—Similar in habit to the laft, as well
as in the colour of its flowers, and the pointed fcales of its
calyx; but the marginal florets appear by the plate to be
broader and ‘fhorter. The /eaves are bordered with much
fmaller, and far more numerous, blunt, prominent, not run-

3M2 cinates

MUT

cinate, teeth, and are ufually quite fmooth on both fides.
Their tendril moreover is undivided. Stem zigzag, {mooth.

7. M. fub/pinofa. Sharp-toothed Mutifia. Cavan. Ic.
v. 5. 64. t. 495. Willd. nm. 7.—Leaves linear, fharply
toothed ; arrow-fhaped at the bafe. Tendrils fimple. Stem
winged. Gathered by L. Née, near the town of Gaua-
mantanga, in Peru, flowering in July ; and on the Cordil-
lera del Planch6n, in February. The /fem is about a yard
high, {mooth, with three leafy fharply-toothed wings.
Leaves feffile, clafping the ftem with their flightly arrow-
fhaped bafe, which is conneéted with the wings of the ftem,
but not properly decurrent, or tapering; they are linear or
fomewhat lanceolate, with numerous fharp, rather {pinous,
teeth, and a fimple ¢endril. Flowers large and handfome,
folitary, on a fhort terminal bra@eated ftalk ; their radius
yellow, or fometimes purple; difk yellow. Scales of the
calyx with reflexed points. Cavanilles does not diftinély
fay that the leaves are downy beneath, but his reference to
the defcriptions preceding feems to imply it. ;

8. M. fagittata. Arrow-leaved Entire Mutifia. Willd.
‘n. 8.. (M. haftata; Cavan. Ic. v. 5. 64. t. 494.)—Leaves
lanceolate, entire; arrow-fhaped at the bafe. Tendrils
fimple. Stem winged.—Native of the higheft mountains
of Chili, flowering in January. Née alfo found it in Peru.
—Stem two feet high, or more, downy, with four leafy
downy wings, whofe teeth are fharp and hooked. Leaves
four or five inches long, quite entire, woolly beneath, clafp-
ing the ftem with their broad arrow-fhaped bafe, gradually
tapering from thence to a narrow point, ending in a long
fimple fendril. Flower terminal and folitary, as in all the
fimple-leaved fpecies. Calyx an inch and half long, its fcales
with broad réflexed points, hairy on the upper fide at their
bafe. Fiorets of the radius often ten, purple, without any
barren ftamens. Willdenow juftly thought himfelf obliged to
change the name given by Cavanilles, as the leaves are by
no means haftate ; /guarrofa would have been a ftill more
exprefflive appellation than that he has chofen,

9. M. decurrens. . Decurrent Entire-Jeaved Mutifia.
Cavan. Ic. v. 5. 65.t. 497. Willd. n. 9.—Leaves elliptic-
Janceolate, decurrent, entire, {mooth. Tendrils cloven.—
Native of the Cordillera del Planchén above mentioned,
flowering in February.—Stem fmooth, round, zigzag,
branched, two feet high. Leaves elliptic-eblong, entire,
{mooth, coriaceous, decurrent to a confiderable extent at
their bafe. Tendrils divided, and divaricated. Flower large,
with about twelve radiant florets, which are purple, as well as
the difk. Scales of the calyx without any {preading points.

10. M. inflewa: Narrow Curve-leaved Mutifia. Cavan.
Ic. v. 5. 65. t.496. Willd. n. 10,—Leaves linear, very nar-
row, deflexed at the bafe, incurved. ‘endrils fimple.
Braéteas awl-fhaped.—Native of various places in Chili.
Stem branched, climbing to the height of 10 or 12 feet,
ftriated, angular, fmooth. Leaves numerous, feattéred,
feffile, linear, thick, very narrow, {mooth, three inches long ;
deflexed at the bafe, then afcending. Tendrils fimple.
Flower large, with feveral awl-fhaped braéeas. Calyx an
inch and half long, its fcales with reflexed tips. Florets of
the radius eight, deep purple ; difk yellow——In fome of the
mountain fpecimens, Cavanilles found twelve radiant florets.

11. M. linearis: Linear Clofe-leaved Mutifia.
linearifolia ; Cavan. Ic. v. 5. 66.t. 500. Willd. n.11.)—
Stem ereé&. Leaves linear, revolute, ereét, {pinous-pointed,
without tendrils.—Native of the mountains of Chili. This
is fingular in its genus, for the want of tendrils. The /lem
is fhrubby, a foot high, flightly branched. Leaves nume-
rous, crowded, ereét, or clofe-preffed, about an inch long,
linear, revolute, tipped with a {mall {pinous point. Flowers

MU 'T

terminal, feffile, folitary, {maller than any of the foregoing,
their radius apparently purple in the dried f{pecimens.

- Calyx-fcales obtufe, clofe.

MUTIUS, or Muctus, Cats, in Biography, furnamed
Scevola, famous in the early hiftory of Rome, was born of
an illuftrious family, at the time of the fiege of the city by
Porfenna, king of the Etrufcans, about the year before Chrift
507. During the blockade of the capital, when he found
there was no hope of relief, he determined to render him-
felf illuftrious by fome great a&t; he accordingly, with the
permiffion of the fenators, croffed the Tiber, and entered the
enemy’s camp, with a concealed dagger under his garment ;
at length he obtained an admiffion into the royal tent, at the
moment when the king was paying his foldiers, with his
fecretary by his fide. Mutius miftaking the minifter for the
monarch, laid him dead in a blow, and then in the confufion
attempted to make his efcape. He was, however, feized
and brought before Porfenna, in whofe prefence, he; with-
out any hefitation, avowed his name and purpofe, and ex-
prefled a readinefs to endure any fuffering that the king
might choofe to infliét on him, adding that he was but one
of a band of Roman youths prepared to make a fimilar
attempt. Porfenna, enraged at the daring behaviour of the
young man, called for fire, in order to extort from him
whatever he might know of further meditated treachery.
“ Behold,”’ faid the young patriot, ‘* how little bodily paia
is valued by thofe who purfue true glory,” and inftantly
thruft his hand into the flame of an altar kindled for the
purpofe of facrifice. ‘The king, in admiration of the refo-
lution with which he endured the torture, leaped from his
feat, and ordering the youth to be taken from the altar, bid ’
him depart without further moleftation. Mutius took his
leave, warning the king that three hundred Roman young
men had mutually {worn to attempt his affaflination, fhould
he continue the fiege. Porfenna inftantly fent ambaffadors
to Rome to offer terms of peace. Mutius, for his a&, was
named Sczevola, left-handed, on account of the voluntary
injury done to his right hand, which appellation defcended
to his polterity. ‘ Although,” fays a biographer, “ the
action of Scevola cannot be jultified by the rules of fair and
honourable warfare, yet it has been extolled by poets and
orators among thofe patriotic deeds which fo much diltin-
guifhed the infant ftate of the Roman republic. Livy
feems to excufe it, in the words ‘which he puts into the
mouth of the hero, ‘ Hoftis hottem occidere volui;’ I,.a foe,
refolved to deftroy the enemy of my country. Balthafar
Gerard, however, who killed William, prince of Orange,
and Poltrot de la Mere, who killed the duke of Guile,
were both confidered as murderers.”’

Murtus-Scz#vota, Quintus, called the “ Augur,” a
Roman of great authority as a lawyer, married the daughter
of Lelius, and was the father-in-law of Lucius Craffus,
He was pretor in Afia, and conful in the year B.C. 117,
with L. C. Metellus, with whom he had the honour of a
triumph. On various occafions he performed great fervices
to the ftate, and though, at that period, far advanced in
years, he took part with Marius again{ft Sylla. Cicero
was initructed by this venerable perfon in the principles of
wifdom, and in gratitude for his attentions to him, he made
his preceptor one of the interlocutors in his firft dialogue,
« De Oratore."’

Mutius-Scavota, Quintus, an eminent Roman, who
was tribune of the people in the year B.C. 106, and conful
in 95 B.C. with Caius Licinius Craflus. He was prxtor
in Afia, over which he ruled with fo much prudence and
juitice, that he was propofed as a model for all future go-
vernors, His chara¢ter was extremely high for legal know-

ledge,

MUT

ledge, with which he unqueftionably poffeffed a moft maf-
culine eloquence. Craflus, in Cicero’s dialogue “ De
Oratore,’’ ftyles him the beft orator among. lawyers, and
the beft lawyer among the orators. Quintilian gives the
fame character of him. He was killed in the civil wars
between the Marian and Sylla factions, in the year B.C.
82, in the temple of Vetta, and his body was thrown into
the Tiber. He is thought to have been the firft perfon
who reduced the civil law to a methodical fyftem. On this
fubjet he wrote eighteen books, which are often referred
to by the ancient lawyers.

MUTIUSCHICA, in Geography, a bay or gulf in
the Frozen fea, on the N.W. coalt of Nova Zembla. N.
lat. 75° 50!. E. long. 57° 14’.

MUTNANG, a town of Bengal; 20 miles W.
Toree.

MUTOVA, one of the Kurile iflands, 45 verfts from
Rock Koke; about 30 verits long, and of the fame breadth.
On the S. fide ftands a very lofty mountain, from whofe
fummit a thick black fmoke is continually rifing, and which
occafionally cafts up red-hot ftones, fpreading danger and
defolation round it. To the N., vallies rich in herbs and
habitable plains extend, where various kinds of edible roots
and wild fruits grow. The only land animals in this ifland
are foxes. Petipa fubje&t to the tribute are here numbered
at 63.

MUT@QUIN, atown of South America, in the province
of Tucuman ; 25 miles N.E. of Fernando.

MUTSCHCOUR, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Trak ; 35 miles N. of Ifpahan.

MUTSCHEN, or Murzscuen, a town of Saxony, in
the circle of Leipfic, inthe neighbourhood of which is a
fpecies of cryftal, which bears the name of Mutfchen dia-
mond; 22 miles W. of Meiflen. N. lat. 51° 41’. E. long.
12° 48'.

MUTSCHNITZ, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Coburg ; nine miles NE. of Coburg.

MUTT, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 37 miles
S.S.W. of Arrah.

MUTTABARROW, a town of Hindooftan, in Gu-
zerat, at the mouth of the Surfooty; 25 miles N.W. of
Puttan-Sumnaut.

MUTTAMUSKEET, a lake of North Carolina; 20
miles long and five wide, three miles N. of Pamlico Sound.

MUTTEAH, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 10
miles N.N.W. of Bettiah. N. lat. 26°55’. E. long. 84°

’
> MUTTEARY, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 22
miles S.E. of Bettiah. N. lat. 26° 38’. E. long. 85° 10!.
—Alfo, a fort of Hindoottan, in Bahar; 36 miles N.N.W.
of Chuprah. _N. lat. 26° 17/. E. long? 84? 28’.

MUTTEN, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of
Schweitz, fituated in a valley called Muttenthal, watered by
a fmall river called Mutten, which runs into the lake of the
four cantons, fix miles E. of Schweiz.

Murren Bay, a bay on the N. fide of the river St. Lau-
rence, on the coalt ot Canada. N. lat. 48 25'. W. long.

9

of

OMUTTERSTADT, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of Mont-Tonnerre, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri& of Spire. The place contains 1415, and the can-
ton 9481 inhabitants, in 17 communes,

MUTTRA, a town of Hindoottan, in the fubah of

* Agra, on the Jumna; 36 miles from Agra.

MUTTY, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat; 60 miles
W. of Noanagur.

MUT

MUTTYARA, a town of Bengal; 14 miles E. of
Kifhenagur.

MUTU, in Ornithology, a name by which fome call a large
Bralilian bird, of the gallinaceous kind, more ufually called
mitu. See Crax Aledor.

MUTUAL, arelative term, denoting fomething that is
reciprocal between two or more perfons.

Thus we fay, mutual affiflance, mutual averfion, &c,—
There are mutual or reciprocal duties, effices, &c. between
fuperiors and inferiors ; as the king and his fubjeéts, the
matter and his fervants, &c.

Vaugelas makes a diftin@ion between mutual and reci-
procal; mutual, according to him, is underftood of what
is between two only ; and reciprocal of what is between
more than two; but this diltinGion is little regarded in
common ufe,

Mutwat T¢ftament is that made by two perfons who leave
their effe&ts reciprocally to the furvivor.

MUTUALES. See Mervates.

MUTUAPOLLAM, or Moorearotiam, in Geogra-
phy, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic. Near this
town Hyder Ally, on occafion of a battle fought with fir
Eyre Coote, in July 1781, was defeated with the lofs of
4000 mes; five miles S. of Cuddalore.

MUTUEE, in Archite@ure, a part of the Doric cornice,
appearing to fupport the corona and the fuperior members,
formed by three vertical parallelograms at right angles, and
an inclined plane which defcends towards the front of the
cornice, until it meets the reGtangular vertical plane, the
inclined plane being the foffit, and the two vertical parallel
planes being at right angles to the furface of the frieze,
and the vertical plane on the front parallel thereto.

Mutules had their origin from the ends of rafters in the
original wooden ftruétures, and are, therefore, properly
reprefented with a declination towards the front of the ce-
rona; though reprefented by an architet of the laft cen-
tury with a level foffit.

In Grecian architecture, a triglyph is placed at each
angle of the building, and, confequently, a mutule over each
triglyph at the fame place, and a triglyph and a mutule are
placed over each intermediate column ; alfo over each inter-
column there is only one triglyph, except in the Doric
portico, which has two in the middle intercolummiations, in
order to allow greater room for paflage. The mutules are
the fame breadth as the triglyphs.

Of all the buildings now remaining of Roman antiquity,
the theatre of Marcellus is the only one in which any {pe-
cimen of the Doric order is to be found; but this example
is fo void of original charaéter as to have a denticulated core
nice, which is peculiar to the Ionic or Corinthian. The
mutules are only carved on the foffit, and not feen in front
under the corona.

In the Grecian Doric three rows of drops, parallel to the
front of the corona, are hung from each foffit of a mutule ;
the number in each row being fix, agreeing with thofe in the
architrave under the triglyphs.

MUTUUM, in the Civil Law, denotes a loan fimply fo
called ; or a contra& introduced by the law of nations,
whereby a thing confifting in weight, as fuppofe bullion;
in number, as money ; or in meafure, as corn, timber, wine,
&c. is given to another, upon condition that he hall return
another thing of the fame quantity, nature, and value, on
demand. :

This, therefore, is a contra&t without reward ; fo that
where ufe or intere(t arifes, there muft be fome particular
article in the contra¢t whereon it is founded.

MUTWAL, in Geography, a river of Ceylon, called alfo

9 Calana

MUY

Calana Ganga, one of the branches by which the Muli-
waddy falls into the fea, about three miles from the fort of
Columbo, after having nearly furrounded a large tra&t of
level country in that neighbourhood, of which it forms a
very beautiful peninfula. The country along the banks of
the Mutwal for many miles is extremely picturefque and de-
lightful.

MUTYBARA, a town of Bengal; 33 miles N.N.E.
of Purneah.

MUTZA, or Muzza, a town of Italy, in the depart-
ment of the Adda, on a river of the fame name; three miles
S.E. of Lodi.

MUXACAR. See Musaxar.

MUXILLONES, a {mall ifland in the South Pacific
ocean, near the coaft of Chili; S. lat. 29° 30!.

MUXOODPORUM, a town of Bengal; 14 miles S.E.
of Mahmudpour.

MUXOODPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ;
30 miles S.W. of Bahar.

MUYDEN, a town of Holland, feated on the river
Vecht, near the Zuyder fee; which has a fluice by which
the adjacent country may be inundated. Salt is the chief
manufa@ture of the place; 6 miles E. of Amflerdam. N.
lat..52° 23’. E. long: 4° 55!

MUYS, Wvyer-Wixtiam, in Biography, a phyfician of
the mathematical fe&, was born at Steenwyk, in Overyffel,
in January 1682, where his father practifed the fame pro-
feffion. His early education was obtained in his native
town; and he then paffed three years at the college of
Kempen, for the ftudy of the claffics, and afterwards was
inftru&ted in the firft principles of medicine, algebra, and
geometry at Vollenhove. At the age of fixteen he com-
menced his ftudies at Leyden, and went from thence to
Utrecht, where he received the degree of doétor in 1701.
He fettled at firft in his native town, and afterwards re-
moved to Arnheim, where he prattifed with reputation and
fuccefs. An offer of a profeflorfhip at Groningen was at
firft rendered void by the difputes of a cabal; but his difap-
pointment was repaid by an election to the mathematical
chair in the univerfity of Franeker, in 1709, and to the
medical chair in the fame fchool in 1712, which he ex-
changed for that of chemiltry in1720. He was afterwards
chofen profeffor of botany, which comprehended the in-
{peGtorfhip of the botanic garden. The houfe of Orange
fubfequently retained him as confulting phyfician, with a
confiderable falary, which he received to the end of his life.
He was cut off by a lingering difeafe, in April 1744, at
the age of 62. He had been five times rector of the univer-
fity of Franeker, and was a member of the Royal Academy
of Sciences of Berlin. His writings were partly medical
and partly philofophical, and bore the following titles:
« Oratio de Ufu Mathefeos in perficiendo ingenio et ju-
dicio,”’ Franeker, 1711. ‘*Elementa Phyfices methodo
mathematico demonftrata, quibus accedunt Differtationes
due: prior, de caufa foliditatis corporum: pofterior, de
caufa refiftentia fluidorum,’’ Amit. 1711. *¢ Oratio inau-
guralis de Theoriz ufu, atque reéta illam excolendi ratione,”’
Franc. 1714. ¢ Diflertatio et Obfervationes de Salis Am-
moniaci preclaro ad febres intermittentes ulu,”’ ibid, 1716.
This is faid to merit attention in a prattical view. ‘* Dif-
putationes duz, de Materia Luminis, feu Ignis, Caloris,
et Lucis natura,” ibid. 1721. Inveftigatio Fabrice que
in partibus mufculos componentibus exftat,’’ Leyden,
1738, 1741, and 1751, in quarto. ‘This is a laboured and
copious compilation of all that had been previoufly dif-
covered refpecting the ftruéture of the mufcular flefh and
its fibres, the divifions and fubdivilfions of which he had

MU Z

traced with extreme minutenefs, and illuftrated by three -

good microfcopical plates, drawn by himfelf. After his
death a work of his was publifhed in French, entitled,
‘¢ Differtation fur la Perfetion du Monde corporel et intel-
ligent, ou l’on demontre en detail le merveiileux méchanifme

par lequel Dieu a voulu que les efpeces des Hommes, des

Animaux, et des Plantes fe perpetuaffent pendant un tems
determiné, &c.”” Leyden 1745 and 1750, in 12mo. And
alfo « Opufcula pofthuma, feu Sermones Academici de fe-
leétis Materiis, &c.” 1749, edited by his fon.

John Muys, the father of the preceding, who removed
to Leyden, and praétifed phyfic there, was author of a
work entitled «¢ Praxis Medico-chirurgica rationalis,” which
was publifhed in twelve decades, between the years 1684
and 1690; and * Podalirius redivivus,”’ a f{upplement to the
former work, in 1686. Eloy Diét. Hift. de la Med.

MUZA, in Ancient Geography, a port of Arabia Felix,
in the country of the Elifari, placed by Ptolemy between
Sacacia and the port of Sofippus. Arrian places it 12,000
ftadia S. of Berenice.

MUZANA, a town of Afia, fituated N. of Melitené,
on the bank of the river Melas and near the mountains.

MUZILLAC, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of Morbihan, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri& of Vannes; 12 miles S.E. of it. The place
contains 3615, and the canton 14,100 inhabitants, ona terri-
tory of 1874 kiliometres, in 6 communes.

MUZIMBAS. See Zimpas.

MUZIO, GrroLamo, in Biography, an Italian writer,
was born at Paduain 1496. He was educated at his native

lace tili he was eighteen years of age, when, owing to the
death of his father, he was obliged to feek a maintenance in
the courts of different princes. For a number of years he
led a wandering life, and in one of his letters, he complains
that he has been obliged to gain his bread by ferving fome-
times in the armies ; fometimes in the courts of popes, em-
perors, kings, and other princes ; fometimes in Italy ; fome-
times in France, and fometimes in Germany. The nature
of his fervices has never been clearly afcertained; he is
faid to have been a doétor of laws, and an eminent jurift,
but none of his writings are upon legal topics. By pope
Leo X. he was honoured with the title of Cavalier. He
was in the fervice of the marquis del Vafto for feveral years,
who fent him to refide with the duke of Savoy. After the
death of the marquis, he paffed into the fervice of Don
Ferdinand Gonzago, whofe affairs he managed at feveral
Italian courts. The duke d’Urbino next appointed him
governor to his fon, afterwards duke Francis II. About
the year 156g he was at Rome, where pope Pius V. re-
tained him with a handfome penfion, to be employed folely
in writing, for he had by this time diftinguifhed himfelf as
a vigorous adverfary of the reformers. ‘The death of that
pope deprived him of his penfion, and he was reduced to
circumftances of great diftrefs, which, in truth, was the
chief complaint of the greater part of his life. After this
he was admitted into the fervice of cardinal Ferdinand de
Medici. He died in 1576, at the age of eighty-fix. He
left behind him very many works, of which we may notice
his “* De Arte Poetica,” in three books, compofed in blank
verfe; this was very much valued at the time in which it
appeared, as well for the elegance of its language, as for
the excellence of its precepts. In 1566, he entertained an
idea of compoling an epic poem on the fubject of the
recovery of Jerufale bv the knights under Godfrey of
Bouillon. As a profe writer he left ‘« Letters,” * Hifto-
ries’? ** Moral 'Treatifes,” and feveral tra&ts againft thofe
whom he chofe to ftyle innovators in religion.

MUZIRIS,

MU Z

MUZIRIS, in Ancient Geography, a fea-port town of
India, on the weltern or Malabar coaft, 40 days’ fail from
Ocelis (Gella) in the Red fea, juft within the {trait of Bab-
el-Mandeb. This was the firit port of merchandife, by
which the ancients carried on their commerce between Bere-
nice down the Red fea with India. From Berenice to
Ocelis it was reckoned 30 days’ navigation, and from thence
to Muziris 4o days’ fail; and as they left Berenice about
Midfummmer. they might arrive in India in the latter end of
Auguft, ‘when the violence of the S.W. monfoon was
abated and the coafting navigation fafe and eafy.. Muziris
is faid by Pliny to have been an incommodious place of
merchandife, becaufe the fhallownefs of the port, or river's
mouth, made it neceflary to difcharge or take in the cargo
in {mall boats, at a diftance from the emporium; and befides,
there was danger from the pirates at Nitria. It is not eafy
to afcertain the precife {cite of the ancient Muziris; but
major Rennell, from an attention to the feveral circumftances
mentioned by Pliny and Ptolemy, concludes that Muziris
was the place now denominated Meerzaw or Merjee ; he ob-
ferves that they bear fome affinity in the found; and their
fituation is fimilar, both being feated on a river and at fome
diftance from the fea. See MEERJEE.

MUZOS, in Geography, the name of a people in New
Granada, who inhabit a province of the fame name, cele-
brated for rich mines of the moft precious emeralds in the
world. They are neighbours and enemies of the Mofcos or
Muefcas. Their country is mountainous, hot, and moift; and
from the fummits may be difcerned the polar ftars, both of the
north and fouth; while towards the end of Auguft and the
middle of March, the fun throws no fhade at noonday.
This favage tribe is diftinguifhed by many fingularities.
They have among them a fabulous tradition, that in ancient
times there was on the other fide of the great river Magda-
lena, a kind of fhadow of a mana called Ari, who, having
amufed himfelf with making in wood faces of many men and
women, threw them into the river, and when they came out
alive, he married them and taught them to culivate the earth ;
after which they difperfed and became the parents of all the
Indians, who are inferior to the Europeans, becaufe their
heads were made of wood. They had no deities, nor did
they adore the fun and moon, as,other people of Bogota
did; thofe {plendid bodies having been created, according
to their creed, after the wooden men, and merely to give
them light. When girls arrived at the age of fixteen, they
were married by their parents, without any previous notice.
The hufband then went to carefs his wife, when fhe received
him with blows of a cudgel; but ina fhort time became ap-
peafed, and prepared his victuals, though during the honey-
moon they were obliged to fleep together without confum-
mating the marriage. In cafe of adultery, the hufband
broke all the veffels of wood or clay that were in the houfe,
and retired to the mountains, till the wife fhould have re-
placed them. The dead were dried before a flow fire, and
not interred till the end of a year; the widow being obliged
to cultivate the ground for her fuftenance, till her relations
took her home after the interment. Evtalla cited by Pinker-
ton in his Geog, vol. ii,

MUZZLE of a Gun or Mortar, the extremity of the
cylinder, where the powder and ball are put in. ‘The metal
which furrounds the extremity of the cylinder is likewife
called the muzzle. See Cannon.

Muzzte, aterm applied to the nofe of a horfe or other
animal. It alfo fignities a kind of halter put upon the nofe
of a horfe or mule, to prevent eating or biting improperly.

Muzzix of a Plough, in Agriculture, a term fometimes

MUZ

applied to the copfe or part to which the draught is attached
in thefe tools.

MY.—Per My & per Tout. See Per my.

MYA, in Conchology, is a genus of the Vermes teftacea
clafs and order, of which the generic chara&er is given
under the word in the article Concuotocy. ‘The animals
included in this genus perforate into fand and clay at the
bottom of the fea, burying themfelves and their fhells wholly
or in part. There are twenty-fix fpecies enumerated in
Gmelin’s laft edition of Linnzus’s Syftem of Nature.

Species.

* Truncara. Shell ovate, truncate, and gaping greatly
behind; tooth projecting forwards and very obtufe. It in-
habits the European feas; is two inches and a half long ;
the fhell is of a dirty-white covered with a yellowifh-brown
fkin ; the inhabitant is frequently eaten, and is the principal
food of fea-birds. It is defcribed and figured, as are feveral
of the following fpecies, in Pennant’s Brit. Zoot. vol. iv.

* Decrivis. The fhell of this f{pecies is brittle, femi-
tranfparent ; floping downwards near the open end; the
hinge is flightly prominent. Found about the Hebrides ;
the fifh is im general eftimation among the inhabitants of
thofe iflands.

* Anenarta. Shell ovate, rounded behind; tooth pro-
jeCting forwards, rounded and furnifhed with a lateral {maller
one. This f{pecies-is found in the European feas, under the
fand; is two inches and a half long, and of a yellowifh red-
difh-brown.

Picrorum; Painter’s Mya. Shell ovate; with a fingle,
longitudinal, crenulate tooth in one hinge, and two in the
other. There are feveral varieties of this fpecies, defcribed
by different naturalifts ; fome of them are found in the frefh
waters of this country, and other parts of Europe, fome in
Barbary, and fome in Tranquebar. The fhell, which is
nearly four inches long and half as broad, is commonly ufed
to put water colours in, whence we have its name ; it is
covered with a brownifh or blackifh coat, under which it is
yellowifh or green; it is very thin and brittle, and does not
gape at either end.»

Marearitirera ; Pearly Mya. Shell ovate, a little
eontra&ed in the middle of the thinner margin; primary
tooth of the hinge conic; protuberant parts near the
hinge decorticated. It is found in many parts of the
ar¢tic circle, and generally in the rivers and about the
cataraéts ¢ it is five inches broad and half as long; the fhell
is thick, coarfe, opaque, black on the outfide, and often cor-
roded by worms; the hinge is without lateral teeth, the
primary tooth being received into a broad cleft tooth of the
oppofite hinge. This fhell is celebrated on account of its
producing large quantities of mother-of-pearl and pearl ;
the latter being a difeafe of the fifh analogous to that occa-
fioned bya ftone in the human body. The river Conway
in Wales was formerly famous for producing pearls of great
fize and value.

Perna. Shell oblong, dilated, the narrower bafe com-
prefled. It inhabits the Magellanic ftraits and fhores of
Barbary ; it is faid to refemble a ham or leg of mutton; it
is fmooth, blue and white, and open at one end.

Vutserta. Shell tongue-fhaped ; the hinge is terminal,
depreffed, and femiorbicular. The fhell of this fpecies
varies in form according to its age.

Arctica. Shell ftriate ; the valves with two fubfpimous
ridges; hinge without teeth. It is found im the North-feas
among algz,.is the fize of a bean, and of a pale yellow, and
milk-white within.

EDENTULA.

MYA

Epentura. Shell oval, equivalve, wide, gaping, and
ftriate ; hinge without teeth. It inhabits the fandy fhores
of the Cafpian fea, and is about an inch long ; the fhell is
thin, white, with about thirty-three ftriz in each valve.

Rapiata. Shell equivalve, pellucid, very finely ftriate
tranfverfely, yellowifh-green with livid rays; valves very
broad on one fide and very narrow on the other. ‘There is
a variety which is brownifh, with blue radiate lines. It in-
habits the rivers of Malabar.

Ostonca. Ovate-oblong ; one valve with a broad ftrong
tooth let into a hollow of the other valve, and a lefler tooth
inferted between two {mall ones of the oppofite valve.

Awnatina. Shell globular, fnowy, pellucid; primary
tooth of the hinge prominent and rounded. It inhabits
Guinea, and refembles the Soxen anatinus ; which fee.

Nicoparica. Shell equivalve, fnowy, ovate-oblong, with
decuffate ftriz ; tooth of the hinge fingle, broad, perpendi-
cular, and fpoon-fhaped. Yt inhabits, as its name imports,
the Nicobar iflands.

AustRatis. Shell ovate-compreffed, clofed; hinge with
two lateral teeth. Found in New Zealand.

Gapitana. Shell rounded, flattith, tranfveriely itriate.
It inhabits the fhores of Cadiz.

Corrucata. Shell rhombic, green; the protuberant
parts wrinkled. It is found in the rivers of Coromandel,
and is nearly an inch long.

Rucosa. Shell is oval, wrinkled, outwardly it is green-
ifh, and within pearly ; primary tooth of the hinge crenu-
late, with a longitudinal lateral one, double in the other
valve. It inhabits the rivers on the coaft of Coromandel.

Noposa. The fhell of this fpecies is oval, thin, green-
Mh ; ‘the protuberant parts knotty.

Norwecica. Shell oval, longitudinally and thickly ftri-
ate ; one end rounded, the other truncate; the protuberant
parts are decorticated.

Spurta. Shell rhombic, green; the protuberant part is
labrous. It is found ia the rivers of Tranquebar, and re-
embles the M. corrugata in every thing but its fize, being

twice as large as that.

Grycerneris. Shell gaping at both ends, very thick,
lamellous, oblong-oval, with tranfverfe wrinkled ftriz ;
primary tooth in the hinge very thick. Inhabits the Eu-
ropean oceans, particularly the Spanifh and Mediterranean
ek It is five inches long and ten broad, and refembles a

olen.

SyRMATOPHORA. Shell ovate, depreffed ; margin of the
hinge with a fubulate projection near the primary tooth ;
that of the other valve dilated. It is found in the rivers of

Guinea.
Nitipa. Shell oval, white, fmooth; with an obtufe
tooth in each hinge. It inhabits Norway.
Mempranacea. Shell ovate, membranaceous, white,

with a protracted refleGted margin at the probofcis.

Byssirera. The fhell of this fpecies is coarfe and thick;
oblong, ftriate, convex ; hinge without atooth. It is found
in the fiffures of rocks on the Greenland coaft, and is gene-
rally found affixed by a byffus or mafs of filaments.

* Dusia. In this {pecies the hell is found with an oval
and large hiatus oppofite the hinge, and the rudiment of a
tooth within one valve. It is found near Weymouth. The
fhell is brown and brittle; the length of a horfe-bean, and
fhaped like a piftachia nut. '

from certain obfervations on the growth of thefe thells,
and the number of their annual lamina or feales, it has been
imagined that this fifh will attain to a great age, and that
fifty or fixty years is but a very moderate computation.

MYA

Linnzus has fhewn that the mya will bear removing, and
that, by a particular procefs, it may be put into a ftate of
producing pearls at pleafure in the refervoirs to which it is
transferred, the old pearls being removed to make way for
the formation of new ones.

Mya, in Geography, an ifland in the Eaft Indian fea,
about ten miles long and four broad. N. lat. 1° 14. E.
long. 127° 27!.

MYAGRUM, in Botany, a word adopted from Diof-
corides, whofe jvaypos neverthelefs is very ob{cure, nor does
that author fay any thing which may lead to the meaning of
the name; except indeed that he defcribes the plant as mak-
ing a rude fort of candles. ‘The fat feeds, roafted and
bruifed, are fmeared over the twigs, which then,” fays he,
‘ferve in the place of lamps.’”? Such artificial lights are
well known to attract flies to their deftruGtion; and there-
fore perhaps Tournefort’s derivation of the word, from pus,
a fly, and wypsuw, to catch, or enfnare, may be true, rather-
than the received one, from pus, a moufe. (See Muscrputa.)
Tournefort however juftly obferves that this explanation is
not fuitable to our M/yagrum.—Linn. Gen 331. Schreb. 434.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 406. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 3. Sm,
Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 2.1. Jufl. 241; fe&. 1. Tourn.
t. 99. Lamarck Illuitr. t. 553. f. 1. Gaertn. t. rq1. Clafs
and order, Tetradynamia Siliculofa. Nat. Ord. Siliquofe, Linn.
Cruciferae, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of four ovate-oblong, concave,
gaping, coloured, deciduous leaves. Cor. cruciform, of four
flat, roundifh, obtufe petals, with narrow claws. Stam.
Filaments fix, as long as the calyx, the four oppofite ones
rather longer; anthers fimple. Pi. Germen fuperior,
ovate; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the calyx; ftigma
obtufe. Peric. Pouch inverfely heart-fhaped, flightly com-
prefled, terminated by the rigid conical ftyle, coriaceous,
without valves, having one fertile cell, and two empty in-
flated ones above. Seed folitary, elliptic-oblong, pendulous,

Eff. Ch. Pouch without valves, crowned with the conical
ftyle, fingle-feeded, with two empty cells above.

This genus is very mifcellaneous in Linneus as well as
Willdenow and others. Twelve {pecies are found in the
writer laft named, of which the 1ft, MM. perenne, the 2d,
orientale, and the 12th, agyptium, properly belong to Bunias;
the 4th, hi/panicum, is Cordylocarpus pubefcens, Prodr. Fi.
Grae. v. 2. 333 the 6th, chlorefolium of Willdenow, feems,
in the opinion of the author himfelf; to be ofa diftin®

_genus, and certainly the defcription he gives of the fruit is

not that of a true Myagrum; the 7th, fativum, was long
ago referred to Alyfum by Scopoli, as well as in the Flora
Britannica, and the 8th, dentatum, is of the fame genus, if
not the fame fpecies ; the 10th, paniculatum, conftitutes the
genus Rapiffrum, adopted from Tournefort in Gertner, and
Prodr. Fl. Grec. vy. 2.1; the gthand 11th, having a pouch
of two cells, with feveral feeds in each, can have nothing to
do with the genus in queition, The only remaining f{pecies
therefore is ;

1. M. perfolatum. Linn. Sp. Pl. 893. Willd. n. 5.
(M. monofpermon latifolium; Bauh, Pin. 109. Prodr. 52.
t. 51. M. hortenfe monofpermon ; Befl. Eytt. ettiv.
ord. ro. t. 8. f. 1,)—Native of corn-fields in the fouth of
Europe. ‘The roof is annual, tapering. Stem one and a
half or two feet high, alternately branched, fmooth, round,
leafy. Leaves alternate, oblong, obtufe, flightly and irregu-
larly toothed, glaucous, {mooth, from four to fix inches long,
clafping the ftem with their A bafe ; their midmb
pale. #/owers numerous, f{mall, pale yellow, corymbofe.
Fruit very copious, in long lax clufters, {mooth. It is ,
cult

ax
MYC

cult to account for the two empty cells, which form inflated
round protuberances at the top of the peuch, and have no
rudiments of feeds. As the pouch falls off entire, perhaps
they ferve to keep it upright in its defcent, that the fharp
bafe may the better fiad its way into the ground.

MYAPOUR, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 65 miles
N.W. of Ramgur.

MYAS, a town of Africa, in the country of Sennaar ;
80 miles §.S.E. of Sennaar.

MYCALE Mons, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of
Tonia, on the fea-coalt, at a {mall diltance N. of the mouth
of the Meander. It formed a promontory over-againft the
ifle of Samos. It was the higheft mountain on the coatt ;
covered with wood and abounding with fallow deer. Here
was alfo a town of the fame name, and near it was a temple
appropriated, as it has been faid, to the furies.

MYCALESSUS, a town in the eaftern part of Beeotia,
between Schemis to the weft and Aulis to the eaft. In the
time of Paufanias the ruins of this town remained; but on
the coalt of the fea was a temple of Ceres Mycaleffia.

MYCE, from pw, to wink. The medical and furgical
meanings of this word are rather indeterminate, or at leaft
exceedingly different. Thus, a winking, a fungus, and an
obftrudion, are given among its fignifications.

MYCENA, in Botany, from pvxn:, a fungus, the fourth
fection of the genus Agaricus, as it ftands in Perfoon, con-
fifting of thirty-nine fpecies, which are of a {mall fize and
delicate habit. Their cap is, for the moft part, membra-
nous, with pellucid radiating ftreakg, convex and permanent.
Gills of an uniform colour, fhrivelling. Stalk ufually tubu-
lar, elongated and naked. i

Examples are Agaricus alliaceus, Jacq. Auftr. t. 82;
and J. porreus, which is alliaceus of Sowerby, t. 81; alfo
A. tener, Sowerb. t. 33.

MYCENZA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece, in
the ancient kingdom of Argos, or Argolis, which, in pro-
cefs of time, became the feat of the kingdom, and is celebrated
by Homer for its riches; as its rival Argos was for its horfes.
As to its fituation, fome difference of opinion has fubfifted
among ancient geographers. Strabo placed this town to-
wards the S.W. of Argos. Paufanias mentions fome cir-
cumitances that ferve to afcertain its pofition more precifely.
Perfeus came from Lariffa in Theffaly to Argos, and he is
faid to have received an extraordinary admonition from the
gods to build a city on a particular fpot, with which he
fpeedily complied. M. d’Anville fuggefts, that this {pot
Jay to the N.E. of Argos, becaufe it was fituated on the
route of Perfeus, and that pofition is confirmed by the
defcription of Paufanias. Some hiltorians have a{cribed the
feparation of the kingdom of Mycenz from that of Argos
to Acrifius, who was its firft king, and who began his reign
in the year 1344 B.C., and who reigned 31 years; whiltt
others fay, that his fon Perfeus, who fucceeded him in the
year 1313 B. C,, and who reigned 32 years, built the city of
Mycenz, and founded the kingdom. The fifth king of this
feparate ftate was Agamemnon, who began his reign in the
year 1201 B. C, and reigned 18 years. ‘The kingdom of
Argos had been tranflated to this little ftate, fituated on the
river Inachus, which parted it from Arcadia on the weit,
and which had the gulf cf Lepanto on the fouth, as fome
fay, by Acrifius, but according to others by Perfeus; fo
that this metropolis became in a fhort time more popu-
Jous and opulent than the other; but it fell into fuch decay
prefently after the diffolution of the Mycenian, or, as it is
commonly called, the kingdom of Agamemnon, that, as
Strabo informs us, there were fcarcely any foot-fteps left of
it in his time, though fome Roman hiftorians feem to hint

Vor. XXIV. +

MYC

as if fome part of that once famed city were ftill flaiding
when the Romans conquered Macedonia. In the reign of
Atreus, which commenced 1266 B. C., the Heraclidz,
being the fons and defcendants of Hercules of the line of
Perfeus, claimed the kirgdom of Mycenz, from which they
had been driven by Euryftheus. Agamemnon, who fuc-
ceeded his father Atreus 1201 B. C., was reckoned at that
time the wealthieft and moft powerful potentate in all
Greece. This king, after the deitruétion of Troy, having
encountered feveral difafters, arrived at laft at Mycenz,
where he was murdered by his coufin Aigifthus and his
wife Clytemnettra. Egifthus feized upon the kingdom
1183 B.C., and, after a reign of feven years, was mur-
dered by Oreftes, Agamemnon’s fon, and fucceeded by
him 1176 B.C. Oreites was fucceeded by Aigyptus, or
rather /Epytus, who gained the kingdom in 1106 B. C.,
and by his liberality engaged the affe@tions both of the nobles
and the people ;_ but thie iberality proved ultimately fatal to
the regal dignity: the fubjeCts grew daily more and more en-
croaching, and the kings more tenacious of their prerogative,
till the conteft ended in the extinétion of monarchy, and a
total change of government. Among other ancient remains,
befides thofe which were deltroyed before the time of
Paufanias, we may enumerate the tomb of Eleétra, thofe of
Clytemneftra and Egifthus, which were without the walls,
about fifteen ftadia from Mycenz, and at the foot of mount
Eubcea; on the left was the temple of Juno, the road to
which was watered by the ftreams that flowed from the
fountain Eleuteria, which ferved the priefteffes for their puri-
fications, and for the fecret functions of their miniftry. A
large fpace before the temple was called «« Profymne,’’ and
over-again{t it was a mountain called Acrea. The Afterion
flowed at its bafe, and precipitated itfelf into a gulf. The
front of the gate of the temple was decorated with many
female {tatues of the priefteffes that had been employed in the
fervice of Juno, and others of heroes, particularly of Oreftes.
At the left of the veftibule of the temple were ftatues of the
graces in ancient tafte : the ftatue of Juno, of gold and ivory,
executed by Polycletes, was of an extraordinary fize, feated
on a throne at the entrance of the temple. On the head of
the goddefs was a crown, on which were exhibited the Hours
and the Graces. The ftatue of Hebé, alfo of gold and
ivory, was near that of Juno. Within the temple was
a filver altar, on which were engraved, in bas-relief, the
nuptials of Hercules and Hebé. Here were alfo a golden
peacock, encircled with precious ftones, which had been
prefented by the emperor Adrian, and alfo a crown of gold
with a purple veil, given by Nero. For further particulars,
fee Paufanias Corinth. 1. ti. c. 17. The tomb, treafury,
or temple of Agarnemnon, which {till exifts, probably in
the ftate in which it was left by the Argians, after the
deftruétion of the city in the 78th olympiad, 460 years B.C.
deferves particular notice, as this edifice is perhaps the moft
fingular in Greece, and on account of the ftate of preferva-
tion in which it {till exifts, being entire as to the building,
though defpoiled of its internal decorations : Paufanias fays,
that envy on the part of the Argians, becaufe the inhabitants
of Mycenz fhared with the Laeedemonians the glory of
Thermopyle, was the occafion of its deftruGion. The
nature and deftination of the above-mentioned edifice is
doubtful. Paufanias fays, that the tomb of Agamemnon,
ereted about 1200 years B. C., was among the ruins of
Mycenz ; whereas this is at fome diftance from the walls.
He alfo defcribes the fubterraneous treafury of Atreus and
his defcendants as being in the fame place ; and hence it has
been inferred, that this building, conftru€@ed of the fame
materials as the walls, and coeval with the time of their

3N erection,

MYC

ereftion, was the treafury of Atreus. It is a cone of fifty
feet in diameter, and as many in height. It is compofed of
enormous maffes of a very hard breccia, or fort of pudding-
ftone; the black in particular, over the door-way (which
diminifhes very much in breadth-at the top, after the
_ Egyptian manner), is no lefs than thirty feet in length, fif-
teen in breadth, and five in thicknefs. This extraordinary
edifice has obvioufly been raifed by the projection of one
ftone over another, and they nearly meet at the top ; the
eurved form and fmoothnefs being previoufly given to each.
The central ftone at the top has been removed, along with
two or three others ; and yet the building remains as durable
as ever, and will probably la(t till the end of time ; which
would fcarcely appear likely, if this had been the key-ftone
and fupport of the whole edifice. The treafury of Minyas
at Orchomenus, in Beeotia, faid to have been built about
1350 years B. C., is fuppofed to have been conftruGed in a
fimilar manner, and the central ftone which covered it, is
_thought to have had nothing more to do with the reft, than
as it might regulate the fymmetrical form ofeach. _ Hence it
has been inferred, that neither the one nor the other of thefe
edifices can warrant the conclufion, deduced from them by
M. Dutens, in his “‘ Recherches fur le tems le plus reculé
de l’Ufage des Voutes, chez les: Anciens,”’ that we cannot
defire ftronger proofs of the exiftence of arches from the
moft remote ages. Edinburgh Review, N14.

MYCETITES, in Natural Hi/lory, the name of a {pecies
of fea-coral, which is ufually of a conic fhape and {triated
texture ; always {mall, and ufually found adhering to fea-
fhells, or large corals. See Funcirz. ‘

Mycetites Difcoides, a name given by Dr. Woodward
to thofe kinds of foffil coralloid bodies which the gene-
rality of writers had called, after Dr. Plott, porpite. Thefe
are ufually fmall, and of a roundifh, but flatted figure ; they
are hollowed on one fide with a fort of umbilicus, and
ftriated on the other; they are found on the ploughed
lands in Oxfordfbire, and fome other of our midland counties,
and in other places, buried in the folid {trata of ftone; they
are fometimes yellowifh, fometimes brownifh, and are from
the breadth of an inch to a fourth part or lefs of that fize ;
when broken, they are ufually found to confift of a kind of
fpar, not unlike that of which the fhelly coats of the echinitz,
or the lapides indici, and other fpines of echini, confift in
their foffil tate; and in fome of them the ridges and ftrie
are thick fet with little knobs and tubercles. The bafis in
fome of thefe is flat, as it is in others rifing in form of a
circular elevation from the umbilicus, and others have a cir-
cular cavity in the fame place.

MYCONI, in Geography, one of the Cyclades in the
Grecian Archipelago, about 21 miles in circumference,
fituated between Icaria or Nicaria and Delos. This is the
ancient Myconus, which, by fabulous relation, was the tomb
of the Centaurs that were killed by Hercules. Some ancient
writers have called the inhabitants of Myconus bald heads,
afferting that this defe& was natural, and that it was a kind
of endemial difeafe, with which almolt all of them came into
the world; but no appearances of it now remain. They
were alfo reckoned great parafites ; and men, who prefented
themfelves at fealts without beinz invited, were proverbially
called « guelts of Myconi.”’ In a harbour known by the
name of Tourlon,” is an anchorage frequented by fhips
failing through the Archipelago, in order to repair to
Smyrna and the north of Turkey. They are here fafe from
the winds that proceed from the N., N.E., §., and S.E.;
but the others blow right in here, and raife a heavy fea.
When navigators feck a fhelter againft thefe winds, they
feek it off the {mall town or village of Myconi; but they are

MYC

there buffeted ‘by thofe which cannot penetrate into. the
anchorage of Tourlon. The Greeks of Myconi are great
navigators ; traverfing the fea that {urrounds them in their
boats, fome of which are large. Addi&ted to maritime oc-
cupations, they negleét the culture of their lands, from
which, though dry and mountainous, they might derive con-
fiderable advantage. All the productions which they yield,
though in {mall quantity for want of culture, are of a very
good quality, fuch as wheat, barley, raifins, figs, olives, and
cotton. Wine and fruits are here excellent; but though
wine is almoft the only article of commerce in Myconi, it
is mixed with water in order to increafe its quantity, whilft
its real value is thus diminifhed. Game abounds; the moft
delicate birds arrive in numerous flights twice a year, in
{pring and autumn; and, in fhort, the ifland affords in pro-
fufion all the neceflary or agreeable articles of life. But
water is fearce; and, during the great heat. of fummer,
every thing is dry in the fields, and bears the afoe& of
aridity. This drought has, without doubt, reftriéted the
operations of agriculture, and induced men to feek abroad
means of exiftence more certain and lefs laborious. The
inhabitants, who are about 3000, are chiefly Greek Chrif-
tians, goyerned by a cadi; the women are principally oc-
cupied in {pinning cotton which grows in their ifland, and.
manufaéturing it into ftockings or cloths. An uninhabited
fhoal, to which the Myconites fend flocks, affords a good
anchorage a league E. of Mycont: it is calted Tragomifi,”’
i. e. He-goat ifland, becaufe it formerly, in all probability,
contained both he and fhe-goats ; but none are now feen
there. Lower, and a little farther from Myconi, are two
points of arid rocks, which the Greeks call ‘ Stapodia,”

and the navigators, “* Le Deux Fréres,’’ or The Two

Brothers.” N. lat. 37° 27’. E. long. 25° 23'—Alfo, a

town or village on the W. coaft of the fore-mentioned ifland.
N. lat. 37° 26’. E. long. 25° 20’.

MYCONOIDES, from pxxine, a noffril, and cidocy refem=_
blance, in Surgery, aterm anciently applied to ulcers, which
were covered with a large quantity of matter like mucus.

MYCTERIA, the Jabiru, in Ornithology, a genus of
birds belonging to the order of Gralle. The bill is long,
bending upwards, and acute; upper mandible triangular ;
the noitrils are [mall and linear; there is no tongue, or a
very {mall one; and the feet have four toes. There are
three

Species.

Americana, or American Jabiru. White; quill and
tail-feathers purplifh-black. It is about the fize of a tur-
key. The bill is long, ftout, and of a black colour; the
whole plumage is white, except the head, and about two-
thirds of the neck, which are bare of feathers, and of a
blackifh colour; the remainder is alfo bare, and of a fine
red; on the hind-head are a few greyifh feathers ; the legs
are ftrong, of a great length, and covered with black {cales ;
wings and tail even at the end. This bird is found in all
the favannas of Cayenne, Guiana, and other parts of South
America. It is migratory and gregarious. It makes its
neft in great trees, which grow on the borders of rivers ;
lays too eggs, and brings up the young in the neft till they
can defcend to the ground. The colour of the young birds
is grey ; the fecond year it changes to rofe-colour, and the
third to pure white. "They are very wild and voracious,
and their food is fih, which they devour in great quanti-
ties. The flefh of the young birds is faid to be good eating,
but that of the old is hard and oily,

AstAtica, or Indian Jabiru, is of a large fize, the bill
is dufky, almoft ftraight above, and gibbous near the fore-

4 a head ;

MYG

head; the under mandible fwelled beneath; and from the
bafe of the bill there paffes through and beyond the eye a
black ftreak. The general colour of the plumage is white ;
the lower half of the back, the prime quills, and tail, are
black; the legsa palered. ‘This {pecies inhabits the Eatt
Indies, and feeds on fnail-.

Nov#-Hottanpim, New Holland Jabiru. Body above
purplifh-green, but beneath, alfo on the neck and fhoulders,
itis white. It is found in New Holland, There was a
f{pecimen in the Leverian Mufeum. The head is purplith,
{potted with white; the neck is feathered; the irids yel-
low ; firft quill-feathers white ; tail black and white.

_ MYDEN, in Geography, a town of Candahar, capital
of a diftrict in Cabuliftan ; 24 miles S.W. of Cabul.

MYDON, from uvdzx, to grow putrid, in Surgery,
fungous flefh in a fittulous ulcer.

MY DORGE, Craupk, in Biography, an able mathema-
tician of the 17th century, was born at Paris in 1585, and
was educated to the law. He became counfellor to the
Chatelet, and afterwards treafurer of France in the gene-
rality of Amiens. hefe places he held more on account of
the rank which they conferred on him, than for the profit
‘which they yielded. He was too much attached to mathe-
matical purluits, and mafter of too ample a fortune, to pur-
fue his profeffion with that kind of eagernefs, which can only
infure fuccefs. He was the friend and acquaintance of Des
Cartes, and entered into a vindication of him, in the difpute
-which he had with M. Fermat, and was afterwards a me-
diator of the peace which was made between thofe learned
men in 1638. In the fame year Mydorge publifhed a
Latin treatife «* On Conic Seétions,’’ in four books, which
Merfenne has inferted in his “ Abridgment of Univerfal
Geometry.” In 1642, he and.Des Cartes received an in-
vitation from fir Charles Cavendifh to fettle in England,
which he declined, on account, as it is fuppofed, of the
breaking out of the civil wars m this country. He died
at Paris in 1647, in the fixty-third year of his age. He
-was a practical mechanic, as well as an able mathematician,
and with fo much zeal was he infpired for the interefts of
{cience, that he fpent more than a thoufand crowns on the
fabrication of glafles for telefcopes, burning mirrors, mecha-
nical engines, and mathematical inftruments. Moreri.

MYDRECHT, in Geography, a town of Holland, in
the department of Utrecht ; 12 miles W.S.W. of Utrecht.

MYDRIASIS, from pvdex, to abound with moiflure, in
Surgery, a preternatural dilatation of the pupil; fo named,
becaufe it was fuppofed to proceed from a redundance of
moifture, or humours. It is an ordinary fymptom of the
sutta ferena, apoplexy, compreffion of the brain, &c.

MYEDZYREE, in Geography, a town of Poland, in
Volhynia; 42 miles N. of Conftantinow.

MYERSTOWN, a town, or rather village, of Ame-
rica, in Dauphin county, Pennfylvania, fituated on the N.
fide of Tulpehockon creek, and containing about 25 houfes ;
77 miles from Philadelphia.

MYGBAOTH, in the Jewi/h Antiquities, a kind of mitre
worn by the priefts. See Crparis.

MYGDONIA, in Ancient Geography, a province of Afia,
in Mefopotamia, fo called, according to Theodoret, from
the river Mygdonius ; but, according to Pliny (1. vi. c. 12.)
it derived this name from the Mygdonians of Macedonia,
who feem to have fent hither a colony. Strabo (1. xvi.)
concurs in this opinion; and informs us, that Mygdonia
extended along the Euphrates from Zeugma to Thapfacus,
and contained Nifibis, which was denominated “ Antiochia
Mygdonia.”” Hence it appears that Mygdonia of Mefo-
potamia comprehended the weftern part of Mefopotamia.

>

MYG

—Alfo, a country of Macedonia, bounded on the N. by
Pelagonia, on the E. by Calcidides, on the S. by Pzonia,
and on the W. by the province of Euriopus. Herodotus,
Pliny, and Ptolemy mention this province. See Macr-
DONIA.

MYGDONIUM Marnor,a name given by the anciente
to a fpecies of marble much ufed in their larger buildings,s
It was white variegated with black ; but that black rather
difpofed in clouds and fpots than veins. It is confounded
with the docimenum marmor, by fome writers; but that
was always of a pure white, without the leaft variegation,

MYGDONIUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Me-
fopotamia, which was formed of many ftreams, and difcharged
itfelf into the Chaboras.

MYGENES, in Geography, one of the {malleft, and the
moit weiterly, of the Faroer iflands, in the North fea. N.
lat. 61° 53/.. E. long. 10° 32!.

MYGINDA, in Botany, received its name from Jac-
quin, in honour of Francis von Mygind, a German noble-
man, an aulic counfellor ; not only a great patron of the
botanic garden at Vienna, but a practical {cientific botanift.
Several new plants, colleGted by himfelf in Barbadoes, were
defcribed from his herbarium by Jacquin.—Jacq. Amer. 24.
Linn. Gen. 68. Schreb. 93. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 722.
Mart. Mill. Di@. v. 3. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 1. 282.
Juff. 378. Lamarck Di&. v. 4. 335. LIlluftr. t. 76. (Rha-
coma; Linn. Gen. 58. Schreb. 78. 820. Juff. 378. Crof-
fopetalum ; Browne Jam. 145.)—Clafs and° order, Tetran-
dria Tetragynia. Nat. Ord. Dumofz, Linn. Rhamni, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, very fmall, of one
leaf, in four deep equal fegments, permanent. Cor Petals
four, alternate with the fegments of the calyx, equal, round-
ifh, flat, widely {preading ; their claws broad, and fometimes
cohering. Stam. Filaments four, awl-{haped, ereét, or {pread-
ing, fhorter than the corolla ; anthers roundith. Pift. Ger-
men fuperior, roundifh; ftyles four, ere&t, fhort, more or
lefs combined at their bafe, which is fubfequently elongated ;
ftigmas acute. Peric. Drupa globofe. Seed. Nut ovate,
acute, of one cell.

Eff. Ch. Calyx in four deep fegments.
ternate with the calyx, broad at the bafe.
rior, globofe.

1. M. uragoga. Downy-leaved Myginda. Linn. Sp. Pl.
1661. Jacq. Amer. 24. t. 16. Swartz. Prodr. 39. (Rha-
coma Croffopetalum ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 169. Crotlopetalum;
Browne Jam. 145. t. 17. f. 1.) —Leaves ovate, acute, ficely
ferrated, downy, as well as the branches and flower-ftalks.
Native of South America, and the Welt Indies. Jacquin
found it very plentifully about Carthagena, where the root
is efteemed for its powerful diuretic qualities; as well as
in St. Martin's, one of the Caribbee iflands ; generally grow-
ing not far from the fea. Browne gathered it in Jamaica,
in the woods below Marta-Bree river, in St. James's,
growing among rocks. -This is an upright JSerub, three or
four feet high near the fhore, but almoit thrice as much
in the woods, with few branches; which, when young at
leaft, are fquare and finely downy, with fpreading hoary
hairs. Root thick, woody, folid, whitifh, and very bitter ;
its bark orange-coloured internally. Leaves moftly oppo-
fite, an inch long, more or lefs, on fhort, reddith, downy
footftalks, ovate, acute, finely and fharply ferrated ; occa-
fionally fomewhat heart-fhaped at the bafe; clothed on
both fides with fine, foft, fpreading, fhortifh hairs. Flower-
fialks axillary, fhorter than the leaves, oppofite, flender,
downy, two or three times forked. Flowers {mall, of a
very deep fhining red. Fruit red, foft, the fize of a {mall

pea.
3N 2

Petals four, al-
Drupa fupe-

When

M YG

When the herbarium of fir Jofeph Banks was, in 1786,
compared with the Linnzan colleétion, the original fpeci-
men of Jacquin in the former, (purchafed by fir Jofeph,
with his herbarium, many years before,) was found to ac-
cord precifely with that of Browne in the latter, which had
been bought, among{t Browne’s plants, by Solander, and

*fent to Linneus. ‘This laft proves to be the very identical
fpecimen, drawn by Ehret for Browne’s plate. That draw-
ing neverthelefs, in its total {moothnefs, as well as the form
of the leaves and their notches, agrees better with the fpecies
we fhall next defcribe, which has therefore been generally
taken for the plant of Browne, on which the Rhacoma Crof-
Sopetalum of Linneus depends. The difagreement between
the two original inveltigators of this plant, as to the num-
ber of its ftyles, may be accounted for from the elongation
4which takes place in the combined bafes of thofe organs, as
in Rofa arvenfis, and feveral other flowers, fubfequent to
impregnation. The /fyles are indeed fo much united, that
perhaps the genus ought to be reckoned monogynous, ef-
pecially if we were to judge by the fecond fpecies; yet
even about that botanilts differ, as we fhall prefently fee.
Dr. Swartz has confirmed the generic identity of the fhrubs
in queftion, but not having feen Browne’s fpecimen, was
mifled by this figure to perfift in the old error.

2. M. Rhacoma. Smooth-leaved two-coloured Myginda.
Swartz Ind. Occ. v. 1. 3403; excluding the fynonyms.
Jacq. Coll. v. 4. 173. Ic. Rar. t. 311. Willd. o. 2.—
Leaves elliptic-obovate, obtufe, crenate, fmooth; paler be-
neath. Styles combined at the bafe.—Native of the fandy
fea-coaft, on the weft fide of Jamaica. Swartz. We have
fpecimens from Dr. Wright, who obferved that the flowers
had certainly four ftyles. Jacquin, in his beautiful plate,
reprefents them as united nearly all the way up, and fo
Swartz defcribes them. This /brub is very bufhy, two or
three feet high, fmooth in all its parts, except perhaps the
partial flower-/falks, and minute braGeas. The bark 1s afh-
coloured. Leaves from half an inch to an inch long, el-
liptical or fomewhat obovate, obtufe, crenate ; much paler
beneath, at Jeaft in the dried fpecimen. Flower-/talks
fcarcely more than once divided, or three-flowered. In
other refpeéts this much agrees with the foregoing. Swartz
defcribes the claws of the fefals as united into a tube, and
their border fringed. This laft chara€ter we cannot dif-
cern, either in the prefent or former fpecies, though upon
it Browne founded his name of Croffopetalum.

3. M. latifolia. Broad-leaved Myginda. . Swartz Ind.
Occ. v. 1. 342. Vahl. Symb, v. 2. 32. Willd. n. 3.—
Leaves elliptical, emarginate, flightly crenate, fmooth.
Stigmas feflile—Native of the Weit Indies. Mr. Maffon
gathered our fpecimens in the ifland of Nevis. This ap-
pears to be a larger /hrub, in all its parts, than the fore-
going, with numerous branches, crofling each other. Every
part is quite fmooth. Leaves copious, oppofite, about
an inch and a half long, and an inch broad, coriaceous,
elliptical, obtufe, emarginate, flightly and rather diftantly
crenate ; of a palifh, opaque, and fonewhat glaucous green,
on both fides. Floqwer-/lalks much fhorter than the leaves,
forked, fcarcely more than three-flowered, the two lateral
flowers divaricated, the central one feflile. Petals reflexed.
~Germen elliptical. © Stigmas from two to four, feffile, broad
and obtufe.

4. M. pallens. Pale-leaved Myginda. Barks MSS.—
Leaves elliptical, very obtufe, crenate, fmooth, neatly feflile.
Styles combined. Petals wavy. —Gathered in Antigua by
the late Mr. Maffon, and communicated by fir Jofeph Banks,
This is the fize of the laft, with which it agrees in habit,
but the /eaves are of a lighter more yellowifh-green, on

MY. L

fhorter ftalks, and in fome degree feattered; the adult
ones paler beneath. The flower-ffalks are twice forked ;
the central flower, as wellas the reft, elevated on a flender
fmooth partial ftalk. Calyx broad and flat. Petals widely
fpreading, more or lefs undulated at the margin.
as much united as in MZ. Rhacoma, with fimilar acute
Sfiigmas.

The firft three {pecies are faid to have been introduced,
into the Englifh gardens, between the years 1790 and 1798.
They are kept inthe ftove, and are evergreen, flowering at
various times. Jacquin fays the fecond bloffomed with him
the year after the feed was committed to the ground, the
plant rot being above fix inches high. We have never heard
of the fourth being brought to Europe. S. ,

MYIAGRUS Devs, in the Heathen Mythology, a name
given fometimes to Jupiter, and fometimes to Hercules, on
occafion of their being facrificed to for the driving away
the vaft numbers of flies which infefted the facrifices on
certain public occafions. The word is ufually fpelt Mya-
grus; but.this muft be an error, as this word dees not ex-
prefs the fly-deffroyer ; but the moufe-de/lroyer ; and we have
it fufficiently teftified by the ancients, that flies were the
only creatures againft whom this deity was invoked, Pliny
calls this deity alfo A/yiodes, and tells us, that the flies
which ufed to pefter the Olympic rites went away in whole
clouds, on the facrificing a bull to this god. © We find in
Atherzus alfo, that this facrificing to the god of flies, at
the Olympic games, was a conftant cuftom. Some diftin-
guifh thefe two deities, and tell us, that the latter, or Myi-
odes, ufed to vifit the nations in vengeance, with a vaft mul-
titude of flies ; and that, on paying him the due honours of
a facrifice, they all went away again ; and this feems to agree
with what Pliny tells us in fome places.

At the time of the Olympic games, Jupiter was worfhip-
ped under the name of the Apomyos, or Myiagrus Deus, to
fupplicate the deftru€tion of thofe troublefome creatures.
This happened only once in many years, when the facrifices
were performed there ; but the Elians worfhipped him con-
tinually under this name, to deprecate the vengeance of hea-
ven, which ufually fent, as they expreffledit, an army of
flies, and other infe&ts, towards the latter end of the fummer,
that infefted the whole country with ficknefs and pettilence,
See BEELZEBUB.

MYIODES Devs, a name given fometimes to Hercules,
but more frequently to Jupiter, to whom a bull was facri-
ficed, in order to make him propitious in driving away the
flies that infefted the Olympic games.

MYLA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Sicily, which
ran, according to Livy, between Syracufe and Leontium.:

MYL, or Mytes, now Meluzzo, a town of Sicily,
fituated towards the Weft. This {mall town has been re-
cognifed as the place near which the fleet of Auguitus,
under the command of Agrippa, obtained an advantage
over that of the younger Pompey.—Alfo, a ftrong town
of Theffaly, which, however, was taken, and abandoned
to pillage. :

MYLANTIA, a promontory of the ifle of Rhodes, in
which was the town of Camirus.

MYLAON, a [mall river of Arcadia, W. of Megalo-
polis, which ran from the S.W. to the N.E., and emptied
itfelf into the Alpheus.

MYLASA, or Mytassa, a town of Afia Minor, in
Caria. According to Steph. Byz. this town was founded
by Mylafus, fon of Chryfari; and according to Herodotus,
it was not fo ancient as the temple of the Carian Jupiter,
built in its vicinity. Mylafa was for fome time fubje& to
kings, but it partook of the viciflitudes to which Caria

5 was

Styles -

MYN

was fubject. It was taken by Mithridates, and after-
wards by Labienus, whofe father was a lieutenant of Cefar.
The Romans left it free, whence Pliny calls it « Mylafa

Libera.”’ Strabo informs us, that it was one of the moft
magnificent cities of antiquity, and one of thofe which was
admired on account of its porticoes and various monuments ;
a quarry ef white marble in its neighbourhood furnifhed
ample materials for the con{trution of its numerous edifices.
The Milefians had two temples dedicated to Jupiter; one
fituated in the city, appropriated to Jupiter Ofogo or Ogoa,
and another at Laprauda, on the road to Alabanda, which
was confecrated to Jupiter Stratius, or the warrior. This
was much refpected by the Carians, who came hither from
remote parts to offer their vows: a caufeway, called ‘“ the
facred way,"’ 60 ftadia in length, led from Mylafa to this
temple. Between thefe temples there was another dedi-
cated to Auguttus and the divinity of Rome. Pococke
faw it entire; but it has been fince his time deftroyed, and
the materials have been ufed for conftruéting a mofque.

MYLASSENSE Marwor, in the works of the an-
cients, a name ufed for a fpecies of marble dug near a
city of that name in Caria.
with an admixture of purple; the purple not difpofed in
veins, but diffufed through the whole mafs: it was much
ufed in building among the Romans.

MYLAU, or Muutau, in Geography, atown of Saxony,
in the Vogtland, on the Golfah; eight miles N.E. of
Plauen.

MYLE, a word ufed by fome authors as a name for the
patella or limpet, and by others to exprefs what we calla
mole, or falfe conception, in the uterus.

MYLES, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Samos ;
two miles W. of Cora.

MYLi#, or Mytias, in Ancient Geography, a country
which originally made @ part of Greater Phrygia, but, in

rocefs of time, it was referred to Lycia.

MYLOGLOSSI, in Anatomy, a pair of mufcles, thus
called, becaufe arifing about the backfide of the molares, or
grinding-teeth, and inferted into the ligament of the tongue :
helping to pull it upwards. :

Thefe are the fame with what Mr. Cowper calls ftylo-

loffi.

2 MYLO-HYOIDEUS, a mufcle belonging to the os
hyoides. See DeGiuririon.

MYLON, in Ancient Geography, a town of Egypt, men-
tioned by Atheneus and Steph. Byz.; which gave name to
the Mylopolite nome.

Myton, in Surgery, is ufed for the largeft tumours of the
ftaphylomatovs kind in the corner and uvea of the eyes.
See STAPHYLOMA.

-MYLO-PHARYNGEUS, in Anatomy, a name given
‘to fome of the fibres of the conitriCtor pharyngis fu-
perior.

MYLOTHROS, in Ancient Mufic,
Greek fong, proper for millers and bakers.
haps, as the Epztaulia.

MYNAMA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Bahar; 17 miles S.E. of Durbungah, N. lat. 26° 1/.
E. long. 86° 21’.

MYNAMANIES, or Mrxomanies, a tribe of Indians,
who, with the tribes of Chippeways and Saukeys, live near
Bay Puan, and about 20 or 30 years ago could furnifh
550 warriors. The Minomanies have about 300 fighting
men.

MYNAR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; four miles
N.E. of Bettiah,

the name of a
The fame, per-

Tt was of a black colour, but.

MYO
MYNATNAGUR, a town of Bengal ; 25 miles N.N.W.

of Boglipour. ‘

MYNATPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar;
32 miles N. of Durbungah. N. lat. 26° 38’. E. long.
86° 15°.

MYNDER, a fhoal in the ftraits of Macaffar, near the
coaft of the ifland of Celebes. S. lat. 2° 12’. E, long.
118° 55’.

MYNDUS, or Minpnus, in Ancient Geography, a {mall
town, with large gates, of Afia Minor, in Caria, fituated
at the extremity of an ifthmus, N.W. of Halicarnaffus.

MYNSICHT, Anprian von, M.D., in Biography,
count palatine, confulting phyfician to the duke of Mech
lenburg and feveral other princes, was celebrated for his
knowledge in chemiftry, about the beginning of the 17th
century. He was the author of a work upon this fubje@,
which was in great vogue in its time, and pafled through
numerous editions. It was entitled ** Thefaurus et Armamen-
tarium Medico-chymicum, hoc eft, feleGtiffimorum, contra
quofvis morbos, pharmacorum conficiendorum {fecretiffima
ratio, cui in fine adjunétum eft Teftamentum Hadrianeum
de aureo Philofophorum Lap:de,”” Hamburgh, 1631, &c.
There is a great deal of credulity, and not a little myftery,
in the defcription of the various chemical, medicinal, and
alchemiftical proceffes, which this work contains, and of
the potent virtues afcribed to them in the treatment of dif-
eafes. Several of his preparations, however, came into
common ufe, and were long retained in the difpenfatories.
Eloy Di&. Hift. Gen. Biog.

MYO, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian
fea, formerly inhabited; but now not occupied by a pro-
hibition of the Dutch, left {pices fhould be fmuggled; fub-
je& to the king of Ternate. N. lat. 1° 13'. E. long.
122° 20'.—Alfo, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Culiacan ; 110 miles N.W. of Culiacan.

MYOCEPHALON, from pz, a fly, and xnQaan, the
head, in Surgery, a tumour, formed on the iris, and re-
fembling the head of a fly. See Ints, Prolap/us of.

MYOCEPHALUS, a name given by fome authors to
the diftemperature of the eyes, commonly known by the
name of a ftaphyloma.

MYOCTONUM. See Aconite.

MYODES, Puarisma, a name given by fome anato-
mical writers to what is called by others the quadratus

ene ; it is a mufcular expanfion in the neck.

MYOLOGY, Myotoaera, one of the technical divifions
of anatomy: the part which includes the mufcles. See
Muscte.

MYOMANCY, a kind of divination, or method of
foretelling future events by means of mice.

Some authors hold myomancy to be one of the moft an-
cient kinds of divination; and think it is on this account
that Ifaiah, Ixvi. 17. reckons mice among the abominable
things of the idolaters, But, befide that, itis not certain,
that the Hebrew word 3 Dy, ufed by the prophet, fignifies
a moufe, it is evident it is not the divination by that
animal, be it what it will, that is here {poken of; but the
eating of it.

MYONIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece, be-
longing to the Locri Ozolii, fituated on a very lofty moun-
tain, which had a facred wood and an altar dedicated to the
meek or gentle gods, to whom facrifices were offered in
the mght. ‘ Pofidonium’”? was a place near this town,
dedicated to Neptune, where was a temple dedicated to this
deity, but without ftatues, according to Paufanias.

MYONIMA, in Botany, fo called by Commerfon, from

MUS)

MY ©

pus, @ mousey and ovnus, to be ferviceable, in allufion to the
French name, Bois de rat; becaufe the fruit is a favourite
food of that genus of animals.—Jufl. 206. Willd. Sp. PL.
vei. 614. Lamarck Di&. v. 4. 397-_ Iluttr. t. 68.—
Clafs and order, Tetrandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Rubiacee,
Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, very {mall, nearly en-
tire. Cor. of one petal; tube fhort, cylindrical; limb. in
four deep, equal, blunt fegments. Sam. Filaments four,
inferted. into the tube of the corolla, a!ternate with the
fegments of the limb; anthers oblong, projecting beyond
the corolla. Pf. Germen giobofe, inferior, ityle fhort,
cylindrical; fligma capitate. Peric. Drupa dry, roundifh,
depreffed, deftitute of any crown or rim. Seed. Nut of
four cells, with four kernels, which are externally convex.

Eff. Ch. Calyx minute, nearly entire. Corolla in four
deep equal fegments, with a fhort tube. Drupa inferior.
Nut of four cells.

1. M. obovata. Broad-leaved Rat-feed. Willd. n. 1.
Lamarck, fig. 1.—Leaves obovate, obtufe, with a {mall
point. Fruit obfcurely quadrangular.— Gathered by Com-
merfon, as well as by Sonnerat, in the ifles of Bourbon
and Mauritius. A fmooth /brub, with numerous oppofite
branches, whofe bark is cracked and greyilh. eaves on
fhort ftalks, oppofite, near two inches long and one broad,
obovate, entire, obtufe, with more or lefs of a fhort point;
their upper furface fhining as if varnifhed ; the under opaque
and paler; both beautifully reticulated with tranfverfe inter-
branching veins. Flower-ftalks axillary, oppofite from the
uppermott leaves, moftly two or three-flowered, {carcely fo
long asthe leaves. Calyx fometimes ob{curely four-toothed.
Corolla hardly half an inch in diameter. Fruit reddith, the
fize of a {mall grape. Bradeas {inall, acute, oppofite at
the divifion of the flower-ftalks.

2. M. lanceolata. Myrtle-leaved Rat-feed. Willd. n. 2.
(M. myrtifolia; Lamarck. n. 2. fig. 2.)—teaves elliptic-
lanceolate, acute. Fruit {pherical.—Native of the ifland of
Mauritius. The aves are much fmaller than in the fore-
going, and of a narrower more lanceolate fhape, fome-
what revolute, entire, their upper furface highly polifhed.
Fruit reddifh, more exactly globular than in the former
{pecies. :

MYONNESOS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Ionia,
between Teios and Lebcdus. Steph. Byz. Strabo makes
it a peninfula, and Livy a promontory, It was an ifland
of the Teians, according to Thucydides. It appears to
have been placed on the coaft N.W. of Lebedus, and
that the land projeéted in form of a peninfula.—Alfo,
an ifland of Theffaly, over-againft Lariffa, according to
Strabo.

MYOPARO, among the Romans, a kind of fhip, which
partly refembled a merchant-fhip, and partly a fhip of war,
and was that which pirates moltly ufed.

MYOPIA, Myoptasis, from pw, to fhut, and w}, the
tye, in Surgery, that kind of fhortfightednefs, in which the
eyes are half fhut, and continually winking.

MYOPORUM, in Botany, a name contrived by Dr.
Solander, to exprefs the minute pellucid fpots, for which
the foliage of the genus we are about to defcribe is re-
markable. The word is formed of pus, to shut up, and
wogos, a pore; thofe {pots being, as it were, pores clofed
with fome femitranfparent fub{tance. Forft. Prod. 44.

Schreb. 424. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 381. Mart. Mill.
Did. v. 3: Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 515. (Po-
gonia; Andr. Repof. v. 3. 212, Andreufia; Venten.

Malmaif. 108.)—Clafs and order, Didynamia Angiofpermia.

MYO
Nat. Ord. Perfonate, Linn.

Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one deaf, in five
deep, ovato-lanceolate, acute, ere&t, permanent fegments.
Cor. of one petal, fomewhat falver-fhaped; tube fhort,
rather bell-fhaped ; leaf in five deep, nearly equal fegments,
generally hairy within. Stam. Filaments four, awl-fhaped,
fhorter than the corolla, inferted into its tube, two of
them rather the fhorteft ; anthers vertical, arrow-fhaped.
Piff. Germen fuperior, elliptic-oblong, comprefled, ityle
cylindrical, curved, the length of the ftamens; ftigma ca-
pitate. Peric. Drupa pulpy. Seed. Nut folitary, of four
or five cells, with folitary kernels; or of two cells, with
two kernels in each.

Eff Ch. Calyx in five deep fegments, inferior, perma-
nent. Corolla bell-fhaped; its limb in five deep nearly
equal fegments. Stigma obtufe. Drupa pulpy. Nut of
from two to five cells.

Obf. We have found five cells in all the fruits we
have examined. Willdenow is miftaken in fuppofing this
genus not diftin& from Citharexylum. The latter has a
tubular calyx, with fhort teeth, and two feparate-nuts, of
two cells each, nor is the fhape of the corolla like that of
Myoporum. Thofe who called fome of the fpecies Pogonia
and Andreufia, were by no means aware of the original name
publifhed, many years before, by Forfter. :

Seétion 1. Leaves alternate, entire.

1. M. ellipticum. Elliptical Myoporum. Brown n. 1.
(Pogonia glabra; Andr. Repof. t. 283. Andreufia gla-
bra; Venten. Malmaif. t. 108.)—Leaves elliptic-lanceolate,
pointed, tapering at the bafe. Branches fmooth. Segments
of the calyx lanceolate, very fharp. Mouth of the corolla
flightly hairy ; limb {mooth.—Native of the tropical regions
of New Holland, as well as of the country near Port
Jackfon. It was raifed from feed in 1790, by the late
Mr. Robertfon at Stockwell; is readily propagated by cut-
tings, and flowers freely in January or February, though
rather more impatient of damp and cold than fome other
fhrubs of New South Wales.—The aves are fmooth, like
the whole of the genus. F/owers axiilary, molly folitary,
on footftalks, drooping, white, the fize of lily of the
valley, but not of the fame hemifpherical form, their corolla
being rather contraéted in the middle, its limb fpreading
fuddenly. There are no braéeas nor flipulas in the whole
renus.

2. M. tenuifolium. Narrow-leaved Myoporum. Forit.
Prodr. 44. Br. n..2.— Leaves lanceolate, with long taper
points. Branches {mooth. Segments of the calyx lanceo-
late, acute. Corolla fmooth.—Native of the tropical part
of New Holland. Gathered in the Sandwich iflands b
Mr. Menzies.—Differs from the former in having muc
narrower and more tapering /eaves ; feveral fowers, for the
moft part, together; whofe corolla is not hairy, and the
fegments of whofe calyx are fhorter and more ovate.

3. M. acuminatum. Pointed-leaved Myoporum. Br.
n, 3.—Leaves broadifh-lanceolate, with a fmall point ; taper-
ing at the bafe. Branches fmooth. Segments of the calyx
ovato-lanceolate. Corolla bearded.—Found near Port Jack-
fon, New South Wales. The dried aves have a glaucous
hue, and there are feveral drooping flowers together from
the bofom of each.

4. M. montanum. Mountain Myoporum. Bre a. g.—
* Leaves linear-lanceolate, very fharp ; tapering at the bafe.
Branches fmooth. Segments of the calyx linear, acute.”
—Gathered in New South Wales by Mr. Brown. We have
feen no {pecimen,

s. M.

Vitices, Jufl. Myoporine,

—_= -

M YO

5. M. humile. Dwarf Myoporum. Br.n. 5.—*“ Leaves
linear, fomewhat fpatulate, bluntifh, without veins. Stem
procumbent.'’’—Found by Mr. Brown on the fouth coalt
of New Holland.

6. M. parvifolium. Small-leaved Myoporum, Br. n. 6.
—“ Leaves linear, bluntifh ; tapering at the bafe ; fome-
times toothed at the extremity ; glandular, a3 well as the
branches. Flower-ftalks here and there deeply divided, above
half the length of the leaves, Stem diffufe.””—Native of
the fame country, and fufpe&ted by Mr. Brown to be per-
haps but a variety of the lait.

SeGion 2. Leaves alternate, ferrated. Fruit fwelling.
Nut 9 eg cells.

7. M. adjgendens. Afcending Myoporum. Br. n. 7.—
Leaves obovate-cblong, bluntifh, bluntly ferrated from be-
yond the middle. Branches fmooth, afcending. Stem dif-
fufe.—Native of the fame country.

8. M. letum. Shining-leaved Myoporum. Forft nz. 1.
Willd. n. 1,—** Leaves oblong, fmooth, naked and fhining ;
flightly ferrated at theextremity. Corolla hairy.””—Native
of New Zeeland.

9. M. pubefcens. Downy-leaved Myoporum. Fort. n. 2.
Willd. n, 2.—** Leaves oblong-elliptical, ferrated, downy.”
Found by Forfter in the fame country as the lait. This ap-
pears to be the only {pecies that has any pubefcence, except
in the flower.

10. M. crafffolium. Thick-leaved Myoporum. Fortt.
n.3. Willd, n. 3.—** Leaves’ flefhy, oblong, flightly fer-
rated.”’—Native of Botany ifland. For/fer.

11. M. infulare. Infular Myoporum. Br. n..$.—* Leaves

- lanceolate; tapering at the bafe; ferrated at the end.

Branches fmooth ; glutinous when young. Stem ereé.”—
Gathered by Mr. Brown in the fouth part of New Holland.

12. M. ferratum. Serrated Myoporum. Br. u. 9.—
(Pogonia tetrandra; Labill. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 59. t. 83.)
—Leaves lanceolate, very fharp, ferrated. Branches {mooth.
Gathered by Labillardiere in Lewin’s land, and by Mr. Men-
zies at King George’s Sound. Mr. Brown alfo obferved it
in the neighbouring parts of New Holland. The /eaves in
our {pecimen are rather broader, and more obovate, than in
the figure cited. Flowers many together, erect.

13. M. tuberculatum. Tubercular Myoporum. Br. n. ro.
—*‘ Leaves lanceolate, acute, ferrated. Branches covered
with glandular tubercles.””—Gathered by Mr. Brown in the
fouth of New Holland. We have feen no fpecimen of his
plant, but we poffefs one, brought by Mr. Menzies from the
Sandwich iflands, which anfwers to this charaéter, except
that the dives are entire. If this be conftant, our plant
fhould be introduced between the firft and fecond {fpecies.
Its corolla is internally fmooth. Segments of the calyx
ovato-lanceolate, with very fharp points. The J/eaves are
three or four inches long, and one broad, elliptic-lanceolate ;
their pores minute.

14. M. vifcofum. Glutinous Myoporum. Br. n. 11.—
s¢ Leaves elliptical, acute, ferrated, reflexed. Branches
vifcid and glandular.”,—In the fouth of New Holland.
Brown. e

Seétion 3. Leaves alternate, toothed. Fruit compreffed.
Nut frequently with but iwo cells.

15. M. platycarpum. Broad-fruited Myoporum, Br.n. 12.
—‘© Leaves linear-lanceolate ; toothed at the end. Branches
fmooth. Fruit comprefled, of two cells, four times as long
as the calyx. Stem ereé&t.”,—From the fame country.
Brown, .

16. M. debile. Slender-ftemmed Myoporum. Br. n. 13.
(Pogonia debilis; Andr. Repof. t. 212.)—Leaves lan-
ceolate ; toothed at the end; entire at the bafe. Fruit

M Y O

{lightly compreffed, fhorter than the calyx. Flower-ftalks
folitary. Stem proitrate.—Native of the country near
Port Jackfon, from whence it was fent to England in 17935
by colonel Paterfon. The /lem is faid to be naturally prof-
trate, but it may be trained to a confideraple extent, againft
a-ftick or trellis. The branches are alternate, purplith,
warty. Leaves {mooth, toothed here and there, but many
of them are quite entire. Flowers axillary, on fhort ftalks,
erect, for the moft part folitary, very rarely two together.
Calyx large, with broad lanceolate fegments. Limb of the
corolla purplifh-blue, with a white downy mouth. This
bloffoms in the greenhoufe from April to September, and
ripens feed, by which, as well as by cuttings, it is readily
increafed, if affifted by heat.

17. M. diffufum. Spreading Myoporum. Br. n. 14.—
‘¢ Leaves lanceolate, with fomewhat recurved teeth at their
bafe; toothed or entire at their extremity. Stems diffufe,
glandular. Flower-ftalks folitary. Fruit flightly com-
prefled, fhorter than the calyx.”—Gathered by Mr. Brown
in the tropical part of New Holland. It feems very nearly
akin to the 13th fpecies ; but we have feen no {pecimen by
which to form a judgment.

Section 4. Leaves oppofite.

18. -M. oppofitifolium. Oppofite-leaved Myoporum. Br.
n. 15-—* Leaves feffile, heart-fhaped, ferrated.’?—Found
by Mr. Brown, on the fouthern coait of New Holland.

The fem in every known fpecies is fhrubby. Young
branches, and tender seaves, often coloured and vifcid.
There is fearcely any pubefcence, except within the fower,
whofe fyle, as well as corolla, is often bearded or hairy.
The aves of our ninth fpecies only are defcribed as
downy.

MYOPS, Myoris, a perfon who is fhort-fighted ; or, as
we popularly call it, purblind. F
The word is Greek, puwl, compounded of yv:, mou/e,
and wl, eye; becaufe, we fuppofe, the fame conformation

of the eye is obferved in mice.

Myopes are properly fuch as fee remote objects confufedly,
and near ones diftinétly. Thofe who labour under the op-
pofite defect, are called prefbyte.

The defeé&t of myopes is not in the optic nerve, the pupil,
or the like ; but in the form of the cornea or cryftalline, or
the diftance of the retina from the fame. The cryftalline or
cornea being rounder or more convex than ordinary, the rays
will be rendered more convergent than ordinary, in paffing
through the fame. (See Rerracrion.) By this means
they will be brouzht to meet or concurat a lefs diftance from
the cryftalline ; fo that if the retina be at its ufual diftance,
they ‘will concur before they reach it. It is the too great
nearnefs, then, of the retina to the cryitalline, that confti-
tutes the myopia.

Myors, in Natural Hiflory, the ox-fly, an infeé& ufually
confounded with the breeze-fly, but reaily differing very
much from it. This.is common in woods and about path-
ways, and never fixes on any other creatures except oxen.
It hasa long and fomewhat flat body, and is of a blackifh
grey colour.

MYORESHALON, in Surgery, a clofure of the pupil.
See Puri.

MYOSHORMOS, in Ancient Geography, a fea-port of
Egypt, placed by Ptolemy and Pliny in the Red fea.
Arrian fays, that it was one of the moft celebrated ports of
this fea. It was alfo called the ‘* Port of Venus.”

MYOSOTIS, in Botany, derived from pus, nvos, a moufe,
and azicv, a littte car, the diminutive of ws or es, an ear, has
been afplied by the ancients, as well as by many more mo-
dern botanifts, to feveral plants whofe leaves, in their

fhape

MYOSOTIS.

fhape and foft hairinefs, anfwer to the above idea. Among
them is the prefent genus, for which Dillenius and Linnzus
have retained the name.—Dill. Gen. gg. t. 3. Linn. Gen. 73.
Schreb. 99. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.746. Mart. Mill. Dié.
v. 3. Sm. Fi. Brit. 212. Prodr. Fl. Gree. v. 1. 112.
Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 1.285. Michaux Boreal-Amer.
v.1. 129. Brown. Prodr. v. 1. 494. Juff. 131. Lamarck

Uluftr.t. 91. Gertn, t. 68.—Clafs and order, Pentandria
Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Afperifolie, Linn. Borraginee, Jufl.

and Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, five-cleft half way
down, oblong, ere&t, acute, permanent. Cor. of one pe-
tal, falver-fhaped ; tube cylindrical, fhort ; limb flat, half

cloven into five, emarginate, obtufe fegments ; throat clofed, .

with five, convex, prominent, little valves or fcales. Stam.
Filaments five, in the neck of the tube, very fhort ; anthers
very {mall, concealed by the feales. Pi/?. Germens {mperior,
four in number ; ftyle thread-fhaped, as long as the tube of
the corolla; ftigma obtufe. Peric. none, except the en-
larged, ere calyx. Seeds four, ovate, pointed, fmooth.

Eff. Ch. Corolla falver-fhaped, five-cleft, flightly notched ;
its orifice clofed with concave valves.

Obf. In fome fpecies the feeds are furnifhed with hooked
briftles, though in general they are fmooth.

1. M. arvenfis. Moufe-ear Scorpion-grafs. Ait. Hort.
Kew. ed. 2. v. 1. 286. (Myofotis fcorpioides «; Sm. Fl.
Brit. 212.. Engl. Bot. t. 480. fig. col. M. fcorpioides ar-
venfis ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 188.)— Seeds {mooth. Leaves elliptic-
lanceolate. Clufters many-flowered, without brateas. Ca-
lyx ovate, with {preading incurved briftles—Native of Eu-
rope, common on dry, fandy, or gravelly hillocks, and alfo
in fallow fields, flowering throughout the fummer.— Root
annual, fibrous, Stem ere€t, round, branched in an alter-
nate manner, leafy. Leaves obtufe. Clufters fimple, ter-
minal, reflexed and revolute, many-flowered. Corolla ra-
ther {mall, red before it opens, but afterwards blue, with a
yellow or orange-coloured eye. The hairs of the calyx are
incurved and {preading, fo as to makeit ftick to the coats of
animals.

Three varieties of this plant are enumerated in Dr. Smith’s
Flora Britannica, the laft of which, 1. Scorpivides 9, is now
determined to be a new fpecies, and called M. paluftris.
The other two, £ and y, may alfo be diftin& from it, but as
yet nothing has been decided refpeGing them: f is found
on dry banks and walls, with minute, yellow flowers:
y occurs in fhady fituations, and is diftinguifhed by larger,
pier cage and a taller, more lax habit.—Linnzus charac-
terifes the leaves of M. /corpioides as callous at the tip,
which mark however is not very generally perceptible in
what we are now defcribing, nor are the lobes of the corolla
fo conftantly notched as his generic definition implies.

2. M. paluflris. Water Scorpion-grafs. Roth. Germ.
v. 1. 87. ¥. 2. 221, Catal. v. 3. 30. Engl. Bot. t. 1973. and
t. 480, uncoloured. (M. fcorpioides paluffris; Linn. Sp.
Pl. 188. Sm. Fl. Brit. 212. 3.)—Seeds {mooth. Leaves
oblong, cluters many-flowered, without brateas, calyx
funnel-fhaped, its hairs ftraight and clofe-preffed. Common
about rivers, clear ftreams, and ditches, in moft parts of
Great Britain, flowering in the fummer. We are not fur-
prifed at Dr. Smith’s feeling great pleafure in deciding upon
this {pecies conformably to Dr. Roth’s opinion of it, “ be-
caufe,’’ he fays, “« that acute botanift, applying our own
principles, firlt fuggetted with regard to Menthe, to the
prefent cafe, has found the pubeicence of the calyx con-
firm all the other lefs decifive marks.” The peculiarly dif-
tinétive characters of MM. paluflris are the creeping, peren-
nial root, and the funnel-fhaped calya, clothed all over with

ftraight, rigid, fhining, clofe-preffed haire, and having its
teeth broad, triangular, fhorter than thetube. The corolla
alfo is confpicuous, and generally admired for its enamelled
brilliancy.. It is of a beautiful pink flefh-colour before ex-
panfion, afterwards bright blue.

3- M. zana. Dwarf Scorpion-grafs. Sm. Prodr. Fl.
Grac.v. 1.112. Willd. n. 3. Willars Dauph. v. 2. 459.
(M. terglovenfis; Hacq. Pl. Alp. 12.t. 2. f. 6. Willd.
Lithofpermum alpinum tomentofum minimum ; Tourn.
Inft. 137.)—Seeds {moothifh, ferrulated at the margin.
Stem fimple, with few flowers. Leaves oblong, villous.—
Found on the fummits of the Alps by Villars, who fays it is
very rarely to be obtained, as growing amongtt the moft ele-
vated craggy rocks. A native alfo of Greece.—Stems
about two inches high, extremely flender. Leaves very
{mall, obtufe, and woolly. Flowers rather fragrant, and of a _
beautiful bright blue colour, which they retain for a long
time after drying. Seeds three or four, fometimes five, tri-
angular, embroidered with a fort of membranous fillet at the
edge.

ri M. fruticofa. ‘Shrubby Scorpion-grafs. Linn. Mant.
201. Willd. n. 4.—Seeds {mooth. Stem fhrubby, fmooth.
—Native of the Cape of Good Hope.—Stem a foot high,
woody, perennial, {mooth and branched. Branches numer-
ous, bearing the flowers at the fummit of the fem. Leaves
alternate, linear, {mooth, except a few clofe-preffed, ftrag-
gling hairs. F/owers in terminal /pikes, all turning one way,
feffile, very minute. Fruit {mall. ;

5. M. /patulata. Spatulate Scorpion grafs. Willd. n. 5.
Forft. Prodr. 12.—Seeds fmooth, leaves fpatulate, hifpid.
Stalks axillary, folitary, fingle-flowered.—Native of New
Zealand. This {pecies is taken up by Willdenow from For-
fter’s Prodromus, but as neither of thofe authors has de-
fcribed it, and we have no f{pecimen before us, we are unable
to furnifh any further-defcription of it.

6. M. rupeffris. Rock Scorpion-grafs. Willd. n. 6.
Pallas It. v. 3. 716. t. E. f. 3.—Seeds fmooth. Leaves li-
near, villous. Clufters alternate—A very common little
plant in ftony, expofed fituations, on the hills of Dauria,
where it produces a fucceffion of flowers from May through
the fummer. Root perennial, fimple, thread-fhaped. Stems
three inches long, f{preading and afcending, rather hairy.
Radical leaves crowded together, obovato-lanceolate, obtufe,
hifpid ; thofe of the /em alternate, oblong-linear, whitifh
with hairs, and fringed at their edges from the bafe to the
middle. Flowers of a deep azure colour, with a yellow
throat. Seeds ovate, pointed, white.

7. M. virginiana. Virginian Scorpion-grafs. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 189. (Cynogloffum virginianum ; Morif. Hitt. v. 3
449. fect. 11. t. 30. f. 9.)—Seeds with hooked prickles.
Leaves ovate-oblong. Branches divaricated.—Native of
Virginia, and cultivated before 1699, by Mr. Jacob Bobart.
Stem flender, annual. Leaves alternate, ovate, pointed at —
bothends, green on both fides. Flowers cluftered, terminal,
red. Seeds {mall, prickly, brown, and according to Lin-
neus ‘naked on the infide, angular, erect, fixed at the
bafe like thofe of the following fpecies. Fruit drooping.’

8. M. Lappula. Prickly-feeded Scorpion-grafs. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 189. (Cynoglofflum minus; Bauh. Hitt. v. 3. 600.
Column. Ecphr. 179. Bugloflum angutftifolium, femine
echinato ; Tourn. Intt. 134.)—Native of various parts of
Europe, in a clayey foil. Cultivatedin 1656 by Mr. John
Tradefcant, jun. It flowers from April to Augult. Root
annual. Stem from a foot to about eighteen inches in height,
ereG, round, uneven, branched. Branches alternate. Leaves
feffile, fomewhat rugged, narrow, entire, bluntith, Flowers
very {mall, oppofite to the leaves, on fhort ftalks. Corolla

bright

MYO

bright blue. Sveds dotted, convex on one fide, angular on
the other, and muricated at the edges witha double row of
hooked prickles. Both Gertner and Villars remark that the
whole habit and charaéter of this plant greatly refem-
ble thofe of, a Cynoglofum.

g. M. /quarrofa. Squarrofe Scorpion-grafs, Willd. n. 9.
Retz. Obf. fafe. 2. 9.—Seeds angulated, with hooked briftles.
Leaves lanceolate, hairy, callous at the tip.—Found in Si-
beria, near the river Wolga. Root annual, branched. Stem
(when cultivated) two feet high, roundifh, hairy, denfely
branched ; lower branches fhorter. Leaves alternate, lan-
ceolate, entire, obtufe, callous at the tip, furnifhed with
clofe-preffed hairs, callous at their bafe. F/oqers in long,
loofe cluiters, alternate, {mail, blue, with a yellow throat.
BraéGeas minute, linear-lanceolate. Seeds beautifully befet
at the angles with two rows of uncinated briftles. The
above defcription is from Retzius, who feems to think that
what Pallas mentions as a variety of MJ. Lappula, growing
near the Wolga, is the prefent fpecies. See Pall, It. v. 3.
718. note. ;

to. M. echinophora. Echinophorous Scorpion-grafs,
Willd. n. to. Pall. It. v. 3. 717. t. I. i, f. 1.—Seeds co-
vered with hooked prickles. Flower-flalks thickened at the
top, axillary, folitary. Leaves lanceolate, hairy. Very
common on the banks of the Wolga, flowering in April and
May. Root annual, fimple, tapering. Stem three inches
long, ereé&t, dichotomous, flightly branched. Leaves alter-
nate, linear, broadifh at the end, hairy beneath, and at the
margin, Corolla very {mall, with an azure limb and white
throat. Seeds oblong, with briftly, hooked {pines.

11. M. /pinocarpos. Thorny-feeded Scorpion-grafs.
Willd. n. 11. Vahl. Symb. p. 2. 32. (Anchufa {pinocar-
pos; Forfk. Defer. 41.)—Seeds muricated and fpinous.
Cluiters leafy; flowers remote. Leaves linear, hairy.—
Found near Alexandria. Stems woody at the bafe, fpread-
ing, branched in a forked manner towards the top, thickly
covered with darkifh hairs, as is the whole plant. Leaves
feffile, fearcely as long as the nail, rather obtufe, fpreading
atthe top. Flowers {mall, white. Fruit pyramidal, muri-
cated all over, angular, and {pinous at the bafe, with larger

tubercles.

12. M. pedinata. Kamtfchatka Scorpion-grafs. Ait.
Hort. Kew.ed. 2. v. 1. 286. Willd.n. 12. Pall. It. v. 3.
717.t. E. f. 4.—Seeds briftly at the top. Clufters ereét.
Leaves ovato-lanceolate, villous.—Native of moffy rocks, in
the coldeft parts of Siberia, and in Kamtfchatka. It flowers
at Kew in June and July. This fpecies, in its mode of
growth, is very like *upefris. Root perennial, loofely fpread-
ing. Stems flender, fomewhat hairy. Leaves alternate, fef-
file, ovato-lanceolate, covered with long, foft hairs. Co-
rolla {mall, blue, with a pale throat. Seeds crowned with
briftles, fomewhat like the feed-down of fyngenetlious
plants.

13- M. aujffralis. New Holland Scorpion-grafs.- Brown.
Prodr. Fl. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 495.—‘* Hifpid. Leaves ob-
long-lanceolate. Calyx as long as the tube, clothed with
fpreading, hooked briftles.”” Gathered by Mr. Brown at
Port Jackfon, and in Van Diemen’s land. We havea fpeci-
men from the former country. The plant is eighteen inches
or more in height, clothed with litcle, rigid briftles, of
which thofe on the ffem are deflexed. Leaves with a blunt,
callous point. Flowers numerous, {mall, blue, in terminal,
aggregate cluflers, whofe ffalks are clothed with afcending
briftles.

Mr. Brown efteems this genus as differing from Anchufa
merely in the want of bra¢teas. He would therefore refer to

VuL. XXIV.

MYO
the latter M. /pathulata of Forlter, and rupefris of Pallas.

He conceives that the Linnaan fpecies, which have an echi-
nated fruit, ought to conttitute a diftin& genus, very near
to cynoglofum, on account of the prickly cuts or. feeds at=
tached to the central column, compreffed not depreffed, and
the clufters furnifhed with bra¢teas. The effential chara@ter
of the genus Myosoris is given by this ingenious author as
follows.- ‘* Calyx deeply five-cleft. | Corolla falver-fhaped ;
throat clofed with concave valves; limb in five, deep, ob-
tufe fegments. Stamens included with peltate anthers.
Stigma capitate. Nuts four, diftin&t, umbilicated at the
bafe.

Clufters fimple, without bra¢teas.”

M. apula, Linn. Sp. Pl. 189, isnow referred by Willde-
uow, and Dr. Smith, in the Prodromus Flre Grace, to
LirHosrpeRMUM.

MYOSURUS, derived from pus; vex, the tail of a moufe,
a yery excellent and expreffive name beltowed by Dillenius
on this plant, from the circumttance of its fpiked receptacle,
{caly with feeds, refembling a moufe’s tail.— Dill. Gen. 106
t. 4. Linn. Gen. 155. Schreb. 209. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. r.
1568. Mart. Mill. Di@. v. 3. Sm. Fl. Brit. 348. Prodr.
Fl. Gree. v. 1. 218. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 2. 199.
Juff. 233. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 221. Gaertn, t. 74.—Clafs
and order, Pentandria Polygynia. Nat. Ord. Mutltifilique,
Linn. Ranunculacee, Juli.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, of five, almoft lanceo-
late, obtufe, reflexed, coloured, deciduous leaves; each
{purred at the bafe, below their infertion. Cor. Petals five,
fhorter than the calyx, very {mall, concave at the bafe, con-
fifting of a honey-bearing, tubular claw, anda fhort, {pread-
ing, lanceolate border. Stam. Filaments five (or more), the
length of the calyx ; anthers oblong, ere&t. Pi/?. Germens
fuperior, very numerous, covering a very long conical re-
ceptacle; ftyles none; {tigmas fimple. Peric. none. Recept.
very long, columnar, imbricated with numerous, oblong,
pointed /eeds.

Obf. The number of ftamens in this genus is extremely
variable. There is alfo a great affinity between it and Ra-
nunculus, efpecially between the neCtariferous claw of the
petals in that genus, and the tubular claw of Myo/urus.
Linneus and other authors have confidered thefe parts of
the flower as netaries, but we are rather inclined to regard
them as petals, as they were originally defcribed.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of five leaves, each with a {pur at the
bafe. Petals five, with a tubular, honey-bearing claw.
Seeds numerous, naked.

1. M. minimus. Moufe-tail. Linn. Sp. Pl. 407. Engl.
Bot. t. 435. Curt. Lond. fafc. 4. t. 26. (Cauda muris;
Ger. em, 426. Ranunculus gramineo folio, flore caudato,
feminibus in capitulum fpicatum congeftis; Tourn. Init.
293-)—By no means an uncommon plant in fields about
London, efpecially on a gravelly foil, flowering in May.
It grows wild in moft parts of Europe. Root annual,
fibrous, fmalt. Herb {mooth, more or lefs luxuriant. Stem
none. Leaves radical, nearly eret, linear, {patulate, rather
obtufe, entire, fomewhat flefhy. Stalks numerous, upright,
fimple, longer than the leaves, round, a little thicker up-
wards, each bearing a {mall, ereét, pale yellowih flower
Receptacle awl-fhaped, “ covered (fays Dr. Smith) with a
great number (even two or three hundred) of ovate, ftriated
germens, each furnifhed with its own minute feflile figma.”?—
The fame author obferves ‘ this affords a remarkable and
rare inftance of a very great difproportion of males to fe-
males in the fame flower, and yet the latter are generally all
prolific. The feeds are juitly defcribed by Linnzxus as

30 naked ;

M Y O
naked ; for the part which Juffieu denominated a caplule, is
furely nothing more than a thickened infeparable coat, as in
Ranunculus.”

Mr. Curtis, in remarking the fingularity of ftruéture in
the fruGtification of this delicate little annual, cautions the
young botanift to be careful in diftinguifhing the corolla
from the ftamens.—Mr. Hudfon fays the leaves are occa-
fionally hairy. Profeffor Martyn mentions a {pecimen of
this plant, which ‘grew in a good foil, and had above fifty
flower-ftalks of different lengths, from three to feven inches,
and leaves about three inches and a half in length, but there
was no trace of hairinefs on them. ‘This plant flowered in
Apriland May, but had not fhed its feeds towards the mid-
dle of June. .

MYOTOMY, Myoromia, the diffe€tion of mufcles.
This name has been given to fome anatomical works on the
mufcles: as Cowper’s myotomia reformata.

MYOXUS, Dormouss, in Zoology, a genus of quad-
rupeds of the order Glires. The generic charaéter is, front-
teeth two, the upper ones are wedged; but the lower ones
are comprefled fideways, whifkers long ; tail hairy ; round,
thick towards the tip; the feet are nearly equal in length ;
the fore-feet have four toes. The animals of this genus all
remain torpid during winter ; they walk or rather leap on
their hind legs, bounding three or four feet at atime, in
which they are affifted by a long ftiff tail; they feed only
on vegetables, burrow under ground ; fleep by day, watch
by night, carry food to the mouth by the fore-paws, and
drink by dipping the fore-palms in water. ‘There are
four ;

Species.

Guts; Fat Dormoufe. Body hoary, beneath whitifh.
This fpecies, the Glis of Pliny and the old naturalifts, isa
native of France and the fouth of Europe. It alfo occurs
in Ruffia, Auftria, &c. refiding on trees, and leaping from
bough to bough in the manner of a fquirrel, though with a
lefs degree of agility. It feeds on nuts, acorns, fruit, &c.
and during great part of the winter remains torpid in its
neft, which is prepared in the hollows of trees, with dried
leaves, mofs, &c. During its ftate of torpidity, it is faid
to grow very fat, contrary to the nature of moft of the hy-
bernating or fleeping animals ; which are obferved, on their
firft emerging from that ftate, to be far leaner than before
itscommencement. Itis probable, however, that this ani-
mal awakes at intervals, and indulges in the ufe of its col-
leéted {tores of provifions.

The fize of this elegant {pecies is not very far fhort of
that of a fquirrel, aeafacilig from nofe to tail near fix inches,
and the tail four and a half. It is an animal of a much thicker
form, in proportion, than a fquirrel, and is of an elegant
afh-colour, white on the under parts and infides of the
limbs ; the tail is very villofe or furry, and of a flightly
{preading form, like that of a fquirrel ; the eyes are large
and black ; the ears thin, rounded, and very flightly haired.
Sometimes the upper parts of the body have a flight duflcy,
and fometimes a ferruginous tinge. Its general manners re-
femble thofe of a fquirrel, but it is not cafily tamed. The
young are produced about the middle of fummer, and are
eight to twelve in number.

Dryas; Wood Dormoufe. Body above tawny-grey ;
beneath dirty-white; a ftraight black line from ear to ear
acrofsthe eyes. It inhabits feveral parts of Europe.

Niterta; Garden Dormoufe. Body above tawny ;
beneath whitifh ; a black circle round the eyes, anda black
{pot behind the ears. The garden dormoufe is a native of

MYR

the temperate and warmer regions of Europe and A fia, and
is commonly found in gardens, feeding on various kinds of
fruit, particularly peaches and apricots. It makes its nett,
like the reft of this genus, in the hollows of trees, and fome-
times in thofe of walls, or even in the ground about the roots
of trees, colleéting, for this purpofe, dried leaves, grafs,
mofles, &c. In autumn, it colleéts a quantity of nuts,
matt, &c. and depofits it in its hole ; and during the greateft
part of the winter remains in a ftate of torpidity, awaking
only at diftant intervals. Its general length is about four
inches and a half, and the tail rather lefs. It is of an elegant
rufous or ferruginous colour above, and yellowifh-white be-
neath ; the eyes are imbedded in a large black patch or
fpot, which extends to fome diltance beyond each ear;
the tail is fomewhat wider towards the end, and fharpens at
the éxtremity, and is marked onthat part by a longitudinal
black ftripe, having the edges white. Thefe animals pro-
duce their young about the middle of fummer, which are
about five or fix in number, and are faid to be of a very
quick growth. ,

Muscarpixus; Common Dormoufe. Body tawny ;
throat whitifh ; hind-thumbs without claws. The fize of
this animal is nearly equal to that of a moufe, but is of a
more plump or rounded form, and the nofe is more obtufe
in proportion ; the.eyes are large, black, and prominent ;
the ears broad, thin, and femi-tranfparent ; the fore-feet
have four toes, and the hind-feet five, but the interior of
thefe latter are deftitute of nails; the tail is about two
inches and a half long, and is clofely covered on all fides
with hair, which is rather longer towards the tip than on
the other parts; the head, back, fides, belly, and tail, are
of atawny-red colour; the throat white ; the fur is remark-
ably foft, and the whole animal has a conifiderable degree of
elegance in its appearance. It fometimes happens that the
colour is rather brown than reddifh.

MYRaA, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
Natolia, on a river of the fame name, which runs into the
Mediterranean ; 54 miles S S.W. of Satalia.

MYRACOPON, a name ufed by fome authors for an
ointment intended to be ufed to the whole body to prevent
laffitude. [tis deferibed by Galen. :

MYRCINUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of ‘Thrace,
placed by Herodotus and Thucydides on the banks of the
Strymon; Appian places it near Philippi; and Tzetzer fays,
that it was anciently called «* Hedonus.’?

MYRE, a town of Afia Minor, in Lycia.

MYREPSUS, Nicuoas, in Biography, a phyfician,
and one of the laft who wrote in Greek, was a native of
Alexandria. He appears to have flourifhed in the thirteenth
century, as his writings are quoted by other authors early in
the fourteenth. The impurities of his ftyle abundantly
prove the decaying ftate of the Greek as a living language.
A difpenfatory, which he compofed, became very early the
rule of pharmacy throughout Europe. In Paris, in 1332,
all apothecaries were ordered by parliament to have a copy
of his ** Antidotarium’’ in their poffeflion. The Greek
copies are numerous, in MS. in different libraries ; but the
work has been printed only in Latin tranflations; the belt
of which is that of the learned Leonart-Fuchs, entitled
‘** Opus medicamentorum in fectiones quadrayinta-o¢to digef-
tum,’ firft printed at Bafle, 1549, folio, and feveral times
reprinted. It is included in the colleGtion of the ** Medice
Artis Principes.”” This work of Myrepfus is a vaft far-
rago of the compofitions of the Greeks and Arabians, in-
termixed with much fuperiftition, and full of obf{curities.

Eloy Dit, Hilt. Gen. Biog.
2 MYRIAD,

MYR
MYRIAD, the number of ten thoufand. Whence

myriarcha, a captain or commander of ten thoufand men.

MYRIANDRYI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Syria,
upon the banks of the river Amanus, according to Pom-
ponius Mela.

MYRIANDRICUS Sinus, the fame with the ‘ Sinus
Ifficus.””

MYRIANDRUS, a commercial town of Syria, erected
and inhabited by Pheenicians, fituated in the S.E. part of the
gulf called « Ifficus.”’

MYRIANTHUS, in Botany, from pupioc, innumerable,
and a»$o;, a flower, alluding to the great number of male
flowers.—Beauvois Fl. d’Oware et de Benin, 16. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 4. 598.—Clafs and order, Moenoecia Monadelphia.
Nat. Ord. Cucurbitacee, Linn. Juff.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx in four deep concave fegments.
Corolla none. Filaments cylindrical, in three terminal feg-
ments. Anthers three.

Female, Cal. and Cor. . . - Berry inferior, pulpy,
of twelve or fourteen cells. Seeds numerous, winged.

1. M. arboreus. Beauv. Ow. et Ben. 17. t. 11, 12.—
Native of the kingdom of Benin, in the tropical part of
Africa.—A tree as large as an apple-tree ; with a white bark.
Leaves alternate, ftalked, fringed, refembling thofe of the
Horfe Chefnut ; the leaflets fix, oblong, toothed. Flowers
in a corymbofe panicle; the males very minute, white, in
very clofe fpikes, at the top of the divifions of the panicle.
Fruit the fize of a large apple. Willdenow.

What is above denominated the calyx of the male
flowers, would probably have been termed corolla by
Linnzus; at leaft if we are right in the natural order.

MYRICA, a name borrowed from the ancient Greeks,
whofe jvgixn however appears, by the imperfect defcription
in Diofcorides, and efpecially by what he fays in the following
chapter, (of epsxn being like it, but much {maller,) to be
the Tamarifk, Tamarix gallica. This Pliny confirms, and all
modern writers have fo underftood it; nor do we find, in
the writings of Linnzus, any reafon for his having firft ap-
plied this name to the genus before us, except that he pre-
ferred it to the Dutch word Gale, adopted by Tournefort ;
fee Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 307.—Linn. Gen. 518. Schreb. 683.
Mart. Mill. Di@. v. 3. Sm. Fl. Brit. 1076. Juff. 409. Mi-
chaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 2. 227. Lamarck LIllultr. t. 809.
Gertn. t. 39.—Clafs and order, Divecia Tetrandria. Nat.
Ord. Amentacee, Linn. Juff.

Gen. Ch. Male, Ca/. Catkin ovate-oblong, loofely im-
bricated, in every direction, with fingle-flowered, heart-
fhaped, bluntly-pointed, concave feales. Perianth none.
Cor. none. Stam. Filaments four, rarely fix, thread-fhaped,
fhort, ere& ; anthers large, of two cloven lobes.

Female, Ca/. asinthe male. Cor. none. Pif?. Germen
fuperior, nearly ovate; ftyles two, thread-fhaped, longer
than the ealyx ; ftigmas fimple. eric. Berry of one cell.
Seed folitary.

Ens'Ch.
Coralla none.

Female, Calyx the feale of a catkin, concave.
none. Styiestwo. Berry with one feed,

Obf. M. Gale, the original {pecies, has four ftamens, and
a dry berry, whofe coriaceous cruft is compreffed and three-
lobed at the fummit.

M. cerifera, has moftly fix ftamens, and a globular juicy
berry.

ee tothe very great affinity (‘ /umma affnitas’’) between
this genus and Piffacia, mentioned by Linnzus, we confefs
ourlelves unable to perceive it, either in the habit, infloref-
cence, or characters of the fruétification,

Male, Calyx the feale of acatkin, concave.

Corolla

MYR

1. M. Gale. Sweet Gale, Gaule, or Dutch Candleberry
Myrtle. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1453. Engl. Bot. t. 562. Fl. Dan.
t. 327. (Myrtus brabantica, five Eleagnus Cordi; Ger. em.
1414.)—Leaves lanceolate, with fhallow ferratures. Fruit
crowded. Stem fhrubby.—Abundant in bogs throughout
the north of Europe, efpécially about the bafes of mountains,
as well as in flat countries, where the foil is gravelly and the
water clear. It is found on feveral wet moors in Norfolk.
The catkins are fully formed in March; they expand in
April, after which the leaves come forth, and in Augutft or
September the branches are laden with ripe fruit, whofe
{cent is very agreeable, not unlike that of red cedar. This
odour refides in the fhining refinous particles, fcattered
over the berry, which eafily rub off; and is very durable,
even in dried fpecimens, though it affumes, with age, the
flavour of candied citron peel. Linnzus fays, the fruit is
ufed as a fubftitute for hops, by poor people in the north,
and that wax may be obtained from it, as from the next
{pecies, by boiling. The lem is not above three or four
feet high, fhrubby, bufhy, forming a round head of nume-
rous, {mooth, round, darkifh-red twigs. Leaves alternate,
lanceolate inclining to obovate, acute, chiefly ferrated
towards the peint, minutely downy, veiny, paler beneath,
about an inch and a half long, deciduous. The young cat-
Ains are axillary formed in the courfe of the fummer for the
enfuing {pring. Michaux met with this fpecies in America,
as well as the following.

2. M. cerifera. American Candleberry Myrtle. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 1453. (Myrtus, Brabantice fimilis, carolinienfis
baccifera, fru€@tu racemofo, &c.; Pluk. Phyt. t. 48. f. 9.
Catefby’s Carolin. v. 1. 69. t. 69; alfo 13. t. 13.)—Leaves
elliptic-lanceolate, fomewhat ferrated. Stem arboreous,
Berries globofe.—Native of North America. Hardy in our
gardens, flowering in May and June. Larger than the fore-
going, with broader, more elliptical, fcarcely ferrated or
notched /eaves. The derries are much fewer, and larger,
than thofe of our Englifh fpecies. Their form is globofe,
their pulp of a waxy nature, enclofing an oval hard nut,
When dried they refemble Coriander comfits, as their waxy
fubftance, freed from the watery particles of their pulp,
then affumes the appearance of white meal. By boiling thefe
berries, a quantity of wax is procured, which floats on the
water, and ferves in America to make candles, but its dirty
green colour is unfightly, and its flame far lefs bright than
even that of a good tallow candle.

3. M. Faya. Azorian Candleberry Myrtle. Ait. Hort.
Kew. ed. 1. v. 3. 397.—Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, fomewhat
ferrated. Male catkins compound. Female flowers diftant.
Fruit elliptical, coarfely granulated—Gathered in Madeira
and the Azores, by Mr. Maffon, who fent it, in 1777, to
Kew, where it is hardy, flowering in June and July. The
leaves have a few very fhallow and occafional ferratures.
The male catkins are {aid to be compound, but thefe we have
not feen. The fémale ones are extremely lax, looking like
very loofe {pikes, of a rufty. hue ; we are not fure that they
are not compound alfo, though only one flower in each little
partial branch comes to perfeétion. The fruit is twice the
fize of the laft, and lefs abundant, elliptical, granulated.
covered with more or lefs of the fame waxy fubitance. Its
Jeeda very hard nut, faid to have four cells, but this we find
not conftantly the cafe.

4- M. ethiopica. African Candleberry Myrtle. Linn.
Mant. 298. (Myrtus, Brabantice accedens, africana, baccis
carens, conifera; Pluk. Phyt.t. 48. f. 8.)—Leaves lanceo-
late, ftrongly toothed, the lowermoft entire. Female
flowers diftant. Fruit globofe, coarfely granulated. — Na-
tive of the Cape of Good Bie, Akin to the two laft,

2 z but

MYR

but more downy, and diltinguithed by the ftrong prominent
teeth of its upper /eaves, the lower ones being entire. ‘The
male catkins we have not feen ; the female ones are like rather
lax fpikes, fimple, with ahairy ftalk. Fruit copious, the fize
and fhape of M. cerifera, very coarfely granulated, but we
perceive no remains of wax on our f{pecimen.

5. M. Nagi. Japan Candleberry Myrtle. Thunb. Jap.
76. Linn. Syit. Veg. ed. 14 884. (Nageia japonica; Gertn.
v. I. 191. t. 39. f. 8. Na vulgo Nagi 5 Kempf. Amoen.
773. t. 874.)— Leaves lanceolate, entire, without ribs.
Fruit globofe, fmooth.—Native of Japan, but rare.
Kempfer fays it is confidered as a tree of good omen, and
planted in the courts of houfes. The /eaves are evergreen,
firm, and veinlefs, like thofe of the Rufus racemo/us, or
Alexandrian laurel. Female catkins whitifh, hairy, denfe.
Fruit generally folitary, globofe, dark purple, the fize of
a{weet-water grape, fmooth, with alittle infipid pulp, and
one large feed whofe fhell is hard, but thin. Nothing is
faid of its yielding any wax. ‘Though Gertner makes a
genus of this, he fuggefts its very near affinity to Myrica.

6. M. quercifolia. _Oak-leaved Candleberry Myrtle.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 1453. (M. foliis oblongis. oppofite finuatis ;
Burm. Afr. 262. t. 98. f. 1. Laurus africana minor,
querci folio; Comm. Hert. v. 2. 161. t. 81.)—Leaves ob-
long, deeply finuated.—Native of the Cape of Goed Hope.
It has been cultivated in our greenhoufes for above fifty
years, bloffoming in May and June; but is chiefly valued
for its evergreen oak-like aves, which are fragrant when
rubbed. The male and female catkins are often found on the

fame plant. The latter are rather fhort and clofe. Fruit
nearly globular, coarfely granulated.
7. M. montana. Arabian Candleberry Myrtle. Vahl.

Symb. v. 2. 99- (Buxus dioica; Forfk. AE gypt-Arab.
159.)—Leaves lanceolate, ferrated; not dotted beneath.
Catkins globofe.—Gathered by Forfkall on mount Barah in
Arabia. By the defcription of Vahl, this is a forub, with
round fmooth branches. Leaves an inch long, lanceolate,
narrow, tapering at each end, fmooth, with five or fix mi-
nute, fharp, crowded ferratures near the extremity. Flowers
f{mall, in round feffile heads, or catkins. Calyx of four mi-
nute lanceolate leaves. Berry the fize of a pepper-corn ;
according to Forfkall it is of a brownifh-purple, and not
eatable. The four-leaved calyx in this, fimilar to what
Gertner attributes to M. Nagi, is mentioned by Vahl as
indicating fome generic difference between thefe two plants,
and the true Myrice. To this we cannot but aflent, pro-
vided the defcriptions be corre& ; and the fmoothnefs of the
fruit may perhaps confirm fuch difference.

8. M. cordifolia. Heart-leaved Candleberry Myrtle.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 1454. (Alaternoides ilicis folio craffo hir-
futo; Walth. Hort. 3. t. 3. Tithymali facie planta ethio-
pica, ilicis aculeato folio; Pluk. Almageft. 373. Phyt.
t. 319. f. 7.)—Leaves nearly heart-fhaped, ferrated, fef-
file.—Native of the Cape of Good Hope. A {mall bufhy
forub, whofe young branches are hairy, befet with numerous,
“alternate, {mall, roundifh, bluntly-toothed /eaves, thick at
the edyes, and curioufly dotted beneath. Male catkins
{mall, denfe, axillary, fhorter than the leaves.—M., foliis
fubcordatis, integris, feffilibus; Burm, Afr, 263. t. 98.
f. 3, is cited by Linnaus as a variety. By this plate the
fruit appears to be globole and {mooth

9. M. trifoliata. Three-leaved Candleberry Myrtle.
Linn. Sp. PL 1453. Amoen. Acad. y. 6. 112.— Leaves
ternate, toothed.—Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
« A fbrub, with alternate, ttalked, ternate /eaves ; whofe
leaflets are feffile, lanceolate, pointed, ftrongly toothed,
downy beneath. Fruit in a clufter, not a {pike, pulpy,

MYR

rough.” Linn. This is one of thofe Cape plants upon
which Linneus founded his diflertation, entitled Plante
Africane Rariores, publifhed in 1760, and reprinted in the
Am. Acad. Thefe plants were merely fhewn him by the
younger Burmann, and from fo tranfient an acquaintance
with them, it is not wonderful if he made fome milftakes.
A Myrica with ternate leaves, and racemofe berries, is truly
paradoxical, nor have we feen any thing to confirm its ex-
iftence.

Mynrica, in Gardening, comprehends plants of the de-
ciduous and evergreen fhrubby kinds, of which the {pecies
cultivated are {weet gale, fweéet willow, or candleberry
myrtle (M. gale); the American candleberry myrtle (M.
cerifera); the oak-leaved candleberry myrtle (M. querci-
Soak and the heart-leaved candleberry myrtle (M. cordi-
olia). ?

With regard to the firft fort, it is faid, that ‘“ the northern
nations formerly ufed it inftead of hops,’’ and that * it is
{till in ufe for that purpofe in fome of the weftern ifles, and
a few places of the Highlands of Scotland,” where it is
known by the names of /weet gale, goule, gaule, fweet willow,
wild myrtle, and Dutch myrtle.

Method of Culture.—The two firft forts may be raifed
from feed, and the two laft by layers. The firft kind re-
quires a boggy moift fituation, or to be cultivated on bog
earth in fuch circumf{tances. The feeds fhould be procured
from their native fituation, and fown in pots of rich earth,
in the fpring, to the depth of half an inch, watering and
fhading them during the following fummer; and on the ap-
proach of winter, placed in a warm fheltered fituation, or
under a common frame. When the plants have attained
fome growth, they fhould be planted out in the fpring in
nurfery-rows, to remain till of proper fize to be planted out
in the pleafure-ground, where they fucceed beit in a foil
that is not too dry. :

The two laft forts are moftly raifed by laying down the
young fhoots in the latter end of fummer, or in the autumn,
twifting them at a joint, and watering them well during the
following fummer, when the feafon is dry ; and when they
have formed good roots, which is feldom the cafe till the
fecond year, they fhould be taken off, and planted in fmall
pots filled with foft loamy earth, being placed under glaffes
in a common frame, and fhaded from the mid-day fun till
fully rooted, when they may be removed into a warm fhel-
tered place during the fummer, and in the autumn removed
into the greenhoufe, being afterwards managed as other
plants of that kind. ,

The firft forts are likewife fometimes raifed by planting
the fuckers of the roots in nurfery rows, as above, in the
autumn ; and all the forts occafionally by cuttings, though
they ftrike root with great difficulty. In this laft way the
young fhoots are the mo{t proper, which fhould be planted
in pots, and plunged in a hot-bed, covering them clofe with

laffes.

: They may be introduced, the two firft in fheltered
clumps and borders, and the latter forts in colleétions of
the greenhoufe kind, where they afford fine fragrance in
their leaves.

MYRINA, in Ancient Geography, Paliocaffro, a town on
the northern part of the ifland of Lemnos, W.N.W. of
Hephettia—Alfo, a town of the Troade, probably the
fame with that referred by fome geographers to the Ao-
lide.—Alfo, a town of the ifland of Crete.—Alfo, a town
of Thrace.

MYRINX, a word ufed by fome to exprefs the mem-
brane of the tympanum in the ear.

MYRIOPHYLLUM, in Botany, is derived from javeior,

6 innumerable,

we

MYR

innumerable, and QuAXov, a ee This Linnean geous ap-
pears to be the very plant fo called by Pliny, and other
ancient writers. From the defcription, of pugiofuarcy in
Diofcorides, we have no doubt of its being the identical
plant of that author. Millfoil.—Linn. Gen. 493. Schreb.
642. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 406. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 3.
Sm. Fl. Brit. rozr. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 1. v. 3. 351.
Michaux. Boreal-Amer. y. 2. 190. Juff. 18. Lamarck
Illuitr. t. 775. Gertn. t..68. Vaill. Mem. Par. 1719.
nee REP ( Pentapterophyllon ; Dill. Gen. 125. t.7.)—
Clafs and order, Monoecia Polyandria. Nat. Ord. IJnun-
date, Linn. Naiades, Jul.

Gen Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth fuperior, of four, ob-
long, ere& leaves; the two outermoft largett. Cor. Petals
four. Stam Filaments eight, capillary, longer than the
calyx, flaccid; anthers oblong. [emale flowers below the
male, Ca/. Perianthas in the male. Cor. Petals four. Piff.
Germens four, inferior, oblong; ftyles none; ftigmas
downy. eric. none. | Seeds four, oblong, coated.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx of four leaves. Petals four.
Stamens eight Female, Calyx of four leaves. Petals four.
Stigmas four, feffile. Seeds four, coated.

bf. Linnzus and Schreber defcribe this genus as want-
ing a corolla; but Juffieu, on the authority of Vaillant,
fays, there are four petals enclofed in the calyx. Dr.
Smith, on examination, found the latter authors to be cor-
reét. United flowers, with both male and female organs,
are frequently obfervable in J. verticillatum, but very feldom

in /picatum.

1. M. fpicatum. Spiked Water-Millfoil.. Linn. Sp. Pl.
1409. Engl. Bot. t.$3. Fl. Dan. t. 681. — Male flowers
in interrupted naked fpikes.—Native of Europe, and a
common Britifh plant, in ditches, and ftagnant pools, flower-
ing in July and Auguft. The whole of this floating herd is
immerfed in water, except its {pikes. Roots perennial, lonz,
and flender. Stems cord-fhaped, branched, leafy in the up-
per part. Leaves whorled in fours, fpreading, very finely
pectinated, {mooth. Spikes terminal, folitary, with whorls
of flowers. Bradeas ovate, undivided, in fours, placed
under each whorl. Calya: acute, finely ciliated. Petals in
the male flowers twice as long as the calyx, concave, erect,
obtufe, entire, blufh-coloured or reddifh. dnthers pro-
truded, yellow. Female flowers with fmaller petals and
villofe ftigmas. Seeds ovate.

2. M. verticillatum. Verticillate Water-Millfoil. Linn.
Sp. Pl. y410. Engl. Bot. t. 218. Fi. Dan. t. 1046.—
All the flowers in axillary whorls.—Native of Europe, in
fwampy places; but not fo common in this country as the
laft. It flowers in July. The flowering-flems of this float-
ing 4erd rife above the furface of the water, and are leafy up
to their very fummits. Leaves whorled, as in the lait, but
in fives, thofe at the upper part of the ftem lefs finely cut
than thofe which are immerfed. Flowers axillary, whorled,
occafionally hermaphrodite; but moftly female in the lower
whorls, male in the upper. Petals oval, concave, green,
foon falling off. Stigmas fhort, {preading, and finely tufted.
The root and lower part of the fem much refemble thofe of
Spicatum.

3. M. indicum. Indian Water-Millfoil. Willd. n. 3.—
Lower leaves pinnated, capillary ; upper lanceolate, wedge-
fhaped, fomewhat cut at the top. Flowers axillary,
whorled.—This aquatic ‘is a native of Ceylon and Coro-
mandel. Stem two feet high, round, about as thick as a
pigeon’s quill. Lower /eaves pinnated, four in a whorl;
leaflets capillary ; the upper ones gradually narrower; the
uppermott lanceolate, either flightly toothed or entire at the
tip. Flowers in whorls, at the axils of the leaves. In

MYR

habit very fimilar to the laft. Willdenow adopted the pre-
fent {pecies on the authority of his friend Klein, who ob-
ferved that its flowers were hermaphrodite, and defcribed it
as follows: ‘ Calyx in four, ovato-lanceolate, minute feg-
ments. Corolla of four, ovate, deciduous, petals. Fila-
ments eight, thread-fiaped, the length of the corolla. An-
thers linear, as long as the filaments. Germens four,
forming an arch. Styles none. Capfules four, fingle-
feeded.”’

4. M. feabratum. Rough Water-Millfoil. Michaux Bo-
real-Amer. v. 2. 190. Willd. n. 5.—Leaves pinnatifid.
Flowers all whorled and axillary ; the males with four fta-
mens. Fruit with eight ribs, difpofed in pairs. —This is a
native of Carolina and Georgia, and is fufpeéted by Mi-
chaux to be the Potamogeton pinnalum of Walter’s Flora
Caroliniana.

- M. Leterophyllum. Various-leaved’ Water-Millfoil.
Michaux ibid. 191. Willd. n. 4.— Lower le:ves pinnate,
capillary ; the upper floral ones oval, fharply ferrated.
Male flowers with fix ftamens.—From the fame country.
Suppofed to be Potamogeton verticillatum of Walter.

MYRIOTHECA, from pvelo, innumerable, and Sxxn,
a cell; Jufl. 15. Poiret in Lamarck’s Di. v. 4. 403. See
Marartia.

M. Poiret unjuftly cenfures what he miftakes for a wilful
alteration of the name. Swartz publifhed Maratiia in his
Prodromus in 1788, of which Juffieu was ignorant when he
called the fame genus Myriotheca, the following year, in his
Genera Plantarum ; but moft fucceeding writers have pro-
perly adopted the original name, and Lamarck and Poiret
ought to have done fo.

There is fome want of precifion in the learned Juffieu’s
character of this genus, p. 15, and ftill more in his referring
ty Pp. 447, to the Cenopteris of Bergius. (See Darea. )
Thefe errors poffibly led M. Poiret to compare the genus in
queftion to Preris, from which it is equally unlike in cha-
raéter and appearance.

MYRISTICA, the Nutmeg, called Nua myriftica, or
Balfam Nut. by the old writers, from the Greek UPLSIXOS
balfamic.—Linn. Suppl. 40. Schreb. 711. Willd. Sp. Pl.
v. 4. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 3. Thunb. Nov. Gen. 83.
Diff. de Myriftica, Upfal. 1788. Brown. Prodr. Nov. Holl.
v. 1. 400. Juff. 81. Lamarck Did. v. 4. 383. loft.
t. 832, 833. Gaertn. t. 41.—Clafs and order, Dioecia Mo-
nadelphia. Nat. Ord. Lauri, Juff. Myrifticee, Brown; fee
Myristicz&.

Gen. Ch. Male, Ca/. Perianth of one leaf, coriaceous,
three-cleft; the fegments ovate, acute, not folding over
each other in thebud. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments com-
pletely united into a cylindrical columnar tube, fhorter than
the calyx; anthers from three to twelve, linear, cohering
lengthwife, of two cells, burfling longitudinally externally,
Pift. No rudiments of any.

Female, Ca/. Perianth as in the male, deciduous. Cor.
none. Stam. none. iff. Germen fuperior, feffile, ovate;
ftyle very fhort; ftigma flightly lobed. Peric. Capfule
ovate, or nearly globular, thick and flefhy, of one cell
and two valves. Seed folitary, large, oval, enfolded in a
coriaceous, many-cleft tunic ; albumen eroded internally.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx three-cleft. Corolla none. An-
thers from three to twelve, cohering.

Female, Calyx three-cleft. Corolla none. Capfule nearly
globofe, flefhy, of one cell and two valves. Seed folitary,
in a many-cleft tunic.

The charaéters of this valuable genus have but lately
been made known to fcientifie botanifts. The hiftory of
the different {pecies, as far as they were known to him, is

indeed

MYR

indeed fully given by Rumphius, but he has faid nothing
explanatory of the ftru€iure of their flowers. The fruit is
fo extraordinary, that nothing of the affinity of the genus
could be conjeétured from thence ; nor was any informa-
tion, refpecting fo precious an article of commerce, to be
expected from the Dutch, while it was in their power to
conceal the truth. This difficulty is now removed, by
other nations having got accefs to the fpice iflands, and
botanifts are at prefent furnifhed with fufficiently good fpe-
cimens, of feveral of the fpecies.

As we are not yet poffeffed of the volume of Willdenow
which contains this genus, we cannot profit by his labours.
We derive, as ufual, light from Mr. Brown, who is in-
clined to keep feparate from Myriffica two genera which
have been referred to it. Thefe are Knema of Loureiro,
whofe anthers are unconneéted, {preading in the form of a
ftar, (and which appears to be the Myriffica globularia,
Lamarck n. 4, as well as MM. microcarpa of Willdenow ;)
and Vircla of Aublet, t. 345, which Mr. Brown obferved,
in the original fpecimen of that author, to have but three
anthers. (See Knema and Virota.) On the other hand,
Horsfieldia of Willdenow, differing only in having ‘* an ob-
feure {tigma,’’ which, as Mr. Brown remarks, was per-
haps “ but obfcurely feen,’’’is reduced by him to My-
riftica.

Wie fhall at prefent attempt the botanical hiftory of the

two {pecies which we have feen, and which we have not as
yer found clearly defined, fubjoining flighter mention of fome
others. ;

1. M. officinalis. True Nutmeg. Linn. Suppl. 265.
Gaertn. v. 1. 194. t. 41. f. 1. (M. mofchata; Thunb.
Diff. 3. Woodv. Med. Bot. t. 134. M. aromatica; La-
marck n. 1. Swartz Obf. 217. Mart. n. 1. Nux my-
riflica; Rumph. Amboin. v. 2. 14. t. 4. Nux mofchata,
fructu rotu:do; Bauh. Pin. 407. Pluk. Phyt. t. 209. f. 1.)
— Leaves elliptic-lanceolate. Flower-{talks {mooth, twice
the length of the calyx.—Native of the remote parts of
the Eaft Indies. Cultivated in Amboyna and Banda, from
which laft ifland perfeét fpecimens were fent us, by the
Tate Mr. Chriftopher Smith, in 1797. This tree is com-
pared by Rumphius to a common pear-tree, with refpect to
fize and appearance. The branches are alternate, long, flen-
der, round, and {mooth. Leaves alternate, three or four
inches long, elliptic-lanceolate, pointed, entire, with one
rib, and numerous, tranfverfe, curved, not much crowded,
veins; {mooth on both fides; fhining above; whitifh and
opaque beneath. Foot/falks full half an inch long, flender,
{mooth. Stipulas none. Flower-/talks axillary, folitary,
fimple or branched, longer than the footitalks, angular,
{mooth. Flowers {mooth, white, not unlike thofe of lily of
the valley, but fmaller, three-cleft, and without fcent, each ac-
companied by a lateral rounded bradea. Fruit as big as a nec-
tarine. — Every part of the plant is more or lefs aromatic.
The high flavour of the feed, the nutmeg, and that of its
tunic, the ‘mace, are fufficiently well known. ‘The whole
fruit, candied with fugar, is efteemed a delicacy ; but fome
perfons find in it too much of a turpentine tafte to be agree-
able. Like that fubftance, and candied orange-peel, a very
{mall portion of it fwallowed, gives a violet-like fcent to
the urine.

Among the variety of fpecific names, we have felected
the oldeft and leaft exceptionable.

Thy fynonym of Rumphius, cited by Linnwus, belongs
to the next, and that of Sonnerat involves much con-
fufion.

2. M. tomentofa.

(M. philippenfis; Lamarck n, 2?

Long Nutmeg. Thunb. Diff. 4.
Nux myrillica mas ;

coed

DI wW jR

Rumph. Amboin. v. 2. 24. t. 5. Clus Exot. 14.)—Leaves
oblong, with numerous fimple parallel veins. Flower-{talks
aggregate, fcarcely the lergth of the calyx, downy, like
the calyx and fruit. In Banda, Amboyna, and New Gui-
nea, flowering in May. Mr. C, Smith fent it, under the
name of New Guinea Nutmeg, or Long Nutmeg, from
Banda in 1797. The branches and foot/tals are very much
thicker than in the foregoing. Leaves four times as large,
often a foot in length, and three or four inches broad, ob-
long or fomewhat obovate ; foft and fcarcely vifibly downy
beneath ; their veins much more copious, itraight and pa-
rallel. Flower-flalgs in little denfe axillary tufts, about a
quarter of an inch long, and very thick. Calyx nearly glo-
bular, fomewhat longer. Both thefe parts are denfely
clothed with fine filky pubefcence, of a rich golden brown
in the dried fpecimen. The fruit alfo is defcribed as downy,
but this we have not feen. The /éeds are of a much longer
form and proportion than the firlt fpecies, and are fome-
times fold in the fhops, by the name of Long Nutmegs,
though generally reckoned inferior in quality to the former.

Rumphius figures and defcribes three or four more {pecies
or varieties of thefe plants, of which nothing is certainly
known to us.

3. M. dadyloides. Malabar Nutmeg. Gertn.v. r. 195.
t. 41. f. 2. (M. malabarica; Lamarck n. 3. M. fruétu
inodoro: Linn. Zeyl. 229. Panam-palka; Rheede Hort.
Malab. v. 4. 9. t. 5.) —Leaves oblong, with numerous fim-
ple parallel veins. Flower-italksaggregate, longer than the
calyx. Fruit oblong, downy.—Rheede defcribes this as
common every where in the woods of Malabar, bearing fruit
twice a year, in June and December. Lamarck well ob-
ferves that it feems very near our fecond fpecies, but, if the
details in the Hortus Malabaricus be faithful, muft be dif-
tinét. One circumftance in the figure is itriking enough,
the panicled fowers ; but the defcription does not confirm
it, and we fufpect fome miftake ; otherwife that character
would be decifive. The fruit and feed appear much like
the preceding, but the latter has fcarcely any tafte or {mell,
though the mace is not without fome flavour. Rheede
fays ‘* the Turkifh and Jewifh merchants,’ (as if they
were the only cheats in India,) mix thefe nutmegs with
the true long ones, and the mace with good mace, felling
them together. They alfo extraét from thefe inferior arti-
cles, an oil, with which they adulterate that of a more ge-
nuine quality.”

4.°M. cimicifera. Bug Nutmeg. Brown n. 1.—“ Leaves
ovate-oblong ; obtufe at the bafe; fmooth benéath when
full-grown. Flowers nearly feffile, in axillary tufts. An-
thers fix.’,—Gathered by fir Jofeph Banks, im the tropical
part of New Holland. Brown.

The author jaft quoted deferibes a fecond New Holland
fpecies, by the name of 7. infipida; but this he himfelf
fufpeéts to be a Knema. Gertner has a M. Jrya, f. 3,
whofe {eed is globular, and a MW. Iryaghedbi, f. 4, more like
the Long Nutmeg; but thefe, as well as fome {pecies of
Lamarck, we are obliged to pafs over, for want of more
fufficient materials to fix their {pecific charaCters.

Mynistica Mojfthata. See NurMec.

MYRISTIC AZZ, a natural order of plants, firft efta-
blithed as fuch by Mr. R. Brown, Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1.
399, and named from its principal genus, Myrifliea; fee
MyristicA, ‘The characters are as follows.

Flowers dioecious, (without any rudiments in each of the
other fex.)

Perianth of one leaf, three-cleft, the fegments meeting
by their edges in the bud, not overlapping each other.

Male. Filaments clofely united into a column, Anthers

from

~

MYR

from three to twelve \ ats in number), either cohering
or diftinct, of two cells, burfting longitudinally at the back,
or outer ‘fide. ;

Female. Perianth deciduous. Germen fuperior, diftin@,
feflile, of one feed, the rudiments of which are erect. Style
very fhort. Stizma fomewhat lobed.

Berry? capfular, bivalve. (We eftcem it rather a coria-
ceous or flefhy capfule.) seer!

Seed hardifh like a nut; invefted with a ¢unic which is
cloven into many deep fegments. /bumen eroded (as it
were) internally, of a firm febaceous texture. _

Embryo {mall ; cotyledons leafy ; radicle inferior ; plumula
conf{picuous. ;

This order confifts of tropical trees, often exuding a red-
dith juiée. Leaves alternate, without flipulas, ftalked, en-
tire, coriaceous: when full grown often clothed beneath with
minute clofe-prefled down; their furface not dotted. Jn-
florefcence either axillary or terminal, racemofe, tufted, or pa-
‘hicled, each flower accompanied by a {mall fhort hooded
bra&tea. Perianth coriaceous, {mooth within, in many in-
itances downy externally, the pubefcence fometimes ftel-
lated.

Mr. Brown remarks that this order is properly not nearly
akin to any other. [he anthers appear to be always deti-
nite in number, either as many as the fegments of the pe-
rianth, or twice, thrice, or four times that number. Their
true nature is beft feen in Anema, where they are feparate,
for which reafon Mr. Brown is difpofed to keep that genus
diftiné.

MYRLEA, in Ancient Geography. . See APAMEA.

MYRMECIA, pupurmix, in Medicine, from puzunk, the
ant, has been ufed as the denomination of a fpecies of
yverruca or wart, which is feffile, upon a broad bafe, pro-
minent, callous, and of a blackifh colour, and is affected
with ftinging pains, when cut, like the bitings of ants. See
Foreft. Obferv. Med. Lib. xxiii. Obf. g. Caftelli Lexicon
Med. fub voce Formica.

Myrnecia, in Botany, derived from pugunxx, an ant’s
nef. We learn from Aublet that the natives of the Ca-
ribbee Iflands call this plant Zachi, which fignities an ant’s
neff, becaufe thofe infects are frequently to be found in the
cavities of its trunk and branches. Hence Schreber took
occafion to apply a claflical name to the genus. Schreb. 74.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1, 623. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 3. (Ta-
chia; Aubl. Guian. v. 1. 75. Jufl. 142. Lamarck [I-
luftr. t 80.)—Clafs and order, Tetrandria Monogynia. Nat.
Ord. Gentian, Juff. ;

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one Jeaf, tubular,
long, cloven into five, erect, acute, teeth. Cor. ef one
petal; tube long; throat inflated; limb cloven into five,
ovate, acute, revolute fegments. Neétary compofed of five,
fmall glands, furrounding the bafe of the germen. Stam.
Filaments four, thread-fhaped, inferted at tne bottom of
the tube, and longer than it; anthers linear, erect. P3/?.
Germen fuperior, oblong; ftyle thread-fhaped, longer than
the ftamens ; {tigma compofed of two, little plates. Peric,
Capfule long, of two cells and two valves, invetted with
the permanent calyx. Seeds numerous, very fmall, vifcid,

hering to the partition.

a Ch. Calyx bell-fhaped, five-toothed. Corolla tu-
bular, with an inflated throat, Glands five, furrounding
the bafe of the germen. Capfule of two cells, and two
valves, many-feeded.

1 WA femme. Willd. (Tachia guyannenfis; Aubl.
Guian. t. 29.)—Native of Guiana; in woods and on the
banks of rivers, where it flowered, and bore fruit, in Oc-

MYR

tober. This /brub rifes to the height of five or fix feet.
Trunk climbing, and much branched. Branches oppofite,
long and trailing, knobbed and quadrangular. Leaves
oppofite, on fhort ftalks, ovate, acute, entire, fmooth.
Flowers axillary, folitary, oppofite, of a yellow colour
in every part. A drop of yellow and tranfparent refin is
ufually found at the axils.of the leaves, where flowers are
wanting.

MYRMECIAS Lapis, the Wart-Stone, in Natural Hif-
tory, a name given by fome authors to a {tone covered on the
furface with wart-like excrefcences: it is a name of a very
vague fignification, fome of the ftones called by it bein
mere flints, and others owing their protuberances to ar
loid bodies, the wires of afteriz, or other of the extraneous
foffils contained in them, and fo lodged, that their ends juft
{tand out.

MYRMECION, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Tauric Cherfonefus, on the banks of the Cimmerian Bof-
phorus, according to Strabo, Pliny, Mela, &c. No vef-
tiges of it now remain.

MYRMECITES, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by
fome authors to a {mall ftone, with fome imaginary re-
femblance of an ant in its fhape. Others have alfo made it
the name of fuch pieces of amber as contain an ant; or the
legs, wings, or other fragment or remains of that little
animal. P

MYRMECOPHAGA, Ant-gateR, in Zoology, a
genus of quadrupeds of the order Bruta. The generic cha-
raéter is, teeth none; tongue cylindric, extenfile; mouth
lengthened into a fomewhat tubular form; body covered
with hair. The animals of this genus live entirely on in-
fects, more particularly on the various kinds of ants: in
order to obtain which, they extend their tongue, which is of
a very great length, and of a roundifh or worm-like form,
into the nefts of thefe infects; and when, by means of the
vifcid moiiture with which it is covered, a fufficient number
are fecured, they retra& it fuddenly into the mouth, and
{wallow them. A part of the generic charaéter of the myr-
mecophaga is the total want of teeth, in which particularity
it refembles no other animals, except thofe of the genus
manis, in which the fame circumftance takes place. There
are, however, in the ant-eaters, according to the obferva-
tions of Brouffonet, certain bones or proceffes, not unlike
teeth, fituated deep at the entrance of the gullet or cefo-
phagus, or rather, according to Camper, at the lower
end of the jaws. The fpecies of ant-eaters are feven in
number.

Species,

Divacryra ; Little Ant-eater. Two toes on the fore-
feet, four on the hind, and a bufhy tail. This is an animal
of great elegance. It is not fuperior in fize to a {quirrel ;
meafuring little more than feven inches from the nofe to the
tail, which is longer than the body and head; the head is
{mall ; the fnout fharpened, and flightly bent downwards ;
the legs are fhort; the fore-feet have only two claws on
each, the exterior one much larger and ftronger than the in-
terior; on each of the hind-feet are four claws of moderate
fize; the ears are {mall, and hidden in the fur ; the eyes are
alfo {mall. The whole animal is covered with a beautiful,
foft, and fomewhat crifped or curled fur, of a pale yellow
colour, or rather yellow-brown; the tail, which is very
thick at the beginning or bafe, gradually tapers to the tip;
and the lower furface, for about the {pace of four inches
from the tip, is bare; the tail in this fpecies being pre-
henfile, and the animal commonly refiding on trees, and

preying

Myo:

preying on ants, by means of its long tongue, in the manner
of other {pecies. It isa native of Guiana; walks flowly on
its heels ; feeds only in the night, and emits no cry.

TrrpacryLA. ‘Three toes on the fore-feet, and four on
the hind; the tail is bufhy. It is found in divers parts
of India; travels flowly; climbs trees, and defends itfelf
againft the attacks of flies by its broad tail.

Jusata; Great Ant-eater. Tour toes on the fore-feet,
and on the hind five; the tail is bufhy. There is a variety
with a fhorter face and fhorter legs. ‘This, as its name im-
ports, is by much the largeft of the genus, being feven feet
in length from the tip of the nofe to the end of the tail ; but
if meafured to the origin of the tail, it is no more than
about five feet and a half. It is an animal cf an uncouth
appearance; the head is fmall; the fmout very long; the

eyes {mall; the ears fhort and round; the fhoulders thick:

and mufcular, from whence the body tapers towards the
tail; but the thighs are thick and ftout. The colour of the
animal is a deep grey, with a very broad band of black run-
ning from the neck downwards, on each fide of the body,
growing gradually narrower as it pafles down. This black
band is accompanied on the upper part by a ftreak of white ;
the fore-legs are of a lighter caft than the hinder, and have
a patch or fpot of black in front, not much above the foot ;
the tailis black, extremely long, and bufhy ; the hair on the
whole body, but efpecialiy on the tail, is very harfh and
coarfe; the two middle claws of the fore-feet are extremely
large and ftrong, which render this creature, though defti-
tute of teeth, a very formidable adverfary ; fince it has been
known to deftroy animals of much greater apparent f{trength
than itfelf, fixing its claws upon them, and exerting fuch
powerful itrength as to kill them by continued laceration
and preffure. Jtis a native of Brafil and Guiana. It is
chiefly a no&turnal animal, and is faid to fleep during the
greatefl part of the day in retired places. Its pace is fome-
what flow, and its manners dull and heavy. It is faid to
fwim with eafe, at which time it flings its tail over its back.
A. living fpecimen was fome years ago brought into Spain,
and kept in the royal menagerie at Madrid. In this ftate of
confinement, it would readily eat raw meat cut fmall, and
was faid to {wallow four or five pounds in aday. Its length
was fix feet from the nofe to the end of the tail, and its
height was two feet.

TETRADACTYLA. Four toes on the fore-feet, and on the
hind-feet there are five; the tail is naked. It inhabits
South America; wanders only in the night, fleeps by day ;
when angry, it feizes a ftick, and fights fitting on its hind-
legs. The tail of this animal is bald at the extremity, by
which it is able to fufpend itfelf from the branches of trees.
It has a black {tripe on the breaft and fide.

PentApActyLa ; Striped Ant-eater. Five toes on the
fore-feet ; the tail is long, flat, and entirely covered with
hair. It is about thirteen inches long, and ten high.

Carensis ; Cape Ant-eater. Four toes on the fore-feet ;
the fnout is long; the ears are large and pendulous ; the
tail is fhorter than the body, and tapering to the tip. It is
found at the Cape of Good Hope; is larger than the other
{pecies, and nearly of the fize of a hog, weighing about an
hundred pounds. It burrows in the ground, fleeps by day,
and prowls by night.

AcuLeata; Aculeated or Porcupine Ant-eater. Body
covered with long fharp f{pines; tail fhort. The aculeated
ant-eater is one of thofe curious animals which have been
lately difcovered in New Holland, and is a ftriking inftance
ef that beautiful gradation, fo frequently obferved in the
animal kingdom, by which creatures of one tribe or genus

NY R

approach to thofe of avery different one. It forms a con-
neGting link between the very diitant Linnzan genera of
hyftrix (porcupine) and myrmecophaga (ant-eater), having
the external coating and general appearance of the one, with
the mouth and peculiar generic characters of the other.
This animal, fo far as may be judged from the {pecimens
hitherto imported, is about a foot in length. ‘In its mode
of life it refembles the reft of the ant-eaters, being generally
found in the. midft of fome large ant-hill. It burrows with
great {trength and celerity under ground, when difturbed ;
its feet and legs being ftrong and fhort, and wonderfully
adapted to the purpofe. It will even burrow under a pretty
ftrong pavement, removing the {tones with its claws; or
under the bottom of a wall. During thefe exertions, its
body is ftrengthened or lengthened to an uncommon Wegree,
and appears very different from the fhort or plump afpeét
which it bears in its undifturbed ftate. :
MYRMELEON, Lion-Anr, in Entomology, a genus -
of infe&ts of the order Neuroptera. The generic charaGter
is, mouth furnifhed with,jaws; teeth two; feelers four,
elongated ; ftemmata none; antennz clavated, of the length
of the thorax ; wings defle&ted; tail of the male furnifhed
with a-forceps, confifting of two ftraightifh filaments.
This genus includes fixteen fpecies, feparated into two
divifions. ;

A. Hind-feelers longer 3 jaw one-toothed ; lip membranaceous,
Square, truncate, emarginate.

Species.

Livettutomers. Wings grey, fpotted with brown;
body {potted with black and yellow. It inhabits the Cape
of Gocd Hope. i .

Parpatis. Wings white, with feattered black dots;
thighs yellow. It inhabits Coromandel. A f{pecimen is
preferved in the mufeum of fir Jofeph Banks.

PANTHERINUS. Wings white, {potted with black ; body
yellow ; abdomen variegated with black. This fpecies 1s
found in Aultria, and other parts of Germany. i

Lynceus. Wings hyaline, with a black marginal {pot
at the tip, in the middle of which is a {nowy one. It in-
habits Sierra Leona.

Formicatzo. Wings clouded with brown, with a white
marginal fpot. This {pecies is better underitood than any
other of the genus myrmeleon. _ Its larva has been long cele-
brated for its ingenuity in preparing a pit-fall, for the de-
{truGtion of fuch infe&ts as happen unwarily to enter it.
The myrmeleon formicaleo, in its complete or fly ftate,
bears no inconfiderable refemblance to a fmall dragon-fly ;
from which, however, it may readily be diftinguifhed by its
antenne. It is of a predacious nature, flying chiefly by
night, and purfuing the fmaller infects in the manner of a
libellula. It depofits its eggs in dry fandy fituations; and
the young larve, when hatched, begin to exercife their
talent of preparing, by turning themfelves rapidly round, a
very {mall conical cavity in the fand. Under the centre of
the cavity the little animal conceals itfelf, fuddenly rufhing
forth at intervals, to feize any {mall infeét which, by ap-
proaching the edge of the cavity, has been fo unfortunate as
to fall in; and, after fucking out its juices, throws it, by a
fudden exertion, to fome diftance from the cavity. As the
creature increafes in fize, it enlarges the cavity, which at
length becomes about two inches, or more, in diameter.
The larva, when full grown, is more than half an inch long,
and is of a flattened figure, broad towards the upper part,
and gradually tapering to an obtufe point at the ae

t

MYR

Yt is brown, and befet with numerous tufts of dufky hair,
which are particularly confpicuous on each fide the annuli
of the abdomen; the legs are flender; the head and thorax
rather fmall; the tubular jaws long, curved, ferrated in-
ternally, and very fharp pointed. ‘The whole animal is of
an unpleafing afpect, and, ona curfory view, bears a general
refemb!ance to a flat-bodied fpider. When magnified, its
appearance is highly uncouth.

Reaumur and Roelel have given accurate deferiptions of
this larva, and its extraordinary hiftory. It is one of thofe
whofe term of life, like that of the libe!lula and ephemera,
is protracted to a confiderable fpace, fince it furvives the
firlt winter in its larva ftate, taking no nourishment during
that time, and in the {pring refames its ufual manner of
preying. Im preparing its pit, it begins by tracing an ex-
terior circle of the intended diameter of the cavity, con-
tinuing its motion in a fpiral line, till it gets to the centre;
thus marking, as it were, feveral volutes in the fand, re-
fembling the impreffien of a large fnatl-fheli; and after
having Fiticibiitly deepened the cavity, it {mooths the fides
into a regular fhape, by throwing out the fuperfluous fand
lying on the ridges: this it does by clofing its forceps in
fuch a manner, that, together with the head, they forma
convenient fhovel, with which it throws the fand with fo
flrong a motion out of the cavity, that the grains often fall
to the diftance of near a foot beyond the biriabe The depth
of the pit is generally equal to the diameter. When full
grown, and ready to change into a chryfalis, the animal en-
velopes itfelf in a round ball of fand, agglutinated and con-
nected by very fine filk, which it draws trom a tubular pro-
cefs at the extremity of the body: with this filk it alfo lines
the internal furface of the ball, which, if opened, appears
coated by a fine pearl-coloured filken tiffue. It continues
in the ftate of chryfalis about four weeks, and then gives
birth to the complete infec.

Carra. Wings hyaline, with faint brown fpots; the
nerves are fpotted with black. Found in Madeira.

Pouncrarus. Wings hyaline; the nerves with alternate
black and white dots. Jt inhabits India. A f{pecimen is
in the mufeum of fir Jofeph Banks.

Forsicatynx. Wings immaculate; body brown. It
inhabits Africa and America. ;

Ticrinus. Wings hyaline, immaculate; body brown ;
margia of the thorax and legs yellow. , It inhabits New
Holland.

} Canixus. Wings hyaline, immaculate; body brown ;
" head and thorax {potted with yellow. It is found in
Guinea.

B. Feelers nearly equal; jaw ciliate; lip horny, rounded,
entire.

Species.

Wings reticulate, yellowifh-hyaline, with
two brown fpots. It inbabits Europe and Africa.

Lonercornis. Upper wings hyaline, with a double
yellow fpot at the bafe; lower ones yellow, black at the
bafe. It inhabits Italy.

Carensis. Wings white, reticulate with black; the tail
is forked. It inhabits the Cape of Good Hope.

APPENDICULATUS. _ Wings white, immaculate, one-
toothed at the bafé. Its country is not known. There is
a fpecimen in the Britifh Mufeum.

Avsrraris. Wings white, with a black marginal {pot ;
the body is variegated. It inhabits the fouthern parts of
Europe.

Vor. XXIV.

BaRBARvs.

MYR ,

Cavennensis. Wings white, with a fhowy marginal
fpot. Ic inhabits Cayenne.

MYRMENA, in Ancient Geography, a town fuppofed
to have been in Ethiopia, inhabited by Anthropophagi ;
whofe prince, according to Nicephorus, was converted 5 i
St. Matthew to the Chriftian faith.

MYRMEX, an ifland of Africa, on the coalt of Cy-
renaica. Ptolemy.

MYRMIDONS, Myrmipongs, in Antiquity, a people
of Theffaly, fabled to have arifen from ants, or pifmires,
upon a prayer put up for that purpofe by king AZacus, to
Jupiter, after his kingdom had been difpeopled by a fevere
peitilence. This fable is founded merely upon the equivoca-
tion of the name of the Myrmidons, which refembles that
of the pilmice, called in Greek Nveunt. Thefe people
bore a further refemblance to thefe little animals, infomuch
that in‘tead of inhabiting towns or villages, they commonly
remained in the open fields, having no other retreat but the
dens and cavities of trees. /Eacus brought them together,
and fettled them in habitations more fecure and commo-
dious. In Homer aad Virgil the Myrmidons are Achilles’s
foldiers. -

MYRMILLO, among the Romans, a kind of Gallic
armour ufed in theatrical fhows: but fome will have it to be
the fame that Achilles’s Myrmidons wore; whence it had
this name.

MYRMILLONES, 2 kind of gladiators in ancient
Rome, called alfo murmuliones ; {uppofed by Lipfius to be
an order that fought completely armed. Some have in-
ferred from a paflage in Feftus, that they were thus called
from their being armed, like the Gauls, with a long {word
and buckler, anda helmet, the creft of which was ufually a
fifh. See GrapiaTor.

Turnebus derives the name from the Myrmidons.

MYROBALANS, Myrogpatani, in the Materia Me-
dica, a kind of medicinal fruit, brought from the Indies,
much more ufed in the Arabic than the Greek pharmacy,
and more ameng the ancients than the moderns, and {till
more abroad than in England.

The word comes from the Greek pueov, medicament, and
Buraios, acorn, as being fomewhat in form of acorns, and -
ufed in medicine.

It is very evident from the writings of the ancient Greeks,
that what we at this time call the myrobalan was not known
to them under that name, and perhaps what they called
fo is not known to us at this time; our myrobalans being «
fort of plums, and their’s being a dry fruit, rather of the
nut-kind, and ufed in perfumed unguents, and other com-
pofitions of that kind to give them a fcent. This varia-
tion from the original fenfe of the word is not new, how-
ever ; and the authors who began it are fo far back, that
it feems to have been an error of as old a date as any of this
kind.

There are five forts of myrobalans, or purging Indian
plums : the firlt, called citrini, of a yellowifh-red, hard, ob-
long, and the fize of an olive. The feconad, called d/ack or
Zndian myrobalans, of the bignefs of an acorn, wrinkled,
without ftone. The third, chebulic myrobalans, the fize of
a date, of a yellowifh-brown, pointed at the end. The
fourth, emblici, round, rough, the fize of a gall, of a dark
brown. The latt, called delferici, hard, yellow, round, the
fize of an ordinary prune, lefs angular than the reft.

All the myrobalans have an unpleafant, bitterih, auftere,
talte;.and ttrike an inky blacknefs with folution of chaly-
beate witriol: they are faid to have a gently purgative, as
well as av altringent and corroborating virtue; and are di-

3°P refed

MYR

rected to be given in fubftance from half a dram to four
drams, and in infufion or flight decoétion from four to twelve
drams; but they have long been difcarded from praétice in
this country.

MYROBALANUS, in Botany, from pugov, balfam, and
Barve, an acorn, or fome fimilar fruit; a genus founded
by Gerther, «upon three or four different dried plums,
which go under the’ above name, and are now among the
moft obfolete rubbifh of the apothecaries’ fhops. Their
flowers are unknown, but from what little can be made out
of the hiftory of the plants, they have always been
taken for fpecies of Terminalia. Nor does Gezrtner himfelf
much invalidate this opinion. He gives the charaéter as
follows.

Ef. Ch. Flower ..... Drupa pulpy, its coat with
rounded angles and furrowed, of one cell. Seed almond-
like, inverted, with leafy, fpirally convolute, cotyledons.

The f{pecies he enumerates are

M. éellirica. Gertn. v. 2. go. t. 97. £. 2.
Rheede Hort. Mal. v. 4. 23. t. 10.)

M. Chebula. f. 2.

M. citrina. f. 3.

The two laft he fufpeéts may be varieties of one fpecies.
M. indica of the fhops, he believes to be nothing elfe than
unripe citrina, before the feed is formed.

The fame author adds, “if we confider the fpiral con-
volution of the cotyledons as the effential charaéter of Ter-
minalia, according to the opinion of the late Koenig, Ba-
damia,” (a preceding genus figured by him in the fame
plate,) ‘* as well as all the {pecies of Myrobalanus, ought to
be referred to that genus.”’

MYROBATINDUM, fo called by Vaillant, from
puec, a fragrant balfam, 8-0; a thorn or bramble, and indum,
Indian ; a fynonym of fome prickly fpecies of Lantana.
See that article.

MYRODENDRUM, fo named by Schreber, from
pueov, a balfam, or fragrant ointment, and dtydeox, a@ tree, be-
caufe it is celebrated in Guiana for abounding with a red,
refinous fecretion in its trunk and branches, of the fweet
favour of florax. This juice, after exudation, becomes a
reddifh, tranfparent refin, which is ufed by the natives for
fumigations, and is alfo fuccefsfully applied, according to
Aublet, as a vulnerary, like the Balfam of. Peru. Schreb.
358. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 1171. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 3.
(Houmiri; Aubl. Guian. v.1 564. Houmiria;“Juff. 435.
Lamarck Illuitr. t. 462.)—Clafs and order, Polyandria
Monogynia. Nat. Ord. uncertain.

Gen Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, with five,
fharp teeth. Cor, Petals five, oblong, acute, f{preading,
much larger than the calyx. Stam. Filaments twenty, ca-
pilliry, inferted into the receptacle; anthers roundifh.
Pift. Germen fuperior, roundifh, fmall; ftyle long, in-
curved, villofe; ftigma capitate, five-lobed. Perte. Capfule
of five cells. Seeds folitary.

Eff. Ch. Calyx five-toothed. Petals five.
lobed) Capfile with five, fingle-feeded cells.

1. M bal amiferum. Linn Sy't. ed. Gmnel. Vy 2 817.
(M. amplexicaule; Willd. Hovwmiri balfamifera; Aubl.
Guan. t. 225, )—Native of woods in Cayenne and Guiana,
where it flowers in April. This tree, which is fifty or fixty
feet in height, is called Tourt and alfo Houmirs, by the Ca-
ribbees, ts trunk is about two feet in diameter. Branches
chiefly towards the top, long, and widely fpreading. eaves
alternate, nearly feflile, ovate, or ovato-oblong, fmooth,
entire, reddish when young. /owers corymbofe, axillary

Stigma five-

(Tani;

MYR

and ‘terminal, white, furnifhed with a feale at the bafe of
each ftalk.

The negroes cut flips of the dark to ufe as a fort of torch,
and its wood is employed by the natives for building houfes,
efpecially for roofs.

Aublet’s figure reprefents the leaves clafping the ftem,
which is hardly the cafe in his own f{pecimen, nor in a more
perfe@ one for which we are obliged to Mr. Rudge.

MYRODIA, fo named by Profeflor Swartz, at the
fuggettion of the late Mr. Dryander, from pues, a fragrant
balfam, and cfw, to fmell; alluding to the powerful and
luicious fcent of the whole plant, even after it has long been
dried, which refembles that. of melilot ointment. Swartz.
Prodr. 102. Ind. Occ. v. 2. 1225. Schreb. 472. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 3: 843. Mart. Mall. Did. v. 3. (Quararibea;
Aubl. Guian. 691. | Juff. 274. Cavan. Diff. 175. Poir.
in Lam. Did. v. 6. 22. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 571.)—Clafs,
and order, Monadelphia Polyandria. Nat. Ord. “ Malvacea,
or rather perhaps Melfe,’”? Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
coriaceous, tearing irregularly at the margin, without any
uniform teeth, permanent. Cor. Petals five, inferted into
the receptacle, oblong, oblique, obtufe, recurved and
fpreading, tapering at the bafe, longer than the calyx.
Stam. Filaments united into a long flender tube, fheathing
the ftyle, dilated and plaited at the fummit, with five teeth ;
anthers numerous, kidney-fhaped, feffile, crowded about
the top of the tube. Pf Germen fuperior, ovate ; ftyle
thread-fhaped, ‘furrowed, {welling at the top, rather longer
than the ftamens; fligma large, capitate, fomewhat peltate.
Peric. Drupa nearly globofe, dty and fib-ovs, abrupt and
crowned with the bafe of the ftyle, of two or three cells.
Seeds folitary, angular at one fide, convex at the other.
~ Eff. Ch. Calyx fimple, tubular, fplitting irregularly.
Petals five. Style thread-fhaped. Drupa dry, of two or
three cells. Seeds folitary.

1. M. turbinata. Swartz. Ind. Occ. v. 2. 1227. fig. ay
c—f. Willd. n. 1.— Leaves elliptical. Calyx turbinate,
half the length of the ftamens.—Native of the Caribbée’
iflands, Montferrat, St. Kit’s, and St. Lucia, on the banks:
of rivers and torrents. The French call it Bots Anglois, or
Englifh tree. ‘The height of this ¢ree is from thirty to fifty
feet. Branches round, with a brown {mooth bark. Leaves
alternate, on fhort thick fags, elliptical, pointed, entire
from four inches’ to a foot long, and nearly half as broad,
pliable, bright green, {mooth, with one rib, and feveral
tranfverfe curved veins, whofe innumerable branches are’
finely reticulated. Stipulas oppofite, at the bafe of the
footftalks, awl-fhaped, deciduous. Flower-flal/és axillary,
folitary, fearcely fo long as. the footftalks, fimple, fingle-
flowered, bearing numerous, imbricated, awl-fhaped dradegs
on their lower part. Ca/yx about half an inch long, green,
befprinkled externally with very’minute, reddifh, glandular,
refinous dots, and filky within; its mouth covered, before
it expands, with an orbicular deciduous lid. Petals whitiths
about twice as long as the calyx, finely downy at the back.
Stamens about the length of the petals; their ¢ude flightly
curved; the anthers about twenty, all crowded together into
a globular head at the top, each oval, with a longitudinal
furrow. J ruit the fize of a large cherry, of a dry fibrous
texture, and fcarcely perfe€ling mere than one feed. ‘The
Melilot fcent is very powerful in our fpecimen, though it
has been dried above thirty years.

2. M. longiflora Swartz. Ind. Occ. v. 2. 1229. fig. 6.
Willd. n. 2 (Quararibea guianenfis; Aubl. Guian. 692.
t, 278. Cavan. Diff, 175. t. 71. £ 2.)—Leaves oblong.

a Calyx

MYR

Calyx cylindrical, one-third the length of the ftamens.—
Gathered by Aublet, on the banks of frefh-water rivers in
Guiana, bearing flowers and fruit in May. ~ That botanift
defcribes it as a /brub, only eight or ten feet high; its trunk
three or four inches, at mott, in diameter; wood white and
foft; the dark grey and cracked, filamentous, and capable
of ferving for cordage. This laft circumftance perhaps in-
duced Juffieu the more readily to range the Rout under
Malvacee. The branches are long, flexible, ttraight, and
fubdivided. Leaves alternate, {mooth, green, pliable, el-
liptic-oblong, pointed, entire; the largeft nine inches long,
and three broad. Foos/falks fhort and thick, with a pair of
Sipulas, that foon fall off. Flowers axillary; their /la/ks
fometimes inferted into that of the leaf, two, three, four, or
five together, roughifh or glandular. Calyx rough, cylin-
drical, without any lid (as far as we can perceive), an inch
and half long, opening with three, four, or five teeth, or
fometimes fplivting down at one fide. Petals white, wavy,
recurved, above twice the length of the calyx. Tube of
the pene thrice as long as the calyx, curved, while,
flender ; anthers about nine, yellow, accompanied by four
or five green glandular bodies, many more of which are dif-
perfed a little way down the tube. Stigma prominent, di-
vided. Fruit dry, green, coriaceous, an inch and half long,
with two feeds. The parts are all fomewhat diminifhed in
Aublet’s plate. He fays nothing of the fcent, which
Swartz defcribes, and we perceive, in this as well as the
former. The want of a lid to the calyx, if conftant, is a
remarkable difference between this {pecies and the other.

MYROPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece,
near the {traits of Thermopyle, over-againft Heraclea.

MYROSMA, in Botany, from pup, a fragrant balfam,
and ocyun, a/cent, alluding to a property of the plant, rather
fuppofed perhaps from its natural affinities, than perceptible
in the dried fpecimen, or difcoverable in any thing we can
‘find of its hiftory. Linneusat firft wrote it Myri/ma, from
pupicux, anointed with balfam, or unguent.—Linn. Suppl. 8.
Schreb. 4. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 13. Mart. Mill. Di&.
v. 3. Rofcoe Tr. of Linnzan Soc. vy. 8. 341. t. 20. f. 4.
Jail. 63.—Clafs and order, Monandria Monogynia. Nat.
Ord. Scitaminee, Linn. Canna, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of three equal, oblong,
channelled, entire, membranous leaves. Cor. of one petal :
tube very fhort: outer limb in three deep, equal, oblong,
fpreading, entire fegments, each with a dark fpot at the
top; inner in five deep unequal fegments, the two uppermolt
fhorteft, oblong, unequally emarginate, the three lowermott
longeft, three-cleft at the fummit, cut, the middle one
fhorter than the othertwo. Sram. Filament one, either quite
unconnected, or attached to the edge of the central fegment
.of the lower lip, awl-fhaped, membranous at the bafe ; an-
ther terminal, erect, ovate, comprefled. Pi/?. Germen in-
ferior, triangular ; ityle thick, fhort, depreffed, trian-
gular, longitudinally {plit, partly hairy ; ftigma gaping,
with adilated lip. Peric. Capfule triangular, of three cells
and three valves, Seeds feveral, angular.

Eff. Ch. Anther fimple.' Style thick, depreffed, cloven
longitudinally, fhort. Stigma gaping. Capfule trian-
gular, of three cells, with many feeds.

1. M. cannefolia. Linn. Suppl. 80. ; excluding the
fynonym. (Myrifma 120, nova; Linn. Pl. Surin. 5.
Amen. Acad. v. 8. 251.)—Gathered by Dalberg in Su-
rinam. The root iscreeping, with long hairy fibres, and in-
vefted with broad fheathing feales. It appears to be pe-
rennial. Stem herbaceous rather than fhrubby, clothed in the
upper part with fine deflexed hairs. Radical leaves feveral,
ovate, acute, entire, three or four inches long, {mooth, with

‘Jufl. 365. Lamarck Di@. v. 4. 191.

MYR

onerib, and numerous, fine, oblique, tranfverfe veins, as in
the reft of this natural order. a een ereét, broad, fheath-
ing, ftriated, three inches long, fuddenly contraéted at the
top into a hairy knob, clofe to the leaf. At the fummit of
the fem, of whofe height we are unable to judge, is a larger
leaf, from within whofe much fhorter fheathing foot/lalk {prings
the flower-flalk, of the fame length, bearing a fimple droop-
ing /pike, of eight or ten flowers, whofe broad pale imbri-
cated braéteas refemble the catkin of the Hop. Each of
thefe is about as long as its correfponding flower, and is ac-
companied by a {maller and narrower internal bradea. The
corolla {eems to be white or yellowifh.

This was one of the plants which made a part of the
Surinam colletion, preferved in {pirits, prefented to Lin-
neus by king Guitavus III. Nothing is recorded of the
properties or ules of the, Myro/ma.

MYROSPERMUM, fo named by Jacquin from pupoy,
balfam, and orzpuc, feed, alluding to the balfamic exudation
from the feed and feed-veflel, which, in the fpecies he de-
{cribed, is of a {trong and difagreeable fcent. Sce Myroxy-
LON, in which this genus of Jacquin, and its name, are now
funk.—Schreber and Willdenow feem to have been led into
this meafure by the authority of Linnzus, of whofe works
they properly confidered themfelves as but the editors, and
{till more perhaps by that of Mutis, the reputed author of
the name Myroxylon. Yet asthe fame appellation had pre-
vioufly been given by Fortter, in his Genera, t. 63, to a dif-
ferent genus, the original name of Jacquin might as well have
yemained for this. So indeed have Juffieu and Lamarck ac-
tually decided the matter, and a confufion of fynonyms, in
this as well as too many other initances, needlefsly encum-
bers the fcience. In this dilemma we prefer following the
Linnzan writers, and fhall retain, for Forfter’s genus,
Schreber’s name of Xytosma ; fee that article hereafter.

MYROXYLON, from pupov, balfam, and £vrov, wood,
the tree which yields the precious ba fam of Peru. Linn.
Suppl. 34. Schreb. 281. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2.546. Mart.
Mill. Di&. v. 3. (Myrofpermum ; Jacq. Amer. 120.
Mluftr. t. 341.)
Clafs and order, Decandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Lomen-
tacee, Linn. Leguminofe, fed. 10. Juil,

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, bell-fhaped,
with five flight fhallow teeth. Cor. Petals five, unequal,
irregular, with claws inferted into the receptacle ; the upper
one broad, inverfely heart-fhaped, reflexed; the reft lanceo-
late, narrow, ftraight, flightly fpreading: claws narrow,
linear, the length of the calyx, orlonger. Stam. Filaments ten,
thread-fhaped, {mooth, the length of the calyx, ere&; an-
thers ere&t, oblong, with a furrow at each fide, a notch at
the bafe, and a {mall terminal point. Pi. Germen fu-
perior, ftalked, hanging far out of the flower, {cimitar-
fhaped, compreffed, tapering at the bafe ; ftyle awl-fhaped,
fhort, afcending ; ftigma fimple, obtufe. Peric. Legume
two-edged, oblong, compreffed, tapering at the bafe, di-
lated towards the top, of one cell, not burfting. Seed al-
moft always folitary, roundifh-oblong, comprefled, fituated
near the end of the legume.

Eff. Ch. Calyx bell-fhaped.
largeft. Germen ftalked, longer than the corolla.
with a fingle feed near the top.

1. M. peruiferum. Balfam-tree of Peru. Linn. Suppl. 233.
Willd. n. 1. (Hoitziloxitl; Hernand. Mex. 51. | Cabu-
reiba, the fecond {pecies; Pif. Braf. 57. 119, the figure in
the latter place erroneous. )—Leaflets pointed, emarginate.
Claw of the larger petal twice the length of the calyx. —Na-
tive of the warmeft parts of Mexico and Peru, in moun-
tainous fituations. Hernandez fays the Mexican kings culti-

7 3P2 vated

Petals five; the upper one
Legume

MYR

vated it in their gardens ; and that if the trunk or bark be
wounded, at any time of the year, but efpecially at the end
of the rainy feafon, the celebrated and valuable balfam of
Peru diftils from the wound. This is of a dark or blackifh
orange colour, of an acrid and fomewhat bitter talte, with a
moft powerful but highly agreeable fmell.”” Linnzus was
always, as his fon records, peculiarly anxious to afcertain
the plant which yields this precious balfam ; but he never had
the fatisfa@tion of knowing it. After his death, Mutis fent
{pecimens of the leaf, flowers and fruit to the younger Lin-
nzus, which are now before us, and from which the deferip-
tion in the Supplementum was made, The tree is faid by Her-
nandez to be the fize of a lemon-tree. The /eaf in our {pe-
cimen is not complete, wautiug the lower part. What re-
mains confifts of five leaflets, each ona fhort, round, downy
partial ftalk, and fo difpofed on a partially downy common
ftalk, as to fhew they are naturally alternate, only occafion-
ally and inperfe€tly oppofite, one of them being terminal.
It is however not to be wondered at, that the younger
Linnzus, judging by this {pecimen alone, took the leaf to
be abruptly pinnate, and hence an important difagreement
appears between this {pecies and the two following in the
defcriptions of authors ; which however proves to be un-
founded, for they all have alternately pinnate aves, with a
terminal leaflet. The /ajlets in the prefent fpecies are near
an inch and half long, ovate-oblong, with a broadifh, elon-
gated, obtufe and emarginate point; their margin entire,
though fomewhat crumpled or wavy ; bozh fides {moothand
rather fhining, bright green, with one rib, and many fine re-
ticulated veins. When held againft the light, they appear
full of fingularly elegant pellucid fpots, molt of them {mall
cand roundifh, but fome linear, larger than the reft. J/owers
numerous, in a long, downy, fimple clufter, on. flender
{cattered ftalks, fcarcely an inch long, with a minute con-
cave bradea at the bafe efeach. We know not on what au-
thority Linneus defcribes the clufersasaxillary. The calyx
is hoary with fine foft down. Petals and /lamens whiuih.
Germen {mooth, green, hanging out of the flower in a re-
markable manner. Legume a foot long, and about an inch
broad, thick-edged, with a fhort oblique pcint. Mutis fays
in his letter, that the fruCtification of this plant is nearly the
fame as that which yields the Balfam of Tolu. Of this we
have never feen either afpecimen or figure; nor do we know
on what their generic diftinétion is properly founded. See
‘TOLUIFERA.
2. M. pedicellatum. Long-ftalked Balfam-tree. Willd.
n. 2. (Myrofpermum pedicellatum; Lamarck Dié.
v. 4.191. Iluttr. t. 341. f. 1.) —Leaflets elliptical, abrupt,
emarginate. Claw of the Airger petal the length of the calyx ;
ftatk of the legume longer —Gathered by Jofeph de Juflieu
in Peru. Lamarck’s figure and defcription were made from
the drawing and {pecimens the former brought from thence,
nor have we any other materials than what Lamarck’s works
afford; but thefe abundantly fuffice to diltinguifh the fpecies.
This is a large éree, called in its natyve country Quina-guina,
like the’ Peruvian bark or Cinchona, and vulgarly Saumerio.
The trunk is faid to be two feet thick, with an afh-coloured
bark ; the wood very hard, ufed for building, as well as for
conftrudting fugar-mills; whiuth, with a red or blackifh
heart. eaves alternate, of from feven to fifteen alternate
ftalked leaflets, with at odd one, all of equal fize, ellip-
tical, obiufe, emarginate, entire, near an inch and half long,
full of pellucid dots or lines. Jnflorefcenee much like the
former. Flowers fimilar, except that the claw of the larger
petal is not reprefented longer than the calyx. The Legume
however appears to be of a much fhorter proportion than in
M., pervifirum, aod abrupt, not tapering, at the bafe; its

MYR

ftalk is lender, longer than the calyx, whofe rim only feems
to be deciduous. | Seed folitary, oblong, curved. Nothing
is faid refpecting any balfamic quality or exudation in this
{pecies. The {pecific name is not very good, but we
fcarcely know how to find a better, unlefs we had more in-
formation from fome perfon who had compared this with the
fir fpecies. If it be reallf not balfamic, inodorum would
be a fuitable appellation.

3. M. frutéfcens. _Feetid Balfam-tree. Willd. n. 3.
(Myrofpermu- frutefcens; Jacq. Amer. 120. t.174. f. 34.
Lamarck Mlluitr. t. 34m f. 2, Di. v. 4. 191, excluding
fome of the fynonyms. )—Leaflets elliptical, abrupt, emar-
ginate. Stalk of the legume fhorter than the calyx.—Ga-
thered by Jacquin, in dry bufhy places, at the foot of amoun-
tainnear Carthagena, South America. Stem fhrubby, eight
or ten feet high, not much branched. Leaves deciduous,
alternately pinnate, with an odd leaflet, the leaflets all uni-
form, elliptical, ftrongly emarginate, fmooth, about the
fize and fhape of the lalt. €luffers lax, nearly terminal,
erect. Flowers pale rofe-coloured. Legume about. three
inches long, as in the laft, with {carcely ever more than
one feed, which, like the legume itfelf, difcharges a balfam
of a flrong and feetid odour. The fruit remains long on the
tree, after the leaves are fallen.—Lamarck improperly con-.
founds this {pecies with the firft, though he rightly judged
that there muft be a terminal /eqfet in both.. He errs more-
over, and Willdenow follows him, in faying the /egume is
feffile. Jacquin exprefsly defcribes the germen as talked,
though by his figure it is evident that the-ftalk, in the ripe
fruit, does not extend beyond the calyx. S.

MYRRH, Myaru, from pygja, of vp», DT run or trickle,
a kind of gum refin, iffuing by incilion, acd fometimes fpon-
taneoufly, from the trunk and larger branches of a tree
growing in Arabia, Egypt, and efpecially in Abyffinia.

Authors are not agreed about the tree which produces
this gum : it is true they all make it fmall and thorny ; bet
they difagree about the form of its leaves. In feveral re-
fpetis it refembles the ecacia vera, which is the Mimofa
Nilotica ; and this agrees with the defcription of the tree
given by Diofcorides. The trees producing myrrh grow
on the eaftern coalt of Arabia Felix, and in that part of
Abyffinia which is fituated near the Red fea, and called by
Mr. Bruce Troglodyte. It is imported to us in chefts,
each of which contains from one to two hundred weight.
The Abyffiniaa myrrh comes to. us through the Eaft Indies,
and that produced in Arabia is brought by the way of
Turkey.

The druggifts have been accwtomed to fell two kinds: of
myrrh, viz. myrrh in tears, which they call fade ; the other
ungulata, or in nails.

Of the firft kind, the beft is bright, yellow, and in tranf-
parent drops, friable, light, of a {trong difazreeable {mel :
but this is very rare, and mott of that in ufe is the ungulated
myrrh, fo called from little white fpots obferved thereon,
much like thefe on the nails of the fingers.

The belt is in little mafles, or tears, reddifh and tranf-
parent: the fineft pieces of myrrh, when broken, are
fometimes found to containa kind of un¢tuous hquor, the
molt precious part of the myrrh, and the real fade of the
ancients.

But though Pliny and Diofcorides {peak of fade as ifit
was fref or liquid myrrh, it is faid by. Mr. Bruce, that
they could never fee myrrh in that ftate; becaufe it is faid
by the natives to harden on the tree inftantly as foon as it
is expofed to the air; and, therefore, the ade, he fuppofes,
mult have been a compofition of myrrh and fome other in-
gredient, ‘Che quality of myrrh depends on the age and

health

MYRRH.

health of the tree, the manner of making the incifion in
it, the time of gathering the myrth, and the circumitances
of the climate where it was gathered. c

In order to have myrrh oF the firlt or moft perfe& fort,
the favages choofe a young vigorous tree, whofe bark is
without mofs, or any parafite plant; and, above the firlt
large branches, they give the tree a deep wound with an
axe. The myrrh, which flows the firlt year, through this
wound, is myrrh of the firlt growth, and never in very
great quantity. This operation is performed fome time
after the rains have ceafed, or from April to June; and the
myrrh is produced in July and Auguft. The fap, once
accuftomed to iffue through this gafh, continues to do fo
fpontaneoufly, at the return of every feafon ; but on account
of the tropical rains, which lodge,water and dirt in the gath,
the tree has begun to rot, and become foul in the wounded
part, and the myrrh iffuing in the fecond year is of a fecond
quality ; and fells at Cairo about a third cheaper than the
firit. ‘The myrrh, alfo, produced from the gafhes near the
roots, and in the trunks of old trees, is of the fecond
growth and quality, and fometimes worfe. This is, how-
ever, the good myrrh of the Italian fhops, every where but
in Venice: itis of a blackifh red, foul colour, folid and
heavy, lofing little of its' weight by being long kept; and
it is not eafily diltinguifhed from that of Arabia Felix. The
third and worft kind is gathered from.old wounds er gafhes,
formerly made in old trees; or thyrrh that, paffing unuo-
ticed, has hung upon the tree ungathered for a whole year ;
black, and earth-like in colour, and heavy, with little {mell
and bitternefs ; andis apparently the cauca/is of the ancients.
Mr. Bruce farther obferves, that the greafinefs of myrrh is
owing to the favages ufing goat-fkins, anointed with butter,
for fuppling them, in which they put their myrrh when ga-
thered; in which {kins it remains, and is brought to mar-
ket; fo that this is a mark that myrrh is frefh gathered,
which is the belt quality that myrrh of the firft fort can
have. Mr. Bruce further fays, that Saffa gum is fraudu-
lently mixed with the myrrh. Phil. Tranf. vol. xv. pt. ii.
art. 40. p. 408.

Myrrh has fomewhat of a fragrant odour, and bitter aro-
matic tafte. Thole pieces of an irregular fhape, called tears,
are tranflucent, of a reddifh-yellow colour, brittle, break-
ing witha refinous fra¢ture, and eafily pulverized. It does
not melt when bruifed, and is not very inflammable. Its
fpecific gravity is 1.360. Such are the chara¢teriltic pro-
perties of good myrrh: but it is often adulterated, and is
then opaque, and either white, or of a dark colour approach-
ing to black, with a difagreeable odour. Myrrh is partially
foluble in water, alcohol, and ether. In boiling water it al-
mott totally diffolves, but as the liquor cools a portion of
refinous matter fubfides.

By evaporating the aqueous infwfion, an extract is ob-
tained ; and by difliliation, with a boiling heat, the whole of
its flavour arifes, partly impregnating the dittilled water, and
partly colleéted and concentrated in the form of an effential
oil ; which is in fmell extremely fragrant, in tafte remark-
ably mild, and fo ponderous as to fink in the aqueous fluid ;
whereas the oils of moft, perhaps of all, of the other
gummy refins fwim. ‘[riturated with foft or diftilled wa-
ter, almoft the whole will be diffolved, and form an opa-
que yellowiff folution : the greateft part, however, will be
depofited by re{t, and more than one-third of the gum-refin
will be diffolved. The alcoholic tin€ture is rendered milky
and opaque, when mixed with water, but no precipitate
appears.

If fome powdered myrrh be inclofed in the white of a
hard boiled: egg, and fet ina moift cellar, the liquor, into

which the egg will be gradually refolved, will extraét nearly
all the {mell and tafte of the myrrh. This liquor, which is
commonly called oil of myrrh, per deliquium, may be preci-
pitated and coagulated by fpivit of wine: and this coagu-
lum is foluble by water. Reétified fpirit diffolves lefs of
this concrete than water, but extraéts more perfeét'y that
part in which its bitternefs, favour, and virtues refide.

Ether digefted in powdered myrrh diffolyed three parts in
eight ; and the tinéture evaporated in water depofited
24 grains of very bitter refin, and half a grain of extraétive
matter, which alfo tafted bitter. The part infoluble in ether
was almoft wholly foluble in water, and afforded a folution
refembling that of acacia gum; but different from it inaf-
much as it was precipitated by folutions of muriate of
mercury, and of fuperacetate of lead. Hence it has been
concluded, that myrrh confifts of refin, effential oil, ex-
tractive matter, and mucus rather than gum.

This bitter, aromatic, gummy refin enters a great num-
ber of medicinal compofitions ; it is 4 warm corroborant,
deobftruent, and antifeptic : itis given froma few grains to
a feruple and upwards, in uterine obftru€tions, cachexies, pu-
trid fevers, &c. and often employed alfo as an external an-
tifeptic and vulnerary. It has been fuccefsfully employed in
phthifical cafes as a peCtoral, when the inflammatory fymp-
toms and hectic fever do not run high: and though al-
hed to fome of the balfams, it is found to be more efficacious
and lefs irritating to the fyftem. As atonic, in cafes of
debility, as amenorrhea, chlorofis, and convalefcencies,
myrrh is advantageoufly combined with. aloes, cinchona, or
other bitters and chalybeates ; and in phthifis with nitre,
digitalis, opium, campher, and the fulphate of iron or
zinc. Combined with oxyd of zinc it has been found ex-
tremely ufeful in the peculiar cough which fometimes ac-
companies pregnancy, when it continues after abortion,

As an expectorant, myrrh is often employed in humoral
afthma and chronic catarrh, and it has been given with the
fame view in phthifical affe€tions. As a local ftimulant
the alcoho.ic folution of myrrh diffufed in water is ufed
as a lotion in a fpongy ftate of the gums, and for correét-
ing the feetid difcharge of vitiated ulcers, efpecially when
connected with caries of the bone, and as a gargle in cy-
nanche maligna,

Its bitternefs renders it good for the ftomach, and againft
worms ; and it is chewed to prevent infe€tion from conta-
gious difeafes. Dr. Quincy fays, it is excellent to cleanfe
and ftrengthen the womb, and againtt tickling rheums; a
good detergent ; and, as fuch, much ufed externally in un-
guents for the healing of wounds: it makes the principal in-
gredient in embalming..

Tt is ati apophthegm of chemilts, derived from Van. Hel-
mont, that whoever can make myrrh foluble by the human
body, has tke fecret of prolonging his days. And Boer-
haave owns there feems to be truth in this from its re-
fitting putrefaction. He himfelf, and other chemifts before
him, have given methods for making: folutions of myrrh,
but only by means of alcohol. It feems not a little fur-
prifing that fuch great chemitts fhould never. find out that
myrth is foluble in commen water.

Myrrh is adminiitered in. fubftance, or in the form of
watery infufion, or tincture properly diluted. .A watery
extract is ordered in fome foreign pharmacopeias, and pre-
ferred by many phyficians, unéer a notion. that it is lefs
heating than the gum-refin :. but others conceive that, whilit
it is agreeably bitter, it does not differ from a diminifhed
dofe of the myrrh.

The officinal preparations are as follow: viz. compound
mixture of iron; for which fee Mixture :—Alostic

pills

SYR

pills with-myrrh, called * pilule Rufi,’”’ pills of iron and
myrrh, compound galbanum pills, compound affafeetida
pills; and:compouud rhubarb pills; for each of which, fee
Pitus:—Tinéture of myrrh, compound tin@ture of aloe,
and ethereal tin¢ture of aloe ; for which, fee TincruRE.

MYRRHEN, in Anctent Geography, a town of Afia, in
Mefopotamia, fituated on the eaitern bank of the Eu-
phrates.

MYRRHIN, in Antiquity. See Murine.

MYRRHIS, in Botany, pegs of Diofcorides, or at
leaft very near it, a genus of umbelliferous plants, re-
tained by Bauhin, and feveral of the modern fyftematic
writers ; but funk by Linnzus, for the moft part, as well
as by Juffieu, in Scandix and Cherophyllum.—Tourn. Init.
gus. t. 166. Lamarck Fl. Franc. v. 3. 441. Hall. Hitt.
v. I. 329. Michaux Boreal-Amer. v. 1. 170. Gertn.
t. 23.—Clafs and order, Pentandria Digynia. Nat. Ord.
Unmbellate.

Tournefort diftinguifhes Myrrhis from Cherophylium by
the furrows of its fruit, which are wanting in the latter
genus. Lamarck on the contrary makes a hairy fruit,
without frie, the character of Myrrhis. Haller agrees
with Tournefort. Gertner defines the effential charaéters
thus.

Umbel compound. General involucrum none. Fruit
oblong, fomewhat beaked. Kernel as long as the feed.

Michaux copies this word for word. It is evident there-
fore that the ideas of all the above authors do not com-
prehend one and the fame genus. The moft natural con-
ception of the genus feems to us that of Gertner, which
depends on the want of a real beak to the feed. But when
we confider how various this appendage is in the different
{pecies of Scandix, and that there is an external appearance
of it, as acknowledged by Gertner’s definition, even in
his Myrrbis, we cannot but hefitate to adopt the latter,
though we allow the queftion to be one of the moft dif-
ficult in this difficult order. The fpecies which Gertner
enumerates and figures are four.

t. M. odorata. . (Scandix odorata; Linn. Sp. Pl. 368.
Engl. Bot. t. 697.)

2. M. aurea. (Chzrophyllum aureum; Linn. Sp. Pl.
Jacq. Auttr. t. 64.)

370. Engl. Bot. t. 2103.
3. M. temula. (Cherophyllum temulentum ; Linn. Sp.
Pl. 370. Engl. Bot. t.1521. Jacq. Anttr. t. 6¢.)

4. M. canadenfis; Riv. Pent. Irr. t. 54. .(Sifon cana-

denfe; Linn. Sp. Pl. 363.)

To thefe Michaux adds

5- M. Claytoni ; Mich. Boreal. Amer. v. 1. 170.—* Foot-
ftalk deeply three-cleft ; partial ones with three to five ob-
long-oval, lobed and fomewhat pinnatitid leaflets. Umbel
of few rays, {preading. Fruit elongated, round, {mooth.””
—Native of the Alleghany mountains. ** Stem nearly two
feet high, ere&t. Leaves downy, but not hoary. Flower-
fialks terminal, in pairs. General as well as partial umbels
divaricated and lax when in fruit ; their rays very few, from
three to five, very long. Fruit about two to each partial
umbel.”’ Michaux.—We believe this is a plant fént by Kalm
to Linnaus, and confounded by the latter, in his herbarium,
with Cherophyllum temulentum. We have always thought it
a new [pecies of Scandix,

MYRRHITES Larts, in Natural Hiflory, a name ufed
by many of the ancient authors for a femi-pellucid ftone of
the nature of the agates; and feeming to have been the yel-
low cornelian of the moderns.

MYRSINE, in Botany, a name adopted from the Greeks
(yuecrmn) which properly belongs to the Myrtle, Myrtus ;
but being unoccupied, Linnxus referred it to this African

,

MYR

fhrub, which is of a fimilar habit.— Linn. Gen. 106.
Schreb. 146. . Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1121. Mart. Mill.
Did. v. 3. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed..2. v. 2. 25. Brown.
Prodr. Nov. Holl..v. 1.533. Jufl. 152... Lamarck Dié.
vy. 4. 193. Ilultr. t. 122. Gertn, t. 59. Clafs and order,
Pentandria Monogynia (Polygamia Dioecia, Brown.) Nat.
Ord. Bicornes, Linn. Sapotis affine, ull. Ophiofperma, Vent.
Myrfince, Brown.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, fmall, in five deep, nearly
ovate, fegments, permanent. Cor. of one petal, divided
half way down into five, rarely but four, equal, femi-ovate,
obtufe, approximating fegments. Stam. Filaments five,
very fhort, inferted into the middle of the corolla, oppofite
to each fegment ; anthers ereét, awl-fhaped, emarginate at:
the bafe, of two cells opening lengthwife. Pi, Germen
fuperior, nearly globofe, almoft filling the corolla; ftyle
cylindrical, protruding a little beyond the corolla; fligma
prominent, large, lobed or jagged. Peric. Berry roundifh,
depreffed, of one cell, with a brittle coat, with the rudi-
ments of four or five feeds, attached to a globular central
receptacle, all of them but one abortive. Seed folitary,
nearly globofe, ‘affixed obliquely to the bottom of the
berry, taking place of the original central receptacle, which
in the ripe fruit diflolves into a foft pulp.” Gaertn.

_ Eff. Ch. Corolla half five-cleft, clofed. Germen filling
the corolla. Anthers nearly feffile. Stigma lobed. Berry
fuperior, brittle. Seed folitary, globofe, oblique.

1. M. africana. African Myriine. Linn. Sp. Pl. 285.
(Vitis Idea zthiopica, myrti tarentine folio, flore atro-
purpureo; Comm. Hort. v. 1. 123. t. 64 )—Leaves ellip-
tical, diftantly toothed, acute.—Native of the Cape of Good
Hope, from whence it was one of the firft plants introduced
into the gardens of Europe. It is a hardy greenhoufe fhrub,
flowering in the {pring very plentifully. The /fem is buthy,
three or four feet high, alternately branched, clothed more
or lefs with fhort, rufty, prominent, rigid’ pubefcence.
Leaves numerous, alternate, ftalked, rather above half an
inch long, elliptical, acute at both ends, fomewhat revolute,
with a few fhallow diftant ferratures or teeth, {mooth ; their
upper furface of a dark fhining green ; the under much paler,
opaque, with a prominent fimple mid-rib. Stpulas none.
Flowers {mall, few together, in feffile axillary umbels, fome-
what drooping. Braéeas {mall, concave, reddifh, {mooth,
at the bafe of each ffa/é, which is red and {mooth, angular,
fcarcely fo long as the flower it bears, and both together
hardly equal a quarter of an inch. The ca/ya and corolla
are red or purplith, befprinkled with glandular dots. Berry
the fize of a pea, pale at firft, then of an elegant purple,
crowned with the ftyle.

2. M. retufa. Round-leaved Myrfine, or Tamaja. Ait.
Hert. Kew. ed. 1. v. 1. 271. Venten. Hort. Cels. t. 86.
(M. fcabra; Geertn. v. 1. 282?)—Leaves roundith-obovate,
obtufe, ferrated, with feveral notches at the extremity.—
Brought by Mr. Maffon from the Azores, in 1778. It re-
quires the fame treatment as the former, flowering in June.
Mr. Brown hints that thefe two fpecies are fearcely dittinét.
The prefent differs chiefly in having rounder;eaves, ending,
not ina point, but in a toothed notch. The flowers are
like thofe of M. africana. "The fligma in both is remarkably
large, and copioufly lobed and fringed.

3. M. vartabilis. Variable-leaved Myrfine, Brown n. x.
—Leaves obovate-oblong, entire or toothed. Umbels axil-
lary, feffile. Anthers feffile. Flowers occafionally four-
cleft. Gathered by the late Mr. David Burton, as well as
by Mr. Brown, near Port Jackfon, New South Wales. A
larger fbrub than the foregoing {pecies. Leaves near three
inches long, bluntifh, with various fhallow teeth in their

upper

7

MYR

upper part; the bafe tapering and entire; both fides are
{mooth, and of a light green, reticulated with numerous
veins. . Fovtfla/ks thick, fmooth, angular, about three quar-
tersof aninch long. Umbels of about eight or ten flowers;
heels angular, one-third of an inch in Jength, rufty in
our {pecimens, like the ca/yx and corolla. "The lstter is very
deeply divided. The young fhoots and leaf-buds are clothed
with rulty down.

4. M. crafifolia. Thick-leaved Myrfine.. Brown n. 2.
* Flowers axillary, aggregate, nearly feflile. Leaves obo-
vate, nearly entire.’’—Gathered by Mr. Browa in the tro-
pical part of New Holland. ‘The aves are two or two
inches and a half long. The almott feflile flowers form a
diltinguifhing character.

5: M. urceolata. Cup-flowered Myrfine. Brown n. 3.—
Leaves lanceolate-oblong, entire. Umbels axillary, feflile ;
ftalks fmooth. Flowers four-cleft. Corolla of the male
. pitcher-fhaped, longer than the ftamens.—Gathered by fir
Jofeph Banks in the tropical part of New Holland. Mr.
Brown obferves that it nearly agrees in character with Wal-
leria laurifolia, Swartz Ind. Occ. v. 1. 248, but the inflo-
refcence of the latter is a terminal panicle.

6. M. Manglillo. Laurel-leaved Myrfine. (Bumelia
Manglillo; Wilid. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1087. Manglilla; Juff. gsr.
Caballeria; Fl. Peruv.)—Leaves elliptical, obtufe, entire.
Unmbels axillary, feffile; ftalks {mooth. Anthers feffile—
Found by Dombey in great plenty about Lima in Peru,
growing near rivulets, and flowering in May. It has the
afpect of the Cherry Laurel, and rifes to the height of 12
feet. Leaves three or four inches long, on fhort thick
ftalks, exactly elliptical, quite entire, evergreen, {mooth.
Flowers about {ix in each umbel, five-cleft, {mooth in all
their parts. This fhrub is taken at Lima for the Paraguay
tea, which its leaves refemble; but the feeds are very dif-
ferent. Dombey named it Duhamelia, unconicious probably
that Hamellia was already confecrated to the memory of
the great French phyfiologift of vegetables.

Mr. Brown mentions feveral other fpecies or genera of
different authors, as really belonging to Myrfines as Athru-
phyllum of Loureiro; Sideroxylon Melanophieos, Linn. Mant.
48, which is Roemeria of Thunberg’s Nova Genera; Samara
coriacea of Swartz; S. pentandra, Ait. Hort. Kew, ed. 1.
v. 1. 1603 S. floribunda, Willd. Sp. Pl. v.1. 665, which is
Rapanea of Aublet, t. 46; Badula Jufl. 429, excluding the
fynonym of Burmann; as weil as feverai {uppofed Ardifie,
whofe ftigma is divided, and their germen with fou or five
feeds: —Ardifia itfelf is very near Myrfine, differing in having
all perfec or united flowers, a fimple itigma, a germen wth
an indefinite number of feeds, above five, and approximated
anthers, Pyrgus of Loureiro is faid by Mr. Brown, on the
authority of an original {fpecimen, to be an Ardifia.

Myrsine, in Gardening, comprehends a plant of the
evergreen exotic fhrubby kind, of which the fpecies culti-
vated is the African myrfine (M. africana.)

Method of Culture.—This plant may be increafed by
fowing the feeds in {pring on a hot-bed and when the plants
are fit to tranfplant, planting them out fingly into fmall pots
of good mould, due fhade and water being given, and in
the autumn they may be removed into the greenhoufe for
protection during the winter feafon.

They may alio be raifed by planting cuttings of the
young fhoots in pots in fummer, due fhade and water being
given. They afterwards require the management of other
greenhoufe plants.

They afford variety among colletions of plants of the

reenhoufe kind.

MY RSINEA, in Botany, anatural order of plants; focalled

M YR

from the principal genus whith enters into it; {ee the preced-
ing article. Ventenat, who founded this order, in his Jardin
de Cels, p. 86, named it Ophio/perma; from the long, ob-
lique, and undulating form of the embryo, fomewhat like
a {nake, or rather ike the eels, which microfcopic writers
defcribe as found in vinegar. This idea feems to have been
fuggelted by Gertner’s name and plate cf his Aneuillaria,
one of the order in queftion; but Mr. Brown prefers the
above appellation, not only, becaufe it is conformable to the
practice of Juffieu, but alfo becaufe, in many of thefe plants,
the embryo is {traight.

The charaéters of the Myr/inee are thus given, in Brown's
Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 532.

Flowers either united cx polygamous.

Calyx in five, fometimes four, divifions, permanent.

Corolla of one petal, inferior, in five, fometimes four,
equal fegments.

Stamens five or four, oppofite to the fegments of the co-
rolla, and inferted into their bafe. Filaments diftin&, rarely
combined, fometimes wanting; in fome inftances accom-
panied by five intermediate barren ones, refembling’ petals.
Anthers attached to the filaments by their emarginate bafes,
each of two cells, which burit longitudinally.

Germen {olitary, of one cell, with the rudiments of feveral
feeds, which are either determinate or indeterminate in num-
ber, peltate, and inferted into the cells of a-central uncon-
neGted receptacle. Style one, often very fhort. Stigma
either lobed or undivided.

Drupa or Berry mottly with one feed, fometimes with.
from two to four.

Seeds peltate, with a hollow fear, and a fimple integu-
ment. Albumen horny, of the fhape of the feed.

Embryo tranfverfe with refpeét to the fear, nearly cylin-
drical, moftly curved. Cotyledons fhort.

Radicle (when feveral feeds come to maturity) inferior.

Plumula inconf{picuous.

Thefe plants are either frees or forubs, with alternate, un-
divided, coriaceous, {mooth /eaves, either ferrated or nearly
entire; fometimes they are very humble /brubs, with oppo-
fite or ternate leaves. Inflorefcence umbeilate, corymbofe, or
panicled, axillary, rarely terminal. //owers {mall, white,
for the moft part marked with funk glandular dots or lines.

Mr. Brown remarks that “ Ventenat could hardly under-
ftand the true ftruéture of the fruit, as he was ignorant of
the plurality of germs at an early ftage, as well as of their
infertion; for the embryo, which, with refpeé to the fear,
is always tranfverfe, becaufe the feed is peltate; with
refpeét to the fruit, becomes tranfverfe only in thofe cafes
where a fingle germ comes to perfection; for where the
fruit perfe&is many feeds, as in Jacguinia (which belongs to
this order) the embryo is ere&. Hence, through the me-
dium of that genus, there appears a great affinity in the
order of Myrfinee to the Sagote, and thence to the Primus
lacee through Bladhia. Aegiceras is without hefitation re-
ferred to this order, on account of the internal ftruéture of
its germen, and the fimilar glandular lines of that part, as
well as on account of the ftamens of that genus being oppo-
fite to the fegments of its corolla.”

The fame intelligent author adds, that “in a certain tribe
of trees, growing about the fhores, chiefly of tropical cli-
mates, and formerly ali erroneoufly huddled together under
the name of Rhizophora, becaufe the embryo germinates be-
fore the feed falls, the refpedtive affinities are by no means
to be made out by an examination of the ripe fruit, but, as
far as thofe affinities depend upon the fruit, by that of the

internal ftru€ture of the germen. From a neglect of this,
Juffien

M¥'&

Juffieu has been Jed into the error of referring Rhizephora
and Bruguiera to his order of Loranthce.”’

“Examples of the order before us are Myrfine, Ardifia,
Bladbia, Wallenia, Aegiceras of Gertner, and of Konig in
Annals of Botany, v.1. 131, (Rhizophora corniculata of
Linneus.) Jacguinia, kc. ‘

The Jacquinia wenofa, Swartz Prodr. 47, is not only very
diftin@ from the feveral original fpecies as to genus, but
even in natural order, being one of the Rudiacec.

Ventenat, befides what he has given us, refpecting this
fubje&, in the Jardin de Cels above quoted, has made many
excellent remarks upon it under the Ardifia crenulata, tab. 6
of the elegant work entitled Choix de Plantes, which he left
unfinifhed at his death, in five INos. of fix plates each.
—Some genera, which he firft indicated as belenging to
this order, are by Mr. Brown not only retained here, but
actually funk in the genus to which it owes its name, See
Myrsixe.

MYRTHE, in Geography, a town, of Hindoottan, taken
and deftroyed by Timur-Beg in the year 1399. The men
were flayed alive, and the women and childrea fold for
flaves ; 120 miles E. of Delhi.

MYRTI, in Botany, an elegant natural order of plants,
named from the mott familiar genus among them; fee
Myrrus. This is the So:h in Juffieu's fyitem, or the
7th of his r4th clafs. For the charaéters of that clafs
fee MeLasrom and FicoipEm.

CharaGters cf the AZyrti.

Calyx of one leaf, cup-fhaped or tubular, fuperior, rarely
half fuperior, either naked, or furnifhed with two {fcales,
at the bafe. Petals detinite, inferted into the top of the
calyx, equal in number to its fegments, and alternate with
them. Stamens indefinite, inferted into the fame part, below

“the petals; anthers {mall, roundifh, curved, bordering the
fummit of the dilated filaments. Germen fimple, inferior,
rargly but half inferior; ftyle fingle; fligma fimple, or
rarely divided. ruit pulpy, either a berry or drupa, in
fome few in‘tances capfular, inferior, or rarely half inferior,
of one cell or many, each cell containing one or numerous

feeds. Corculum either ftraight or curved, deflitute of
albumen. Stem arboreous or fhrubby, its branches ufually
oppofite. Leaves moftly oppofite and fimple, rarely alter-

nate, in very many inftances dotted.

SeGtion 1. Flowers either axillary, or oppofitely difpofed on
many-flowered falks. J.eaves mofily of pofite and dotted.

Alangium of Lamarck, Willd. Sp. Pi. v. 2. 1174,
Dodecas, Melaleuca, Leptofpermum, Guapurium of Juffieu,
Pfidium, Myrtus, Eugenia, Caryophyllus, Decumaria, Punica,
Philadelphus, Sonneratia, Fatidia, Catinga.

To thefe are to be added Backea of Linnzus, miltakenly
referred by Juffieu to his Onagra ; Eucalyptus of L’ Heri-
tier; and Carppicanthe of Swartz, though each of thefe
three genera forms an exception to fome part of the above
charaéters, the firft in its ftamens, which are defnite in
number (eight); the two laft in their corollas, which do
not confift of diltin& or definite petals; that of Lucalyptus
being a coriaceous, moftly conical, lid or cover; that of
Calyptranthes a more membranous and flattifh lid. —Thefe
two genera differ widely from each other in their fruit ;
Calyptranthes refembling Myrtus in that refpeét, Lucalyptus
nearly approaching Metrofideros, another new genus, which
is likewife to be added to the prefent fe€tion, and has all
the proper chara€ters of the order. The fequel of Mr.
Brown's Prodromus will perhaps ftill augment the above
catalogue, New Holland being rich in AZyrti, many new
{pecies of which may be found deferibed in Tranf. of the
Ling. Soc. v. 3. 255, and among them two more genera

>

MYR

in addition to the above; thefe are Fanricia and Imeni-
cARiA; to which we refer the reader in their proper places ;
as well as to EucaLyptus and Merrosrpenos. — Jmbri-
caria, it muft be obferved, has defimite flamens, they being
equal in number to its petals. Hence appears the neceffity
of new modelling the above charafters of the order, in
what regards the ftamens and corolla.

SeGion 2. Flowers racemofe, alternate. Leaves mofily
alternate, and not dotted.

Butonica, which is Barringtonia of Forfter and the younger
Linneus; Stravadium cf Juffieu, a genus formed of the
Linnzan Eugenia racemofa and acutangula, &c.; Pirigara
cf Aublet, fee Gustavia; Couroupita of Aublet; and
Lecyihis of all authors. .

MYRTIDANON, a word ufed by the cld Greek
writers on medicine, but in a different fenfe by different
authors. Hippocrates calls ‘it a round fruit, which the
Perfians in his time called pepper, and which probably had
all the heating qualities of that fruit. Diofcorides expreffes
it by an excrefcence common on the trunk of the myrtle,
and which, as he obferves, is more altrirgent than the myr-
tle itfelf. Myrtidanum vinum alfo fignified wine impregnated
with myrtle.

MYRTIFORM Gtanps, in Anatomy. See GLann.

MYRTIFORMES CaruncuLcz. See Caruscurz.

MYRTIFORMIS Nas, a name given by Santoriné,
and fome others, to one of the mutcles of the face, called
by Albinus depreffor ale nafi, and by Cowper and others,
depreffor labii fuperioris, conttriétor ale nal.

MYRTILIS, in Ancient Geography, Mertola, a town
of Spain, in Lufitania, fituated on the right of the Anas,
S.E. of Pax Julia; ca'led alfo « Julia Myrtilis.”’ 3

MYRTILLUS, in Botany, aname appliedto the Whortle-
berry, Vaccinium, on account of the refemblance of its
round blueifh-purple berries to thofe of the Myrtle. It is
fill retained as the fpecific appellation of our Bilberry,
Vaccinium Myriillus, to whofe fruit the above comparifon is
mott applicable.

MYRTIS, in Ancient Hiffary and Biegraphy, a Grecian
lady of diftinguifhed abilities in poetry, of whom Pindar
had his firft inftru€tions in his art. It was during this pe-
riod that Pindar became acquainted with the poetefs Corinna,
who was likewife a ftudent under Myrtis. Plutarch tells
us, that he profited from the leflons, which Corinna, more
advanced in her ftudies, gave him at this {chool. It is very
natural to fuppofe, that the firlt poetical effufions of a ge-
nius fo full of fire and imagination as that of Pindar, would
be wild and luxuriant ; and Lucian has preferved fix verfes,
faid to have been the exordium of his firlt eflay, in which he
crowded almoit all the fubjeGs for fong, which ancient
hiftory and mythology then furnifhed. Upon communicat-
ing this attempt to Corinna, fhe told him fmiling, that he
fhould fow with the hand, and not empty his whole fack at
once, Pindar, however, foon quitted the leading-ftrings of
thefe ladies, his poetical nurfes, and became the difciple of
Simonides, now arrived at extreme old age; after which he
foon furpaffed all his mafters, and acquired great reputation
throughout Greece; but, like a true prophet, was lefs
honoured in his own country, than elfewhere; for at
Thebes he was frequently pronounced to be vanquifhed, in
the mufical and poetical contefts, by candidates of inferior
merit.

MYRTITES, the name of a compofition in the ancient
pharmacy made of fine honey, and the depurated juice of
myrile-berries boiled up together to a confiilence.

MYRTLE, in Botany. See Mynrus.

In Cornwall and Devonfhire, where the winters are more

faveurable

MYR

favourable than in moft other parts of England, there are
large hedges of myrtle, which have been planted for feveral
years, and are very thriving and vigorous ; fome of which
are upwards of fix feet high.

Myrrtx, Candleberry. See Mynica.

The common Dutch myrtle grows wild in wafte watery
places, and abounds in the ifle of Ely: the leaves, flowers,
and feeds of this plant have a itrong fragrant {mell, and a
bitter tafte. They are faid to be uled among the common
people for deflroying moths, and cutaneous infeéts; inter-
nally, in infufion, as a ftomachic and vermifuge: and as a
fubftitute for hops, for preferving malt liquors, which they
render more inebriating, and confequently lefs falubrious ;
which quality is faid to be deftroyed by boiling. Lewis.

Myrtce-Berries, Myrtilli, the fruit of the myrtle, with
which we are fupplied from the fouthern parts of Europe.
The fruit is at firft green, but becomes black gradually :
within it is a white feed, in form of a crefcent, folid, hard,
and of an altringent tafte ; while the fruit continues on the
trees, it is fucculent and fmooth, and only becomes hard
and wrinkled, becaufe dried in the fun for the convenience of
carriage.

Myrtle-berries are rough and aftringent, and are chiefly
recommended in alvine and uterine fluxes, and other dif-
orders from relaxation and debility; and appear to be
among the milder reftringents and corroborants, in the
way of fyrup, asa frengthener again{t fluxes and abortion.

The perfumers likewile ufe them in their perfumes, and
draw an eflence from them. The German dyers make a
blue colour from them. In fome places the leaves and
branches are alfo ufed in the tanning of leather.

A myrtle crown was worn by the general to whom an
ovation was decreed, the reafon of which, according to
Plutarch, in his life of Marcellus, was, that as an ovation
was decreed for fome remarkable fuccefs obtained by treaty,
er without much bloodfhed, it was proper, that the general,
at his public appearance, fhould be crowned with the tree
facred to Venus, who, of all the deities, was fuppofed to
be moft averfe to the horrors of war.

Myartre-Leaved Sumach, in Gardening, the common name
of a plant of the fumach kind. See Cortana.

Myrtre Jfland, in Geography, one of the Chandeleur
iflands, in Naffau bay, on the coaft of Florida, on the W.
fide of the peninfula.

MYRTOCHEILIDES, a name given by fome authors
to the nymphz in the female pudenda.

MYRTO-CISTUS, in Gardening, the common name
of an ornamental plant. See Hypericum.

MYRTOS, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of the
Zégean fea, on the weltern fide of the moft foutherly point
of the ifland of Eubcea. Pliny fays, that it gave name to
that part of the AZgean fea called ““ Myrtoum Mare.”

MYRTUNTIUM Marr, a fea or lake of Greece,
between the coaft of Acerninia to the eaft, and the ifland of
Leucada to the weit, according to Strabo.

MYRTUS, in Botany, pveros of the belt Greek writers,
pupswn Of Diofcorides, the Myrtle. Linn. Gen. 248.
Schreb. 334. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 967.. Mart. Mill.
Di&. v. 3. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 3. 188. Sm.
Prodr. Fl. Gree. Sibth. v. 1. 336. Jufl. 324. Lamarck
Did. v. 4. 404. Illuitr. t. 419. Gaertn. t. 38. (Murcia ;
Linn, Zeyl. 83.)—Clafs and order, [cofandria Monogynia.
Nat. Ord. He/peridee, Linn. Myrti, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, in five
bluntifh permanent fegments; elevated internally into a

_ Hlightly downy rim. Cor, Petals five, large, ovate or

Vor. XXIV.

MYR

roundifh, entire, concave, inferted into the calyx. Siam.
Filaments numerous, capillary, the length of the corolla,
inferted into the rim of the calyx; anthers fmall, roundifh.
Pift. Germen inferior, roundifh, of two or three cells;
{tyle fimple, thread-fhaped ; fligma obtufe. eric. Berry
oval, crowned with the concave bafe of the calyx, of two
or three cells. Seeds few, kidney-fhaped.

Obf. In fome inftances the calyx is four-cleft, and pe-
tals but four.

Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft, fuperior. Petals five. Berry
of two or three cells, with feveral feeds.

OF this elegant and celebrated genus, only one real {pecies
was known to the older botanifts, of whofe varieties, as
they are now efteemed, Tournefort and the writers of his
time made various {pecies, which itll make a figure in gar-
deners’ catalogues, and indeed are, fome of them, very dif.
ferent from each other in their foliage. In the firft edition
of his Species Plantarum, Linnzus defines feven {pecies of
Myrtus, and in his fecond 13. Of thefe feveral have been
removed to other genera; and elpecially the laft, M. Leu-
cadendra, Sp. Pl. 676, was {ubfequently made a diftin&
cea by Linneus himfelf. (See Mrrateuca.) In the

antifla, 74, is an additional Myrtus, named anguftifolia ;
for which fee Merrostperos, fpecies ninth—MMyrtus
brafiliana of Linneus, is the fame as his Lugenia uniflora ;
his MZ. Cumint, Chytraculia, and Zuzygium are now referred
to Swartz’s new genus of Calyptranthes; (fee Myrzt) ;
but the difcoveries of the botanilt laft named, and of others,
have fo far augmented the original genus of Myrtus, that
Willdenow enumerates 28 {pecies. There is frequently fome
ambiguity betwixt this fpecies and Eucenra, (fee that ar-
ticle,) it not being eafy at all times to difcover, in dried {pe-
cimens at leaft, their effential difference, which confifts in
the fingle feed of Eugenia. By this charaéer Myrtus
Greggii of Swartz, Willd. n. 20, perhaps belongs to that
genus, though the germen has two cells. This is Greggia
aromatica, Gertn. t. 33. Several of Swartz’s Myrti are
defcribed with folitary feeds, and, as we conceive, are on
that account doubtful.

The following are genuine examples of Myrtus.

M. communis. Common Myrtle. —Flowers folitary, with
a two-leaved involucrum. Leaves fmooth.—Linn. Sp,
Pl. 673. (M. latifolia romana; Mill. Ic. t. 184. f. 1.)
This with feveral of its varieties may be found in Ger.
em. 1411, 1412. The mot remarkable is the {mall-leaved
kind, equally common in colleétions with the other. The
double-Howered is alfo not uncommon, but more tender and
difficult to propagate than the reft. Thefe plants grow
wild throughout the fouth of Europe, north of Africa,
and tenyperate parts of Afia, chiefly on the fea-coait. The
Mediterranean is bordered with natural thickets of Myrtle,
even within the fpray of the fea, which poets have fre-
quently fung, and all admirers of plants have noticed. Its
fituation perhaps, even more than its beauty, caufed this
fhrub to be dedicated to Venus; and as the neighbourhood
of the fea-fhore was io often chofen fdr the {cite of her
temples, thickets of myrtle are {till the common accompani-
ment of their ruins. The height of the bufhy fem in fuch
fituations is feldom aboye three feet, The /gaves are ever-
green, more or le{s ovate, entire, fmooth, of a rich and
polifhed green; darker in the {mall-leaved variety, which is
preferred in Italy for clipped edges in gardens, and being
fo treated, rifes to the height of 12 or 14 feet. The
flowers grow on fimple axillary ftalks, and are white, with
a frequent tinge of red externally. The derries are the fize
of aimall pea, violet, fweetifh, with the aromatic flavour,

3Q which

MYRTUS.

which pervades the whole plant. They are eaten in the
Levant, but a white variety is preferred to the purple.

M. tomentofa. Woolly-leaved Myrtle. Ait. Hort. Kew.
ed. 1. v. 2. 159. Curt. Mag. t. 250. (Arbor finenfis,
canellz folio minore trinervi, &c.; Pluk. Amalth. 21.
t. 372. f. 1.)—Stalks one or two-flowered. Leaves triple-
ribbed, downy beneath.—Native of China, from whence
Mrs. Norman, a lady long celebrated for her love of plants,
and the value of her colleGtion, is faid to have obtained this
beautiful fpecies about the year 1776. It flowers in the
fummer, and may be treated as a greenhoufe plant, but fuc-
ceeds beft in a ftove, where we have fometimes feen it four
or five feet high, covered with a profufion of flowers.
Thefe are axillary, rofe-coloured, an inch and a half broad,
with deep-crimfon flamens and yellow anthers. "The germen,
calyx, and flalks, are delicately hoary. Leaves elliptical, ob-
tufe, foft and downy, of a hoary green.

M. difticha. Globe-berried Myrtle. Swartz Ind. Occ.
vy. 2. 894. Sims in Curt. Mag. t. 867.—Stalks axillary,
many-flowered, fhorter than the leaves. Branches fpread-
ing. Leaves two-ranked, ovato-lanceolate, drooping.—
Gathered by Dr. Swartz on the mountains of the north
part of Jamaica. The negroes, he tells us, call it wild
coffee, not only from the refemblance of the berry, but
from a fimilar flavour in the recent feeds, to the real coffee.
This is a /hrub often fix feet high, with horizontal fpread-
ing branches. Zeaves remarkably drooping, on fhort italks,
ovate, pointed, fmooth, fhining, dotted beneath, furnifhed
with one rib, and many tranfverfe veins. lower-flalts
turned upwards, each bearing three or four {mall, pale
blufh-coloured flowers. Berry the fize and colour of a
black currant, of three,or four cells, and as many /eeds,
though fometimes all but one-prove abortive. This is with
us a hardy ftove plant, but of no great f{pendour.

M. Pimenta, Pimento, All{pice, or Jamaica pepper.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 676. Woody. Med. Bot. t. 26. Sims in
Curt. Mag. t. 1236. (M. arborea aromatica, folis lau-
rinis; Sloane Jam. v. 2. 76. t. 191. f. 1.)—Flowers in
three-forked panicles. Leaves oblong-lanceolate.— Native
of the Weft Indies. It fweceeds well in our ftoves, if
allowed a {trong heat, flowering copioufly in May and June.
The flem is arborefcent. Leaves oppofite, often three
together; it is not eafy to account for Linneus’s having
defined them as alternate. Flowers very abundant, but
fmall, greenifh-white, with a profufion of white anthers.
The fruit, about the fize of pepper, is well known by the
name of Allfpice. The whole plant partakes of the fame
aromatic pungent flavour, which refides in a fine effential oil.

Several new fpecies of Myrtus have been found by the
Spaniards in Chili and Peru. We are alfo poffelfed of vari-
_ ous undetermined tropical {pecies, whofe genus however is
uncertain, for want of a fufficient knowledge of the ftruc-
ture of their germen, and number of their feeds.

Myrrtus, in Gardening, comprifes plants of the evergreen
fhrubby kind for the greenhoufe and ftove, of which the
fpecies cultivated are, the common myrtle (M. communis) ;
the woolly-leaved myrtle (M. tomentofa) ; the two-flowered
myrtle (M. biflora) ; the fhining myrtle (M. lucida) ; the
dioecious American myrtle (M. dioica) ; the Ceylon myrtle
(M. zeylanica) ; the fumach-leaved myrtle (M. coriacea) ;
and the pimento, Jamaica pepper, or allfpice (M_ pimenta).

OF the firft fort there are feveral varieties, the principat
of which are the common broad-leaved Roman myrtle, which
grows to the height of eight or ten feet in this climate,
but much higher in Italy, where it is the principal wnder-
wood of fome of the forclts: the leaves are broader than

moft of the other varieties, being an inch tn breadth ; they
are an inch and a half Jong, of a lucid green, ending in
acute points, and are fub-feffile, or on very fhort footftalks ;
the flowers are larger than thofe of the other varieties; on
pretty long flender peduncles, from two to four at the fame
axil; the berries ovate, and of a dark purple colour, It
is termed by fome the flowering myrtle, becaufe it flowers
more freely here than the others, and Roman myrtle, becaufe
it abounds about Rome.

The box-leaved myrtle, which has the leaves oval, {mall,
feffile, of a lucid green, and ending in obtufe points; the
branches weak, and frequently hanging down, when per-
mitted to grow without fhortening ; the bark is greyith ;
the flowers are fmall, and come late in the fummer; the
berries {mall and round.

Thé common Italian myrtle, which has ovate-lanceolate
leaves, ending in acute points; the branches grow more
erect than in either of the preceding, as alfo the leaves,
whence it is called the gardener’s upright myrtle. The
flowers are not large; and the petals are marked with
purple at their points, whilft they remain clofed; the ber-
ries are {mall, oval, and of a purple colour.

There is a fub-variety of this with white berries ; and the
nutmeg myrtle feems, according to Miller, to be only a fub-
variety of it.

The orange-leaved, or what is fometimes termed bay-
leaved myrtle, which has a ftronger ftalk and branches, and
rifes to a greater height; the leaves are ovate-lanceolate,
in clufters round the branches, and of a dark green; the
flowers are of a middling fize, and come out f{paringly from
between the leaves; the berries are oval, and f{maller than
thofe of the firft variety, but it is not fo hardy as that.

The Portugal myrtle, which has the leaves much f{maller
than thofe of the next, being lefs than an inch long, and not
more than half an inch broad, lanceolate-ovate, acute, of a
dull green, fet pretty clofe on the branches; the flowers
are {maller ; and the berries {mall and oval. ¥

‘The broad-leaved Dutch myrtle, which has leaves much
lefs than thofe of the common fort, and more pointed,
{tanding clofe together on the branches; the midrib on
the under fide of the leaves is ofa purple colour ; they are of
a darker green, and fit clofer to the branches; the flowers
are {maller, on fhorter peduncles, and come out a little later
than thofe of the common fort. ;

The double-flowering myrtle, which is probably a fub-
variety of this; the leaves and growth of the plant, the
fize of the flowers, and the time of the flowering, agreeing
better with this than any of the others.

The rofemary-leaved, or thyme-leaved myrtle, which has
the branches growing pretty ereét ; the leaves {mall, narrow,
acute, feffile, and of a lucid green; the flowers are fmall,
appearing late in the feafon.

Thefe varieties are conftant ; but there are others which
are propagated in gardens and nurferies for fale, which are
lefs confiderable and more variable, as the gold-ftriped
broad-leaved myrtle ; the broad-leaved Jew’s myrtle, hay-
ing frequently the leaves in threes ; the gold-itriped orange-
leaved myrtle 3 the filver-{triped Italian myrtle ; the {triped
box-leaved myrtle; the filver-{triped rofemary-leaved myrtle ;
the filver-flriped nutmeg myrtle; and the cock’s-comb, or
bird's-neft myrtle.

The ninth fpecies affords the berries which are fo much
ufed in culinary operations. hey are chiefly imported
from Jamaica, whence the name Jamaica pepper; and they
have alfo the name of all{pice, from a notion of their tafte
being compounded of feveral other {pices.

The

MYRTUS.

The tree begins to bear fruit in three years after it is
planted, but does not arrive at maturity until feven, then
often yielding one thoufand pounds weight of fruit from
an acre.

According to Martyn, “the berries are generally ga-
thered in July in their green {tate, by twilting off the twigs
with the hand, or a pole cleft at one end ; and are laid on
cloth fpread over the barbacues or terraced floors raifed a
little above the ground, inclofed with an upright ledge of
eight or ten inches in height, and divided by tranfverfe par-
titions into four 6r more {quare compartments, that each
may contain a day’s picking. During the firft and fecond
day they are turned often, that the whole may be more
expofed to the fun; but when they begin to dry, they
are frequently winnowed, and laid in cloths to preferve
them better from rain and dews, ftill expofing them to the
fun every day, and removing them under cover every evening,
till they are fufficiently dried ; which ufually happens in ten
or twelve days, and is known by the darknefs of their com-
plexion, and the rattling of the feeds: they appear at this
time wrinkled, and changed to a very dark brown. In this
ftate, being ready for the market, they are {towed in bags
or cafks. Some planters alfo kiln-dry them with great
fuccefs.”” w/

Method of Culture.—The firft fpecies, and all the different
varieties, are capable of being increafed by planting cuttings
of the ftrong young fkoots of the fame year, making them
about fix inches long, clearing about three inches of the
bottom parts, then twifting them, and fetting them into
pots filled with light rich earth, clofing it well about them,
and watering them to fettle it. The pots fhould then be
plunged in the tan hot-bed, under glaffes, carefully fhading
them from the fun. This fhould be done in the beginning
of July, or in the early fpring. It is likewife ufeful to cover
them clofe with {mall glaffes.

They may alfo fometimes be ftricken in pots in the natural
earth, under a fhallow frame, and glaffes in the fummer
months, as well as in the open ground in a warm fituation.
And flips fet out and treated in the fame manner as the
cuttings, often ftrike root, and produce good plants.

After the plants, raifed in any of the modes, are well-
rooted, and begin to fhoot, they fhould be gradually inured
to the open air, fo as to be fet out in it towards the latter
end of Auguft in a warm fheltered fituation, being brought
tinder the proteétion of the greenhoufe in the beginning of
autumn, and placed in the lefs warm parts of it, having free
air admitted when the weather will permit. They fhould
be gently watered during the winter, removing any decayed
leaves that may appear upon them, and the mould of the
pots kept quite clean. The plants alfo fucceed perfectly
when placed under a common frame in the winter feafon, air
being frequently admitted in fine weather. And in the fuc-
ceeding {pring the plants fhould be removed carefully with
balls of earth about their roots into feparate {mall pots of
rich light earth, watering them well at the time, and {ettin
them under a frame, or in the greenhoufe, till perfectly
eftablifhed, when they may be removed into the open air,
being placed in a warm afpeét.

Towards the beginning of autumn they fhould be exa-
mined, and fuch plants as have their roots proceeding through
the holes in the bottoms of the pots fhould be removed into
others a fize larger, loofening the mould and matted
roots, afterwards filling the pots up with frefh rich earth,
and watering them well. They fhould then be placed in a
fheltered fituation, trimming them to a regular figure, and
turning them upright, when they have a tendency to be
crooked, by proper fticks. When thus carefully trained

while in their young growth, the {tems will afterwards con-
tinve ftraight without fupport.

Thefe plants are alfo capable of being increafed by layers.
All fuch plants as are furnifhed with young bottom fhoots
low enough for laying, may have them laid in fpring, in the
ufual way, when they readily emit roots, and become fit to
tranfplant into feparate pots in the autumnal feafon.

And where feed is made ufe of, it fhould be fown in
fpring, in pots of light mould, and plunged into a moderate
hot-bed: the plants foon come up, which, when two or
three inches high, fhould be potted off feparately into {mall
pots, and be managed afterwards as the others.

It may be proper to obferve, that as the plants advance in
growth, fome new varieties may, perhaps, be produced.

Thofe who raife large quantities of thefe plants annually,
fhould always keep fome {trong bufhy plants, in order to
furnifh flips or cuttings for the purpofe.

The double-flowering and orange-leaved myrtles are the
moft difficult to raife by cuttings; and the laft fort, and
thofe with variegated leaves, are more tender than the
others.

The common broad-leaved, and broad-leaved Dutch, as
well as the Portugal forts, fucceed in the open ground in
warm fituations and dry foils.

Where they are intended to have bufhy heads, the lower
fhoots fhould be trimmed off, and the plants only fuffered to
branch out at the top in different direGtions, fo as to form
handfome heads. Thofe which are defigned to be fhrubby
fhould have their lateral branches encouraged, fo that they
may be well feathered from the top to the bottom. They
fhould afterwards, in general, be left to take their own
natural growth, except juft taking off the rambling fhoots.
When their heads become thin and ftraggling, thofe fhoots
which are proper for fending out new fhoots to fill up the
percep and produce regularly, fhould be fhortened by the

nife.

The practice of clipping the fhrubs with garden fhears
into globes, pyramids, &c. as is fometimes done, is very in-
jurious ; the neceflary trimming fhould always be performed
with the knife, and that only as above, as the plants appear
to the moft advantage when they grow naturally.

Whenever the heads of the plants become very irre-
gular, or thin and ftubby, they may be renewed by head-
ing down all the branches pretty fhort in fpring, and
fhifting them into larger pots of frefh mould, with the balls
of earth about their roots, giving plenty of water during
fummer, when they will branch out again finely, and form
handfome full heads.

In refpeét to the general culture, as the plants advance in
ftature they fhould annually be removed into larger pots,
according to the fize of theirroots; but care fhould be
taken not to put them into pots too large, which caufes
them to fhoot weak, and fometimes proves the deftru€tion
of them. When they are taken out of the former pots, the
earth about their roots fhould be pared off, and that within«
fide the ball gently loofened, that the roots may not be too
clofely confined; and then they often may be replaced in
the fame pots, when not too fmall, filling up the fides and
bottom with frefh rich earth, and giving them plenty of wa-
ter to fettle the earth to their roots; which fhould be fre-
quently repeated, as they require to be often watered both
in winter and fummer, and in hot weather they fhould have
it in large quantities. ‘

The proper feafon for fhifting thefe plants is in April and
Auguft; for if it be done much fooner in the fpring,
the plants are in a flow growing ftate, and not capable to
{trike out frefh roots again quickly ; and when done later

3Q2 wn

MYS MYS
‘» the autumn, the cold weather coming on prevents their MYSA, in Geography, a river which rifes in Bohemia,
taking root. on the confines of Bavaria, and difcharges itfelf into the
In the autumn, when the nights begin to be frofty, the Muldau, near Prague.
plants fhould be removed into the greenhoufe; but when the MYSECROS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Arabia
weather proves favourable they may remain abroad until the Felix, placed by Pliny in the fouthern part of that pro-
beginning of November; for if they are carried into the vince. *
greenhoufe too foon, and the autumn fhould prove warm, MYSHAL, in Geography, a {mall polt-town of Ireland,
they make frefh fhoots at that feafon, which are weak, and inthe county of Carlow, at the foot of mount Leiniter.
often grow mouldy in winter. When the weather is fo fe- It is 47 miles S: by W. from Dublin.
vere as to require the windows to be kept clofely fhut, they MYSIA, in Ancient Geography, a {mall couniry of Afia
are often alfo greatly defaced ; on which account they fhould Minor, is faid to have derived its name from the Lydian word
always be kept as long abroad as the weather will permit, and, my/os, fignifying a beech-tree, with which tree the country
be removed ont again in the {pring before they fheot out; abounded. It was divided, according to Strabo, into the
and while they are inthe greenhoufe fhould have as much Greater and Leffer Myfia. The latter, or Leffler Myfia, lay
free air as poffible when the weather is mild and proper for on the Propontis, and from thence extended to mount
the purpofe. Olympus, bounded by Bithynia and the Propontis on the
The tender kinds are moftly increafed by feeds; but when N. and W., by Phrygia Minor on the S., and by Phrygia
any of them are pretty branchy, they may alfo be tried by Major onthe E. ‘The Greater Myfia was bounded on the
layers and cuttings. And the eighth fort fucceeds beft in N. by Phrygia Minor, onthe S. by /Eolia, on the E. by Phry-
this way. gia Major, and on the W. by the A®gean fea. What Strabo
The feed fhould be procured from abroad, preferved in calls Myfia Minor, Ptolemy denominates Myfia Major; the
fand, &¢. and be fown in fpring in pots of frefh mould, former is alfo named Olympena, from mount Olympus, and
plunging them in the bark-bed : the plants come up the fame Hellefpontiaca, becaufe fome towns anciently belonging to it
feafon ; which, when two or three inches in height, fhould were feated on the Hellefpont. That part of Myfia, which
be planted out in feparate fmall pots, and plunged in the lay between Ancyra of Phrygia and the river Rhyndacus;
bark-bed, fupplying them with water, and managing them is called by Strabo Abrettana, and the remaining part
as other woody plants of the fame kind. Morena. The former denomination is often given to all
As the fecond fort often branches out low, fome of the Myfia. In the part of Myfia which lay on the Propontis
young fhoots may be laid in fpring, by flit-laying or were the following cities, wz. Cyzicus, Parium, and Lamp-
wiring, plunging the pots in which they are laid in the facus, which is {till in a tolerable good condition, fituated
tan-bed ; when they will probably be well rooted in one ina pleafant plain, and furrounded with vineyards, that pro-
year, though it is fometimes two before they flrike good duce excellent wine. The Greeks call it Lampfaco, and
root, when they fhould be potted off into feparate pots and the Turks Lepfeck. (See each of thefe towns refpeCtively.)
be managed as the others. The Midland Myfia lay between the river Rhyndacus and
The laft fort is beft raifed in this way. mount Ida. Here Stephanus places the city of Apollonia,
The cuttings of fome of the fhort young fhoots fhould be on the banks of the Rhyndacus, which rifes from a lake
made from fuch of the plants as afford them, planting them bearing the name of the city ; now called the lake of Abou-
in pots of frefh compolt in July, plunging them in the bark- illon, 25 miles incompais and eight miles wide, interfperfed
bed, and covering them clofe with a low hand-glafs, giving with feveral iflands, the largeft of which is three miles in
due water. They moftly take good root the fame year, and circuit, and called Abouillon, See AroLtonta.
are fit to plant out in feparate {mall pots in the following The chief rivers of Myfia Minor are the Rhyndacus -
{pring. which fee) and the Granicus, which rifes in mount Ida,
In regard to the general management of thefe forts itisonly and difcharges itfelf into the Propontis, below Parium and
that of keeping them always in the ftove, except a month Cyzicus. ‘This river was crofled by Alexander at the head
in the heat of fummer, when they may be fet out in the of 30,000 Macedonians, in face of the Perfian army, which
open air. They fhould be fuffered to fhoot nearly in their was 600,000 ftrong, and notwith{tanding the height and
own way, keeping them, however, to upright items, and fteepnefs of its banks. It is now called the Soufoughirli,
allowing their heads to branch out according to nature, ex- the name of avillage whichit waters. In this part Ba a
cept jult reducing the very irregular branches, giving frequent ftands_ mount Olympus, called Olympus Myfiorum, to dif-
waterings in common with other woody plants of the fame tinguifh it from feveral other mountains of the fame name.
kind, and fhifting them occafionally into larger pots. It is one of the highelt in Afia, and fora great part of the
The firft {pecies and varieties are highly ornamental for the year covered with {now. ;
borders and greenhoufe, and the other tender forts in the The city of greateft note in Myfia Major was Pergamus,
ftove colleGtions. which fee. On the coaft of this Myfia were feated the
Myrtus Pimenta. See PIMENTA. cities Antandrus, Scepfis, Aflus, Adramyttium, and

Myrrus Sylvefris, the wild myrtle, a name given
by fome authors to rufcus, or butcher’s broom, from
fome faint refemblance of its leaves to thofe of the
myrtle.

MYRTUUM Marg, in Ancient Geography, a name given
by the Greeks to the fea which bathed the Scyllzaa promon-
tory, fituated S.E. of the Argolide.

MYRUS, in Ichthyology. See Murmna Myrus.

MYS, a name given by A®lian, Appian, and many
ethers, to the fith called caprifeus by the later writers; the
capros and charus of others of the ancients, See CarRiscus
and Goat-ff,

Pitane.

The foil of this country is one of the fineft and richeft
of Afia, and is celebrated as fuch by the ancients. It
abounded in corn and wine, and was well {tocked with cattle,
and had a great many large plains for palture. Tt was plen-
tifully watered with {mall rivers running down from mount
Ida and Olympus.

As to the origin of the Myfians, Herodotus informs
us, that they were Lydians by defcent. Others de-
rive them from the Phrygians, and tell us that Myfus,
from whom their name is faid to originate, was not a
Lydian but a Phrygian, Strabo deduces the Afiatic My-

fans

i

MYS5

fians from thofe of Europe, inhabiting that part which lies
between mount Hermus and the Danube, and isnow known
under the names of Bofnia, Servia, and Bulgaria. As to
the character of the ancient Myfians, it mutt be confidered
at different times, for they feem to have been once a war-
like people. However in later ages they degenerated from
the valour of their anceftors, fo as to be looked upon as the
moft contemptible and infignificant nation on earth ; info-
much that the Greeks had no expreffion to fignify more em-
phatically a perfon of no worth or merit than to call him
‘the laft of the Myfians.*? They were addiéted to tears,
and on that account employed by the Greeks to attend their
funerals and lament over the deceafed. Their language was
probably the fame as the Phrygian and Trojan, with fome
variation of dialeét. Nothing is known concerning their
manners, cuftoms, arts and fciences. That they were
commercial we may infer from their fituation and their
wealth ; forthey are reprefented by Philoftratus as being in
ancient times the moft opulent nation of all Afia. As to
their religion, it was much the fame with that of the Phry-
gians, with whom they vied in fuperftition. They wor-
fhipped the fame deities, ard ufed the fame religious cere-
monies, whence fome have concluded that they were origi-
nally Phrygians. Cybele had a ftately temple at Cyzicus, and
there was another dedicated to Apollo Acteus near Parium.
Nemefis was alfo one of their deities; and Priapus was wor-
fhipped by the more modern Myfians, but unknown to them
even inthe time of Hefiod. The Mytian priefts abitained
from flefh, and were not allowed to marry. Upon their
initiation into the priefthood, they facrificed a horfe and ate
his entrails. With regard to their government, it was not
always monarchical ; fer no mention of their kings occurs
till the Argonautic expedition, though fome authors fuppofe
they had them long before that time. After the deftruction
of Troy, and difperfion of the Trojans, the Myfians took
poffeffion of a great part of that country, which they held
till they were conquered by Croefus, king of Lydia. Anc.
Un. Hitt. vol. iv.

Mysia was alfo a fmall country of the Peloponnefus, in
which, according to Paufanias, there was a temple dedicated
to the Myfian Ceres.— Alfo, a town of the Troade, placed
by Strabo near Adramyttium.—Alfo, a town of Parthia,
which Ptolemy places between Parbara and Cherax.

Mysra, pusia, in Antiguily, a feftival in honour of Ceres,
called Myfia from Myfius, an Argian, who dedicated a
temple to her, in a place about ten itadia diftant from Pal-
lene, in Achaia ; or, according to Phurnentus, from pucids,
to cloy, fatisfy, or be well fed, becaufe Ceres was the firit
who taught men how to ufecorn. The feltival continued
for feven days, upon the third of which all the men and dogs
were fhut out of the temple, whilft the women, together with
the bitches, remained within, performing during the night the
accuftomed rites ; on the following day, they returned to the
men, with whom they pafled away their time in jeiting and
laughing together. Potter, Archwol. Gree. lib. 11. cap. 20.
tom. i. p. 415.

MYSLOWITZ, in Geography, a town of Silefia, in the
lordthip of Plefz, on the Brzemfa; 15 miles N. of Plefz.

MYSOL, anifland in the Eaft Indian fea, of a triangu-
lar form, about 100 miles in circumference, governed bya
rajah. S. lat.20°. E. long. 129°.

MYSON, in Biography, a native of Sparta, and one of
the feven wife men of Greece. When Anacharfis confulted
the oracle, in order to know who was the wifeit man in
Greece, he received a reply, the perfon who is now plough-
ing his fields: this was Myfon.

MYSORE, or Mysoor,in Geography, a province of Hin-

4

MYS

dooftan, which takes its name from an obfcure village, for-
merly governed by an Hindoo prince. What has been called
the kingdom of Myfore comprehends the Myfore Proper,
the countries of Bednore, Cotmbetore, Canara, and Dindi-
gul, with fome others, forming an extent of about 500
miles from N. to S., and where broadeft, about 300 from
E. to W. ; but in fome places it is hardly 100, and towards
the S. it is narrowed to a point. Accordingly, Myfore on
the N. is bounded by the countries of Vifiapour and Gol-
conda, on the E. by the Carnatic, on the S. by Madura,
Travancore, and Cochin, and on the W. by the Indian
fea.

The principality, which in later times has been named
Mytore, or Myfoor, fays lieut.-col. M.. Wilks, was the/fouth-
weltern portion of the Carnatic, frequently named alfo the
country of Canara, or the country in which the Canara
language was {poken. According to this criterion, the
northern limits of that extenfive region commenced near the
town of Beder, about 60 miles N.W. from Hydrabad ; fol-
lowing the courfe of this language to the S.E. it is found to
be limited by a waving line, which nearly touches A dwanee
(Adoni), winds to the W. of Gooti, fkirts the town of
Anantpoor, and pafling exaGily through Nundidroog, touches
the range of Eaftern Ghauts ; thence purfuing their fouthern
courfe tothe mountainous parts of Gujjelhutty, it continues
to follow the abrupt turn caufed by the great chafm of the
weftern hills, between the towns of Coimbetore, Palatchi,
and Palgaut ; and {weeping to the N.W. fkirts the edges
of the precipitous Weftern Ghauts, nearly as far N. as the
fources of the Kiftna ; whence, following firft an eaftern, and
afterwards a north-eaftern courfe, it terminates in rather an
acute angle, near Beder, already defcribed as its northern
limit. When Hyder Ally was fovereign of Myfore, he
extended his poffeffions. (See Hyper d//y.) The dominions
of Tippoo Sultan, the fucceffor of Hyder, who ftyled him-
felf regent of Myfore, commenced on the W. range of
mountains beyond Dalmacherry, Sautgul, and Attore ; and
extended fouthward to Travancore and Madura ; northward
to Soonda and Vifiapour (enveloping Adoni, the territory
of the late Bazalit Jung), north-eaftward to Guntoor and
Ongola, and wettward te the fea. They comprehended, ge-
nerally, the provinces of Myfore, Bednore, Coimbetore,
Canara, and Dindigul; befides his late father’s conquefts to
the northward, which were Merritch, Soonda, Chitteldroog,
Harponelly, Sanore, Bancapour, Roydroog, Gooty, Con-
damore, Canoul, and Cuddapat. The whole extent of
Tippoo’s territory cr kingdom, from the valley of Ootam-
paliam on the S. to the Kiitna on the N., or rather N.N.W,
could not be lefs than 550 Britifh miles; and its breadth,
which is yery unequal, is in the widelt place, or the northern
part of the peninfula, at leaft 330 miles, but in the parallel
of Tritchinopoly lefs than 150, and terminating farther
fouthward inapoint. Taking the areaof Great Britain at
96,400 fquare Britifh miles, the country of Tippoo might
be fuppofed to contain 21 {quare degrees, which in the pa-
rallel of 14°, produce about 97,650 Britifh miles. The
grofs revenue of Tippoo has been ftated at four crores of
rupees, or as many millions fterling. By the peace of 1782,
Hyder engaged to relinquith ali but his ancient poffeffions.
In the year 1792, Tippoo, after feveral defeats, was com-
pelled to make peace on the humiliating terms of furrender-
ing a great part of his dominions to the Englifh and their
allies, on which occafion there were added to the Britifh poffef-
fions Barah-Mahal and Dindigul, the Calicut, Palicand, and
Coorga countries; and for the due performance of the arti-
cles of the treaty, two of the fultan’s eldeft fons were fent
as hoitages to the marquis Cornwallis, commander atin

riti

MYS

Britihh army. In 1799; Coimbetore, Canara, and ‘other
diftri&s were added ; but hoftilities did not terminate till
the reduétion of Seringapatam, capital of Myfore, when
Tippoo himfelf fell. The whole force of Tippoo has been
reckoned at 155,000, of which 73,000 were fuperior to any
that have been raifed and difciplined in India.

Of the countries that form the fouth-weltern parts of Hin-
dooftan, to which our attention has now been directed in this
article, Travancore, Malabar, and South Canara, alone efeaped
Mahometan conqueft, until the two latter were invaded by
Hyder in 1763-6. The earliefi Mahometan army that ever
croffed the Kiftna was led in 1310-11 againft the capital of
the fovereign of the Carnatic, about 105 miles N.W. of Se-
ringapatam. In 1326, this capital, called Doormfummooder,
was finally deftroyed, and the feat of government removed
to Tonoor, better known by the name of Mootee-Talab,
or the lake of Pearls, 12 miles N. from Seringapatam. It
is needlefs to relate the romantic origin of the Hindoo houfe
of Myfore: nor are we able to trace the number of genera-
tions that fubfifted between the founder of this family and
Chaw-Rai, whofe fucceffion is fixedin 1507. A fubfequent
rajah made, during his life-time, a partition of his domi-
nions between his three fons, and to one he gave Myfoor,
then called Pooragurry. A fort was either firft erected or
repaired in 1524, to which was afligned the new name of
«“Mahefh-Afoor,”? the buffalo-headed menfter, ufually pro-
nounced Mahefhoor, and now contrafted to Myfoor. After
a fucceffion of rajahs, of whom little is known that is worth
detailing, Hyder Ally, in 1759, affumed the government.
From this time the rajah became a flate prifoner, and died
in 1766, and by Hyder’s command his fon was placed upon
the throne. On his death, in 1796, Tippo declined nomi-
nating a fucceflor. The young Myfore rajah, placed on
the throne fince the capture of Seringapatam, is the only
child of Chianon-Raijee, who had been eleéted in 1733; and
the place of his refidence is fixed at Myfore.

Mysore, a town and fortified poft of the above province,
and its ancient capital; about fix or eight miles to the fouth-
ward of Seringapatam.

MYSTAGOGUES, in Mythology, a name given to the
minifters who performed the principal part in celebrating the
Myfteries ; which fee. -

MYSTERY, Mysrerrum, fomething fecret or hidden ;
impoffible or difficult to be comprehended : or, in other
words, fuch a doétrine as exhibits difficulties, and even ap-
parent contradictions, which we cannot folve or explain.

The word comes from the Greek pusgioy ; and that, ac-
cording to fome etymologifts, from pw, claudo, taceo, I

Shut, I am filent, and soy, mouth ; but then whence comes
ther? Muft-the m in sou be converted intoanr? The
word feems derived, with more propriety, from the Hebrew
“MD; fatar, to hide ; whence is formed \ Od, miflar, a
hidden thing.

Myttery is primarily ufed in {peaking of certain truths re-
vealed in Scripture, into the full underftanding of which hu-
man reafon’ cannot penetrate. Such are faid to be the
doétrines of the Trinity, the Incarnation, &c.

We have an epitome of the mytteries of faith, or the
myfteries of Chriftianity, in the fymbols or creeds {aid to
have been compofed by the apottles, the council of Nice,
and St. Athanafius. See Creep.

In fome of thefe, mentionis made of the myftery of the
Trinity ; the myfteries of the incarnation of the Son of God,
his death and paffion, and his defcent into hell, for the re-
demption of mankind; of his refurreétion the third day; his
afcenfion into heaven, his fitting on the right hand of God,
and his coming again to judge ihe world ; of the divinity and

_were found ‘« myfteries’? and “ facraments,

MYS

coequality of the Holy Ghoft with the Father and the Son ;
of the unity of the church ; of the communion of faints ; the
participation of the facraments ; and the general refurreétion.
Suchare the principal myfteries of faith ; which the church
declares neceflary to be known and believed, in order to fal-
vation. ‘

From the earlieft ages there have been particular feftivals
inftituted in honour of thefe myiteries; to return thanks to
God for having revealed them, and to oblige the minifters
and paftors to inftruét the people in them.

Another ufe of the word, though not fo univerfal at pre-
fent, is often to be met with in ecclefiaftical writers of
former ages, and in foreign writers of the prefent age, which
is to fignify fome relizious ceremony or rite, efpecially thofe
now denominated facraments. In the communion-office of
the church of England, the elements, after confecration, are
fometimes termed ‘holy myfteries.’ But this ufe feems
not now to be common among Proteitants, lefs perhaps in this
country than in any other. Indeed in the fourth, and fome
fucceeding centuries, the word wuszgiey was fo much in vogue
with the Greek fathers, and ‘* myfterium,’’ or ‘ facra-
mentum,”’ as it was often rendered, with the Latin, that it
would be impoffible to fay in what meaning they ufed the
words ; nay, whether or not they affixed any meaning to
them at all. In every thing that related to religion, there
” in doétrines
and precepts, in ordinances and petitions; they could even
difcover numbers of them in the Lord’s prayer. Nay, fo
late as father Poffevini, this unmeaning application of thefe
terms has prevailed in fome places. That Jefuit is cited
with approbation by Walton, in the ‘* Prolegomena,” to his
« Polyglot,’ for faying, ** Tot effe in Hebraica Scriptura
facramenta, quot litere ; tot myfteria, quot punéta; tot
arcana, quot apices ;”” a fentence which father Simon acknow-
ledges to be to him unintelligible. See the next article.

Such are the feafts of the myftery of the Incarnation, called
alfo Chriftmas ; thofe of the Circumcifion, Paffion, Refur-
rection, &c. See INCARNATION, CIRCUMCISION, EASTER,
and EprpHany.

The heathens alfo had their myfteries, particularly thofe
of Ceres (fee Exrusinta), the Bona Dea, &c. »The
Egyptian priefts concealed the myfteries of their religion
and philofophy under hieraglyphics ; which fee. Thole who
revealed the mytteries of the Bona Dea were feverely punifh-
ed; and none were trufted with them but thofe folemnly
initiated, and {worn to fecrecy.

But thefe were not called myfteries, as being incompre-
henfible, or raifed above the power of reafon; but becaufe
they were covered and difguifed under types and figures, to
raife the greater veneration in the people.—The mytteries of
paganifm were ufually celebrated in caves and grottos, fitter
for the concealment of crimes than the celebration of mytte-
ries.

The temples in thefe fecret recefles were fo conftru&ted as
to favour the artifices of priefts. Some vettiges of thefe
fubterraneous apartments, which by their gloom diffufed an
air of folemn fecrecy, and by the hieroglyphic paintings
and fculptures that covered their walls, anfwered the fame
purpofe, have been difcovered by fome modern travellers.

Each of the Pagan gods had, fays bifhop Warburton, be-
fides the public and open, a fecret worfhip paid them ; into
which none were admitted but thofe who had been fele&ted
by preparatory ceremonies, called initiation. ‘This fecret
worfhip was termed the myfteries. ‘The firft and original
mytfteries of which we have any account, were thofe of Tfis
and Ofiris in Egypt (fee Eoyrr, Isrts, and Osrris) ; from
whence they were derived to the Greeks, under the prefi-

ency

.MYSTERY.

dency of various gods, fuch as the inftitutor thought moft
fuitable to his purpofe. (See Baccnanaxia, Evrusinia,
Gracia, and OrrHeus.) In procefs of time thefe myf-
teries were difleminated through the northern and weftern
nations of Europe. See Carts and Drurps.

The learned prelate above named obferves, that the na-
ture and end of all thefe myfteries were the fame, viz.
to teach the doétrine of a future ftate. He reprefents the
defign of them in general to have been, to engage men to a
holy and virtuous practice, to give them juft notions of reli-
gion, and to detect the error of the vulgar polytheifm,
And he concludes his account of the myfteries with obferv-
ing, that there were three things about which they were
principally concerned: wiz. 1. The rife and eftablifhment of
civil fociety. 2. The doétrine of a future {tate of rewards
and punifhments. 3. The error of polytheifm, or the prin-
ciple of the unity. Which latter was the obje@ of the
greater myfteries, in which the whole delufion of paganifm
was difclofed, and the initiated were inftruéted, that Jupi-
ter, Mercury, Venus, Mars, and the whole rabble of li-
centious deities, were only deified mortals; and that God
alone was the creator of the univerfe, who pervaded all
things by his virtue, and governed all by his providence:
whereas in the leffer myfteries, which were preparatory to
the other, the general belief of a providence and future
ftate, and its confequent engagements toa virtuous life, were
inculcated. But as thefe mylteries, according to the bifhop’s
hypothefis, were 4n inftitution of the {tate for the benefit of
the people, it is natural to inquire into the reafons of their
beifig kept fecret, which, he fays, were the following ;
nothing ftimulates curiofity like that which retires from ob-
fervation, and feems to forbid fearch; and yet there was a
neceflity of teaching fome things to the initiated, not expe-
dient for others to know; hence he obferves, that the
fecret in the leffer myfteries was fome hidden rites and fhows,
to be kept from the people, only to invite their curiofity ;
and that the fecret in the greater was fome hidden doétrines
to be kept from the people for the contrary purpofe. Be-
fides, as the legiflators had been principally concerned in the
rife of the vulgar polytheifm, this circumftance furnifhed
another reafon for the fecrecy attending thefe mytteries.
And that thefe myfteries were invented, eftablifhed and fup-
ported by the legiflature, he argues from the place of their
origin, which was Egypt, where all religious worfhip was
formed and propagated by ftatefmen, and direted to poli-
tical ends, becaufe the fages who brought them out of
Egypt, and propagated themin Afia, Greece, and Britain,
were all kings or legiflators: becaufe the ftate prefided in
the myfteries ; becaufe, according to their original inftitu-
tion, neither flaves nor foreigners, who had no concern, no
property, and no country, were to be admitted into them ;
becaufe an inftitution which taught the neceflity of a ftri€
and holy life, muft be the invention of legiflators, to whofe
{cheme virtue and the profpeét of immortality were fo ne-
ceffary ; and hence they were aétually of infinite ufe to the
ftate ; and finally, from the exprefs teftimony of Plutarch,
who, in his Treatife of Ifisand Ofiris, afcribes them to this
original. However, thefe myfteries, in procefs of time,
greatly degenerated ; one caufe of their corruption feems to
have been the feafon in which they were performed, and the
profound fecrecy obferved in them; for the night gave op-
portunity to wicked men to attempt evil aétions: and the
fecrecy, encouragement to perpetratg them. Another caufe
of their depravation was their being fometimes under the
patronage of thofe deities who were fuppofed to infpire and
prefide over irregular paffions, fuch as Bacchus, Venus, and
Cupid ; to which the bifhop adds the hierophant’s with-

12

drawing himfelf from the care and infpeétion of the civil
magilftrate.

Such is the ingenious and planfible fcheme largely dif-
cuffed and maintained by Dr. Warburton, in his Divine Le-
gation, &c. book ii. fec. 4.

However, other learned writers have advanced a very dif-
ferent opinion on this fubjeét.

Some, who have allowed that the myfteries originated in
Egypt, which is the moft probable opinion, have afcribed
their inftitution to the priefts ; who eltablifhed them, from
motives of prieftcraft, to aggrandize their order, to extend
their influence, and to increafe their revenues. According-
ly, they annexed to the obfervance of them every circum-
{tance that tended to delude the multitude, to gratify their
fenfes and paffions, and to promote among them the influence
of fuperflition and enthufiafm. Ata fubfequent period, it
isnot at all unlikely that princes and legiflators would avail
themfelves of the advantages which they might derive from
thefe inftitutions for eitablifhing their own power, and ac-
complifhing their own plans of government. Mofheim, in
his edition of “ Cudworth’s Int. Syft.” fuggefts that the
myfteries were altogether commemorative; and that they
were eftablifhed with a view of preferving the remembrance
of heroes and great men, who had been deified in confidera-
tion of their martial exploits, ufeful inventions, and public
virtues; and more efpecially in acknowledgment of the
benefits conferred by them on their contemporaries. To this
purpofe, he conceives, that the myfteries of Mithras in par-
ticular were inftituted. (See Miruras.) And he afcribes
to the fame origin the myfteries of the Egyptians, Phceni-
cians, Greeks, and Etrufcans, and indeed all other fimilar
inftitutions throughout the world. But it does not appear
from any hiftorical records, that this delign was evér declared
and avowed in their original appointment ; and we know,
that the names and illuftrious deeds of the heroes of antiquity
were commemorated, with profefled intentions, by feftivals,
games, facrifices, hymns, and other fuch inftitutions, ob-
ferved in honour of them.

Dr. Leland, in particular, has very accurately examined
the origin and ends of the inftitution of myfteries. Accord-
ing to this writer they feem to have been originally defigned
to tame and civilize the rude and barbarous people, to form
and polifh their manners, and by fhows and reprefentations,
which were fitted to {trike the imagination, to bring them to
a greater awe and veneration for the laws and religion of
their country ; which, among the Pagans, was always re-
garded as aneceflary ingredient ina virtuous charaGter. On
this account they are highly commended by Cicero, de Leg.
lib. ii. cap. 14. as they tended to reclaim men from a rude
and favage life; and they were called initia, becaufe they
furnifhed the firft principles of a human and civilized gife.
But whatever was the original intention of thefe myitéties,
there is great reafon to apprehend, that upon the whole, they
proved rather detrimental than advantageous to the caufe of
virtue ; and the corruption of them feems to have been owing
to a fundamental defect in their original conftitution—Dr.
Leland farther examines whether, and how far the mytteries
were defigned to deteét the error of polytheifm, and to in-
ftrué the initiated in the knowledge of the one true God.
With refpeét to this point, he maintains, that the whole evi-
dence, produced by bifhop Warburton, amounts only to this ;
that inthe myfteries the initiated were inftru@ted that the po-
pular deities had been once men; but no proof is brought, that
the awopinrz overthrew the vulgar polytheifm, the worfhip of
dead men: nay, the inftitutors of the myfterics, whilft they
taught the initiated, that the gods, commonly received, had
been once men, took care that the public religion asi ie

uffer

MYSTERY.

fuffer by it, by letting them know, that, notwithftanding
this, they ought to be regarded as gods, and to have that
divine worfhip and honour rendered to them, which ancient
tradition and the laws required. The Chriftians, indeed,
argued from the hiftory of the heathen gods to difprove their
divinity : and this was probably the reafon why the mytta-
gogues were very careful in their entrance on the celebration
ef the myfteries, that no Chriftian fhould be prefent at
them.

Dr. Leland farther contends, that the doétrine of the
unity was not taught in the mytteries. With this view he
examines the teftimonies adduced by the bifhop, which, he
fays, afford no fufficient evidence that they taught the doc-
trine of the unity. Befides, there is great reafon to think,
that the notion given of the Deity in the myfteries was not
very right and juft: and moreover, if they had taught juit
notions of God, thefe could be of no great ufe, becaufe
they taught this part of the fecret doétrine of the myftenes
to very few perfons. It is farther urged, that the legiflators
and civil magiftrates, who firft inftituted the mytteries, and
who regarded not truth but utility, could never, in good
earneft, attempt to draw the people off from that polytheifm,
which they themfelves had encouraged for the efiablifhment
and welfare of the ftate, and to keep the people under a
greater veneration for the laws. And the myftteries feem to
have been defigned, not to difcard the worthip of the deities,
to whom they were appropriated, but to adda greater fo-
lemnity to it. To which it may be added, from faét and
experience, that. though the myfteries were generally cele-
brated in almoft all the heathen nations, and- efpecially
throughout the whole Roman empire, no effeét of them ap-
pears in turning any of the people from their polytheifm or
idolatry : nor is it conceivable, if the defign of the mytteries
were as laudable as Dr. Warburton reprefents, that the an-
cient Chriltian writers fhould have fo univerfally exclaimed
againftthem. Many of thefe had been converted from Hea-
thenifm to Chriftianity, and while they were Heathens had
been initiated into both the leffer and greater mytteries ; fo
that they were thoroughly acquainted with their nature and
defign. If they had known that the mytteries obliged thofe
who were initiated to lead a virtuous and holy life, and that
they were defigned to overturn polytheifm, and to profelyte
men from the worfhip of idols to that of the one true fu-
preme God, they muft have had a good opinion of them ;
and in their apologies for Chriftianity, they would naturally
have been induced to {peak favourably of them. Whereas,
in difcourfes addrefled to the Heathens themfelves, they fre-
quently fpeak of the myfteries in terms of the greate{t ab-
horrence, as impure and abominable, and as tending rather
to confirm the people in their idolatry than to draw them
from, it. On this occafion it will be fufficient to fele& the
teftinony of Clemens Alexandrinus, who was a man of
learning and probity. From the accounts which he gives
from his perfect knowledge of them, it appears, that
the reprefentations made in the mytteries were agreeable to
the fables of the poets and mythologiits, concerning Jupiter,
Bacchus, Ceres, Proferpina, and other deities; that in the
Eleufinian facra, they celebrated the rape of Proferpina, the
lamentations of Ceres, her wanderings in queft of her daugh-
ter, her congrefs with Jupiter, and fupplications to him,
with feveral other particulars, which were both ridiculous
and obfcene. He calls thofe who brought thefe mytteries
from Egypt into Greece, “the fathers of an execrable fu-
perltition ; who fowed the feed of wickednefs and corruption
in human life ;’’ and fays “ the myfteries were full of delu-
fion and portentous reprefentations, calculated to impofe
pan the people.”” He concludes his account of them by

faying, “‘ thefe are the myfteries of atheiftic men. I may
rightly call thofe atheifts, who are deftitute of the knowledge
of him, who is truly God, and moft impudently worfhip a
boy difcerped, or torn in pieces by the Titans, a woman la-
menting, and the parts which modefty forbids to name.’
And he repeats it again that they are ignorant of God, and
do not acknowledge that God who is or really exifts. Clem.
Alex. Cohort. ad Gentes, p. 13, 14. 19, 20. Ed. Potter.
Eufebius tranferibes and approves this defcription of the
myfteries by Clemens. ‘The account which Arnobius, who
had been a learned Pagan, gives of the mytteries, particularly
of the Eleufinian myfteries, celebrated at Athens, coincides
with that of Clemens. In order to evade the force of thefe
teftimonies, the learned prelate obferves, that the ancient
Chriltian writers bore a fecret grudge to the myfteries for
their injurious treatment of Chriftianity at its firft appearance
in the world; but this apology intimates, that the myfta-
gogues and managers of the myfteries did what they could
to uphold the common polytheifm and idolatry ; and that
this was the caufe of their enmity to Chriftianity. They re-
prefented the Chriftians as atheifts, becaufe they declaimed
againit the worfhip of the publicly adored deities. Whereas
if the defign of the fecret doétrine of the greater mytteries
had been to dete& the error of the vulgar polytheifm, and
to teach the initiated that the popular deities were really no
gods, the charge might have been retorted upon themfelyes.
Nor is it fufficient to allege with the bifhop, that the ancient
fathers of the church, afzer all which they faid againift them,
itudioufly and formally transferred the terms, phrafes, rites,
ceremonies, and difcipline of thefe odious myiteries into our
holy religion; for the Chriftians, though they did not con-
fider them as defigned to dete& and overthrow the popular
polytheifm, but the contrary, were fully apprized of the
veneration that was generally paid to them, and therefore
applied to their own ufe the terms made ufe of in thofe my{-
teries, the better to gain upon the Heathens, and to fhew
that Chriitianity did in reality effect that which the Pagan
myfteries vainly pretended to do. See Leland’s Advantage
and Neceffity of the Chriftian Revelation, vol. i. pt.i. c. g.

Mystery, in Scripture Language, is ufed with fome lati-
tude. Sometimes it denotes any thing not to be known
without divine revelation. It isalfo ufed to denote the fecret
things which God has difcovered by his minifters, the pro-
phets, Jefus Chrift, and the apoftles.

Dr. Campbell, in his ‘‘ Preliminary Differtations,” ob-
ferves, that, after the moft careful examination of all the
paflages in the New Teftament, in which the Greek word
jeusnesoy occurs, and after confulting the ufe made of the term
by the ancient Greek interpreters of the Old, and borrowing
aid from the pra¢tice of the Hellenift Jews, in the writings
called Apocrypha, he can find only two fenfes nearly related
to each other, which can {triétly be called {criptural. The
firft and leading {enfe of the word is “arcanum,”’ a fecret,
any thing not difclofed, not publifhed to the world, though
perhaps communicated to a felect number. This is cobalt
different from the current fenfe of the Englifh word ‘ myf-
tery,’’ or fomething incomprehenfible. Inthe former ac-
ceptation, a thing was no longer a myttery than whilft it re-
mained unrevealed ; in the latter, athing is equally a myf-
tery, after the revelation, as before. ‘T’o the former we ap-
ply, properly, the epithet ‘unknown ;’’ to the latter, we
may, in a great meafure, apply the term * unknowable."*
Thys, that God would call the Gentiles, and receive them
into his church, was as mtelligible, or comprehenfible, as that
he had once called the defcendants of the patriarchs, or as
any plain propofition, or hiftorical fa&. Yet, whilft undif-
covered, or, at leaft, veiled under figures and types, it re-

mained,

MYSTERY.

mained, in the fcriptural idiom, a ‘ myftery,” having been
hidden from ages and generations. But, after it had pleafed
God to reveal this his gracious purpofe to the apoftles, by
his f{pirit, it was a myftery no longer. The terms commu-
nication, revelation, manifeftation, conneéted with that of
myttery, and bearing relation to it, plainly fhew the import
of the term yucrgiov, to which they are applied. This is a
point that feems to be univerfally acknowledged by the
learned, and therefore it is merely neceffary to refer the ju-
dicious reader for further proof of it fromthe New Telta-
ment to the following paflages, viz. Rom. xvi. 25, 26.
1 Cor. ii. 7, 8, 9, 10. Ephef. i. 9. ili. 3. 5, 6. 9. vi. 19.
Col. i. 26, 27; in al which it will be plainly perceived, that
the apoitle treats of fomething which had been concealed for
ages (and for that reafon called wusngicv), but was then epenly
revealed ; and not of any thing, in its own nature, dark and
inconceivable. According to the ufage of the LXX, we
fhall find that, in the prophecy of Daniel, (ii. 18, 19. 27,
28, 20, 30. 47. iv. 9g.) the word pusrgoy occurs not fewer
than nine times, anfwering always to the Chaldatc NY: raza,
res arcana, and ufed in relation to Nebuchadnezzar’s dream,
which was become a “fecret,’”? even to the dreamer him-
felf, as he had forgotten it. Ia the common verfion it is uni-
formly rendered fecret, and it is found conneéed with the
verbs yiwei%a, Califa, and aroxxdAuziw, Ina manner fimilar to
the ufage of the New Teftament already noticed. In the
apocryphal writings, the word uusxgsov frequently occurs in
the fame fenfe, and is ufed in reference to human fecrets, as
well as to divine. Indeed, in the New Teftament the word
is not confined to divine fecrets. Thus, the apoftle, fpeak-
ing of the antichriftian fpirit, fays (2 Thefl. ii. 7), ‘the
myftery of iniquity doth already work.”? The fpirit of
antichrift hath begun to operate ; but the operation is Jatent
and unperceived. Both the gofpel of Chrift and the fpirit
of antichrift are equally denominated ‘ myftery’’ or fecret,
whilft they remained concealed.

It mutt be alicowed, however, that in the du€trines of reli-
gion there is fomething, which is not, in all refpeéts, per-
feétly comprehenfible by us, or with regard to which diffi-
culties may not be fuggefted, of which we may not be able to
give a fatisfactory folution. Invall fciences, and particularly
in natural theology, as well as in revelation, there are many
truths of this kind. This acknowledgment is not at all in-
confiftent with the {criptural acceptation of the word jusngioy,
which relates merely to the fecrecy for fome time obferved
with regard to any doétrine, whether myfterious, in the mo-
dern acceptation of the word, or not. To this purpofe we
may obferve, that the apoftles are denominated osovouss pusn-
gray Yex, flewards of the myfteries of God (1 Cor. iv. I.), te.
difpenfers to mankind ot the gracious purpofes of heaven
heretofore concealed, and therefore termed fecrets. Thus alfo
our Lord, in the courfe of his miniftry, fays to his apoitles,
* To you it is given to know the myfteries of the kingdom
of heaven,”’ i. e. no fecret, relating to this fubje€, is with-
held from you; « but to them it is not given,” i.e. not yet
given. (Matt. xiii qi.) For thefe very apoftles were
commanded, upon receiving their commiffion, to difclofe to
all the world the whole myitery of God, his fecret counfels
inrezard to man’s falvation. (Matt. xxviii. 19. Mark, xvi. 15.)
We are hence enabled to explain phrafes that occur in the
epiftles, expreffing the whole Chriftian inftitution, ‘ the my{-
tery of the gofpel,’’ “the myftery of the faith,” ‘the myf-
tery of God,”? and “the myftery of Chrift ; myftery, in
the fingular number, not my4eries, in the plural, which would
have been more conformable to the modern import of the
word, as relating to the incomprehenfibility of the different
articles of doctrine. But the whole of the gofpel, taken to-

Vou. XXIV.

gether, is denominated “the myftery.’’ The grand fecret,
in reference to the filence, or concealment, under which it
was formerly kept ; as, in like manner, it is ftyled the reve-
lation of }Jefus Chrift, in reference to the publication after-
wards enjoined.

In the New'Teftament the word pusngioy fometimes bears
another meaning. It is fometimes employed to denote the
figurative fenfe, as diftinguifhed from the literal, which is
conveyed under any fable, parable, allegory, fymbelical
aGtion, reprefentation, dream, or vifion. In this cafe the
term is ufed comparatively ; the meaning being obfcure
compared with the literal fenfe. To this import of the
term our Lord probably refers (Mark, iv. 11.) when he fays
to his difciples, «To you it is given to know the myttery
of the kingdom of God; but to them that are without,
all thefe things are done in parables.”? The apoftles were
let into the fecret, and got the fpiritual fenfe of the fimili-
tude, whilf the multitude amufed themfelves with the letter, °
and fearched no further. In this cafe pusngiov is ufed
Rev. i. 20. xvii. 7. Ephef. v. 32.

Dr. Campbell obferves (ubi {upra), that the earlieft per-
verfion of this word pusngy from its genuine and original
fenfe, a ‘ fecret,”’ or fomething concealed, was the applica-
tion of it to denote fome folemn and facred ceremony. What
led to this ufe of the term was a refemblance in one particu-
lar between fome rites of Chriftian worfhip and thofe per-
formed by Heathens in honour of their deities, and denomi-
nated from their fecrecy myfteries. Although thofe cere-
monies to which we refer, and which were practifed in the
Chriftian church, were effentially different from all Pagan
rites, yet they fo much refembled the latter in the exclufion
of the multitude as to give the Heathers occafion to ftyle
them the Chriftian mytfteries. The term would probably be
firft applied, in this fenfe of it, to what was called in the
primitive church ‘ the Eucharift,” or as it is now denomi-
nated “the Lord's fupper,’’ and afterwards extended to
‘* baptifm,’’ and other facred ceremonies. The name feems
to have originated with the Heathens, and in procefs of
time was adopted by Chriltians themfelves. (See Sacra-
MENT.) One paffage has been mentioned in which the word
pusnzior feems to have been ufed in the modern fenfe of the
Englith word myffery, and to denote fomething which,
though revealed, 1s inexplicable, and, to human faculties,
unintelligible. The words are, «* Without controverfy great
is the myftery of godlinefs, &c.’? (1 Tim. mi. 16.), which,
as they occur in our verfion, differ from the reading of the
two moft ancient verfions, the Syriac and the Vulgute, and
fome of the oldeft MSS. The purport of this fentence is
conformable to the fenfe above given of the term jurngsov;
and it is plainly this, ‘‘ Great unqueftionably is the divine
fecret, of which our religion brings the difcovery, &c.”?

A popular preacher of the laft century, after obferving
that a myftery, in the Scripture fenfe of it, is a thing that
natural reafen could not difcover, and, confequently, which
mutt have been unknown, if God had not revealed it, never-
thelefs acknowledges, that of this kind there are feveral doc-
trines, in the Chriitian religion: before the revelation was
given they wert myfteries; but ceafe to be myfteries now
they are revealed. To this purpofe he cites Mark, iv. 11.
Rev. xvi. 25. 1 Cor. xv. 51. Hence this writer infers,
that myfteries, i. e. things which reafon cannot difcover, and
which are not revealed, are, according to the language of
Scripture (Deut. xxix. 29) ‘the fecret things that belong
to God,”? and what we have: nothing at all to do with; or,
in other words, though certain things are parts of our re-
ligion that were myfterious, it is not our duty to believe or
practife any thing that is /fi/l a mytftery. To believe doc-

3R trines

MYSTERY.

trines that are /fill myfterious is to believe without ideas, to
believe what we know nothing of; but this, in the nature
of the thing, is impoffible. We may indeed, he allows, be-
lieve that there is fome general truth contained in propofitions
which we do not underftand, and fo far our faith may be
rational, becaufe we know what we believe; but of the
propofitions themfelves we can-believe nothing particularly,
becaufe we underftand nothing: nor can greater difhonour
be done tothe infinite wifdom of God than by fuppofing
that he has made it a part of our religious obligation only
to believe in general, that there is fome truth difguifed under
unintelligible terms, to which we have no ideas. For this is
making no revelation at all, but leaving things in abfolute
darknefs. And if we examine the doGtrines of the Chriftian
religion, we fhall find in fa&t, fays this writer, that they are
plain and eafy truths, and that as we cannot in rea/on, we
are not obliged by revelation, to carry our faith one jot be-
yond our underftanding. If it fhould be faid, that we can-
not account for the manner of God’s creating the world, or
for the manner in which he exifts every where, of the general
refurreétion, and the like, this author replies, that it is no
part of our religion to account for it—*¢ Where the my/lery
begins, religion ends.’’ Does the moft warm and forward
enthufiaff pretend to believe more than that thofe things are
true? Does he believe any thing at all with refpe‘t to the
manner of them? Nay, is not his urging that it is myfteri-
ous and incomprehenfible a demonftration, that he, im/élf,
knows, he can believe nothing particularly about it? It is

et more ftrange to talk of my/lerious precepts than of unin-
telligible doétrines; for laws that are not underflood can,
moft certainly, never be obeyed.”? It is indeed very fur-
prifing,”’ as this author proceeds, ‘that mankind, in all ages,
have been fo fond of mytteries ; that the crafty and defigning,
who make a gain of the credulity of the multitude, fhould
ufe all their art and intereft to propagate them, is indeed
natural enough; but why fhould the more Aoneff and difin-
terefled part of the people plead fo zealoufly for them?
Whence comes it to pafs, that when they choofe to fee their
way plain before them in all other cafes, they fhould affeé
to be without light in matters of religion? Religion is of
vaftly greater importance than the common affairs of life,
and this they readily acknowledge ; and yet they feem to
like it the detter, the /e/s they underftand it. Such a condu&
is very unaccountable, becaufe there can, one would think,
be no motive to it.—Myfteries yield neither plea/ure nor
profit.—For as, with refpeét to the works of nature, all our
pleafure arifes from the perception of beauty, harmony, and
ufefulnefs ; and however we may imagine innumerable /écret
beauties which we have not difcovered, yet until they are
known they afford no real fatisfadlion, nor can we reap any
advantage from them; it is juft the fame with refpeé to
myfteries in religion; we can neither be delighted nor profited
by them becaule we do not underltand them, 2. e. in other
words, they are really nothing at all to us.—Nay we cannot
fo much as admire them; becaufe admiration neceflarily fup-
pofes, that we have a knowledge of the grandeur, or of the
worth and excellency of the object. The utmoft that can be
faid therefore is, that we are confounded and puzzled.— And
is there any pleafure in that, or any advantage merely in
being in thedark, and having no tdeas ?

However, if this were all, a man would only prove him-
felf a weak (and might at the fame time be an innocent) en-
thafiaft, by fuppofing things that are, in truth, nothing to
him, to be important parts of revelation. But when mytteries
are propagated with zeal, and impofed on confcience, when
for the fake of what is allowed to be incomprebenfible, the
plain and indifpenfable obligations ofj uftice and charity are

1K

infringed and violated (of which the hiftory of the Chriftian
church, in almoft every age, affords many flagrant examples)
it is then our duty to oppofe an error which makes religion
contemptible, and ftrikes at the foundation of Chriffianity,
and, indeed, of all good morals. And this cannot be fo ef-
feCtually done as by fhewing that there are no mytteries in
religion, and that of what we do not underftand, we cannot
know whether it be good for any thing or no ; it is in fact
ufelefs, and does not deferve our zeal; nor if we did under-
ftand it, would that alone be fufficient, unlefs it was a doc-
trine of fome importance to the caufe of virtue, and the
happinefs of mankind, and confequently worthy of God.
«J fhall only add, that there is a great difference between a
myflery, and a dire&t abfurdity and contradidion, fuch as tran-
jubftantiation and other doétrines which have been fereened
under that more venerable name; for myfteries are only
things that we certainly know nothing at all of, the other
things that we certainly know to be fa//e ;—the former we
only do not underftand, the latter we fee cannot be under-

ftood.’? Foiter’s Sermons, vol. i. ferm. 7. :

Although we may reafonably be required to believe, on
the unqueftionable evidence of divine teftimony, doétrines
which we cannot adequately comprehend and fatisfaCtorily
explain, and to comply with precepts, as rules of condué
on the authority that enjoins them, the defign and ufe of
which we do not clearly perceive, at leaft, when they are
firft propofed, we can never admit the rant, as Dr. Watts
has properly called it, of Tertullian, “ credo, quia im-
poffibile eft,” I believe becaufe it is impoffible ; nor under-
take to vindicate the language of the celebrated lord Bacon,
who fays that “ we muft not fubmit the myfteries of faith
to our reafon,”’ or to concur with an eminent prelate (the
late Dr. Hurd) in his defcription of certain do€trines “ at
which reafon ftands aghaft, and faith herfelf is half con-
founded,” and which, accoraing to the expreflion of another
pious bifhop (Beveridge) “¢ would be ridiculed as abfurdities,
if they were not to be adored as myfteries.”? _

Mathematicians have been accufed of introducing myf-
teries in geometry, which ought to have none. See the An-
naliit ; and Mr. Maclauria’s Fluxions, in the Introdu@tion
and other places. See alfo PARADOX.

Mystery, in Engli/h Antiquity, isa term formerly applied
to our dramatic exhibitions. It is well known, fays Mr.
Percy, in his Reliques of Ancient Englifh Poetry, that
dramatic poetry in this and moft other nations of Europe
owes its origin, or at leaft its revival, to thofe religious
fhows, which in the dark ages were ufually exhibited on
the more folemn feltivals. At thofe times they were wont
to reprefent in the churches the lives and miracles of the
faints, or fome of the more important ftories of Scripture.
Andas.the moft myfterious fubjeéts were frequently chofen,
fuchas the incarnation, paffion, and refurreétion of Chrift,
&c. thefe exhibitions acquired the name of miracles and my/-
teries. SpeCtacles of this kind under the denomination of
miracles, were known in England for more than two cen-
turies before the reign of Edward II, Matthew Paris, who
wrote about the year 1240, fays, that they were fuch as
“« Miracula vulgariter appellamus,’’ but we learn from Chau-
cer, that in his time ‘‘ plays of miracles’’ were the common
refort of idle goffips in Lent. Thefe miracle-plays, er
mylterics, were the firft of our dramatic exhibitions. At
firt they were probably a kind of dumb fhows, intermin-
gled, perhaps, with a few fhort {peeches: at length they
grew into a regular feries of connegted dialogues, formally
divided into aéts and fcenes. Specimens of thefe, in their
molt improved {tate, may be feen in Dodfley’s Old Plays,
and in Ofborne’s Harleian Mifcellany, As the old myfteries

frequently

MYSTERY.

frequently required the reprefentation of fome allegorical
perfonage, fuch as Death, Sin, Charity, Faith, Hope, and
the like, by degrees the rude poets of thefe unlettered
ages, towards the fifteenth century, began to form com-
plete dramatic pieces, confiting entirely of fuch perfonifica-
tions. Thefe they entitled moral plays, or moralities. The
mytteries were very inartificial, reprefenting the Scripture
ftories fingly according to the letter. But the moralities are
not devoid of invention; they exhibit outlines of the dra-
matic art ; containing fomething of a fable or plot, and even
attempting to delineate charaters and manners. From hence
the gradual tranfition to real hiftorical perfonages was na-
tural and obvious. It maybe alfo obferved, that many li-
centious pleafantries, of which neither the writers nor the
{pectators perceived the impropriety, were fometimes intro-
duced in thefe religious reprefentations. This might imper-
ceptibly lead the way tv fubje@s entirely profane, and to
comedy, and perhaps at an earlier period than is generally
imagined.

In France all dramatic pieces were indifcriminately called
*¢ myfteries,’’ whether a martyr, or a heathen god, whether
St. Catharine or Hercules was the fubje&. In that country,
the religious myfteries, often called “ Piteaux,”’ or « Pi-
toux,’’ were very fafhionable, and of high antiquity, though
not more ancient than thofe of the Englifhk The French
mytfteries were chiefly performed by the religious communi-
ties. In France, as well as in England, it was cuftomary
to celebrate the feaft of the boy-bithop, during which ‘ mo-
ralities’” were prefented, and fhows of “ miracles,’’ with
farces and other fports, but compatible with decorum, both
in France and in England. See Boy-Bisuop.

Mr. T. Warton, in the fecond volume of his « Hiftory
of Englifh Poetry,’’ has introduced fome difcuffions with
regard to the probable caufes of the rife of the “ myf-
teries.”’ ‘* Abont the eighth century,” he fays, ‘trade was
principally carried on by means of fairs, which lafted feveral
days. Charlemagne eftablifhed many great marts of this fort
in France ; as did William the Conqueror, and his Norman
fucceffors, in England. ‘The merchants, who frequented
thefe fairs in numerous caravans or companies, employed
every art to draw the people together. ‘They were there-
fore accompanied by jugglers, minftrels, and buffoons ; who
were no lefs interefted in giving their attendance, and ex-
erting all their ficill, on thefe occafions. As now but few
towns exifted, no public fpeétacles or popular amufements
were eftablifhed ; and as the fedentary pleafures of domettic
life and private fociety were yet unknown, the fair-time was
the feafon for diverfion. In proportion as thefe fhows were
attended and encouraged, they began to be fet off with
new decorations and improvements; and the arts of buf-
foonery, being rendered {till more attractive by extending
their circle of exhibition, acquired an importance in the
eyes of the people. By degrees the clergy, obferving that
the entertainments of dancing, mufic, and mimicry, exhi-
bited at thefe protra¢ted annual celebrities, made the peo-
ple lefs + !igious, by promoting idlenefs and a love of fefti-
vity, profcribed thefe fports, and excommunicated the
performers. But finding that no regard was paid to their
cenfures, they changed their plan, and determined to take
thefe recreations into their own hands. They turned aGors ;
and inftead'of profane mimicries, prefented ftories taken
from legends in the bible. This was the origin of fa-
cred comedy. The death of St. Catharine, aéted by the
monks of St. Dennis, rivalled the popularity of the pro-
feffed players. Mutic was admitted into the churches, which
ferved as theatres for the reprefentation of holy farces. The
feftivals among the French, called “ La Féte de Foux, de

l’Ane,” &c, and “ Des Innocens,”’ at length became great
favourites, as they certainly were more capricious and
abfurd, than the interludes of the buffoons at the fairs.
Thefe are the ideas of a judicious French writer, now
alive, who has inveltigated the hiftory of human manners
with great comprehention and fagacity.’’ Onur author adds,
‘‘ Voltaire’s theory on this fubjeét is alfo very ingenious,
and quite new. Religious plays, he fuppofes, came origi-
nally from Conftantinople ; where the old Grecian ftage
continued to flourifh in fome degree, and the tragedies of
Sophocles and Euripides were reprefented, till the fourth
century. About that period, Gregory Nazianzen, an arch-
bifhop, a poet, and one of the fathers of the church, ba-
nifhed Pagan plays from the ftage at Conftantinople, and
introduced fele& ftories from the Old and New Teftament.
As the ancient Greek tragedy was a religious f{petacle, a
tranfition was made on the fame plan: and the choruffes
were turned into Chriftian hymns. | Gregory wrote many
facred dramas for this purpofe, which have not furvived
thofe inimitable compofitions over which they triumphed for
a time: one, however, his tragedy called Xpisos wacyany
or, “ Chrift’s Paffion,”’ is ftill extant. In the prologue it is
faid to be in imitation of Euripides, and that this is the firft
time the Virgin Mary has been produced on the ftage. The
fafhion of aéting fpiritual dramas, in which, at fir, a due
degree of method and decorum was preferved, was at length
adopted from Conftantinople by the Italians ; who framed,
in the depth of the dark ages, on this foundation, that
barbarous fpecies of theatrical amufement called * myf-
teries,’? or facred comedies, and which were foon after-
wards received in France.’’ This opinion is fuppofed, by
Mr. Warton, to derive confirmation from the early cém-
mercial intercourfe that fubfifted between Italy and Con-
itantinople. In further defence of this hypothefis, it may
be obferved, that the “ Feat of Fools,’’ and “of the
Afs,”’ together with other religious farces of that fort, fo
common in Europe, originated in Conftantinople. They
were infticuted, though perhaps under other names, in the
Greek church, about the year 990, by Theophyla&, pa-
triarch of Conftantinople, probably with the defign of
weaning the minds of the people from the Pagan cere-
monies, particularly the bacchanalian and calendary folem-
nities, by the fubftitution of Chriftian {pe€tacles, partaking
of the fame fpirit of licentioufnefs. This practice was fub-
fifting in the Greek church 200 years afterwards. We may
here remark, that in the fourth century it was cuftomary to
make Chriftian parodies and imitations in Greek, of the
beft Greek claflics, for the ufe of the Chriltian f{chools.
This praGtice prevailed much under the emperor Julian, who
forbade the Pagan poets, orators, and philofophers, to be
taught in the Chriftian feminaries. Avpollinaris, bifhop of
Laodicea, wrote Greek tragedies, adapted to the ftage, on
moft of the grand events recorded in the Old Teftament,
after the manner of Euripides. On fome of the familiar
and domettic {tories of Scripture, he compofed comedies
in imitation of Menander. He wrote Chriftian odes on the
plan of Pindar. In imitation of Homer, he wrote an heroic
poem on the hiltory of the bible, as far as the reign of
Saul, in twenty-four books. Mr. Warten mentionsa much
earlier and more fingular fpecimen of a theatrical reprefen-
tation of facred hiltory than that which is mentioned by
Voltaire. Some fragments of an ancient Jewifh play in the
« Exodus,’’ or departure of the Ifraelites from Egypt
under their leader-and prophet Mofes, are yet preferved
in Greek Jambic. ‘The principal charaéters of this drama
are Mofes, Sapphora, and God {peaking from the burning
bufh. Mofes delivers the prologue, or introdution, ina

gies fpeech

MYS

fpeech of fixty lines, and his rad is turned into a ferpent
on the ftage. The author of this piece is Ezekiel, a Jew,
who is called the tragic post of the Jews; and, accord-
ing to Huetius, he lived at leaft before the Chriftian era.
Some fay, that he was one of the LXX, under the reign of
Ptolemy Philadelphus. Warton thinks, that he compofed
this play after the deftru€tion of Jerufalem, and in the time
of Barocbas, asa political fpectacle, with a view of ani-
mating his dejeGted countrymen with the hopes of a future
deliverance from their captivity under the conduct of a new
Mofes, like that from the Egyptian fervitude. See Clem.
Alex. lib. i. Strom. ia errs Prep. Evang. cap. 28, 29.
Enftathius ad Hex. The above-mentioned fragments are
colleGed and tranflated into Latin by Fr. Morellus, Paris,
1580. See alfo Corpus Poet. Gr. Trazie & Comie, Ge-
neve, 1614, fol. Poet. Chrift. Grec. Paris, 1609, Svo.
Scaliger ad Eufeb. and Eu‘eb. Demonift. Evang.

Boileau, on the authority of Meneltrier, feems to think
that the ancient pilgrims, on their return from Jerufalem,
introduced thefe facred exhibitions into France, among whom
are reckoned St. James of Compoltella, St. Bourne of Pro-
vence, St. Reine, &c. &¢c. who compofed fongs on their ad-
ventures; intermixing recitals of paflages in the life of
Chrift, defcriptions of his crucifixion, of the day of judg-
ment, of miracles, and of martyrdoms. To thefe tales,
which were recommended by a pathetic chant, and a va-
riety of gefticulations, the credulity of the multitude gave
the name of “ Vifions.’” Thefe were recited by the pious
itinerants, with accompaniments which formed a fort of
theatrical fpetacle. At length their performances excited
the compaffion and charity of fome citizens of Paris, who
ere&ed a theatre for their exhibition of thefe fories, with
the additional advantage of fcenery and other decorations.
At length profeffed praCtitioners in the hiitrionic art were
hired to perform thefe folemn mockeries of religion, whxh
foon became the principal public amufement of a devout but
undifcerning people.

Upon the whole, Mr. Warton concludes with obferving,
that the ‘myfteries’”? appear to have originated among the
ecclefiaftics ; and were probably firft a¢ted, at leaft with
any degree of form, by the monks. This was certainly
the cafe in the Englih monatteries. Ass learning increafed,
and was more widely diffeminated from the monatteries, the
practice migrated to {chools and univerfities, which were
formed upon the monattic plan : and it is well known, that
the praétice of ating Latin plays in the colieges of Oxford
and Cambridge continued until Cromwell's ufurpation.
Many inftances of its occurrence in fchools and feminaries
of an inferior nature, both in England and France, might
be enumerated ; and it has been perpetuated to the prefent
day. ,

Mystery, Additions of. See AvpiTion.

MYSTES. See Hypromysres.

MYSTIC Tueotoey denotes a refined and fublime kind
of divinity, profeffed by the myttics.

It confifts in a knowledge of God, and divine things, not
acquired in the common way, but infufed immediately by
God, and which has the power to move the foul in an eafy,
calm, devout, affeting manner; to unite it ultimately to
God ; to illumine the underftanding, and to warm and en-
liven the will in an extraordinary manner.

Among the writings attributed to Dionyfius the Areopa-
grite, is a difcourfe of «* Myttic Theology.’’ Several others
have written on the fame fubjeét, both ancients and moderns.
See THeroxocy.

MYSTICAL, purixor, My/lic, fomething mylterious, or
allegorical. See Mystery, ALLEGory, kc.

MYS

The commentators on the Scripture, befides a literal, find
alfo a myftical, and a moral meaning. The bible, they con-
tend, is a book written both withinfide and withoutfide ;
withinfide, in refpeét to the myttical, internal, fublime,
and hidden fenfe; and withoutfide, in refpect to the li-
teral and grammatical fenfe immediately expreffed by the
words.

Indeed, feveral of the ancient fathers, and doGtors of the
church, underftand the books mentioned in Ezek. it. ro. and
in the Apocalypfe, v. i. which were written both withinfide
and without, of the Scriptures; and take the literal and myf-
tical fenfe to be here fairly intimated.

The fenfe of Scripture, fay they, is either that immediately
fignified by the words and expreflions in the common ufe, of
language: or it is mediate, fublime, typical, and myfttical ;
wherein the things themfelves fignified are made~to fignify
ftill other and farther things, according to the particular de-
fign and intention of God, and of the prophets and apoftles
infpired by him.

The literal fenfe they again divide into proper literal, which
is contained in tle words taken fimply and properly : and me-
taphorical literal, where the words are to be underitood in a
figurative and metaphorical fenfe ; as, qwhere the right eye is
commanded to be plucked out, &c.

Wherever the proper literal fenfe contains any thing abfurd
or indecent, there recourfe mutt be had to the metaphorical li-
teral fenfe. : ; ’

All Scripture has a true literal fenfe, but it has not always
a myttical one. We muit ever underftand it in the literal
fenfe, whdn it fpeaks immediately of any of the laws of
nature, of charity, of doisg good; when it gives us in-
ftruGtions for the condu@ of life, for regulating our man-
ners ; and when it relates any matter of fact, or point of
hiftory.

The fame paflage of Scripture has fometimes feveral fenfes,
expreffed and fignified immediately by the words taken in
their proper, and their figurative fenfe, and which appear to
have been all intended, by the infpired perfon who {poke
them. as having been fo underftood by others likewife in-
fpired. As thofe words in Pfalm ii. Thou art my fon, this.
day have I begotten thee; which St. Paul underttands, ac-
cording to the ftrict letter, in Heb. i 5. of the generation
of Jefus Chrif in time ; and in AGts, xtii. 33. he takes them
in a metaphorical fenfe, and applies them to our Saviour’s
refurreGtion. Thus, in Hofea, xi. 1. the words of the pro-
phecy, J have called my fon out of Egypt, are underltood li-
terally of the childrea of ifrael, whom God brought out of
Egypt, under the condeét of Mofes ; and yet in Matt. it. 15.
they are underftood metaphorically of Jefus Chritt. See Ac-
coMMODATION and PropHecy.

The myfttical fenfe of Scripture is that which the things
expreffed by the words do farther fignify ; or it is a fecond
fignification held forth and fignified by the firft; this fecond
being exprefled immediately by the firft; and mediately by
the words themfelves.

Some writers allow of three kinds of myttical fenfes in
the word of God: the firft correfponding to faith, and
called allegorical ; the fecond to hope, called anagagical; and
the third to charity, called the ¢rapological fenfe.

The four fenfes, and their applications, are included in
the Latin diftich ;

« Litera gefta docet, quid credas allegoria,
Moralis quid agas, quo tendas anagogia.””

Sometimes the fame word in Scripture is to be taken in
all the four fenfes. Thus the word Jerufalem literally fig-
nifies the capital of Judea; allegorically, the church mili-

tant;

‘

~ the Italic fe& had vifited with a fimilar defign.

MYS

tant; tropologically and morally, a believer; and anago-
gically, heaven.

So that paffage in Genefis, Let there be light, and there
was light, fignifies, according to the letter, corporeal bee ;
by the allegory, the Meffiah; in the tropological fenfe,
grace; and anagogically, beatitude, or the light of glory.

Mysticar Poetry, which isa figurative mode of exprefling
the fervour of devotion, or the ardent love of created fpirits
towards their beneficent Creator, has prevailed from time
immemorial in Afia; particularly among the Perfian theilts,
both ancient Hufhangis and modern Sufis, who feem to have
borrowed it from the Indian philofaphers of the Vedanta
fchool (fee VepANnTA) ; and their doGrines are alfo believed
to be the fource of that fublime, but poetical, mythology,

~ which glows and {parkles in the writings of the old acade-

mics. (See AcApemics.) ‘ Plato travelled into Italy and
Egypt,’”’ fays Claude Fleury, ‘to learn the theology of the
Pagans at its fountain head.’’ Its true fountain, however, was
neither in Italy nor in Egypt, (though confiderable ftreams of
it had been conduéted thither by Pythagoras, and by the fa-
mily of Mifra,) but in Perfia or India, which the founder of
(See Ira-
uic Sea.) What the Grecian travellers learned among the
fages of the Eaft hath not been fully explained ; but they
feem to have adopted and introduced to their difciples a fin-
gular fpecies of poetry, which confifts almoft wholly of a
mytftical religious allegory, though it appears, on a tranfient
view, to contain only fentiments of a wild and voluptuous
libertinifm. Now, admitting the danger of a poetical ftyle,
in which the limits between vice and enthufiafm are fo mi-
nute as to be hardly diftinguifhable, we muft beware of cen-
furing it feverely,’ and mutt allow it to be natural, though a
warm imagination may carry it to a culpable excefs. An
ardently grateful piety is congenial to the undepraved nature
of man, whofe mind, finking under the magnitude of the
fubje&, and ftruggling to exprefs its emotions, has recourfe
to metaphors and allegories, which it fometimes extends
beyond the bounds of cool reafcn, and oftento the brink of
abfurdity. Paffages might be feleCted from the eminent Dr.
Barrow’s fermon ‘* Of the Love of God,’’ (Works, vol. i.
ferm. xxiii.) bordering, indeed, on quietif{m and enthufiaftic
devotion, which differ only from the myftical theology of
the Sufis and Yogis, as the flowers and fruits of Europe dif-
fer in fcent and flavour from thofe of Afia; or as European
differs from Afiatic eloquence. The fame ftrain, in poeti-
cal meafure, would rife up to the odes of Spenfer, «* On Di-
vine Love and Beauty,” and in a higher key, with richer
embellifhments, to the fongs of Hafiz and Jayadeva, the rap-
tures of the Mefnevy, andthe mytfteries of Bhagavat. See
Surr, Yoo1, JavApeva, MesNevy, and Sri BuaGavart.

Another f{pecimen of more medern date might be felected
from a late work of the celebrated M. Necker, which
would ferye to exhibit the fimilarity of European theology
to that of the Perfians and Indians, but want of room
obliges us to omit it.

If the paffages to which we have referred were tranflated
into Sanfcrit and Perfian, the Vedantis and Sufis would con-
fider them as an epitome of their common fyltem ; for they
concur in thinking, that the fouls of men differ infinitely in
degree, but not at all in ind, from the divine {pirit of which
they are particles, and in which they will ultimately be ab-
forbed ; that the fpirit of God pervades the univerfe, always
immediately prefent to his work ; and that he alone is perfect
benevolence, perfeét truth, perfe& beauty; that the love of
him alone is real and genuine love, while that of all other ob-
je&tsis ab/urd and illutory ; that the beauties of nature are faint

MYS

refemblances, likeimagesin a mirror, of the divinecharms ; that
from eternity without beginning to eternity without end, the
fupreme benevolence is occupied in beftowing happinefs, or the
means of attaining it; that men can only attain it by per-
forming their part of the primeval covenant between them and
the Creator ; that nothing has a pure abfolute exiftence, but
mind or fpirit ; that material /ubflances, as the ignorant call
them, are no more than gay ae prefented continually
to our minds by the fempiternal artift ; that we muft beware
of attachment to fuch phantoms, and attach ourfelves ex-
clufively to God, who truly exifts in us, as we exift folely
in him ; that we retain, even in this forlorn ftate of feparation
from our beloved, the idea of heavenly beauty, and the remem-
brance of our primeval vows; that {weet mufic, gentle
breezes, fragrant flowers, perpetually renew the primary idea,
refrefh our fading memory, and melt us with tender affec-
tions; that we mult chérifh thofe affe€tions, and by abflraGing
our fouls from vanity, that is, from all but God, approximate
to his effence, in our final union with which will confift our
fupreme beatitude.

From thefe principles flow a thoufand metaphors and
poetical figures, which abound in the facred poems of the
Perfians and Hindoos, who feem to mean the fame thing in
fubftance, and differ only in expreffion, as their languages
differ in idiom.

Some theologians have fuppofed, that the reciprocal love
between pious men and their benevolent Creator, which
Barrow defcribes with a glow of expreffion perfeGt!y orien-
tal, is that whichour moft orthodox theologians believe to have
been myttically /hadowed in the Song of Solomon, while they
admit, that, in a /itera/ fenfe, it is an epithalamium on the
marriage of the fapient king with the princefs of Egypt.
The very learned author of the preletions on facred poetry,
declared his opinion that the cantic!es were founded on hifto-
rical truth, but involved an allegory of that fort, which he
named my/fical; and the beautiful Perfian poem on the
loves of Laili and Majnun, by the inimitable Nizami, (to
fay nothing of other poems on the fame fubje,) is indif-
putably built on pure hiftory, yet avowedly allegorical and °
myfterious, for the introduétion to it is a continued rapture on
divine love ; and the name of Laili feems to be ufed in the
Mefnavi, and in the odes of Hafiz, for the omniprefent {pirit
of God.

It is ftilla queftion whether the poems of Hafiz mult be
taken in a literal or figurative fenfe; but the queftion does
not admit of a general and dire& anfwer; for even the moft
enthufiaftic of his commentators allow that fome of them
are to be taken literally, and his editors ought to have dif-
tinguifhed them, as our Spenfer has diftinguifhed his four
odes on Love and Beauty, initead of mixing the profane
with the divine, by a childifh arrangement according to the
alphabetical order of the rhymes. Hafiz never pretended
to more than human virtues, and it is known that he had hu-
man propenfities, for fome amorous frolics of his youth are
on record, and are, indeed, alluded to in his odes. After

“his juvenile paffions had fubfided, we may fuppofe that his

mind took that religious bent which appears in moft of his
compofitions. Several diftichs might be feleéted from dif-
ferent odes, that relate to the myftical theology of the Sufis,
if it were confiftent with the limits to which this article muft
be reftriéted.

A volume might be filled with paflages of a fimilar kind to
thofe that occur inthe works of the writers already mentioned,
from the Sufi poets; from Saib, Orfi, Mir Khofrau, Jami,
Hazin,and Sabik, who are next in beauty of compofition te
Hafiz and Sadi, but next ata confiderable diftance ; from Mei

the

MYS

the moft elegant of their Turkifh imitators; from a few
Hindoo poets of our own times, and from Ibnub Fared, who
wrote myftical odes in Arabic.

This notice of the myftical poets of the Affatics, is taken
from an eflay on that fubje& in vol. iii. of the Afiat. Ref.
by fir W. Jones. It is introdu€tory to a tranflation of the
Gita Govinda, fome accourt of which curious poem is given
under JAyADEVA, the name of its author. An extraé&
from it is given under KrisHNA.

It is eafier to account for the rhapfodies of the myftics of
the Eaft and Welt, than wholly to defend them. Some have
doubtlefs derived fpiritual confolation from fuch illufions,
but a greater number muft have been mifled thereby to
their own difcomfort ; and it might be as well if fuch exta-
cies were confined to the breaft which engendersthem. On
the whole, fuch warmth of fentiment and expreffion appears
not deferving of commendation : although, on the other
hand, it feems not to require fuch forcible reprehenfion, as
fome of our pious divines have feen fit to ftigmatize it with.

Dr. Watts, of whom Dr. Johnfon faid, “« he was aman
who never wrote but for a good purpofe,’’ acknowledges that
in his early writings he gave into the track of thofe who ex-
prefs: the fervours of devout love to our Saviour, in the ftyle
of the Song of Solomon; but in maturer age he difap-
proved of it. But he didnot, like fome other well-meaning
writers, apply to it fuch epithets as ‘ fecret pantings after
mortal love’? —‘ myttical diffolutenefs’’—* {piritualized con-
cupifcence, invented by carnal and wanton appetites, pollut-
ing the foul with lufcious images,’ &c. The middle courfe
here, as in moit other warmly contefted points, feems the
lafeft.

We fhall clofe this article with fome judicious obferva-
tions of an anonymous writer. (Quarterly Rev. N° x.)
He defcribes myitical poetry to be that in which the various
workings of the religious paffion are typified by the hope
and fears of an amatory attachment ; a {tyle of compofition,
which has, in all ages, captivated the luxurious imagination
of Oriental rhapfodifts. It is very poffible for myttical
poetry to be in fact, as it is in profeffion, devotional ; but
by many of thofe who have cultivated it, the veil of fanétity
has, unqueftionably, been employed, like the fecrecy and
feclufion of the ancient myfteries, only to conceal the indul-
gences which it was oftenfibly defigned to exclude. The
hierophant has lighted his altar with fires, not only lefs holy
than thofe of heaven, but lefs ve/fal than the chafte though
celd flame of fancy: and for hiltories of devotion, in the
difguiie of love, have been fubftituted hiftories of-Jove in
the difguife of devotion. If, in fome cafes, this abufe has
been the effect of defign, in others, the poet, in{tead of in-
tending to deceive, has-in effeét deceived himfelf ; and, per-
haps, has been the only perfon deceived. On the whole,
therefore, this is a ftyle of which the general ufe can fcarcely
be encouraged ; and which, even where there exifts the mott
unexceptionable purity of purpofe, can be managed only
by a firmnefs and delicacy of hand, rarely poffeffed in com-
bination.

MYSTICETUS, in Zoology, a {pecies of Balena ; which
fee. ‘The mytticetus, or common whale, has the noftrils
flexuous, or much contorted, and fituated in the middle of
the fore-part of the head, and the back without fin. Of
this {pecies there are the following varieties: «. B. Afy/li-
celus groenlandica, or Greenland common whale, which is of
a blackifh colour on the back, and white on the belly :—
2. B. Myflicetus iflandica, or Iceland common whale, of a
black colour with a whitith glofs;—y. B. My/licetus major,
or larger common whale, which has no fpiracle.

MYS

The common whale inhabits the Arétic feas, efpecially
about Greenland and Spitzbergen : it is of enormous bulk,
meafuring from 50 or 60, to 70, 80, and even 100 feet in
length: it fwims with great velocity, and yet, notwith-
ftanding its immenfe fize, having no weapons either of of-
fence or defence, it is exceedingly fhy and timid. It fubfifts
chiefly on the cancer pedatus and oculatus, argonauta
arGica, and clio bitentaculata: the fecond, or Iceland
variety, which is fmaller and more flender than the Green-
land kind, feeds on medufe and clupez. It is probable,
that the defeription of the third variety, or larger common
whale, as being without any fpiracle, which is admitted by
Ray, on the authority of Sibbald, is either totally erroneous,
or founded on miftake, as it differs fo completely from thé
general analogy of the whale genus, as well as from the whole
cetaceous order. The female whale has two propor-
tionally {mall paps fituated on the abdomen near the vagina,
which fhe has the power of retra¢ting ; fhe is fuppofed to
go nine or ten months with young, and produces moftly
one, feldom two, at atime, which fhe fuckles and takes care
of with great affection. The flefh of the whale is ex-
tremely dry and infipid, except about the tail, which is
more juicy, yet ftill very taftelefs: between the fkin and the
flefh the whole body is furrounded with a vait layer‘of fat
or blubber, of which 70 or So butts, or large barrels, are
fometimes procured from one whale. Whales are hunted
with great eagernefs, on account of this blubber, for the
fake of a coarfe oil, which is extra€ted from it ; and it
appears that this trade was confiderable in the time of
Ifidore and Vincentius, it being mentioned as common and
very profitable on the French coatt by Brito, a poet of the
12th century.

The horny laminz, which are found in the upper jaw of
the whale, are likewife a valuable article of commerce,
under the name of “* whale-bone ;”’ thefe, from frequent ufe,
ferving to catch the food of the animal, are {plit at the
margin and the extremity into long, thick briftles; there
are about 700 laminz of this fub{tance in the mouth of each
individual, and when the animal is full grown, the middle
lamina, which is the longeft, meafures from eighteen to
twenty feet in length.

The head of the common whale is nearly one-third part
of the animal, being flattifh on the upper part, and fur-
mounted by a tubercle or projection, in which the fpiracle,
or breathing-pipe, is fituated ; the mouth is very large, and
itretches far backwards, almoft as far as the eyes, in form
of the letter S ; the lower jaw, efpecially about the middle,
is very broad; the tongue is very foft, being compofed
almoft entirely of fat ; it is of a white colour, {potted with
black at the fides, and adheres by its under furface to the
lower jaw ; the eyes are placed at a great diftance from
each other, on the fides of the head, over the entrance to
the ears, and are very little larger than thofe of an ox ; the
fkin is about an inch thick, and the fearf-fkin about the
thicknefs of parchment: this laft is very {mooth, feldom
entirely black, or variegated with black and yellow; and
very rarely of a white colour; the tail is horizontally flat-
tened, and flightly divided into two lobes, from the middle
of which a fhort, and fomewhat fharp, angular ridge runs
up to the middle of the back, but without any proper
dorfal fin.

MYSTICS, Mysticr, a kind of religious fe& ditlinguifh-
ed by their profefling pure, fublime, and perfeé devotion,
with an entire difinterefted love of God, free from all felfifh,
confiderations.

The Myttics, to excufe their fanatic extacies, and licen-

tious

MYSTICS.

tious extravagancies, allege that paflage of St. Paul, “* The
Spirit prays in us by fighs and groans that are unutter-
able.” Now, if the Spirit, fay they, pray in us, we muft
refign ourfelves to its motions, and be fwayed and guided
by its impulfe, by remaining in a {tate of mere inaétion.

Paffive contemplation is that flate of perfection to which
the Myttics all afpire. See QureTism.

The authors of this myttic {cience, which fprung up
towards the clofe of the fecond century, are not known;
but the principles from which it was formed are manifett.
Its firft promoters argued from the known doétrine of the
Platonic fchool, which was alfo adopted by Origen and his
difciples, that the divine nature was diffufed through all
human fouls, or that the faculty of reafon, from which pro-
ceed the health and vigour of the mind, was an emanation
from God into the human foul, and comprehended in it
the principles and elements of all truth, human and divine.
They denied that men could, by labour or ftudy, excite this
celeftial flame in their breafts, and, therefore, they difap-
proved highly of the attempts of thofe, who, by definitions,
abftra& theorems, and profound fpeculations, endeavoured
to form diftinét notions of truth, and to difcover its hidden
nature. On the contrary, they maintained that filence, tran-
quillity, repofe, and folitude, accompanied with fuch aéts
as might tend to extenuate and exhautt the body, were the
means by which the internal word was excited to produce
its latent virtues, and to inftru& men in the knowledge of
divine things. For thus they reafoned ; thofe who behold
with a noble contempt all human affairs, who turn away
their eyes-from terrettrial vanities, and fhut all the avenues
of the outward fenfes againft the contagious influences of a
material world, mutt neceflarily return to God, when the
fpirit is thus difengaged from the impediments that pre-
vented that happy union. And in this blefled frame they
not only enjoy inexpreflible raptures from their communion
with the Supreme Being, but alfo are invefted with the
ineftimable privilege of contemplating truth undifguifed and
uncorrupted, in its native purity, while others behold it in
a vitiated and delufive form.

Towards the clofe of the fifth century, the Myftics, pre-
tending to higher degrees of perfeétion than other Chrif-
tians, drew every where to their party, particularly in the
eaftern provinces, a vaft number of the ignorant and in-
confiderate multitude, by the ftriking appearance of their
fingular and auttere piety. It is impoflible to defcribe
the rigour and feverity of the laws which thefe fenfelefs
fanatics impofed upon themfelves, in order, as they alleged,
to appeafe the Deity, and to deliver the celeftial {pirit from
the bondage of this mortal body. They not only lived
among tke wild beafts, but alfo lived after the manner of
thefe favage animals; they ran naked through the lonely
deferts with a furious afpeét, and with all the agitations
of madnefs and phrenfy ; they prolonged the life of their
emaciated bodies by the wretched nourifhment of grafs and
wild herbs, avoided the fight and converfation of men, re-
mained motionlefs in certain places for feveral years, ex-
pofed to the rigour and inclemency of the feafons; and
towards the conclufion of their lives, fhut themfelves up
in narrow and miferable huts ; and all this they confidered as
true piety, the only acceptable method of worfhipping the
Deity, and rendering him propitious. The Myttics, for the
moft part, were led into the abfurdities of this extraordinary
difcipline, not fo much by the pretended force of reafon and
argument, as by a natural propenfity to folitude, a gloomy
and melancholy caft of mind, and an implicit and blind fub-
miffion to the authority and example of others. Tor the
difeafes of the mind, as well as thofe of the body, are gene-

rally contagious, and no peftilence fpreads its infeftion with
a more dreadful rapidity than fuperftition and enthufiafm.
In the ninth century, the doétrine of the Myttics, the origin
of which is falfely attributed to Dionyfius the Areopagite,
which had been for a long time in vogue among the Greeks,
and efpecially among the monattic orders, was diffeminated in
the weftern churches. The Latins had hitherto efcaped the
contagious influence of this do¢trine : but when the Grecian
emperor, Michael Balbus, or the Stammerer, fent to Louis
the Debonnaire, in the year 824, a copy of the pretended
works of Dionyfius the Areopagite, now univerfally allowed
to be fpurious, even among the moft learned and impartial
of the Roman Catholic writers, this prefent kindled the
flame of myfticifm in the weftern provinces, and infpired the
Latins with the moit enthufiaftic admiration of this new
religion. The tranflation of thefe works into ‘Latin, by
order of the emperor Louis, contributed much to the pro-
grefs of myfticifm. By the order of the fame emperor,
Hilduin, abbot of St. Denys, compofed an account of the
life, ations, and writings of Dionyfius, under the title of
*¢ Areopagitica,’”’ in which work, among other impudent
fitions, ufual in thofe times of fuperftition and impofture,
he maintained, in order to exalt the honour of his nation, that
Dionyfius the Areopagite, and Dionyfius, or St. Denys,
the bifhop of Paris, were one and the fame perfon. This
fable was receeived with avidity by the credulous multitude,
and its credit is hardly extin@ at this day. As the firtt
tranflation of the works of Dionyfius, that had been exe-
cuted by order of Louis, was probably ‘in a barbarous and
obf{cure ftyle, a new and more elegant one was executed by
the famous Johannes Scotus Erigena, at the requeft of
Charles the Bald; the publication of which confiderably
increafed the partifans of the myiftic theology among the
French, Italians, and Germans. Scotus himfelf, called
«The Wife,’ was fo enchanted with this new doétrine, that
he incorporated it into his philofophical fyitem, and upon
all occafions, either accommodated his philofophy to it, or
explained it according to the principles of his philofophy.
Thus philofophical enthufiafm, born in the Eaft, nourifhed
by Plato, educated in Alexandria, matured in Afia, and
adopted into the Greek church, found its way, under the
pretext and authority of an apoftolic name, into the weftern
church, and there produced many injurious effects.

In the twelfth century, thefe myitics took the lead in
their method of expounding Scripture ; and by fearching
for mytfteries and hidden meaning in the plaineft expreflions,
forced the word of God into a conformity with their vi-
fionary doGtrines, their enthufiaftic feelings, and the fyftem
of difcipline which they had drawn from the excurfions of
their irregular fancies. Inthe thirteenth century they were
the moft formidable antagonifts of the fchcolmen, who, as
they were lefs popular, endeavoured to recommend themfelves
by extolling, illuftrating, and defending the fentimental fyf-
tem of their adverfaries ; towards the clofe of the fourteenth
century, many of them refided and propagated their tenets
almoft in every part of Europe. They had, in the fifteenth
century, many perfons of diftinguifhed merit in their num-
ber : and in the fixteenth century, previons to the reforma-
tion, if any fparks of real piety fubfifted under the defpotic
empire of fuperttition, they were only to be found among
the myftics. For this feét, renouncing the fubtilty of the
{chools, the vain contentions of the learned, andall the aé&ts
and ceremonies of external worfhip, exhorted their followers
to aim at nothing but internal fanGtity of heart, and commu-
nion with God, the centre and fource of holinefs and perfec-
tion. Hence the myttics were loved and refpected by many

perfons who had a ferious fenfe of religion, and a devotional
frame

MY -f.

frame of mind. Yet, as they were not entirely free from the
reigning fuperftitions, but affociated many vulgar errors
with their praGlical direftions and precepts; and as their
exceflive paffion for contemplation led them into chimerical
notions, and fometimes into a degree of fanaticifm that ap-
proached to madnefs ;—more effe€tual fuccours than theirs
were neceffary to combat the inveterate errors of the times,
and to bring about the reformation which was expected
with fuch impatience.

The principles of this fe& were adopted by thofe called
Quietifts in the feventeenth century: and, under different
modifications, by the Quakers and Methodifts. Mofh. Eccl.
Hift. Brucker’s Hift. Philof. by Enfield.

MYSTOCEROS, in Ichthyology, a name given by Gef-
ner and fome others, to that fpecies of the filurus which we
call the fheat-fifh. It is the glanus of Pliny, and the reft of
the old authors; the filurus of Rondeletius, and others.
It is diftinguifhed by Artediby the name of the filurus with
four beards under the chin. It is plainly to be known from
the fifh called the /ake, by this charafter, that having only
one beard ; it is a genuine fpecies cf the f//urus ; which fee.

MYSTRUM, among the Ancients, a liquid meafure,
which was the fourth part of the cyathus.

It weighed about two drams and a half of oil; and of
water or wine, two dramstwofcruples. It was much about
our {mall {poonful.

MYSTUS, in Ichthyology, a {pecies of Clupea ; which
fee.

Mystus Fluviatilis, a name by which fome writers, par-
ticularly Bellonius, have called the common daréz/. See Cy-
PRINUS Barbus.

Mystus Marinus, the Sea-barbel, the name of a fifh caught
in the Adriatic, and common in the marketsof Venice. It
is of an oblong figure, and in colour of a filvery-white, va-
riegated on each fide with ten obliquely tranfverfe black
lines; its belly is very white ; its tail is forked, and its head
long; its back fin has part of its rays prickly, part foft to
the touch ; its eyes are not large, and their irifes are yellow ;
its lips are prominent, thick, and foft, and only ferrated in
the place of teeth; but in the hinder part of its mouth it
has feveral rows of fhort and large molares or grinders ; its
{cales are large, and adhere firmly to the flefh. It isa very
well-tafted fith.

Mysrus Niloticus, a name given by Bellonius to a-fifh of
the barbel kind, caught in the Nile. Its body is thick and
fhort, and its belly very broad; it grows to fo large a fize
as to weigh twenty pounds. Probably this may be no other
than the common barbel growing toa larger fize, as we fee
many fifh will in fome places more than others. See SituRus
Myflus. For other {pecies of my/lus, fee Siturus.

MYSZ, in Geography, a town of Lithuania, in the pa-
latinate of Novogrodek ; 36 miles S. of Novogrodek.

MYTACISM, Mutzzicpocr, In Rhetoric, the too fre-
quent repetition of the letter Mj; thus, mammam ipfam amo
quafi meam animam.

MYTENS, Dantet, of the Hague, in Biography, was
an admired painter in the reigns of James I. and Charles I.
to the latter of whom he was made picture-drawer in ordi-
nary, in May 1625. He continued to hold this {tation at
the arrival of Vandyke in England; but upon that artilt
being made principal painter to his majefty, he afked leave to
retire, The king, however, retained him for fome time
longer in his fervice, and the two rivals, if they may be fo
called, lived amicably together. Mytens faw and acknow-
ledged the high degree of Vandyke’s talents, and benefited
by the obfervance of his produétions.

There are a great many excellent portraits by Mytnes in

j oa ay °C

this country, which are diftinguifhable by the neat fmooth-
nefs, and clearnefs of their finifhing ; and their great air of
nature. We have none of his pictures painted after 1630.
The period of his death is not exa@tly known.

MYTHOLOGY, poboroyiz, fignifying a difcourfe or
defcription of fables, from pve, fabula, and royo:, ferme,
difcourfe, the hiftory of the fabulous gods and heroes of an-
tiquity ; with the explanation of the my‘teries or allegories
couched under it.

Lord Bacon thinks that a great deal of concealed inftruc-
tion and allegory was originally intended in moft parts of the
ancient mythology ; he obferves that fome fables difcover a
great and evident fimilitude, relation, and connection, with
the thing they fignify, as well in the ftru@ure of the fable
as in the meaning of the names, whereby the perfons or
actors are characterized. F

The fame writer thinks it may pafs fora farther indication
of aconcealed and fecret meaning, that fome of thefe fa-
bles are fo abfurd and idle in their narration, as to fhew an
allegory even afar off: but the argument of moft weight
upon this fubje€&t, he takes to be this, that many of thefe
fables appear by no means to have been invented by the per-
fons who relate them: he looks on them not as the produét
of the age, nor the invention of the poets, but as facred re-
lics as he terms them, gentle whifrers, and the breath of
better times, that f-om the tradition of more ancient nations,
came at length into the flutes and trumpets of the Greeks.
He concludes, that the knowledge of the early ages was
either great or happy: great, ifthey by defign made this ufe
of trope and figure ; or happy, if, whillt they had other views,
they afforded matter and occafion to fuch noble contempla-
trons.

Mythology, which leads us into an acquaintance with
the gods and fables of ancient times and remote nations,
is of fuch importance, that, notwithftanding the cbfcurity
and uncertainty in which it is involved, and the fcope which
it affords for conjetures and differences of opinion, that the
ftudy of it cannot be wholly difregarded; more efpecially
by perfons who perufe the writings of the Greeks and Ro-
mans, and particularly thofe of their molt celebrated poets.
It likewife bears relation to various branches of literature
and fcience, that are deemed both curious and ufeful; and
will contribute to guide and afliit the refearches of hifto-
rians, antiquarians, and of artifts of various defcriptions.
Whillft the claffical {cholar finds it neceffary to acquaint him-
felf with the Pagan gods and fables, the fictions of antiqui-
ty, and the numerous monuments that record them, duly
examined, will ferve toamufe and ihftruct thofe who invetti-
gate them ;-and mythology will thus fubferve many ufeful
purpofes in chronology, hiltory, fculpture, painting, and
other arts and fciences. It will require, indeed, a confider-
able fhare of judgment to guard againit delufion, correétly
tointerpret the fables that prefent themfelves, and to forma
jutt opinion of the rank, attributes, and charaGter, as well as
of the number and varicty, of the deities which were acknow-
ledged as fugh in different agesand nations. Mythology has
additional claims on our attention, if we allow, with fome
writers, that the fables of autiquity are not mere fictions, but
that they have a real conne€tion with the hiltory of the firft
ages, and comprehend fome of their mott confiderable tranf-
actions ; and that molt of the gods had been men, whofe
hiltory forms a part of that of the particular nations in which '
they became obje&s of veneration, and even of worfhip. As
fables conftitute the proper fubjecis of mythology, it. may
not be amifs to introduce in this place a few remarks on their
origin, nature, and defign, and the proper method of ex-
plaining them. Simple and urornamented truth, addrefled

merely

MY T

merely to the underftanding, is feldom fufficiently interefting
and impreffive to engage a attention of mankind. Philo-
fophers, hiftorians, and poets have, therefore, recurred, in all
ages of the world, to thofe embellifhments, which’the imagina-
tion fupplies, and which are adapted to excite and call forthinto
exercife the feelings and paffions of the human frame. Hence
they have been led to ufe forms and modes of expreffion that
have been fuggefted to them, either by fenfible objects, or
by occurrences that are rare and uncommon, and that
ferve to excite admiration, and to impart amufement and
pleafure. Fables are compofitions of this kind: they are
more eafily underftood, more likely to command attention
and to imprefs the mind, and better fitted for conviction and
perfuafion, than ab{tra& truth ; and therefore they have been
more generally adopted, efpecially in the earlier periods of
time, and in a lefs cultivated {tate of fociety than mere rea-
foning. Among the orientels, whofe climate and difpofi-
tion were peculiarly favourable to it, chis praStice very much
prevailed ; and of courfe their mythology has been diftin-
guifhed by its boldnefs and extravagance. Some other cir-
cumftances contributed to the firft rife, and fubfequent dif-
fufion of mythology. The inhabitants of the eaftern na-
tions were much addicted to the perfonification of inanimate
objects, and abitra& ideas; and this propesfity would natu-
rally lead them to the ufe of fable andallegory. Amongtt
them hieroglyphics and enigmatical modes of expreffion
were very common ; and in the adoption of thefe they nearly
approximated to fiGtion and fable. Among ingenious and
learned writers, we find a confiderable difference of opinion as

to the beft method of explaining thofe fables, that are the -

fubje&ts of this article, or fuch as relate to the Pagan gods,
and the rites of their worfhip. The Platonic philofophers
pretended that thefe fables were mere allegories, concealing
great myfteries, none of which would appear either abfurd
or licentious, when duly developed. Plato himfelf feems
to have originally framed this fyftem. Other learned per-
fons, at a later period, among whom we may reckon Kir-
cher, recurred for the inveftigation of the true meaning of
thefe fab!es to the hieroglyphics, or facred language, of the
Egyptians; but it is unfortunate for his hypothefis, that
the fables which require explanation were not all of Jigyp-
tian origin.
the fables might be explained by the equivocal words of the
ancient Pheenician language ; the fables, however, were not
allinvented by the Pheenicians. Others refer all the fables
to {cripture mifurder{tood, or to corrupted traditions. But
many of thefe fables abound with circumftances that have no
manner of conneétion with the facts recorded in the facred
books. The fyftem of thofe who reduce fables to ancient
hiftory, though disfigured by the poets, who were the firft
hiftorians, ferves to explain a great number of fables,
though it is not pratticable to reduce all to hiftory ; fince
fome fables are no more than pure allegories. Neverthelefs,
this fyftem app2ars to M. Banier, under fome reftriCtions, to
be the mott rational and moft fatisfaGtory ; provided that
we do not attempt to explain all the circumftances of every
fable ; and if we do explain them, we muft take them from
poets of the greateft antiquity, fuch as Homer and Hefiod,
who have given them in a more fimple ftate, together with
a more natural defcription of the fa¢ts to which they refer,
and without thofe ornaments that were fuperadded to them
in after ages, cither to make them more venerable, becaufe
they were a part of religion, or more furprifing, becaufe it
is natural for mankind to delight in the marvellous.

We may here obferve, that moft of the Greek fables are
obtained from Egypt and Pheenicia. The fables are inter-
woven with religion, aad were, indeed, the foundation on

Vou. XXIV.

The celebrated Bochart thought that moft of .

M Y T

which it was reared; it was fable that introduced a multi-
plicity of gods, which they fubflituted in the room of the
true one ; fo that the Greeks, by learning the religion of the
Egyptians, learned their fables likewife.

The learned Bryant, in the preface to his * Analyfis of
Ancient Mythology,” rejeéts as fabulous the fuppofed
heroes of the firft ages in every country. No fuch conquefts,
he fays, were ever achieved, as are afcribed to Ofiris, Dio-
nufus, and Sefoftris. The hiftories of Hercules and Perfeus
are equally void of truth. Cadmus, as this writer afferts,
never brought letters into Greece, and no fuch perfon ever
exifted as the Grecians have defcribed. Ninus and Semi-
ramis are, in his opinion, as ideal as Sefoftris and Oliris.
There never were fuch expeditions undertaken, or conquefts
made, as are attributed to thefe princes; nor were any fuch
empires conttituted as are fuppofed to have been eftablifhed
by them. He makes as little account of the hiftories of
Saturn, Janus, Pelops, Atlas, Dardanus, Minos of Crete,
and Zoroafter of Baétria. With refpe&t to Greece, our
author gives credit to very few events, which were antece-
dent to the Olympiads; nor does he give the leaft affent to
the ftory of Phryxus, and the golden fleece ; he denies that
there were any fuch perfons as the Grecian argonauts, and
he rejeéts the expedition of Jafon to Colchis as a fable.
As the theology and mythology of the ancients are infepa-
rably cOnnected, we refer for an account of both to the
article THEoLoGy; and for the mythology of different
nations to their refpective articles. See Cuatp#an Philo-
Soph}, Cetts and Druips, Hinpoos and the next article,
Cosmocony, Oractes, THEoGony, &c. For the mytho-
logy of the northern nations, 7. ¢, of the Norwegians, Danes,
Swedes, Icelanders, &c. fee Eppa, Opin, and Voruspa.
For that of Mexico and Peru, fee thefe articles.

Myruotocy of the Hindoos. With this people mytho-
Togy is fo intimately blended in all their writings, that un-
lefs the ftudent hath fome information on that point, he will
be cdntinually at a lofs in comprehending the allufions fo
frequently recurring. The whole of their popular religion,
their hiftory, and literature in general, even the fciences
and mechanical arts, are buried in a mafs of mythological
allegory. It is, indeed, all-pervading ; andif we deem it
worth while, as it furely is, to examine the ftories of In-
dian learning, a knowledge of its mythology is no lefs ne-
ceflary than a knowledge of its languages. One cannot
indeed be acquired, without acquiring, at the fame time,
fome knowledge ‘of the other. This has been fo much
felt, that our moft celebrated Oriental fcho’ars have pro-
fitably employed themfelves in the inyeftigation of this cu-
rious and comprekenfive fubjeét. It affords alfo confider-
able elucidations of the primeval traditions of the human
race. It dluftrates what is extant, and fuggetts fome parts
of what is loft in the hiftory of almoft every nation of an-
tiquty. The analogy between the Hindoo, and Grecian
and Roman mythology, has been copioufly developed by fir
W. Jones, Mr. Colebroke, major Wilford, and other wri-
ters in the different volumes of the Afiatic Refearches,
Coincidences too ftrong and numerous to be accidental may
be traced in the fabulous hiftories of India, Egypt, and
Perfia: the two latter, probably, being the intermediate
countries through which the ftream of allegory flowed to
Greece, Rome, and to the Gothic and other nations of
Europe, among all of whom a fimilarity of tradition and
popular fuperftition is found to have prevailed. Even in
Ireland, fome amufing inflances of relationfhip have been
difcovered. Which is the parent country of thefe widely
{pread impreffions, is not altogether agreed on. India
feems to have {trong claims to this honour, fuch as it is,

38 and

M Y T

and it is accordingly ftrongly claimed for her. The mode
and courfe of their propagation ftill afford farther fcope
for the induftry of refearch, and the exertion of analogical
dedudtion.

Among the many writers who have difcuffed the fubje&
of this article, we may notice the Rev. Mr. Maurice ; who,
in his Indian Antiquities, and Ancient Hiftory of India,
has brought together many coincidences of opinion in dif-
ferent nations, and difcuffed them learnedly and at length.
Sonnerat and Bartolemeo, not to mention Baldus and
other early Romifh travellers, have entered pretty fully
into the popular legends of Indian mythology ; and the
Hindoo Pantheon, recently publifhed, contains a great
number of exact reprefentations of the deities, perfonifica-
tions, and fymbols, with defcriptive illuftrations, of this
fuperftitious polytheifm. But it is in the Afiatic Re-
fearches, that we are ftill to look for the moft fatisfactory
and authentic developements of this interefting fubjeé.
The fyftem of the Hindoos feems a feries of endlefs per-
fonifications, and the invention rather of poets than of
priefts; but in early ages the poet and the prieft were,
perhaps, generally combined. It has animated all nature.
It has peopled the heavens, the air, the earth, and waters,
with innumerable tribes of imaginary beings, arrayed in
tints correfpending with the fervid imagination of tropical
climes; and we are difpofed to contemplate Hindoo my-
thology as a well-ftored magazine, whence poets may fup-
ply themfelves with an almoft infinity cf imagery and in-
cident.

In this work we have availed ourfelves of the labours of
thofe, who have written on the affairs of India, as well as
of fome fources of original information; and in reference
more particularly to its mythology, we have given, or fhall
give, under their appropriate names and heads, an account
of fome hundreds of Hindoo deities, or perfonifications of
attributes and powers; as well as fketches of their religion,
literature, &c. Such articles are too numerous to be referred
to at length, they amount indeed to feveral hundreds: but a
few here follow, and references are made from them to many
others. See BracuMANS, Casts, Hinpoos, H1inpoostan,
Gances, JAGANATH, JAINA, JeEJuRY, InpRA, KA tt,
Kama, Krisuna, Laksumi, Linca, Manaparat, Ma-
tri, Maya, Meru, Narayana, O’m, Parvati, Pa-
WAKA, Purana, Rama, Saraswati, Siva, SuRYA,
Trimurti, Visunu, YAMA, &c. &c.

MYTILUS, the Muffel, or Mufcle, in Conchology, a genus
of the clafs and order Vermes-teftacea: the generic charatter is
this ; the animal is allied to an afcidia; the fhell is bivalve,
rough, generally affixed by a byffus or beard of filky fila-
ments; the hinge is moftly without teeth, with generally a
fubulate excavated longitudinal line. ‘There are about fixty-
four {pecies included in this genus, feparated into three
diftin& families or divifions.

A. Parafitical ; affixed as it were by Claws.
: Species.

Crista-GAcit. Shell plaited, {pinous ; both lips rough.
It inhabits the Indian ocean and Red fea, and is affixed to
the gorgonia; the fhell is of a purple-violet, pale cinnamon
or bay, rough, raifed with dots; within of a honey colour;
nearly equivalve, and clofed with from five to ten oblique or
flraight acute plaits; at the hinge it is triangular.

Hyoris. Shell plaited and imbricate, with broad com-
preffed feales ; both lips fmooth. This {pecies inhabits the
ocean, on beds of coral; the thell is of a dirty-greenifh-yel-
low, lamellate, the plaits curved here and there, aud befet
with hollow grooved nuclei

MYT

Frons. Shell plaited, fmoothifh; one lip rough. It in-
habits the American ocean, on coral beds; the hell is
reddifh, blueifh, or brown, generally oval, with the margin
plaited on each fide, and denticulate; the lower valve is
glabrous, and grooved in the middle; the upper valve ia
rough, with raifed dots at the margin, and an elevated rib
in the middle.

B. Flat or compreffed into a flattened form, and flightly eared.
Species.

MancaritiFerus; Pearl Mufcle. Shell flattened, nearly
orbicular, with a tranfverfe bafe, imbricate with toothed
tunics. It is found in the American and Indian feas, is
about eight inches long, and ftill broader than it is long.
The infide is beautifully polifhed, produces the true mother- .
of-pearl, and frequently the moft valuable pearls; the cut-
fide is fometimes fea-green or chefnut, or bloom colour, with
white rays; when the outer coat is removed, it has the fame
perlacéous luftre in the infide; the younger fhells have ears
as long as the fhell of the {callops.

Uncuts. Shell longitudinally ftriate, pellucid and flightly”
eared. This {pecies inhabits the Mediterranean; the thell
is thin and hyaline, with very fine perpendicular ftriz, about
the fize of a man’s nail; fome perfons imagine that this is
a {pecies of the genus Offrea, which fee.

C. Ventricofe or convex.

* Lirnopuacus. Shell cylindrical, rounded at both
ends. It inhabits European, Americar, and Indian feas,
penetrating and eating away corals, rocks, and even the
hardeft marbles ; it is about an inch broad, and three inches
long, marked with arched tranfverfe ftriz ; the fhell is dark
bay, with a greenifh tint, but withinit is opal-blue, filvery-
white, or perlaceous. "The European fpecimens have a thin
brittle fhell; the Indian ones are fofter, and nearly coria-
ceous.

* Rucosus. The fhell of this fpecies is rhombic oval,
brittle, rugged, antiquated, and rounded at the ends. Ir
inhabits the nerthern feas and lakes; and is ufually found
lodged in great numbers in lime-ftone, each in a feparate
apari nent, with apertures too {mall for the fhell to pafs
through without breaking the ftone; the fhell is about the
fize of the laft joint of a man’s little finger ; its colour is of
a dirty grey, and within it is half’ blue and half white,
marked with very {mall longitudinal {trie crofling the tranf-
verfe wrinkles.

Birocutaris. Shell blue ftriate, with vaulted knobs
and a white diffepiment or partition. It inhabits the Nico-
bar iflands, and is covered with a green fkin.

Exustus. Shell convex, cne of the margins angular ;
the frontal extremity crenate. This fpecies is found in the
American ocean, and in the Red fea; it is about an inch
and a half long, and has a hinge with four or five lateral
teeth.

Barsatus. Shell {moothifh, ferruginous on the outfide,
and bearded at the tip. It inhabits the Mediterranean feas,
adhering to the lithophytes; is about three quarters of an
inch long, and under the {iin it is reddifh-ferruginous, blue,
or whiuth,

* Enutis; Edible Mufcle. Shell {moothifh violet, the
valves {lightly recurved on the obtufe fide, and fomewhat
angular on the acute fide; the beaks are pointed. It inha-
bits the European and Indian féas ; is two or three inches
long, but larger within the tropics, and {maller as we pro-
mon northward. Found in large beds, and generally ad-
hering to other bodies, by means of a long ilky beard!

3 Incur-

MY TILUS.

*IncurvAtus. The fell of this {pecies is very crooked
on one fide near the beaks, then greatly dilated; within it
is marked with a violet tinge. Found on the Anglefea
coaft; the fhell is covered with a thick rough fin.

* Pettucipus. Shell oval, tranfparent, and very ele-
gantly radiate lengthways with purple and blue. This,
like the laft, is found at Anglefea, in oy{ter beds, and is
about two inches long.

* Umairicatus. Shell contraéted into a deep rugged
cavity oppolite the hinge, forming a deep hollow when the
valves are clofed. It is found at Anglefea, and is nearly
five inches long; the fhell is oval, refembling the M. mo-
diolus, defcribed farther on, but it is diftinguifhed by the
remarkable indentation near the beaks.

*Currus. Shell fhort, ventricofe, obtufe at the beaks,
and of a dirty yellow. It is found at Weymouth.

Uneuratrus. The fhell of this fpecies is {mooth and
flightly curved ; hind-margin infle&ed ; hinge terminal and
two-toothed. It inhabits the Mediterranean and Cape of
Good Hope. There isa variety of this fpecies found at
New Zealand, that refembles the M. edulis, but is full
five inches long, and two iaches and a half broad; the valves
are very convex, refembling the hoof of an ox.

Biwens. Shell ftriate, flightly curved, the hind margin
infle&ted ; the hinge terminal and two-toothed. It inhabits
the Mediterranean, Ethiopic, Atlantic, and Magellanic
feas.

* Moproxus. Shell fmooth and blackifh, obtufe at the
fmaller end, and rounded at the other, one fide near the
beaks is angular. Two varieties-are noticed by Lifter.
It inhabits the European, American, and Indian feas, ad-
hering to fuci and zoophytes ; is fix or feven inches long,
and about half as broad; the fifh is red or orange, and eat-
able.

* Cycneus. Shell ovate, very brittle, and tranfyerfely
wrinkled ; the anterior end comprefled ; the other rounded ;
the hinge lateral. ‘Two varieties of this fpecies are noticed
by Lifter. It is frequently found in rivers and ponds ; is
about two or three inches broad and three inches long; the
fhell is deep, and within it is white, opaque, and often
rough with fmall pearls.

Awatinus; Duck Mufcle. The hell of this f{pecies is
oval; a little compreffed, very brittle and femi-tran{parent,
with a membranaceous margin ; the beaks are decuticated.
It inhabits the frefh waters of Great Britain, and of other
parts of Europe; it is about five inches long, and half as
broad. Ducks and crows are extremely fond of this fpecies,
and of the M. cygneus, and the crows, when the fhell is
too hard for their bills, fly up with it to a great height,
drop the fhell on a rock, and pick out the meat after the
fhell is thus broken.

Virinis. Shell {mooth, ovate, membranaceous, and pel-
lucid, with a terminal hinge. It inhabits the Southern
ocean ; the fhell is green, very thin, and about the fize of a
man’s nail.

Ruser. Shell wrinkled, the valves oblique and dilated
in front ; margin of the hinge equalling the tip. It inhabits
the Southern ocean. The fhell is red and convex, but very
minute, with a fhort comprefled tooth in the hinge.

Asus. Shell tranfyerfely ftriate; beaks gibbous ; hinge
jateral. It inhabits the fhores of Chili. The thell is about
fix inches long and three and a half broad, covered with a
blue fkin, under which it is {nowy, with a blue tinge; the
fith is white, and very excellent food.

Ager. Shell grooved and fealy behind. It inhabits
Chili; fhell rough, like a penna, lefs than the la(t, dull
blue 3 the fifh is black and not eatable.

*Discors. Shell oval, horny, fub-diaphanous; the ex- *
tremities are ftriate longitudinally, the middle tran{verfely.
This {pecies is found in the European and Southern oceans,
affixed to rocks and other hells by its beard; the fhell is
{mall, brittle, and femi-tranfparent ; the fifh is not eatable.

Hirunno. The fhell of this {pecies is fmooth; the
valves are two-lobed. It inhabits the Indian, American,
Mediterranean, and Atlantic feas, in great varieties of fize,
thicknefs, form, colour, and markings; the fhell is con-
tracted at the bafe, with very fine and crowded tranfverfe
wrinkles; within pearly.

Puoanis. Shell oblong, more obtufe on the fore-part,
rough, with tranfverfe wrinkles. It inhabits the North feas,
and penetrates beds of coral and rocks, like the phloas ;
which fee. It is about 1% inch long, and 1} broad ; the

‘ends are not quite clofed; the hinge is without teeth, or

with a very {mall one. :

Srriatutus. The fhell of this fpecies is very finely
ftriate; the hinge is terminal, and one-toothed. It inhabite-
the Northern and Indian feas; is 1} inch long, and 14
broad.

Vutcaris. Shell flattifh on one fide, and infle&ed, with
convergent incurved beaks ; the hinge is one-toothed. It in-
habits the American ocean.

Puicatus. Shell rhombic, tranfverfely ftriate and wrin-
kled; beaksincurved. It inhabits the Nicobar iflands.

Niveus. Shell ovate, fubdiaphanous, with very fine lon-
gitudinal ftriz ; margin acute; hinge two-toothed. Iahabits
the Nicobar iflands, but is very rare.

Smaracpinus. The fhell of this f{pecies is nearly trian-
gular and flattifh ; the hinge is two-toothed in one valve, and
one-toothed in the other. It inhabits Tranquebar, is green
and a little perlaceous within. There is a variety of this
{pecies found in Guinea; brown, witha green margin, and
fometimes a few {pets on the difk.

Versicotor. Shell nearly triangular and flattifh; the
hinge is one-toothed ; the margin-glabrous and acute. This
is found on the fhores of Guinea; refembles the M. afer, is
three inches long, and more than two broad.

CorattiopuaGcus. The hell is carinate in the middle,
and crenate at the margin, with an obtufe knob. It inha-
bits the Indian and American oceans, and perforates racks
like the phloas ; it is about 3ths of an inch long.

Lineatura. Shell triangular, and dilated outwards,
with angular decuffate and confluent lines; the hinge is two-
toothed. Itisa very minute fhell, yellow, with a mixture
of green, and within it is a little filvery.

Fapa. The fhell of this is oval, rufous, ftriate, with a
crenulate margin. Inhabits the feas about Greenland, affix-
ed to rocks by a byffus or beard, and is the food of the Anas
hyemalis, or hy{trionica.

Fruviatinis. Shell thin, flightly wedged, within red-
difh; beaks recurved and large. It inhabits the frefh wa-
ters of Europe ; refembles the M. anatinus, and is thought
to be a variety of the fame {pecies.

Fuscus. Shell oblong, narrow, with very fine tran{verfe
ftrie ; one fide emarginate, the other rounded ; beaks pre-
minent, and curved.

Mammarivs. Shell broad, fhort, and rounded behind ;
beaks conic, protuberant.

Persicus. Shell broad, and covered with a rough yel-
low coat ; within it 1s milky. It inhabits the Perliap fea,
and is thrice as broad as it is long.

Picrus. Shell broad and very fmooth ; flammeous or
rofe colour, with white bands; the beaks are obtufe. It
inhabits Portugal, and, like the laft, is thrice as broad as
it is long.

38 2 FAscrarys

Me XE

Fascratus. Shell pellucid, fhining, blueifh, with a cla-
ret colour, and pale red band. It inhabits the Brafils, and
is about twice as broad asit is long. 5

Usparus. Shell broad, and rounded at both ends, claret
colour, with undulate blueifh and greenifh ftria ; margin
ferrate. It inhabits the fea about Portugal.

Purpureus. Shell rcunded behind; pale flefh colour,
purple within, the margin denticulate. It inhabits the fhores
of Brazi’. ‘

Saxatitts. Shell ear-fhaped, with granulate wrinkles
on the outer fide dilated and rownded. It inhabits Amboyna,
is fixed to rocks, and is eaten by ducks and fwine ; is fhorter
and broader than the joint of the finger.

Arcentivus. Shell tranfverfely ftriate, rounded at each
end, brown, filvery within; beaks rounded.

Furcius. Shell narrow, fhining, blueifh colour, with
violet fpots at the fides; the beaks are rounded and dilated.
It inhabits the feas of Magellan, and fhines like mother-of-

earl.
P Azureus. Shell gibbous, azure, with yellowilh ftripes
beneath ; beaks obtulfe. wi
Morixus. Shell moufe colour, with violet fpots, and a

broad rounded rofy ‘margin ; beaks pointed, ftraight. In-
habits, Guinea. .

Tesraceus. Shell long and narrow, covered with a
teftaceous fkin, under whichit is fhining-filvery, varied with
blue, red, yellow and brown.

Vircatus. Shell dilated outwardly, greenifh-ye!low,
with rofy ftripes; the beaks are obtufe and curved.

Corpatus. Shell oblong, very thin, white, with obfo-
lete ftriz ; with a heart-fhaped gape behind. It inhabits the
Indian and Southern oceans, adhering to corals, and marine
fub[tances.

SracNatrs. Shell oval, flattifh, and tranfverfely ribbed ;
it refembles M. cygneus, but is eight inches broad, and
four aida half long.

Zetvensis. Shell oval, convex, rounded behind, elon-
gated and obtufely pointed before; the beaks are obfolete.
It inhabits the ftagnant waters of Germany.

Rosgus. Shell {uborbicular, with fifteen triangular crefted
grooves, and alternate triangularteeth. It inhabits Africa.

Puniceus. Shell gibbous, pointed, with fifteen grooves ;
margin toothed. It inhabits Africa.

Nrade. Shell flat and thia, with fine grooves ; covered
with a black fkin, under which it is milky, and finely po-
lifhed. Found alfo in Africa. The fhell is very thin, is
about an inch and half long, and has about roo. grooves in it.

Levicatus. Shell flat and fmooth, covered witha thick
fulvous fkin, under which it is rofy. Jt is found in Africa.

Dusius. She'l tranfverfely wrinkled, obtufe at each
end, fulvous, within pearly ; the beaks are obfolete, and
the hinge is without teeth. It inhabits the frefh waters
of Seregal, is five inches broad and two long.

Potymorpuus. Shell five-celled; valves carinate and
fla*tifh on the incumbent fide ; the beaks are obtufe and in-
fleSted.

CANICULATUS.
party-coloured ; focket of the hinge caniculate.
bits New Zealand.

Rostrum. Shell oblong, thin, greenifh, truncate ; beaks
fharp and carinate; valves gaping at the end. Inhabits
Amboyna.

CAMELLIIL.
fharp and crenate; valves completely clofed,
Japan.

MYTIS, a name ufed by fome writers to exprefs the
black juice found in the mouth of the fepia, or cuttle-filh,

Shell fmoothith, chefnut-brown ; within
It inha-

Shell oblong, thin, greenifh, truncate ; beaks
It is Found at

MY xX

with which it colours the water when in danger of bein
taken, and by this means often makes itsefcape. It is alfo
ufed by Hippocrates as the name of a fea-fifh different from
the fepia. ; :

MYTTOTON, a word ufed by the ancients to exprefs
a mixed fort of country food, made of garlic, onions, eggs,
cheefe, oil, and vinegar. It was much eaten by the labour-
ing people among the ancients, and accounted a very whole-
fome difh.

MYURUS, pvspo:, in Medicine, denotes a pulfe which
is continually weakened by infenfible degrees, fo that the
fecond beat is fainter than the firft, the third than the fecond,
&c. See Putse.

The word is compounded of pus, moufe, and ouge, tail ;
the diminution of the pulfe being fuppofed like that of the
thicknefs of the tail of that animal, which grows lefs from
the root to the tip.

MYUS, or Myonre, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Caria, which had an excellent fea-port at the mouth of the
river Meander ; but in a courfe of years the mouth of the.
river was fo ftopped up, that the town was about three
leagues from the fea. It was fituated N.E. of Miletus, and
S.E. of Priené. The Greeks took poffeffion of this town
on their arrival in Ionia; and it became the fort of their other
colonies. Artaxerxes Longimanus gave it to Themiftocles,
in order to furnifh his table with meat. When the entrance
of the gulf of Latmus was ftopped, the waters formed a
lake, which produced fuch a number of infeéts, that the in-
habitants abandoned the place, and retired to Miletus.
Paufanias fays, that in his time there exifted a marble tem-
ple of Bacchus in this town.

MYUTES Lapis, in Natural Hiffory, a name given by
fome authors to a foffile body, part of an alteropodium,
which they have thought in fingle joints fomewhat refembled
the ears of a moufe.

MYXA, in Botany, a fort of plum, which Piiny fays
grew in Syria, near Damafcus, and that a kind of wine was
made from this fruit in Egypt. The Venetians-appear to
have introduced thefe plums, in a dried ftate, from Alexan-
dria to Europe, and they found their way into the apothe-
caries’ fhops, asa gentle purgative medicine. The Alexan-
drian bird-lime, as the Venetians termed it, was made of thi
fruit. See Corpta, fpecies 1. '

MYXINE, the Hag, in Natural Hiffory, a genus of the
clafs and order Vermes intettini. Its generic chara@er is this =
it has a flender body, carinated beneath; the mouth is at the
extremity, and cirrated ; the two jaws are pinaated ; it has
an adipofe or raylefs fin round the tail and under the belly.
There is but a fingle

Species.

Gtutinosa. This is about eight inches long. It inha-
bits the ocean; enters the mouths of fifhes, and totally de-
vours the whole, excepting the fkin and bones. There has
been attributed to it the property of changing water into glue.

MYXOLYDIAN, in Ancient Mujfic, the firlt fpecies of
the diapajon. 5 f

MY XON, in Ichthyology, the name of a fith of the mullet
kind, called by others bacchus.

It much refembles the common mullet; but its head is
lefs pointed, and its body is covered, befide the feales, with
a mucous matter; it has a remarkable irregularity in the
manner of its {wimming, and looks red about the Nod and
covering of the gills.

MYXOSARCOMA, from pute, mucus, and oxpt, flefh,
in Surgery, a tumour, compofed partly of a flefhy fubltance,

and partly of a matter like mucus, K

N,

NAA

N A liquid confonant, or femi-vowel, and the thir-
¢ teenth letter of the Greek, Latin, Englifh, &c.
alphabets.

The N is a nafal confonant; its found is that of a d,
pafled through the nofe: fo that when the nofe is ftopped
by a cold, or the like, it is ufual to pronounce d form. M.
PAbbé de Dangeau obferves, that in the French the n is
frequently a mere nafal vowel, without any thing of the
found of a confonant in it. He cails it the Sclavonic vowel.
The Hebrews cail their N, Nun, which fignifies child, as
being fuppofed the offspring of M; partly on account of
the refemblance of found, and partly that of the figure.
Thus from the m, by omitting the laft column, 1s formed x:
and thus from the capital N, by omitting the firft column,
is formed the Greck minufcule ». Hence, for Biennius, &c.
the Latins frequently ufe Bimus, &c. and the fame people
convert the Greek » at the end of a word into an m;-as,

Qxenxxory pharmacum, &c. See M.

' _N before p, 4, and m, the Latins change into m, and
frequently into / and 1, as in Judo, illudo; in rizo, irrigo,
&e. in which they agree with the Hebrews, who, in lieu
of nun, frequently double the following confonant ; and
the Greeks do the fame, as when for AZanlius, they write
Maaaioz, &c.

The Greeks, alfo, before x, y, x; », changed the » into
y: in which they were followed by the ancient Romans,
who for Angulus wrote Aggulus; for anceps, agceps, &c.
The Latins retrench the n from Greek nouns ending in «» ;
as Azar, leo, Spuxxx, draco. On the contrary, the Greeks
add it to the Latin ones ending in o: 28 Katwv, Nepw, for
Cato, Nero

In Englifh, N has an invariable found: as no, name, &c.
After m it is fometimés almolt loft, as condemn, &c.

N, among the Ancients, was a numeral letter, fignifying
goo; according to the verfe in Baronius,

“© N quoque nongentos numero defignat habendos.”’

And when a line was ftruck over it, N, nine thoufand.

Among the ancient lawyers, N. L. fteod for non liquet,
i. ¢. the caufe is not clear enough to pafs fentence upon.
N. P. was ufed among the Romans for notarius publicus,
N. GC. for Nero Celar, or Nero Claudius. WN. B. is ufed
for Nota bene. In marine language, WN ftands for north.

_N, or N°,-in Commerce, &c. is ufed as an abbreviation of
numero, number. Thus alfo, in Medicine, carryophyllorum
N° vi, fignifies fix cloves. N on the French coins, denotes
thofe ftruck at Montpelier.

NAAGRAMMA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
India, on the Ganges, placed by Ptolemy between Budza
and Camigera.

NAAGRAMMUM, the metropolis of the ifland of

NAB

Taprobana, which Ptolemy places in the interior -of the
country between Anurogrammum and Adifamum.

NAAM, or Nam, Namium, in Law, the taking or
diftraining another man’s moveable goods.

This is either /aevful or unlawful and prohibited.

Naam, Lawful, is a reafonable diftrefs, proportionable
to the value of the thing diftrained for; and anciently
called either vif or mort, as it was made of quick, or dead
chattel.

Lawful Naam is fo either by the common law; as when
a man takes another’s beafts doing damage in his ground;
or by a man’s particular fa€t, as on account of fome con-
tra, &c.

Naam, Unlawful, vetitum namium. See Namium.

NAAMAN, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Red
fea. N, lat. 36°. E. long. 35° 50’.

NaaMan’s Creek, a {mail itream of Americay in Pennfyl.
vania, which runs fouth-eafterly into Delaware river, at
Marcus’ hook.

NAAMANISH, a town of the Arabian Irak, on the
Tigris; 18 miles N. of Vafit.

NAARDEN, or Narpen, a fea-port town of Holland,
fituated at the S. part of the Zuyder fee. It is the capital
of a {mall country called ‘« Goyland,”’ which includes Naar-
den, Muyden, and Welep, with 16 villages. This town has
undergone many viciflitudes from the time of its being firit
built in 996 to the period of its capture by the French in
1795; 11 miles E. cf Amfterdam. N. lat. 52° 23/. E.
long. 5° 2’.

NAAS, a market and poft-town of Ireland, in the county
of Kildare and province of Leinfter. It was a borough
before the union, and is now the aflize town of the county,
but is {mall and of little importance. The county gaol and
the feffions houfe are here, and during the civil wars it was
a flrong hold. It was anciently the refidence of the kings
of Leintter, and feveral parliaments were held here after
the eftablifhment of the Englifh. There were alfo three
moratteries, fome of the ruins of which are {till vifible,
Nees is 154 miles S.W. from Dublin on the Great Southern
road.

Naas, atown of Sweden, in Dalecarlia; 34 miles S.W.
of Fahlun.

NAB, ariver of Bavaria, which rifes from mount Fich-
telberg, in the principality of Bayreuth, and runs into the
Danube, 4 miles W. of Ratifbon.

Nas’s Bay, a bay on the W. part of Hudfon’s bay, N.
of cape Ef{quimaux.

NABAGANA, ariver of Africa, which runs into the
Indian fea, S. lat. 29° 30',

NABAL, a town of Africa, in the country of Tunis,
on the S, fide of the peninfula of Daekbul, in the bay of

Hamam-et.

NAB

Hamam-et. According to Dr. Shaw, the town is thriving
and celebrated for its potteries. It is about a mile diftant
from the fea, and about a furlong W. of the ancient city
of Neapolis; 10 miles N. of Hamam-et. N. lat. 36° 20%.
E. long. 10° 45’.

NABALITA, a {mall ifland of Egypt, in lake Menza-
leh; three miles S. of Tennis.

NABAN, a town of Egypt, on the left-bank of the
Nile; five miles S.S.W. of Benifuef.—Alfo, a town of
Arabia, in the province of Oman; 108 miles W. of Julfar.
—Alfo, a town of Perfia, called “* Nabend,’’ in the pro-
vince of Lariftan, near the gulf; 70 miles W. of Lar. N.
lat. 27° 30/. E. long. 52° 20'.

NABARI, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon;
15 miles S. of Iga.

NABATHEA Perra, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Arabia, according to Strabo; who places it between the
Arabian gulf and Babylonia. This is the town mentioned
by Ptolemy, under the name of Petra, in Arabia Petrza.

NapatH#A Siliqua, in the Materia Medica, a name
given by the interpreters of Avicenna, and other of the
Arabian phyficians, to the jembut, or aljembut, of thofe
authors.

It appears, from the accounts they have given us of this
drug, that it was a long and flender pod, produced on a
thorny tree. It has been generally fuppofed to be the fame
with the carob, or filiqua dulcis, but very erroneoufly.
The fame authors who mention this aljembut, or nabathza
filiqua, mention that alfo under the name of the alnabati, or
Syrian filiqua, as it is interpreted. :

The Syrian filiqua, they fay, purges, and is good in
colics.

The nabathzan they recommend to us as an aftringent
in hemorrhages. It is plainly to be inferred from this, that
the nabathza filiqua is different, in the greateft degree, from
the Syrian pod, or carob fruit; and by its virtues, and the
defcription they give us of the thorny tree which produces
it, it feems very probable that it was the pod of fome fpecies
of the acacia.

NABBURG, in Geography, a town of Bavaria, fituated
on the Nab; 10 miles E. of Amberg. N. lat.49°27'. E.
long. 12° 3'.

NAB IN, or Tumbo Namin, a {mall ifland in the Per-
fian gulf; five miles S.W. of Tumbo.

NABHANA, a town of Africa, in Tunis; 40 miles
from Cairoan.

NABIS, in Biography, a famous tyrant of Lacedemon,
who attained to the fupreme power about the year 206 B.C.,
after the death of Machanidas, and while the lawful king
Agefpolis was living in exile, is reprefented as one of the
worft and moft cruel of men ;—the enemy of all noble and
virtuous perfons, and intent only to fill his treafury, and ag-
grandize himfelf by the moft unjuftifiable means. He, how-
ever, is faid to have performed, with regularity, the func-
tions of a chief magiftrate, and he, probably, made his
government acceptable, on the whole, to the body of the
nation, fince he was able to employ a large public force, and
to extend his dominion into the neighbouring fates. Dur-
ing the war between Philip, king of Macedon, and the Ro-
mans, that monarch not being able to retain Argos, which
he had taken, delivered it to the keeping of Nabis, who
began to practife every extortion to enrich himfelf with its
fpoils. He compelled the magiftrates to pafs two decrees,
one for cancelling old debts, the other for an equal divifion
of lands, by which he hoped to ingratiate himfelf with the
lower claffes. He obliged, by force, the principal male in-
habitants to furrender all their jewels and other valuables ;

NAB

while he deputed his wife on a fimilar errand with refpeét to
the females. After this he made an alliance with the Ro-
mans, but when the final defeat of the Macedonians had re-
ftored liberty to Greece, and Nabis was left in poffeffion of
Argos, which was confidered as difcreditable to the Ro-
mans, the fenate decreed that their general, Quintus Flami-
nius, fhould carry on war upon him. As, however, the
Roman general could make no impreffion upon that city, he
led his forces to Sparta itfelf. Nabis prepared for a vigor-
ous refiftance, and to fecure himfelf from internal treachery,
he infamoufly maffacred eighty young men of the principal
families of his ftate. The Roman army laid wafte the
country around, and reduced feveral places on the fea-coaft,
efpecially Gythium, the ftation of the Lacedemonian mari-
time force. Nabis fued fer peace, but the terms propofed
by the Roman general were fo fevere, that he preferred to
rifque the confequences rather than fubmit to them. He
was, however, a coward as well as tyrant, and was obliged
to fupplicate for peace on any terms. Scarcely had the
Romans withdrawn themfelves, when Nabis began to plan
the recovery of his power, but in the event he was flain,
which happened in the year 193 B. C., after he had, durin

fourteen years, aéted a confiderable part in the affairs o
Greece. ‘

NABLOUS, or Naptosa, in Geography, a town of Syria,
and capital of a hilly country, anciently celebrated under the
mame of the kingdom of Samaria, but at prefent called the
country of Nablous. This town, fituated near to Sichem, and
on the ruins of the Neapolis of the Greeks, is the refidence of
a {cheick, who farms the tribute, for which he is account-
able to the pacha of Damafcus, when he makes his circuit.
The ftate of this country is fimilar to that of the Druzes,
with this difference, that its inhabitants are fuch zealous
Mahometans, as not willingly to fuffer any Chriftians to refide
among them. They are difperfed in villages among the
mountains; the foil of which is tolerably fertile, and pro-
duces a great deal of corn, cotton, olives, and fome filks.
The town has feveral mofques; and carries on a confider-
able traffic with Damafcus and the coaft: it has a cotton
manufacture. Jews of the Samaritan fe€&t are numerous.
Although a nominal deputy be appomted by the pacha of
Damafcus, the town is really governed by the inhabitants ;
20 miles N. of Jerufalem. N. lat. 32° 16’. E. long. 35°
22’. Volney’s and Browne’s Travels.

NABLUM, in Hebrew nede/, an inftrument of mufic
among the Hebrews. The Seventy, and the Vulgate,
tranflate it fometimes by nab/um, and at other times by p/al-
terion, or lyra, or even cithara.

The nablum was a ftringed inftrument, very near of the
form of a A, which was played upon by both hands with
{mall fticks, like the dulcimer. See Calmet’s Differta-
tion concerning the mufical Initruments of the ancient
Hebrews, prefixed to the fecond volume of his Commentary
on the Pfalms.

Kircher fuppofes it was the fame as the pfaltery.

Baptift Folengius, on the 33d pfalm, fays that this inftru-
ment was efteemed the moft noble of all. Becaufe, when the
feventy fymphonifts who blew the trumpet, and played the
organs, the cymbals, and the lyre, were affembled to play in
concert, the king played alone upon the nablum. “ Rex
folus falterio regio canebat.”’

Achilles Tatius, in the firft book of the Loves of Leux-
ippus and Clitophon, defcribes a banquet, and fays, that at
the end of the repaft a beautiful youth advanced with an
inftrument which he called the cithara, and trying the ftrings
with his hands, he made them found a little; then feizing
the pleétrum, he united his voice with the inftrument.

NABO,

NAB

NABO, or Nexo, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
tribe of Reuben, which, being in the vicinity of the land of
Moab, was taken poffeffion of by the Moabites, and be-
longed to them, as we learn from the prophet Jeremiah.—
Alfo, a town of the tribe of Judah, about eight miles from
Hebron, which appears to have been a defert in the time of
Eufebius and Jerome.—Alfo, a mountain placed by Mofes
in the land of Moab, though feated on the other fide of the
Arnon, and, confequently, in the kingdom of Sihon. On
this mountain Mofes died. Deut. xxii. 49.

Naso, or Nebo, in Mythology, a deity of the Babyloni-
ans, who poffeffed the next rank to Bel. It is mentioned
by Ifaiah, ch. xlvi. 1. Woflius apprehends that Nabo was the
moon, and Bel the fun; but Grotius fuppofes that Nabo
was fome celebrated prophet of the country, which opinion
is confirmed by the etymology of the name, fignifying, ac-
cording to Jerome, one that prefides over prophecy. Mott
of the Babylonifh kings bore the name of that god joined
tp their own; as Nabonaflar, Nabuchadonofor, &c.

NABOB, the name of a viceroy or governor of one of
the provinces of the Mogul’s empire in India. Nabob, or
more properly zavab, is the plural of naib, a deputy.

As the term is ufed in Bengal, it has the fame meaning
with Nazim; which fee. This title is given to the wives
and daughters of princes, as well as to princes themfelves.

NABOBGUNGE,, in Geography, a name given to fevera]
towns of Hindooftan, in Bengal, Allahabad, and Oude.

NABOBSERASPOUR, a town of Bengal; 24 miles
N.E. of Calcutta.

NABOJA, a town of New Mexico, in the province of
Mayo; 32 miles N.E. of Santa Cruz.

NABONASSAR. The era of Nabonaffar is famous :
we know but little of the hiftory of that prince; only that
he was king of Babylon, and was alfo called Belefus;
though fome will have him the Baladan mentioned in
Ifaiah, xxxix. 1. and 2 Kings, xx. 12. Some even conje€ture
that he was a Mede ; and that he was fet on the throne by
the Babylonians, upon their fhaking off the government of
the Medes.

The beginning of this prince’s reign is of great import-
ance in chronology ; becaufe Ptolemy affures us, there were
aftronomical obfervations made by the Chaldeans from Na-
bonaflar to his time; and Ptolemy, and the other aftrono-
mers, account their years from that epocha. See Astro-
NOMY:

From the obfervations quoted by Ptolemy, it follows,
that the firft year of this era is the 747th year before
Jefus Chrift; and the 3967th of the Julian period. See
Erocua. ;

The years of this epocha are Egyptian years, of three
hundred and fixty-five days each; commencing on the 2gth
of February, and reckoned, according to the computation
of aftronomers, from noon.

NABOPOLASSAR, in Biography, a prince of Baby-
lon, united wich A ftyages againft Syria, which country they
conquered, and having divided it between them, founded
two kingdoms, that of the Medes under Aftyages, and that
of the Chaldeans under Nabopolaffar, in the year B. C. 626.
Necho, king of Egypt, jealous of the power of the latter,
declared war again{t him, and defeated him. Nabopolaffar
died after a reign of 21 years.

NABOTH, Lg of, in Anatomy, a kind of ovary near
the neck of the womb, difcovered by Naboth, profeffor of
medicine in the univerfity of Leipfic.

NABTE, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the pro-
vince of Hedsjas; 100 miles W.N.W. of Medina.

NAC
" NABUCHADNEZZAR, in Biography. See Neww-

CHADNEZZAR.

NABUNAL, Etzsas pg, a French cardinal, who flou-
rifhed in the fourteenth century, and took his furname from
the place of his nativity in the province of Perigord. He em-
braced the religious life in the order of the Friars-minors, and
after feveral inftances of church preferment, he became arch-
bifhop of Nicofia and patriarch of Jerufalem. In 1342 he
was promoted, by pope Clement VI. to the dignity of car-
dinal-prieft, with the titleof St. Vitat. He died at Avignon
in 1367. He was*author of feveral works, as “ A Com-
mentary on the four Books of Sentences of Peter Lombard :”
“A Commentary on the Apocalypfe:”? “A Treatife con-
cerning a contemplative Life ;”? and ‘* Sermons explanatory
of various Paffages in the Evangelifts.”” Moreri.

NABUSTA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Oude ; 12 miles W.N.W. of Currah.

NACA, a town of Japan, on the E. coatt of the ifland
of Ximo. N. lat.32° 12’. E. long. 132° 6’.

NACABA, a town of Japan, on the S.E. coaft of the
ifland of Niphon; 40 miles E. of Awa. ’

NACACHEZ, a town of Louifiana, onthe Red river.
N. lat. 32° 29. W. long. 93° 26’.

NACAIRES, an in{trument of mufic, which though
often mentioned by the old poets both of France and Eng-
land, it is not certain whether it was an inftrument of per-
cuffion, or a. wind inftrument. In the Roman d’Alex-
andre, it is faid ;

«< Cafcun a porté trompe ou vielle atemprée,
Nacaires et tabors de grande renomée.””

Du Cange defcribes nacara to be a kind of brazen drum
ufed in cavalry, yet Chaucer names it in the company of
military wind in{ftruments ;

‘¢ Pipes, tromps, nakeres, and clariounes
That in the bataille blowen blody founes.”’

NACAMERI, in Geography, a town of New Navarre ;
190 miles S. of Cafa Grande.

NACANTA, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ;
20 miles N. of Mogani.

NACATS, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Ximo;
4o miles S.E. of Kokura.

NACHEGO, alake of South America, m the province
of Quito ; 60 miles E. of Francifco de Borja.

NACHELO, or Naxeto, a fea-port town of Perfia, in
the province of Farfiftan, on the N. coaft of the Perfian
gulf, inhabited by Arabs, independent of the crown of Per-
fra, the inhabitants of which are chiefly employed in fithing
for pearls; 170 miles S. of Schiras. N. lat. 27°. E. long.

"aol.

NACHITOCHES, a French fettlement of Louifiana,
on the Red river, about 140 leagues N.W. of New Orleans,
of fmall extent, but tolerably populous. Its inhabitants,
like thofe of Louifiana, are lively, well-formed in their per-
fons, and inured to fatigue. They often afcend their rivers
with their families to the diftance of four or five hundred
leagues, and fpend on thefe painful expeditions 19 or 20
months. Hunting the bear is one of their favourite pur-
fuits, which is chtefly praétifed in the winter feafon, when
this animal is particularly fat, and in condition to furmfha
large quantity of oil. N. lat. 32° 11'. W. long. 93° 46’.

NACHO, Naco, or Puerto de Cavpillos, a town of
Mexico, in the province of Honduras ; 30 miles N. of Gra-
cias a Dios. N. lat. 15°. W. long. 89° 36’.

NACHOD, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Konigin-

gratz ;

NAD

gratz; 15 miles N.E. of Konigingratz. N. lat. 53° 18!.
E. long. 15° 57’.

NACHSHAB, or Nasapn, a town of Bucharia; 25
miles S.W. of Samarcand.

NACIBEA, in Botany, a name of whofe meaning or de-
rivationno account is given. Aubl. Guian. v. 1.95. t. 37.
Juff. r99. See Manerria.

NACKELO, or Naxto, in Geography, a town of Si-
lefia, in the principality of Oppeln; ro miles S.E. of Op-

eln.

NACKTIGAEL, an ifland in the gulf of Tonquin,
about 16 miles in circumference. N. lat. 20°. E. long.
107° 42!.

NACLANTUS, or Naccu1anTE, JAMES, in Biography,
a learned Italian prelate in the fixteenth century, was born
at Florence, and took the ecclefiaftical habit among the Do-
minican monks. He filled the theological profefforfhip in a
houfe belonging to his order at Rome, with fo high a repu-
tation, that pope Paul III. raifed him, on account of his
merit, to the epifcopal rank. He took part in the delibera-
tions of the council of Trent, and died in 1569. His works
confift of « Enarratio in Epiftolam ad Ephefios ;”” “ Inter-
pretatio Epiftole ad Romanos;” ‘ Medulla facre Scrip-
ture ;”’ “ De Pape et Concilii Poteftate ;” ‘* De Maximo
Pontificatu, Maximoque Sacerdotio Chrifti;’’ and other
theological treatifes, which were collected, and publifhed at
Venice, in 1557, in two volumes folio,

NACONGO, in Geography, a river of Africa, which
runs into the Atlantic, S. lat. 5° 15’.

NACORI, a town of New Mexico, in the province of
Sonora; 50 miles S.E. of Pitquin.—Alfo, a town of New
Navarre; 180 miles S.S.E. of Cafa Grande.

NACRE, in Natural Hiftory. See PINNA.

NACRI, in Geography, an ifland in the Grecian Archi-
pelago, about fix miles in circumference ; five miles E.S.E.
of Patino.

NACSIVAN, or NacsHivan, a town of Perfian Ar-
menia, fuppofed to have been the ancient Artaxata, and one
of the largeft cities of the Eaft. It was ruined by Abbas I.
and once contained 40,000 houfes. It contains confiderable
bazars, caravanferas, public baths, and other buildings ; 85
miles S.E. of Erivan. N. lat. 39° 20’. E. long. 45° 25’.

NACZ, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of Wilna ;
20 miles N.W. of Lida.

NACZIKOWKA, atown of Poland, in the palatinate
of Braclaw; 36 miles W. of Braclaw.

NADAB, the fovereign pontiff, or high prieft of the
Perfians, whofe dignity is the fame as that of the mufti
among the Turks; with this difference only, that the nadab
may Fiver himfelf of his ecclefiaftical office, and pafs to
civil employment, which the mufti is not allowed to do.
See Muputi. .

The nadab takes place next after the atmath dulet, or
prime minilter ; he has two judges under him, called the
{cheik and the cafi, who decide all religious matters, grant
divorces, and are prefent at contraéts and public aéts, and
thefe have deputies in all the cities of the kingdom.

NADAGONG, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in the circar of Ellichpour; nine miles E. of Omrautty.

NADAMUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Cochin; 36
miles E. of Cochin,

NADARZYN, atown of the duchy of Warfaw; 10
miles §. of Warlaw.

NADAST, a townof Hungary ; 18 miles E. of Ziyet.

NADEC, a town of the Birman empire, feated on the
Ava; 35 miles W. of Ava,

ZEW
NADEEGSDA, the moft foutherly of the Kurile

iflands, in the Ruffian charts.

NADELSTEIN, in Mineralogy. See Trvantum.

NADEN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Kerman; 53 miles E. of Kabis.

NADENDAL, a town of Sweden, in the government
of Abo; feven miles W. of Abo.

NADERBAR, a circar of Hindooftan, in Candeifh,
fituated on each fide of the Taptee, N. of Baglana, and E.
of Guzerat.—Alfo, a town from which the circar dertves its
name; 55 miles E of Surat. :

NADGONG, a town of Hindooftan, in Goondwanah ;
to miles N. of Nagpour.

NADHEA, a town of Perfia, in the province of Ker-
man; 8omiles N.N.E. of Sirgian.

NADIMSKOI, a town of Ruflia, in the gulf of Ob-
fkaia, into which the river Nadim runs, and the government
of Tobolfk. N. lat. 66°. E. long. 68° 26!.

NADIN, a fortrefs of Dalmatia, fituated on a moun-
tain, and now belonging to Italy. &

NADIR, a town of Egypt, fituated on the W. branch
of the Nile; 28 miles N.N.W. of Cairo.

Nanir, in 4/ronomy, a point in the heavens diametrically
oppofite to the zenith.

The word is pure Arabic, in which language it fignifies
the fame. ~ j

The nadir is that point dire@tly under our feet : or a point
ina right line drawn from our feet through the centre of
the earth, and terminating in the under hemifphere.

The zenith and nadir are the two poles of the horizon, each
being 90° diftant from it, confequently each in the meridian.

Naprr, Sun’s, is the axis of the cone projected by the
fhadow of the earth; thus called, becaufe that axis being
prolonged, gives a point in the ecliptic diametrically oppo-
fite to the fun.

Napir-il-tifne, in the Turhifh Offices, the fuperintendant
over the wardrobe.

Nanir-Shah, in Biography. See Kout-KHAN.

NADONE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Lahore, on the Beyah; 30 miles S.E. of Nagorkote, and
three miles N.W. of Bompal.

NADOR, a town of Africa, on the S.W. part of Al-
giers, inhabited by Arabians; 80 miles S.E. of Oran.

NADOUT, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat; 16
miles S. of Champaneer.

NADRAMA, a town of Africa, in the country of
Biledulgerid ; 45 miles S. of Beni Mezzab.

NADSAR, a mountain of Thibet. N. lat. 27° 26’.
E. long. 87° 29!.

NADUM, a town of Hindooftan, in Cochin; 30 miles
E. of Cranganore. .

NAEFELS, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of
Glaris, inhabited by Roman Catholics; four miles N. of
Glaris.

NAEFF, in Rural Economy, a provincial term applied
tothe nave of a wheel of the cart or other kind.

NALNIA, in Mythology, a goddefs who prefided over la-
mentations and funerals ; and who had a temple near Rome.

Nenia is alfo ufed for a funeral dirge or fong, fung on
funeral occafions.

NAVIUS, Cnerus, in Biography, an ancient Roman
poet and hiltorian, was a native of Campania, and ferved in the
firft Punic war. Of this war he wrote a hillory in Saturnian
verfe, and he was the fecond Ronan who brought dramatic
compolitions on the ftage. His firlt comedy was aéted about
the year 235 or 228 B.C. It gave offence to fome of the

5 leading

NEV

leading men at Rome, and on account of it he was thrown
into prifon. He was finally obliged to quit Rome, and died
at Utica in the year 203 B.C. Only fome fragments of
his works have come down to modern times.

NZEVUS, a mole or freckle on the fkin. Navi materni
fignify the little fpots, excrefcences, or {wellings, with which
many children are born. There are two kinds, viz. {mall
red tumours, which gradually increafe toa large fize; or
brown flat marks, not rifing in the leaft above the furface of
the fkin. Mr. Latta fays, he once faw in a child two years
old, a tumour of this kind weighing fourteen inches, which,

at the time of birth, was only equal in fize to a large bean, «

and which, for a year afterwards, did not enlarge much;
but then grew to the magnitude already fpecified. The other
fpecies of nevi materni, or fuch as rife but little above the,
fkin, are of various forms, and have been compared with
cherries, grapes, &c. and have all been {uppofed to arife from
fome impreffion made on the mind of the mother during preg-
" nancy, or at the time of conception. The fettlement of
“this difputed point we leave to fpeculative writers.

Thofe nevi materni, which are mere fpots, or marks, give
no inconvenience, and of courfe do not require the inter-
ference offurgery. But fuch nevi materni as elevate them-
felves above the furface of the body, increafe in fize, and
feem likely to become troublefome, fhould be entirely re-
moved with a knife. Many of them feem to confift of a con-
geries of dilated veflels, and, after they have acquired a cer-
tain fize, are apt to burit and bleed profufely. John Bell
has named this kind of difeafe aneurifm by anaflomofis ; the
defcription and proper treatment of which we fhall next con-
fider, as the fubje¢t is not treated of in the article Anru-
RISM. ‘

By the term “aneurifm by anaftomofis,”’ Mr. John Bell,
of Edinburgh, means a fpecies of this difeafe, which refem-
bles fuch bloody tumours, or nevi materni, as appear in new-
born children, grow toa large fize, and, ultimately buriting,
emit a confiderable quantity of blood. The aneurifm by
anaftomolis often affects adults, increafing from an appear-
ance like that of a mere {peck, or pimple, to a formidable
difeafe, and being compofed of a mutual enlargement of the
fmaller arteries and veins. The difeafe originates from fome
accidental caufe ; is marked by.a perpetual tarobbing ; grows
flowly, but uncontroulably ; and is rather irritated, than
checked, by compreffion. The throbbing is at firft indiftiné,
but when the tumour is perfeGtly formed, the pulfation is
very manifeft. Every exertion makes the throbbing more
evident. The occafional turgid {tates of the tumour pro-
duce facs of blood in the cellular fub{tance, or dilated veins,
and thefe facs form little tender, livid, very thin points, which
burft, from time to time, and then, like other aneurifms,
this one bleeds fo profufely, as to induce extreme weaknefs.

The tumour is a congeries of active veffels, and the cel-
lular fubftance, through which thefe veffels are expanded, re-
fembles, as Mr. John Bell defcribes, the gills of a turkey
cock, or the fubftance of the placenta, fpleen, or womb.
The irritated and inceffant aGtion of the arteries fills the cells
with blood, and from thefe cells ‘it is re-abforbed by the
veins. The fize of the {welling is increafed by exercife,
drinking, emotions of the mind, and by all caufes which ac-
celerate the circulation.

Mr. John Bell ftates, that the hemerrhage from the aneu-
rifm by anaftomofis ufurps, in the female fabject, the place
of menitruation.

«‘ This aneurifm,”? obferves the above writer, ‘‘is a mere
eongeries of active veffels, which will not be cured by open-

_ing it; all attempts to obliterate the difeafe with cauttics,
after a fimple incifion, have proved unfuccefsful, nor does

Vor, XXIV.

NAG

the interrupting of particular veffels, which lead to it, affeét
the tumour; the whole group of veffels mutt be extirpated.
In varicofe veins, or in aneurifms of individual arteries, or
in extravafations of blood, fuch as that produced under the
{calp from blows upon the temporal artery, or in thofe aneu-
rifms, produced in fchoolboys by pulling the hair, and alfo
in thofe bloody effufions from blows on the head, which have
a diftin& pulfation, the procefs of cutting up the varix,
aneuri{m, or extravafation, enables you to obliterate the
veffel and perform an eafy cure. But, in this enlargement
of innumerable fmall veffels, in this aneurifm by anaftomofia,
the rule is’* not to cut into, but to cut itout.? Thefe pur-
ple and ill-looking tumours,"becaufe they are large, beating,
painful, covered with fcabs, and bleeding, like a cancer in
the lat ftage of ulceration, have been but too often pro-
nounced cancers! incurable bleeding cancers! and the re-
marks which I” have made, while they tend, in fome
meafure, to explain the nature and confequences of the
difeafe, will remind you of various unhappy cafes, where
either partial incifions only had been praétifed, or the patient
left entirely to his fate.” See John Bell’s Principles of Sur-
gery, vol. i.

Mr. Abernethy cured a nzvus maternus upon a child’s
arm by means of preffure with a bandage. See his Surgical
Works.

A tumour of the fame nature, fituated in the orbit, and
caufing a difplacement of the eye, violent headachs, &c.
was cured by tying the carotid artery of the fame fide. See
Medico-chirurgical TranfaGtions, vol. ii.

eels in Geography, a town of Africa, in Biledul-
geri -

NAFTMIAN, an ifland in the Cafpian fea, in the gulf
of Balkan. N. lat. 40°.45'.

NAFWALSIO, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Smaland ; 33 miles S.E. of Jonkioping.

NAG, a provincial term applied to a horfe of a fmall
fize, for the faddle: this fort of horfe is very ufeful for
many purpofes of hufbandry, when light labour is required
to be performed. See Hossy.

NAGA, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the ifland of
Ximo; 5 miles N. of Nangafaki.

NAGACOIL, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Guntoor ; 20 miles N.N.E. of Junaconda.

NAGAT, an ifland in the North Pacific ocean, near the
W. coaft of North America, fo named by the Ruffians. N.
lat. 55° 10". E. long. 199° 14'.

NAGALAVERAM, atown of Hindooftan, in Ma-
dura; 32 miles E. of Coilpetta. :

NAGAMUNGALUM, a town of Hindooftan, in My-
fore; 23 miles N. of Seringapatam. N. lat. 12° 59’. E.
long. 76° 4o!.

NAGAR, a tewn of Hindooftan, in Mewat; 20 miles
E. of Cottilah.

NAGARA, a town of European Turkey, in Romania,
near the Straits ; 10 miles S.W. of Gallipoli.

C a eet einige a town of Thibet; 42 miles S. of
afla.

NAGATCH, a town of Hindooftan, in Marawar; 9
miles N.N.W. of Ramanadporum.

NAGAVSKATA, a town of Ruffia, in the country of
the Coffacks, on the Don; 148 miles E.N.E. of Azof.

NAGAZ, or NucuHz, a town of Candahar, near the
river Cow-mull; repaired or rebuilt by Timur Bec; 58
miles E,S.E. of Ghizni. N. lat. 33° 16’. E. long. 69°

xh :

NAGED, a town of Perfia, in Farfiftan; 27 miles

S.S.W. of Schiras.

NAG

NAGEIA, in Botany, Gertn. v. 1. 191. t. 39, a genus
eftablifhed by that botanift, upon the Nagi of Kempfer,
Amoen. Exot. 773. t. 874, its name being formed from
that Japanefe word. Gertner himfelf remarks that this
plant differs but little in the characters of the fruit from
Myrica, to which other writers have referred it. See
Myrica.

NAGEMUL, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Myfore ; 30 miles N.N.W. of Seringapatam.

NAGEMULUS, in Jchthyolgy, aname given by fome
of the German authors to the fifh called by Willughby and
others, the /ucioperca, or pike-perch. See Prerca Lucio-

rls ue
ie NAGERAN, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the

rovince of Yemen; 10 miles N.W. of Saade.

NAGGERA, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; 40
miles W. of Kairabad.

NAGGERY, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ;
10 miles S.E. of Bomrauzapollam.

NAGGUR, atown of Hindooftan, in Oude ; 16 miles
N. of Lucknow.

NAGI, in Botany, a much admired Japanefe tree,
planted frequently in the courts of houfes. See Nacera
and Myrica.

NAGLES Moonrarns, in Geography, aridge of moun-
tains in the county of Cork, Ireland, extending fome miles
E. and W. fouth of the river Blackwater.

NAGLIANO, a town of France, in the department of
the Tanaro ; 4 miles N. of Alba.

NAGO, a {mall ifland in the gulf of Bothnia, near the
S.W. coaft of Finland. N. lat. 60° 22!.

NAGODIN, a town of European Turkey, in Servia ;

16 miles W.N.W. of Widdin. ;

NAGOES, a tribe of Whidah negroes on the Slave coaft
of Africa, whofe language, though underftood by the Pa-
paws, or Whidah negroes, differs in many particulars from
the Whidaw language.

NAGOJA, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ;
So miles E. of Meaco.

NAGOLD, a town of Wurtemberg, ona river of the
fame name, in the Black Foreft, near which is a medicinal
{pring ; 22 miles S.W. of Stuttgart. N. lat. 48°30. E.
long. 8° 47’.

NAGONE, a town of Hindooftan, in Bundelcund; 26
miles S.E. of Pennah.

NAGOORDILL, a town of Hindooftan ;
§.E. of Travancore.

NAGOR, Antilope Redunca,:in Zoology, the antelope
with a reddifh colour, ftiff upright hair, and the horns bent
forwards at the ends. Schreber. ‘This is the red antelope of
Pennant. It inhabits Senegal, and at the Cape of Good
Hope. Its length is about four feet, its height two feet
three inches, the horns about five inches and a half long,
with two flight fmooth rings at the bafes, and bent gently
forwards :, the ears are almoft as long as the horns: the
general colour is a pale reddifh, paleft on the cheft. This
{pecies, according to Gmelin, is the Knuxsof ABlian.

NAGORBUSSY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Bahar; 16 miles S. of Durbungah.

NAGORCOTE, or Kote Kangrah, a fortrefs and
celebrated pagoda of Hindooftan, in the country of La-
hore ; 86 miles N.E. of Lahore. N, lat. 32° 20'. E. long.

48'.

NAGORE, or, as it is fometimes called, Birboom, a
town of Bengal, in the circar of Birboom; 100 miles
N.W. of Calcutta. N. lat. 23°37!. E. long. 87° 26'.—
Alfo, a circar of Hindooftan, in the country of Agimere:

12

10 miles

NAH

bounded on the N. by the foubah of Delhi and Moultan;
on the E. by Mewat and Jyenagur; on the S. by the cir-
cars of Agimere and Joodpour; «nd on the W. by the
cirear of Bickaneer.—Alfo, a town in this laft mentioned
circar; 42 miles N.W. of Agimere. N. iat. 27 9! E.
long. 74° 48'.—Alfo, a town in the Carnatic; 15 miles S.
of 'Tranquebar. as ,

NAGORPAL, a town of Hindoojtan, in Lahore; 27
miles N.N.E. of Jallindar.

NAGORSKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Tobolfk, on the Oby; 92 miles S.S.E. of Berezov.

NAGOWRA, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; 35
miles E. of Nidjibabad.

NAGPOUDR, a circar of Hindooftan, bounded on the
N. by Toree and Ramgur, onthe S. by Silhee and Tomar,
on the E. by Oriffa, and on the W. by Oriffa, and the cir-
cars of Chuta and Palamow ; about 40 miles long, and 30
broad. The capital is Doefa.

Nacprour, a town of Hindooftan, the capital of the cir-
car of Goondwana, or, as it is now called, the province ‘eo
Nagpour, in the foubah of Berar, is a city of modern
date ; and though very extenfive and populous, is! meanly
built, and is open and defencelefs, except only that it is
guarded by a {mall citadel of incontiderable ftrength. It
1s the refidence of the chief of the eaftern Mahratta ftate.
The country about it is fertile and well cultivated, inter-
{perfed with hills of a moderate height ; but the general ap-
pearance-of the country at large, and particularly between
Nagpour and Bahar, is that of a foreft, thinly fet with vil-
lages and towns. N: lat. 21° ro’. E. long. 79° 46!

NAGRAGINSKOI, a town of Ruflia, in the govern-
ment of Tobolfk, on the Konda ; 176 miles N. of Tobolfk.

NAGREE, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Chandail ; 32 miles E..of Makoonda. :

NAGROTAH, a town of Hindooftan, in Lahore; 22
miles N. of Jummoo.

NAG'S Heap, a cape on the S. end of the W. coatt of
the ifland of St. Chriftopher. N. lat. 17°20’. W. long.
63° 33'. ,

NAGUALAPA, or Sr. Pepro, a river of Mexico,
which pafles by Colima, in the province of Mechoacan, and
runs into the Pacific ocean, N. lat, 19° 30!.

NAGUARACHI, a town of New Mexico, in the pro-
vince of Hiaqui; 140 miles E.N.E. of Riochico. 4

NAGURKEARY, a town of Bengal; 38 miles S.S.E.
of Curruckdeagh. N. lat. 23° 53!. E.long. 86 36!.

NAGYBANIA, a metal town of Hungary, and one
of the royal free towns, the gold and filver mines of which
have been produétive ; 30 miles N. of Zatmar.

NAGY-CAROLY, a town of Hungary, with a cattle ;
12 miles S\W. of Zatmar.

NAGYFALJU, a town of Hungary, near the Theyfs ;
3 miles E.S.E. of Tokay.

NAGYKETSKY, a town of Hungary; 8 miles N.E.
of Gros Wardein. ;

NAGYMYHALA, a town of Hungary; 18 miles
W.S.W. of Ungvar. ;

NAGYSCOLOS, a town of Hungary; 12 miles E.S.E,
of Munkacz.

NAHANT Point forms the N.E. point of Bofton
harbour, in Maflachufetts ; 9 miles E.N.E, of Bolton. N.
lat. 42 27’. W.long.*70° 57’.

NAHANTIK, a bay of the ftate of Conneéticut; 3 miles
W. of the mouth of the Thames.

NAHAR ¢/ Berd, a river of Syria, the ancient E/ea-
therus, which runs into the Mediterranean ; 9 miles N. of

Tripoli.
NAHARLYK,

NAI

NAHARLYK, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Kiev; 24 miles E. of Bialacerkiev.

NAHAR-MALEK, a town of the Arabian Irak, near
the Euphrates. N. lat. 31°20. E. long. 45° 30!.

NAHARVALT, or Nanarvates, a people of Ger-
many, who had a confecrated grove, whofe prieft was drefled
like a woman. The Romans believed that the gods wor-
fhipped in this grove were Caftor and Pollux, as they
were both brothers, and both young. See Tacit. de Mor.
Germ. Num. 45.

NAHEL, or Manam, a town of Arabia, in the pro-
vince of Oman; 50 miles N.N.W. of Oman. N. lat. 24°
20'—Alfo, a town of Egypt; 16 miles S.E. of Cairo.

NAHIA, a town of Perfia, in the province of Ker-
man ; 70 miles S. of Sirgian.

NAHIL, a river of Africa, which rifes in the defert of
Barca, and runs into the Mediterranean, N. lat. 32° 10’.
E. long. 40° 10’.

NAHR é/ Antar, a town of the Arabian Irak, on the
Euphrates, the refidence of an Arabian fcheick ; 5 miles N.
of Corna.

Naur Teri, a town of Perfia,:in the province of Chu-
fiftan; 20 miles S.E. of Ahuaz.

NAHRAIM, EL, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the
province of Diarbekir, on the Khabur; 40 miles N.E. of
Kerkifieh.

NAHUAPO, a town of Peru, in the Audience of
Quito ; 45 miles W. of St. Joachim de Omaguas.

NAHOUM, or, the Prophecy of Nauum, a canonical book
of the Old Teftament. Nahum, the feventh of the twelve
leffer prophets, was a native of Elkofhai, a little village of
Galilee. The fubje& of this prophecy is the deftruétion of
Nineveh, which he defcribes in the molt lively and pathetic
manner : his ftyle is bold and figurative, and can hardly be
exceeded by the moft perfect mafters of oratory. His pro-
phecy forms a regular and perfect poem; the exordium is
not merely magnificent, it is truly majeltic: the prepara-
tion for the deftru€tion of Nineveh, and the defcription
of its downfall and defolation, are expreffed in the moft
vivid colours, and are in the higheft degree bold and lumi-
nous. This prophecy was verified at the fiege of that city,
by Aftyages, in the year of the world 4378, 622 years be-
fore Chrift

The time of Nahum’s death is mknown ; the Greek me-
nologies, and the Latin martyrologies, place his feftival on
the firft day of December.

NAHUNKEAG, in Geography, a {mall ifland of Ame-
rica, in Kennebeck river, 38 miles from the fea. The name
denotes, in the Indian language, the place where eels are
takea.

NAIA, in Zoology, the name of a {pecies of coluber, the
feuta of whofe abdomen are one hundred and ninety in num-
ber, and the {quamz of the tail fixty.

NAJAC, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Avignon, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Villefranche, on the Aveiron; nine miles S. of
Villefranche. The place contains 2181, and the canton
go4o inhabitants, on a territory of 185 kiliometres, in 17
communes.

NAIADES, in Botany, a natural order of plants, the
6th in Juffieu’s firit clafs, and fo named by him, not only
from Naias, which is one of them, but becaufe they are in-
habitants of ponds and rivulets

The charaGter of the clafs is to have no cotyledons ; that
of the order is thus given.

Calyx entire or divided, fuperior or inferior, rarely want-
ing. Stamens definite (perhaps inferted into the calyx).

NAT

Germen fuperior or inferior, fingle or four-fold ; ftyle fimple
to each germen, rarely double, or none at all; ftigma one or
many. Seeds folitary or feveral, either naked and fuperior,
or enclofed in a pericarp, which is either fuperior or inferior.
Leaves generally oppofite, or whorled. Flowers in fome cafes
hermaphrodite, in others monoecious or dioecious. Plazits
all herbaceous, and, except Saururus, aquatics.

Section 1, fruit inferior, contains only Hippuris.

Sect. 2, fruit fuperior, with one or four feeds, confifts
of Chara, Ceratophyllum, M yriophyllum, Naias. Saururus,
pict sop Potamogeton, Ruppia, Zanichellia, and Calli.
triche. ri

Seé. 3, fruit fuperior, with a {mall, ‘but indefinite, num-
ber of feeds, confifts of Lemna only, called by Juffieu
Lenticula.

The charaters of this order are vague, and the author
feems not fatisfied with it himfelf. He hints that feveral of
its genera probably ought to be removed from the Acotyle-
dones. (See Myriopuytium.) Mr. Brown, Prodr. Nov.
Holl. v. 1. 345, confiders Naias, Lemna, and Chara asallied -
to the order of Hyprocuanripgs ; fee that article.

NAIADS, or Nains, Naiades, derived from yaw, J fow,
or from yaw, L inhabit, in Mythology, a fort of nymphs,
or heathen divinities, {uppofed to pretide over fountains and
rivers.
The Naiads had their facrifices fometimes of goats and
lambs, with libations of wine, honey, and oil, and fre-
quently of nothing but milk, fruits, and flowers ; and their
feftivals, in the ruftic ceremonies of which, milk, honey,
and oil flowed in abundance.

Strabo fays, the Naiades were priefteffes of Bacchus.

What we learn of them in general is, that-they were fap-
pofed to live in the palaces of the prefiding deities of foun-
tains, lakes, and rivers. We have the names of no lefs than
fixteen of thefe deities, given us by Virgil, Georg. iv.
ver. 336 to 340; and 343 to 345, inhis account of Cirene’s
apartment only, in the watery palace of Peneus: and Ovid,
lib. iii. el. 6. ver) 64, {peaks of a hundred, at leaft, in the
river Anio. They had often a name from the particular
river they inhabited. They are defcribed with long, bright
hair, flowing down their fhoulders; their faces fhould have
a fhining, humid look, not unlike the Venus Anaduomené,
of Apelles; their fhape fhould be’ fine, and their limbs well
turned. Their robes, when they wear any, for they are
moit commonly quite naked, fhould be of a greenifh caft ;
varied at pleafure, fome into lighter, and fome into darker
fhades ; and fo thin, that you might difcover all the turn of
their limbs, and the finenefs of their fkin through them. They
have fometimes little flying veils, in gems of the ancients,
over their heads ; like thefe goddeffes of the air, which the
Romans call Aure,.and which we call Sylphs. It was the
ufual employment of the Naiads to attend at feafts, and they
feem to have been little better than fo many domeftics to the
prefiding water-deities. Spence.

NAIANT, or Narant, g. d. fwimming; a term in
Heraldry, uwfed in the blazoning of fifhes, when drawn
in an horizontal pofture; fefs-wife, or tranfverfely, acrofs
the efeutcheon; that being their natural {wimming pof-
ture.

NAJARA, in Geography, atown of Spain, in Old Caf-
tile, containing three churches and three convents; 36 miles
E.of Burgos. N. lat. 42°.20!. " W. long. 2° 45).

NAIAS, in Botany, fo named by Linnzus, from vaiadss,
or water nymphs, becaufe it grows floating in clear
ftreams.—Linn. Gen. 512. Schreb. 671. Willd. Sp. Pl.
¥. 4. 331. Ann. of Bot. v. 2.46. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 3.
Brown. Prodr, Nov. Holl. v. 1. 345. Juff. 19. Lamarck

aub 2 Illuftr,

NAI

Jlluftr. t. 799. Michaux Boreal-Amer. v. 2. 220. (Fluvi-
alis; Waill. in Mem. de Acad. des Sciences for 1719.
Mich. Gen. 11. t. 8. Caulinia; Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 182.
Ann. of Bot. v. 2. 48.)—Clafs and order, Monoecia Mo-

nandria. Nat. Ord. Inundate, Linn. Naiades, Julf.
Hydrocharides, Brown. ;
Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth of one leaf, tubular,

abrupt at the bafe, tapering upwards, divided into two
reflexed, oblong, revolute fegments. Cor. of one petal ;
tube flender, much longer than the calyx ; limb bell-fhaped,
in four equal, lanceolate, revolute fegments. Svam. Fila-
ment ufually wanting ; anther folitary, oblong, erect.

Female, Cal. and Cor. none. Pi/t. Germen oblong, ta-
per-pointed ; ftyle awl-fhaped, fhort ; ftigmas two or three,
undivided, acute, permanent. eric. Capfule elliptic-ob-
long, of one cell, not burfting, crowned with the ftyle.
Seed folitary, inverted, oblong.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx fheath-like, cloven:
one petal, four-cleft. Anther nearly feffile.

Female, Calyx and Corolla wanting. Stigma two or
three, undivided. Capfule with one feed.

Obf. There is {ome contrariety in the defcriptions of the
above authors, which we have had no opportunity of re-
moving by an actual infpection of the flowers of this ob-
fcure genus. Mr. Brown is our guide for uniting the Ca-
volina of Willdenow to Naias ; but whether the calyx and
corolla of the male flowers of the former are a¢tually want-
ing, or are merely deciduous, we have no information. In
other refpeéts thefe genera appear to agree too precifely to
be, by any means, diitinguifhed from each other, nor is there
the fmalleft difference of habit between them.

1. N. marina. Marine Naias. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1441. Fi.
Suec. 345. (N. monofperma; Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 331.
Fluvialis latifolia, fru@tu minis obtufo, menofpermo ; Mich.
Gen. 11. t. 8. f. 2. F. pifana, foliis denticulatis; Bauh.
Hitt. v. 3. 771, the broad-leaved figure. )—-Leaves oppofite
or ternate, erect, linear, deeply toothed.—Native of lakes
and ditches, efpecially near the fea in Italy ; and in the frefh
waters of Germany, Switzerland, &c. In the fea itfelf on the
coaft of Sweden. Mr. Menzies gathered it in O-wy-hee,
and Commerfon in the ifle of Bourbon. ‘The whole plant
floats under water, having the flender branched /fem, and
narrow pellucid aves of a Potamogeton. ‘The latter grow
two or three together, feffile or fomewhat fheathing, at each
joint, and are from an inch to an inch and’ a ha:f long,
linear, with very fharp teeth or ferratures, and very deep
intermediate finufes. Flowers axillary, feflile, folitary,
minute, Capfule elliptical, not a quarter of an inch long,
fingle-feeded.— This was the only fpecies known to Linnzus.
He originally confidered it as monoecious, but was induced,
by the obfervations of Bernard de Juffieu, to remove the
genus to Dioecia, which however every other perfon has
found to be a mittake.

Micheli deferibes another fpecies, t.8. f. 1, as having four
feeds, and fome foft teeth upon the ftem. Willdenow
trulting, very allowably, to this excellent author, has
adopted this by the name of N. tetra/perma, but it appears
to us to want confirmation. We can find but one feed in
any {pecimen, that has fallen in our way, from any part
of the world, aud this agrees with Mr. Brown's ideas of the

enus.
: 2. N. minor. Lefer Naias. Allion. Pedem. v. 2, 221.
(Caulinia fragilis; Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 182. Ann. of Bot.
y. 2. 49. t. 1. f. 2. Fluvialis minor, foliis anguttiffimis den-
ticularis, deorfum reflexis, fruétu acuto tenuiori monofper-
mo; Mich. Gen. 11. t. 8. f.3. F. pifam, foliis denticularis ;
Bauh. Hilt. v. 3.771, the narrow-leaved figure.) —Leaves

Corolla of

NAT

oppofite or ternate, linear-awl-fhaped, recurved, rigid, witl:
triangular fpinous teeth.—Native of lakes and ditches in
Italy, France, and Germany. We have alfo. {pecimens
gathered in Switzerland by M. du Cros, bet Haller knew
it not; the former, which is his N° 556, ftanding on the
authority of Lachenalalone, who found it near Baiil. This
fpecies is much {maller than the preceding, and, as Willde-
now obferves, remarkably brittle. One of our Swifs fpecies
has a confiderable earthy incruftation, like what is ufual in
Chara. The leaves are more or lefs recurved, ftrong!y
tocthed, but fo narrow that there is no room for any in-
termediate finufes. Cap/ule of a more flender figure than in
N. marina. -

3. N. indica. Indian Naias. (Caulinia indica; Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 4. 182. Ann. of Bot. v. 2. 50. t. 2.)—-Leaves
oppofite or ternate, linear-awl-fhaped, wavy, ere&t; the
younger ones with briftly teeth. Stipulas fringed.— Native
of pools at Tranquebar, in the Eaft Indies, where our fpe-
cimens, in fruit, were gathered in 1799, by the Rev. Dr.
Rottler. This has much the afpect of fome of the moft
narrow-leaved Pondweeds, but the leaves are furnifhed with
very fine briftly deciduous teeth, fo as to feem a miniature re-
femblance of Fucus aculeatus, nor are there any intermediate
finufes. The membranous /fipulas, attached to the bafe of
each leaf, are bearded, or fringed at the fummit. Capfule
not half the fize of the former, elliptical.

4. N. tenuifolia. Fine-leaved Naias. Br. Prodr. Nov.
Holl. v. 1. 345-—‘“ Leaves oppofite, linear-awl-fhaped, with.
briftly teeth. Stipulas fringed. Calyx of the male flowers
entire at one fide. -Anthers ftalked, of one cell.’—Found
near Port Jackfon, as well as in the tropical part of New
Holland, by Mr. R. Brown, who doubts whether it be
truly diftinét from the third fpecies. We have feen no fpe-
cimen.

5- N. frriata. Striated Naias—Leaves oppofite or alter-
nate, linear-awl-fhaped, with briftly teeth. Stipulas abrupt,
toothed. Capfule longitudinally itriated.— Gathered in the
ditches of Lombardy, in 1787. The habit of this is very
near JV. indica, nor do we find much diftinétion in the aves.
The fipulas are rather toothed than fringed, and we think
there is a clear difference in the cap/u/e of the prefent being
marked with numerous longitudinal ribs, which, added to the
difference of their native countries, induces us to feparate
the two fpecies.

6. N. flexilis. Short-leaved Naias. (Cavolinia flexilis ;
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 183. Ann. of Bot. v. 2. 50.t. 1. f. r.)—
Leaves whorled, linear; entire in their lewer part; minutely
toothed, and f{preading, at the extremity. Sent by the
Rev. Dr. Muhlenberg, from pools aud ditches near Lan-
cafter, in Pennfylvania. Tt is readily known from all the reft
by its aves growing from three to {ix at each joint, and their -
being of a broader fhorter figure, entire, except near the
extremity, where they are minutely and copioufly toothed,
but not finuated. . The fruit is elliptic-oblong, fmooth.
Herb partly encrufted with an earthy depofition.

NAIBAY, in Geography, a town of Nubia; 126 miles
S. of Syene.

NAID-CHOKEY, a town of Hindooftan, in the Car-
natic, near the coaft of Coromandel; 25 miles N. of Pulli-
cate.

NAILING of Cannon, the driving of a nail, or iron
{pike, by force into the touch-hole of a piece of artillery ;
fo as to render it for fome time ufelefs to the enemy.

NAILLERS, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Vendée; g miles W. of Fontenay le
Comte

NAILLOUX, a town of France, in the department of

the

N Al

the Upper Garonne, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Villefranche; 6 miles S.W. of it. The place
contains 1198, and the canton 4025 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 130 kiliometres, in 8 communes.

NAILS, in dnatomy, a kind of horny excrefcences,

rowing over the ends of the fingers and toes of men, and
Bical other animals; much of the fame nature with the
hoofs of others: See INTEGUMENTS.

The Romans were very curious in the cutting and forming
the nails, and had it done by artilts, who made an employ-
ment of it.

The Chinefe do€ors and literati pique themfelves on the
exceflive length of their nails. F. le Compte fays, fome of
them wear nails nearly as long as their fingers.

Natzs of Animals. Under this head may be comprifed
the human nails, and the claws, talons, and hoofs of ani-
mals. Thefe fub{tances differ from horn; the latter con-
taining more refidual matter, fimilar to that of bone. Horn
and nails differ from bone-; the former containing a quantity
of albumen, which does not appear in the latter. © Hair and
feathers differ from nails and horn, in containing more albu-
men, and lefs gelatine and refidual matter. Nails and hoofs,
like horn, are capable of extenfion, when preffed in a mould,
heated to about 500°; but inafmuch as they contain lefs
phofphat of lime, they poffefs this property in a higher de-
gree. Hoofs, in confequence of this, have been ufed with
much fuccefs in making combs, {nuff-boxes, and in manu-
fafturing cutlery. When thefe fubftances are {ubjected to
the deltructive diftillation, they afford water, a thick animal
tar, carbonat of ammonia, carburetted hydrogen gas, and
coaly matter.

The relative quantities of albumen contained in horn,
nails, hairs, feathers, &c. may be duly appreciated by nitric
acid a little diluted. It is well known that fome animal
fub{tances are changed to a yellow colour by nitric acid ;
but it is not fo well known, that this change is confined to
the albumen alone, when the acid is a little diluted. It will
be found that filk, hair, wool, and feathers, are very fuf-
ceptible of this change; and the epidermis, which abounds
with albumen, is equally liable to become yellow by the
agency of this acid. It will be found, however, that pure
gelatine does not change in colour, except the aeid be very
concentrated; in which cafe, the fubitance undergoes a
partial combuftion. All the fubftances above mentioned, as
well as horn and nails, may be ftained of a beautiful yellow,
-with two parts of water to one of ftrong acid; at the fame
time, ivory, bone, and ifinglafs, are not changed in colour
by the fame. See Horn, Suects, and Scares,

Naits, in Building, &c. are little metalline members,
ferving to bind or faitea the parts together, ~&c.

The feveral kinds of nails are very numerous. As back
nails, made with flat fhanks to hold faft, and not open the
wood. Clamp rails, thofe proper to faften the clamps in
buildings, &c. Cla/p nails, whofe heads are flatted, and
clafping and {ticking into the wood, render the work {mooth,
fo as to admit a plane over it: the moft common in building
are diftinguifhed by 10d., 20d., 2s., &c. Clench nails, thofe
ufed by boat, barge, &c. builders, with boves or nuts, and
often without: for fine work, they are made with clafp
heads, or with the head beat flat on two fides. Clout nails,
thofe ordinarily ufed for nailing on of clouts to axle-trees ;
they are flat-headed nails, and iron work is ufually fixed
with thefe nails. Deck nails, thofe proper for fattening of
decks in fhips, doubling of fhipping, and floors laid with
planks. Dog nails, or 7 bent nails, proper for faitening of
hinges to doors, &c. lat points are of two kinds, viz.
Jong, much ufed in fhipping, and proper where there is oc-

N Al

cafion to draw and hold faft, yet no neceflity of clenching s
and /bort, which are fortified with points, to drive into oak,
or other hard wood. J.cad nails, ufed to nail lead, leather,
and canvas, to hard wood: thefe are c/out nails dipped in
lead or folder. Port nails, commonly ufed to nail hinges
to the ports of fhips. Ridbing nails, ufed to faften the rb-
bing, to keep the ribs of fhips in their place in building.
Rofe nails are drawn four-fquare in the fhank, and com-
monly ina round tool. Rother nails, chiefly ufed to faften
rother-irons to fhips. Scupper nails, much ufed to faften
leather and canvas to wood. Sharp nails, much ufed, efpe-
cially in the Welt Indies, made with fharp points and flat
thanks. Sheathing nails, ufed to fatter fheathing-boards to
fhips: the rule for their length is, to have them full three
times as long as the board is thick. Square nails, of the
fame fhape as /harp nails; chiefly ufed for hard woods.
Brads, long and fiender, without heads, chiefly ufed for
thin deal work, to prevent fplitting. To which may be
added tacks ; the {malleft ferving to faften paper to wood;
middling, for wool-cards and oars; and larger, for uphol-
fterers and pumps. They are diftinguifhed by the names of
white tacks, 2d., 3d., and 4d. tacks.

Nails are faid to be toughened, when too brittle, by
heating them in a fire-fhovel, and putting fome tallow or

reafe among them.

Nails are fold fix-fcore to the hundred.

Naits, Manufaéure of. The immenfe confumption of
thefe articles, in all the mechanic arts and trades, caufe their
fabrication to be a confiderable branch of national manufac-
ture. Itis chiefly carried on in Staffordfhire, in the neigh-
bourhood of Dudley, Wolverhampton, and Birmingham :
indeed it is the principal confumption of the malleable iron
made in that part of England. The iron ufed in the nail
trade is of the cheapeft fort, chiefly made in the Pudling
furnaces, and worked by rollers inftead of a forge-hammer.
(See Iron.) This metal is, by repeated rolling, reduced
into fmall thin bars, which are then pafled through the
grooves of the flitting-rollers, and thus divided or {lit into
three, four, five,. or fix {mall fquare rods, of a proper fize
to make nails. (See Roxtinc-MMill.) Thefe, which are
called nail rods, are a very extenfive article of trade. The
nailers refide chiefly in the cottages, where the women and
children affift in the labour. ‘They employ forges fuch as
are ufed by fmiths ; but the bellows are very lightly loaded,
fo that a very {mall motion given to them now and then will
blow fufficiently to heat the rods; two, three, or four of
which, according to their fize, are always kept in the fire
together: and when any one has a good red heat, the nailer
takes it out of the fire, and, battering it on the anvil, brings
it to a fharp fquare point at two or four ftrokes; he then
applies it over the edge of achiffel, fixed on the anvil, and
by ftriking a fingle blow on the rod, cuts off a fufficient

_length to make a nail, which falls into a tin pan; then he

makes another, and cutting it off likewife, returns the end
of the rod to the fire for another heat: now, with a pair of
tweezers, like fugar-tongs, he takes up the nail, and intro-
duces its point into a {quare tapering hole, made acrofs
through the end of an iron tool or mould; by ftriking a
blow or two on the end of the iron, he flattens it down,
and forms a head, the figure of which is determined by the
number and direction of the blows given it. This procefs is
conduéted with a furprifing rapidity, as the nailers, by long
practice, acquire a mechanical habit of forming a complete
nail by a certain number of ftrokes, fo as never in the courfe
of an hour to make an unneceflary movement. For large
nails they can only make one, and cut it off, at each time
they take the iron from the fire; becaufe they would be un-

able

NAILS.

able to get the heading finifhed, whillt they were fufficiently
hot. The length of the nail is regulated by a ftop, fixed at
a certain diftance from the edge of the chiffel, fo that the
point of the nail being applied to this, determines the proper
place for the edge of the chiffel. The fize of the mould
withinfide, and the dimenfions to which the point of the
nail is reduced by hammering, caufes the cut end to project
above the furface of the mould more or lefs; fo that the
head will be thicker or thinner, and have its quantity of
metal regulated, by the degree of taper given to the point :
therefore, the art of the workman is difplayed in ftriking
with a due force, fo that every nail fhall be made of the
fame fize, by a certain number of blows. In this manner the
great number of all nails are made; but the great expence
of labour has induced many manufaéturers to turn their at-
tention to inventions which would diminifh the labour, fo as
to enable them to bring their nails to the market at reduced
prices, or of a better quality. Many patents have been
taken out for thefe inventions, fome of which we fhall briefly
notice.

Mr. W. Finch of Wimboorne, in Staffordfhire, obtained
a patent in 1790, for manufaéturing nails by machinery.
He propofed, by means of a water or fteam-mill giving mo-
tion to a main fhaft or axis, to a€tuate a number of {mall
hammers, to work either in a tilt or lift manner. By thefe
hammers the nails were to be forged; but the operation was
to be divided among three people for headed nails: thus,
one to attend the fire, and carry the rods, as faft as they
were properly heated, to the fecond perfon, ftationed before
the hammer, who would make the nails in the moft expedi-
tious manner, by only turning the rod about under the ham-
mer; when cut off, they were taken by the third perfon,
who finifhed the heads in a tool as above defcribed, but by
means of a hammer worked by machinery, inftead of hard
labour. By thefe contrivances, in confequence of the more
fpeedy motion of the machine hammers, feveral nails were to
be made at once heating of the rod; whereas by the old
method, only one; or two at moft, could be made; thus
making a great faving of labour: and as the operation re-
quired no flrength, children might eafily make the largeft
{pikes ; the motion of the hammer being fo regular, that
they could eafily acquire a dexterity in turning the rods
properly to receive the blows.

In the year 1790, Mr. Thomas Clifford, of the city of
Briftol, obtained two patents for the manufacture of nails
of every kind. he principle on which his firft invention
was founded, was that of making the nails in a die, that is,
by having a die, or the impreflion of the nails to be cut,
formed in one or more pieces of {teel; and the iron, of which
the nails are to be formed, is drawn or rolled into the proper
form or thicknefs, and, by a force adapted to the purpofe,
preffed into a cavity or die, fo as to form the nails either
complete, or fo nearly complete, as that they can be finifhed
with very little labour. ‘This operation may be done in
feveral ways, but the one particularly recommended by Mr.
Clifford is by rollers of iron or fteel, and worked either by
water, fteam, wind, horfes, &c.

The two rollers are to be made of iron, and cafed with
fteel, each of the fame diameter, which is proportioned to
the length and fize of the nail intended to be made. Each
roller fhould have a cog-wheel on it, the cogs of one roller

to work into thofe of the other, fo that both the rollers may
perform the fame exa¢t revolution. One half the imprefs
of the nail is to be cut in the furface of one roller, the other
half in the other, fo that the two impreffions form a cavity
or die of the exaét form ofa nail, extending the length-
ways of the nail on the circumference of the rollers; and as

many impreffions of the fame kind may be cut in the rollers,
one at the end of the other, as will complete their circum-
ference, and continue the cavity all round the rollers; the
point of one nail joining the head of the next, or the two
points and two heads joining each other. he rollers muft,
in this as in other cafes, be made to work very true and clofe
to each other.

The mode of operation is this: a rod of iron, previoufly -
rolled or drawn to a convenient fize, is to be heated, and,
while hot, the end of it is put between the rollers into the
cavity or die which forms the impreffion of the nail. The
rollers, being now put in motion, will draw the iron through,
and preffing it into the cavities or dies, forms the iron into
nails, one joined to the other, which mutt afterwards be fe-
parated, by means of inftruments ating as nippers, fhears,
chiflels, &c. The rollers, being made to work very clofe to
each other where the edge of the nail is formed, will prevent
much of the metal from being preffed out on each fide of the
nail, and what is preffed out may be cut off by inftruments
adapted to the purpofe. Several pairs of rollers may be
made to work together, and each pair may have feveral rows
of dies cut on them, fo as to form the impreffion for feveral
ftrings of nails; anda rod of iron being put into each of
them, will roll out as many ftrings of nails with one revo-
lution of the rollers. A pair of rollers may alfo have the
greater part of their furface cut with dies, and a flat bed
made to pafs between the rollers fo as to form fheet nails;
all of them conneéted to one another by thin plates of the
iron of which they are compofed ; and this would require
each nail to be cut out, or feparated from the fheet by proper
inftruments.

Mr. Clifford’s fecond invention confifts, ft, in drawing
the iron or other metal into a tapering or wedge-like form, —
according to the length and thicknefs of the different fizes of
nails to be made. 2dly. The nails are to be cut out of thofe
wedge-like or tapering plates by means of a punch, the
face of which is made according to the fize, taper, and form
of the nail to be cut out ; as alfo having a hollow bolfter, the
hollow or aperture of which muit alfo be» made of the fize
and form of a nail, and confequently to ft and receive the
punch above-mentioned. The punch, thus fitted to the bed,
and fliding in a proper frame to keep it fteady, will, by a
blow, or by preffure, cut or force part of the taper plate into
and through the aperture of the bed fitting to it, and by
which the nail is formed. This operation is by the manu-
facturers of buckles, buttons, &c. calledcutting out. 3dly. To
form the heads of horfe nails called rofe heads, and others of
nearly a fimilar kind : after the operations of drawing and
cutting out, the nail is to be put into a heading tool, alfo
called a bed, which bed receives the nail, excepting a {mall
portion at the thick end, out of which the head is formed by
a punch or die. This die, by blow or preflure, forms the
head as required, and when the nails are made of hard iron,
after they are cut in the way defcribed, the thick end is made
hot before they are put into the bed, or heading tool.
4thly. Another method adopted in the manufature of nails is,
by cutting them out of or from plates of equal thicknefs,
and afterwards to point them either by hammer or other
preflure. sthly. In making nails that are of a triangular form,
the plate or {trip of iron is preffed or ftamped into a die, having
impreffions cut to the form of fuch nails, after which they
are cut out by a punch. ;

About 15 years ago, a very extenfive trade was eftablifhed
in Birmingham and Sheffield of cut brads: that kind of nails
called brads having no head, orat lealt only a fmall projeé&-
ing leaf on one fide, was eafily cut out by machinery, with-
out the trouble of forging, but latterly the method has been

improved,

NAILS.

improved, fo far as to produce all kinds of {mall nails. The
ironis rolled out to large thin fheets, of the proper thicknefs
to form a nail; thisis cut up by ftrong fhears into parallel
flips or ribbands, the width of them being equal to the length
of the intended nails, which are cut off, one ata time, from the
end of the flip: the cutting line is not exatly perpendicular
to the length of the piece, but-rather inclined, fo as to make
the nail, which is cut off fharp at one end; the next time the
cutting line is inclined the other way, fo that the head of one
nail is cut from the fame edge of the flip as the point of the
next, and fo on alternately. The cutting is performed by the
Fly-pref: (fee that article), proper dies or cutters being ap-
plied in it: the lower or fixed die confifts of a cutter or bar
of fteel fet up edgeways, and one of the angles of its upper
fide is ground to a fharp ftraight edge. he flider of the
prefs carries adie, confiiting of a {quare bar of fteel moving
| a eae by the aétion of the fcrew, and when it is
orced down, one of its flat fides applies exa@ly againft the
ftraight edge of the fixed cutter above-mentiened ; but when
the moving cutter is raifed up to the highett, a part is ob-
ferved, where its flat fide is cut away, in-‘dfuch a manner as to
leave a confiderable {pace between its face ard the edge of the
fixed cutter at one end of the edge, but touching it at the
other. By this means, when the end of a flip of iron is preffed
againft the face of the moving cutter in its reduced part,
a fhort piece of the end of the flip will proje& over the edge
’ of the fixed cutter, and the moving cutter being forced down
by the ferew of the prefs, the fhoulder of the part which is
cut away comes down upon the end of tke flip, cutting it
off to the line of the edge of the fixed cutter, and heat ee
removing a {mall piece from the end, which being of a proper
breadth at one end, and regularly tapered away to nothing
at the other, makes a very good brad. The circumftance of
its being parallel in the other direCtion, is the great recom-
mendation to this kind of nail, becaufe it wil! drive without
firft making any hole in the wood and does not {plit: the point
of a nail of this kind is like the edge of a chiffel, and the
length of this edge being fet acrofs the grain of the wood,
when driven down it cuts through, and divides all the fibres
of the wood it meets with, and by turning the divided ends
of them down, as it is driven deeper, their elafticity binds the
nail forcibly between them, fo that this nail will hold in the
wood fafter than any other kind, but being parallel in the
other direétion, does not tend to open or {plit the wood in the
direGtion of the grain.

{n cutting brads by this method, the workman or woman
is feated before the prefs, which is the fame as is fhewn in
fig. 1. Plate X XVII. Mechanics, holding the handle, a, of its
fly in the right hand, and the flip of iron in the left: by
pufhing the handle back, the moving cutter is raifed up, and
the end of the flip is preffed up to the cutter: then by draw-
ing forwards the handle, the cutter is prefled down, carry-
ing with it a nad, as before mentioned: the handle is then
pufhed back to cut another, but the flip of iron or bar muft
firft be turned over, to bring the other fide upwards: by
this means, the bar will at the fecond time be cut with an
inclination in an oppofite dire€tion to what it was the firft
time, fo that the head of one nail will come from the fame
fide of the bar as the point of the laft, and this alternately
of the whole. A woman will, by this method, cut {mail
nails at the rate of 40 or 50 per minute, and if-they are in-
tended for brads, they have a {mall leaf left at one fide of
the head in cutting, by a particular fhape of the dies.

For nails which require heading, the pieces or nails, cut as
before mentioned, are taken to another woman, who fixes
them one at a time in a vice, over which a heavy hammer is
placed, being fitted on an axis, that it may rife and fall with

precifion upon the head of the nail in the vice; its weight
is fufpended by a wooden {pring pole, and the woman, when
fhe has fixed the nail, raifes the head of the hammer a little,
and then brings it fharply down on the nail, fo as to head it
at one blow. The thape of the head is determined by an
indention made in the face of the hammer, and its thicknefs
depends upon the quantity which is left fticking out above
the chaps of the vice.

Meffrs. Wilmore and Tonk obtained a patent, in 1808,
for a method of cutting nails, which they have thus de-
{cribed.

They take a nail rod, of a fize fuitable to that of the
nail intended to be manufactured, and applying it to a com-
mon fcrew-prefs, mounted with proper cutters, cut off from
the end of the rod two pieces at once, obliquely acrofs the
rod in one place, and dire&ly acrofs it in another. Two
ftuds or tops are fet up, which are attached to the prefs, and
are moveable in the direétion of the rod, for the purpofe of
afcertaining the length of the nail; and both {luds are ad-
juftable in the crofs direGtion of the rod, fo that the ob-
liquity of the cut, according to the kind of nail to be made,
is thereby determined, as well as the length of the nail. This
is called the firft operation. :

The fecond operation is to anneal the pieces fo cut off, if
the iron fhould not be fufficiently malleable, which is done in
the ufual and well-known manner. The third operation is
that of heading, which, for clafp head nails, confifts of two
parts, one for gathering, and the other for forming the head
of the nail. The firft part of this operation is performed
by putting a piece, cut off the rod of iron as before defcribed,
into a pair of clams, leaving as much of the thick end pro-
jeGting above the clams as is fufficient to form the head.
Thefe clams have fteel bits let into them with fharp edges,
which prefs only againft the two oppofite fides of the piece,
and which have the effect of two chiflels, when the punch of
the prefs is brought down upon the piece with confiderable
force, and raife or gather up iron towards forming the head.
The fecond part of this operation is to put the nail, thus pre-
pared, into another pair of clams, having bits to correfpond
to the under fide of the head; and the punch, having the
impreffion of the upper fide of the head engraved or funk
into it, is brought to prefs ftrongly upon the head in the
clams, and thereby the clafp head is properly formed.

For nails intended to have rofe heads, or any other kind
of heads, except clafp heads, the firft part of this heading
operation is not abfolutely neceflary, but the bits which for
clafp nails muft have fharp edges, muft for the other nails
have blunt edges, to prevent the under-cutting. For the
fecond part of this operation, the piece is put either into a
pair of clanis, or into the tool commonly cailed a bore, and
then preffed with punches properly engraved, or funk, ac-
cording to the kind of head wanted. By the firft of all thefe
operations, the piece cut off the rod of iron is formed fome-
thing like a mortife chiffel. The fourth operation is to point
it, which is done by putting the piece into a bed of tteel,
in which is cut a nick or groove having parallel fides, but
the bottom rifing towards the end, where the nail is to be
formed; the end of the punch, which preffes upon the point
of the nail, is made to projeé&t more than the other part, fo
as to meet the correfponding part of the bed, when the
punch is brought upon the nail. The groove or nick in
the bed fhould be jult wide enough to receive the nail eafily,
but prevent it from twilting when the impreffion is made.
The nail is put twice into the nick, once within the chiffel,
from the end lying honzontal, and next turning a quarter
round to prefs the chiflel.edge into a pointed form. If the
nails, by the ftrong preflure which is neceflary in this opera-

tion,

Ne Al

tion, fhould become too hard to clench, they are to be an-
nealed in the ufual way, which may be called the fifth opera-
tion. The third, fourth, and fifth operations, above de-
{cribed, are applied to nails, or pieces cut off from fheet or
rolled iron in the ordinary way ; but as, in confequence of the
fifth operation, which is neceffary to give them the quality
of clenching, they are apt to be too foft to drive well, a
fixth operation is applied, viz. quenching them in water
when red-hot, which gives them ftiffnefs enough to drive
without rendering them too brittle to clench.

The Americans appear to have carried the invention of
cutting nails by machinery to a greater perfection than
has been done. in this country. From fome letters, pub-
lifhed in 1810, by the American fecretary to the treafury,
in his report on the manufaCtures of that country, it ap-
pears that they have invented machines which perform the
cutting and heading at one operation, and with fuch a ra-
pidity, that one machine will furnifh upwards of one hun-
dred nails per minute: he fays, “the importance of nail
machinery in Maffachufetts, and of all that relates to roll-
ing and flitting-mills, with which nail machinery is imme-
diately conneéted, requires that a particular account fhould
be given of them- Inold countries nails are forged, here
they are cut, and it is curious to trace the progrefs of Ame-
rican genius through the various fteps of this invention.
Twenty years ago {ome men, now unknown, and then in ob-
fcurity, began by cutting flices out of old hoops, and by a
common vice, griping thefe pieces, headed them with fe-
veral ftrokes of the hammer: by progreflive improvements
flitting-mills were built, and the fhears and the heading
tools were perfeéted, yet much labour and expence were. re-
quifite to make nails. In a little time, Jacob Perkins, Jona-
than Ellis, and a few others, put into execution the thought
of cutting and of heading nails by water, but being more
intent upon their machinery than upon their pecuniary af-
fairs, they were unable to profecute the bufinefs. At dif-
ferent times other men have fpent fortunes in improvements,
and it may be faid with truth, that more than a million of
dollars have been expended ; but at length thefe joint efforts
are crowned with complete fuccefs, and we are now able to
manufacture at about one-third of the expence that wrought
nails can be manufactured for, and nails which are fuperior
to them ; for at lealt three-fourths of the purpofes to which
nails are applied, and for moft of thofe purpofes, they are
fullas good. ‘The machines made ufe of by Odiorne, thofe
lately invented by Jonathan Ellis, and a few others, prefent
very fine {pecimens of American genius.

«To northern carpenters it is well known, that in almoft
all inftances it is unneceflary te bore a hole before driving a
cut nail; all that is requilite is, to place the cutting edge of
the nail acrofs the grain of the wood: it is alfo true, that
cut nails will hold better in the wood. Thefe qualities are,
in fome rough building works, worth twenty per cent. of the
value of the article, which is equal to the whole expence of
manufacturing. For fheathing and drawing, cut nails are
full as good as wrought nails: only in one refpeét are the
beft wrought nails a little fuperior to cut nails, and that is
where it is neceflary they fhould be clenched. ‘The manu-
facture of cut nails was born in our country, and has, with-
in its bofom, advanced through all the various flages of
infancy to manhood ; and, no doubt, we fhall foon be able,
by receiving proper encouragement, to render them fuperior
to wrought nails in every particular,

“ The principal bufinels of rolling and flitting-mills is,
rolling nail plates ; they alfo ferve to make nail rods, hoops’
tires, fheet iron, and fheet copper: in this State we have not
Jefs than twelve, 4

Mea 1

“ Thefe mills could roll and flit 7000 tons of iron a-year :
they now, it is prefumed, roll and flit each year about 3500
tons, 2400 tons of which, probably, are cut up into nails
and brads, of fuch a quality, that they are good fubftitutes
for hammered nails, and, in fact, have the preference with
moft people for the following reafons, viz. on account of
the fharp corner and true taper with which cut nails are
formed ; they may be driven into harder wood, without bend-
ing or breaking, or hazard of {plitting the wood, by which
the labour of boring is faved, the nail, one way, being of
the fame breadth or thicknefs from head to point.’? We
are informed that J. C. Dyer, efq. whohas had the American
machinery communicated to him, to be introduced into this
country, has lately taken out patents in Great Britain, with
a view of eftablifhing the trade in this country.

Naits were anciently ufed for cancelling bonds; and for
this purpofe they were driven through the writing: to which
practice there feems to be an allution in Col. 1, 14., where”
God is faid <* to have blotted out the hand-writing of or-
dinances that was againft us, and to have taken it out of the
way, nailing it to bis crofs.”? For the Roman ceremony of
driving the annual nail, fee AnnaLis CLavus.

Naits, in the Mcnege. The different pofition ef the
nails of the bridle, or left hand of the horfeman, gives the
horfe a facility of changing hands, and forming his de-
parture and ftop; by reafon that the motion of the bridle
follows fuch a pofition of the nails. To give a horfe head,
you muft turn the nails downwards. To turn the horfe to
the right; you muft turn them upwards, moving your hand
to the right. To change to the left, you muit turn the
nails down, and bear'to the left. To ftop the horfe, you
mutt turn them upwards, and Jiit up, or raife your hand.

Wait is alfo a fort of long meafure, chiefly afed in :he
commerce of cloths; containing the fixteenth part of a
yard. :

NAIM, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the province
of Oman; 80 miles N.W. of Haffek.

NAIN, a Moravian fettlement on the eaft coaft of La-
brador, near the entrance of Davis’s ftraits, S.S.W. of
Cape Farewell. From obfervations made here in 1778,
1779, and 1780, the mean temperature feems to have been
30.54. The greateft heat obferved in 1780 was 84°, viz.
in July; and the greateft cold in 1779 was — 36. ‘There
is no appearance of fummer before July ; though the winters
are faid to be lefs fevere than formerly. Kirwan’s Efti-
mate, &c. N, lat..57°. W. long. 61° 30'.—Alfo, a Mo-
ravian town, eftablifhed in 1763, on Lehigh river, in Penn-
fylvania.—Alfo, a village of Paleftine, at the foot of mount
Hermon, formerly a city, celebrated for the miracle of our
Saviour’s reftoring the fon of a widow to life; 10 miles S.
of Nazareth.

NAINA, a town of Bengal; 22 miles S.S.W. of Cal-
cutta.

NAJOO, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, near the
weil coalt of the ifland of Celebes. S. lat. 1° 29’. E. long.
124° 25'. (

NALRANGIA, formed from the Arabic natran, the
plural of nair, light, a kind of divination, in ufe among the
Arabs, drawn from the feveral phenomena of the fun and
moon.

NAIRES, Nanenrs, or Nayers, in Modern Hiflory, a
name which is given by the Maiabarians to the miltary of
their country, who form a very numerous clafs or tribe,
out of which the fovereigns of Malabar choofe their body-

uvard.

NAIRN, or IniskEEL, in Geography, a {mall poft-town
of the county of Donegal, Ireland, on the weltern fea

coat,

WA

coal, oppofite to the little ifland of Inifkeel.. Lt is 135 miles
N.W. from Dublin, and 11 N. from Killybegs.

Nairy, a royal borough, and the county town of Nairo-
fhire, in Sc.lend, is ainiasaly fituated on the weltern
bank of a {mall river, from which it derives its name,
near the coaft of the Moray frith. It is a neat town, with
a f{mall, convenient harbour, which might eafily be en-
rare and improved ; and it is believed, a plan for this pur-
pole has been fuggefted by Mr. Telford, which will pro-
bably be foon put into execution. The chief ftreet runs
nearly parallel to the fhore, and is interfeted by a number
of narrow lanes, ftretching on one fide towards the fea, and
on the other into an extenfive plain of fertile corn-fields.
The gaol and town-houfe are placed in the middle of the prin-
cipal ftreet, and confiderably injure its appearance. The
houfes here are in general well built, and rather elegant ;
but it is far otherwife inthe lanes. There are two good inns
in the town, and fo many ale-houfes and whifky-fhops, that
the Rev. J. Morrifon fays, ‘¢ to mention the number might
to {trangers appear incredible.”’ Nairn has undergone many
changes in the courfe of time. Originally it ftood on a dif-
ferent {cite from that which it now occupies. It was de-
fended by a caitle, which ftood on an eminence called Caftle-
hill, but at a remote period, on a {pot now covered by the
fea, where, about 60 years ago, veltiges of its foundations
could be feen, when the tide was low, though'they are now
wholly wafhed away. Buchanan tells us, that the more an-
cient caftle was taken by the Danes, in the reign of Mal-
colm I, The one fubfequently built has alfo been com-
pletely demolifhed fince the year 1747, before which time it
was in the cuftody of the Thanes of Cawdor, as hereditary
conlftables ; and the conftabulary garden 1s {till diftinguifhed
as an article in the valuation of the Cawdor eftate, to the
.extent of 3/. 10s. Scots. At what era Nairn was removed
to its prefent pofition is not recorded ; nor is it known when
it was firft conftituted a royal burgh. The earlieft charter
now extant is dated in 1589, and is the renewal of one
granted by “ Alexander ;”’ though by which of the kings
of that name is not mentioned. The revenue of the borough
is very confiderable, and arifes from an extenfive tra&t of
moor-land let out on improving leafes, from feu-duties,
“and from the tolls of fix annual fairs, and the weekly
market.’? It is governed by a town-council, confifting of
feventeen members: ‘a provolt, three bailies, dean of guild,
and treafurer, with eleven counfellors; nine of whom form
aquorum. By a late decifion of the houfe of peers, the
bailies, dean of guild, and treafurer, muft be refident ; but
the provoft and remaining counfellors may be country gentle-
men. The feveral trades of the town are formed into one
corporation, ‘The magiftrates hold a court for the trial of
flight offences, and another for the recovery of {mall debts ;
befides which, there are feven county courts held in the
town, viz. the fheriff court, the court of quarter-feffions,
the court of the juftices of the peace, the court of fence-
holders, the courts of the commiflioners of fupply and of
the property tax, and the court of the county lieutenancy.

In the town is an excellent fohool, in which the number
of {cholars is feldom lefs than an hundred; parents fending
their children hither from all parts of the country, and fre-
quently even from England. Every branch of ftudy now in
repute at the univerfities is taught here in perfection; and
feveral of the moft diftinguifhed characters for fcience and
literature in Great Britain firft rofe to comparative eminence
in the provincial fchool ef Nairn.

Befides the ca&les already mentioned, the vicinity of
Nairn difplays a variety of antiquarian remains, On the
north-welt fide of the hill of Geddes are the ruins of an an-

Voi. XXIV.

NAIL

cient fortrefs, called Caifel-Fionlah, or Caiftal-Fienbali,
ie. Caftle Finlay : it is furrounded with adeep fofle.: By
whom, or for what purpofe this edifice was erected, has not
only efcaped the notice of hiftory, but even tradition is filent
upon the fubject. A little ealtward from hence is another
caflle, called the Caftle-of-Rait, probably built by Rait of:
that ilk, but at what period is uncertain. Below it is
Knock-nw-gillan, at which place eighteen of the M‘Kin-
tofhes were murdered by the Cummines, who lived at Rait,
on account of fome grudge which fubfifted between the
families. At Ealter-Geddes are the remains of a very an-
cient chapel, with a burying-ground around it, where the
family of Kilravock and the lairds of Geddes have been
buried for more than dix centuries paft.. Some Roman coins
have been found in this neighbourhood.

Naira formerly gaye title of baron to the family of Nairn,
one of whom was attdinted in 1745, for having attached
himfelf to the interefts of the Pretender.

There is no manufaéture of any extent carried on in the
town, which is chiefly fupported by the fifhery on the river,
agriculture, and the kumber of genteel families, who either
refide in it during the whole year, or occafionally vifit it for
the advantage of bathing. It is remarkable that in one part
of the town, Erfe only is {poken; while in the other parts,
the inhabitants do not underftand that language, but {peak
Englifh in confiderable purity. According to the popula-
tion returns of 1801, the whole parifh contained only 547
houfes, and 2215 inhabitants; but in the returns of 1811,
the houfes are ftated to amount to 632, and the inhabitants
to 2504in number. Beauties of Scotland, vol. iy. Sinclair's
Statiftical Account of Scotland, vol. xii, This parifh is
defcribed by the Rev. P. Morrifon.

NAIRNSHIRE, one of the northern counties of Scot-
land, is bounded on the north by the Moray frith, on the
eaft by the fhire of Elgin, and on the fouth and weft by the
county of Invernefs. It extends about 20 miles in length
from north to fouth, and 22 in breadth from eaft to weft.
Thefe, however, are the diftances of its extreme parts; but
its general breadth does not exceed 12 miles. This county
formed a portion of the ancient diftri@ of Moray ; and, like
Moray-Proper, or Elginfhire, is divided into two portions
by the natural diftinétions of its furface. Yor the breadth
of from three to fix or feven miles along the fhores, the
country is ufually level and extremely fertile; but as it re-
cedes farther from the coaft, it becomes very bleak and
hilly. /The foil on the level grounds, on the ealt fide of the
county, is a free loam on a fandy or gravelly bottom; and
on its weftern portion, either a rich, {tiff clay, or a gravelly
mould. The climate here is as favourable asin any part in
Scotland, for the fame reafon which has been mentioned un-
der the article Morayfhire. (See Moraysuire.) In the
hilly parts, the climate and foil are very different from what
they are along the coaft; the former being cold and ftormy,
and the latter a poor fandy loam, full of gravel and {mall
ftones. Only a few fpots, indeed, on the declivities, fkirting
the narrow vales, in which the rivers run, are under cultiva-
tion, or perhaps fufceptible of it. Agriculture, asa {cience,
is little underftood in any part of the county, probably lefs
fo indeed than in any other in Scotland. The farms are
ufually {mall, and moft generally uninclofed; and, with a
few exceptions, held upon leafes ad Jibitum, which can
fcarcely fail to retard the progrefs of improvement. "The
inferior tenants being for the molt part too poor to purchafe
proper implements of hufbandry, thofe they employ are of
their own conftruction, and confequently, as may be fup-
pofed, of the rudeft ftamp. Sheep and black cattle are
reared in gonfiderable numbers in Nairnfhire, and chiefly fed

3U on

NAT

on the natutal pafturage, either in the downs along the fhore,
or in the’moors towards the bottom of the mountains. The
fheep'are of the {mall white-faced kind, with very fine wool,
which is either confumed by the farmers themfelves, or fold
into other diftriéts, there being no manufacture yet efta-
blifhed in this county. :

There are few mineral fubitances in Nairnfhire, which
can be applied to any prattical purpofe. All the indications
of coal, lead, and iron, which have induced adventurers to
attempt the difcovery of mines of thefe fubitances, have
hitherto proved fallacious. Neither is there any lime-ftone
found in the county; but its abfence, in an agricultural
point of view, is lefs to be lamented, as marle exilts in_vaft
quantities at different places, and particularly in a {mall
loch called Conan, and in the vale of Litie, where it is of
the pureft and moft valuable kind. In this vale is the ex-
tenfive heath of Hoar-moor, which Shakfpeare has con-
fecrated as claflic ground, by making it the fcene of the
_ meeting of Macbeth and the weird-filterhood, in the cele-
brated play which bears the name of that blood-{lained
ufurper. In the furrounding hills are fome quarries of free-
ftone; and in one part of the county there 1s alfo one of a
dark blue-ftone, which flames in the fire, but its bulk is not
apparently diminifhed. After incineration, it does not fall
down into powder, but remains folid as before.

The only rivers worthy of notice in this county are the
Findhorn and the Nairn. ‘The former takes its rife in In-
vernefsthire, paffes entirely through this county into that of
Moray, and difcharges itfelf into the fea at the bay formed
by the fand-hills of Culm. The Nairn alfo, beginning its
courfe from a lake in Invernefsfhire, flows through a con-
fiderable angle of Nairnfhire, and falls into Moray frith,
_mear the county town. This river flirts, in its progrefs,
the weftern fide of the field of Culloden, in which terminated
the rebellion of 1745, when the hopes of the Stewart family
were frultrated. There is a fmail falmon fifhery on the
Nairn, the property of Mr. Brodie of Brodie.

Nairnfhire contains four entire parifhes, viz. Ardelauch,
Aiultdearn, Calder; and Nairn; and parts of five others,
viz. a part of the parifh of Dyke, in the county of Moray ;
a part of Urquhart, in Rofsfhire; and a {mall portion of
Croy, of Moy, and of Petty, all in the fhire of Invernefs.
In the parliamentary reports of 1801, this county is ftated
to’ contain 1972 houfes, and 8259 inhabitants; in 1811,
the number of houfes had increafed to 2031, but the in-
habitants are returned as amounting to 8251. There is
probably fome error in one of thefe returns. Aultdearn
isa borough of barony, and is memorable as the fcene of
one of the moft celebrated victories of the duke of Montrofe
over the coyenanters, under lieutenant-general Hurry, in
1645. Several handfome refidences are difperfed over the
county, of which the chief are Brodie, Holme, Boath,
Lethen, Cantray, and the Caftle of Kilravock. Nairnfhire
is reprefented in parliament along with the fmall county of
Cromarty ;, each county alternately electing their joint re-
prefentative.

Several remains of antiquity in this county, befides thofe
mentioned in the preceding article, may very properly claim
attention. Cawdor-Cattle and that of Kilravock, which are
both in an entire flate, are objects of confiderable anuqnity
and intereft: fo are likewife the ruins of Penic, Infhough,
Moinefs, and’ Loughnadurb, Moinefs appears to have been
one of the molt extenfive manfions in Scotland; and Loughna-
durb is remarkable for having fultained a fieye agamtt Linge
Edward I.and If. It is fituated near the centre of a deep
lake, inthe higher parts of the county, and almoft 15 miles
from any inhabited region; fo that it is very difficult to

Jigs. v2 and 13.)

NAT ee

conceive a ftate of fociety which could give it importance,
either in a political or military view. North-weft from this
caftle, about four miles, in a narrow and folitary vale, in
which the river Findhorn flows, ftands a very curious monu-
ment of the obelifk kind, about half the height of the cele
brated one near Forres. The flagief this monument is fo
thin, that Mr. Leflie thinks it « might be carried to fome
diftance, by two vigorous men praétifed in fuch exercifes,””
It is fet up by the fide of a cairn of ftones, fuppofed to be
piled over fome grave; but whether really a memorial of the
dead, or of fome memorable event in hiftory, is uncertain.
Tradition, however, reprefents it as the monument of two
lovers, a Highland chieftan and a Norwegian princefs, who
were drowned in the river, in the aét of eloping to fecure to
themfe'ves that happine!s which the hoitility of their families
denied them. The feulpture on this obelifk is nearly the
fame on both fides. In the loweft compartment are two
human figures, evidently in the Highland drefs, in the atti-
tude of embracing, or ftruggling with each other. On each
of the fides isa circle in bold relief, about a foot in diameter,
the furface being occupied by eight or ten fmall globular
figures placed round a cup in the centre. The remainder
of the feulpture confifts moftly of feliage, tendrils, &c.
This monument has no mark or emblem upon it referring to
the do&rines or cuftoms of Chriftianity, and is therefore
prefumed to be of anterior date to the introduétion of that
religion into Scotland General View of the’ Agriculture’in
the Counties of Nairn and Moray, by the Rev. W. Leflie,
8vo. 1811. This is a very intereiting volume, and contains ~
much information refpeéting towns, villages, cuftoms, and
antiquities, in addition to the agricultural denartment. Tt
is evidently the work of a man of talent and ex*enfive reading.
See alfo Beauties of Scotland, vol. iv.

NAIS, in Natural Hiflory, agenus of the Vermes Mol-
lufea, clafs and order, of which the generic character’ is,
body creeping, long, linear, pellucid, and depreffed; the
peduncles or feet have {mall briftles on each fide; it has no
tentacula or feelers; fometimes two eyes, and fometimes
without any. There-are ten fpecies; three of them com-
mon to the ftagnant waters of otr country, the others for
the moft part found on the fhores of the North feas; gene-
rally only a few lines long, and attached to the ftalks of
aquatic plants.

Species.

Vermicuraris. This fpecies is well reprefented in
Plate V. Vermes, fig. 5—11, in its natural and magnified
ftate; it has‘no lateral brifties, but the chin is bearded, Tt
is found in ftagnant waters, adhering to duck-weed ; it is
only about a quarter of an inch long; the head is fub-
clavate; it has no eyes, and the peduncles hate five or fix
briftles.

* Serpentina. Body ferpentine, with red fpiral iutef-
tines, and triple black collar. It inhabits Europe, in ftap-
nant waters; is about an inch in length; the peduncles are
warty, with three hooked briftles. This fpecies is finely re-
prefen‘ed in the plate already referred to.

* ProposcipeA. This has fingle lateral briftles, and a
very long probofcis.. It inhabits clear fta,nant waters, and
is about three quarters of an inch long. (See Plate V.
The body is hyaline, with a blackifh
flexuous inteftine ; the fegments with a fingle longifh briftle
on each fide; the head is forked, and armed with a mouth
and tongue; the vent is terminal, and it feeds on invifible
aquatic infects.

Extnouis. ‘This has fingle lateral briftles, and no pro-
bofcis; is met with in river water, about half an inch long,

3 and

“NAI

and narrower than the laft. The mouth is placed before,
and is.obtufe; the vent is lateral.

* Dicirata. This alfo has fingle lateral briftles, witha
laciniate tail. It is found in ftagnant: waters, or the fandy
fediment of rivers, with its head attached to the ftalk of
aquatic plants, and is not quite half an inch long. ‘The
body is marked with a reddifh vein down the middle, and
furnifhed beneath with a double row of very minute ciliate
protuberances ; it has no eyes, and the tail is rounded, and
furnifhed with fix unequal retraétile proceffes.

Barsara. Lateral briitles fafciculate, and without a
~ probofcis. Found in the wet hollows of damp woods; not
half an inch long ; and it is generally met with adhering to
{nails. The body in the lower part is furnifhed with hairs ;
the fegments with four divergent briltles on each fide ; it has

two eyes.
Czca. This is without eyes, and has lateral warts that
are briftly. Inhabits the Northern feas, and is thought to

be the fame as the Nerers Ceca; which fee.

Lirrorauis. This fpecies has generally no lateral
briftles, but fometimes they occur fingle, double, or fafci-
culate. Found on the fandy fhores of Copenhagen. The
body is Jong, filiform, equal, red, very fragile, and com-
pofed of numerous crowded annulations, with numerous
fegments, each furnifhed with a lateral briftle.

Marina. The body of this is furnifhed with fingle la-
teral briftles, and furnifhed with an extenfile tube. Found
on the fhores of Greenland, under marine conferve ; fcarcely
an inch long, and it refembles the Nereis Prolifera ; which
fee. The body is of a whitifh colour, with a yellowifh-grey
line down the middle; the part is convex, and underneath it
is flat, and pointed behind; it has two eyes.

QuapricusPIDATA. Lateral warts bifid and briftly ;
the abdomen is furnifhed with cirri; the tail is four-cleft.
It inhabits the fandy coafts of Iceland, and is ufualiy found
under flones; it is about two inches and a half long. The
body is compofed of 1o4 annular fegments, fometimes red-
difh, fometimes of a reddifh-grey, with a longitudinal purple
line, which is of a ftronger colour beneath; it is tapering
towards both ends, and flatter beneath; has neither eyes
nor feelers, and its tail ends in four proceffes.

NAISERRA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Guzerat ; 30 miles N.N.E. of Champaneer.

NAISSANT, in Heraldry, is applied to a lion, or other
animal, fhewing only the head, fhoulders, fore-feet, and legs,
- with the tip of the tail; the reft of the body lying hid under
the fhield, or fome charge, or ordinary thereon ; from which
’ it appears to be ifluing or arifing.

Naiffant differs from iffuant, as the animal in the former
cafe iffues out at the middle, and in the latter at the bottom
of the field or charge.

F, Menettrier fays, naiffant is only ufed for animals,
which fhew the bare head as arifing out of the extremity of
the chief, or from above the feffe,

NAISTON, in Congr aphye a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Irak; 80 miles N, of Ifpahan.

NAIVETE’, in Rhetoric, a French term denoting the
higheft degree of fimplicity, of the import of which term,
having no correfponding one in our language, it is not eafy
to give a precife idea. It always exprefles'a difcovery of
character. M, Marmontel, who has given the beft account
of it, explains/it thus; §* that fort of amiable mgenuity, or
undifguiled opennefs, which feems. to give us ie degree
of fuperiority over the perfon who fhews it: a:certain: int
fantine fimplicity, which we love in our hearts, but which

difplays fome features of the charaéter that we think we

NAL

could have art» to hide; and which, ‘therefore, diways leads
us to fmile at the perfon who difcovers this charaéter."’ La
Fontaine is given as the gteat example of fuch naivete.
This; however, is to be underflood as defcriptive of a par-
ticular {pecies only of /implicity ; which fee.

NAKA Lassen, in Geography, a town of Mingrelia ;
20 miles N.W. of Cotatis.

NAKED, in Architedure. Naked of a wall} &c. is the
furface of a plain, from whence the projeétures arife; or
which ferves as a ground to the projectures. -

Thus, we fay, a pilafter ought to exceed the naked of
the wall by fo many inches; and that the foliages of a capi-
tal ought to anfwerto the naked of the column.

A flooring is faid to be naked, before the boards are laid
over the joills: the naked roofing or carcafing is applied to
the roof before the tiles are laid on the rafters.

Nakep Fire, is a term ufed by chemifts for an open fire ;
or one where the containing veflel is immediately expofed to
the fire. /

Nakep Flowers, in Botany, are fuch as are furnifhed
with a corolla, but deftitute of a calyx; fuch are the Tulip,
Hyacinth, and many others of the Liliaceous order. . Some
botanilts do not allow of any flowers of this defcription, be-
caufe when only one covering is prefent, they are pleafed to
call it invariably a calyx. Juffieu therefore applies the
term naked flowers to thofe which have no braéea or floral
leaf.

Naxep Leaves are deftitute of all kind of clothing or
hairinefs, like moft of the Orchis tribe.

Nakep Seeds are fuch feeds of plants as are not inclofed
in any pod, or cafe.

Nakep Stems are thofe which bear no leaves.

NAKEL, in Geography, a town of the duchy of War-
faw 3 40 miles N.N.W. of Gnefna.

NAKGIVAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Arokhage; 30 miles S.S.W. of Arokhage.

NAKIA, a town of Syria; 10 miles N. of Acre.

NAKIB, in the Oriental Dignities, the name of an officer
who is a deputy to the cadilifkier, or, as he may be called,
the lord high chancellor of Egypt, appointed by the
grand fignior. His office is to carry the itandard of Ma-
homet. }

NAKIR, a word ufed by fome medical writers to exprefs
a violent flatulence which pafles from one limb to’ another,
and is always attended with pain.

NAKKILA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
province of Abo; 10 miles §.S.E. of Biorneborg.”

NAKOUS, an Egyptian mufical inftrument, made like
two plates of brafs, and of all fizes, from two inches toa
foot in diameter: they hold them by ftrings faftened to their
middles, and {trike them together fo'as to beat time. "They
are ufed in the Cophtic churches, and in the Mahometan
proceflions.

NAKRA, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Khorafan; 9 miles N. E. of Herat.

NAKRASH, a town of Egypt, on a canal formed
from the Nile to the lake Marzotis; 10 miles N.W. of
Shabur.

NAKVAY, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Yani. '

NAL /a Appella, in Botany; a name ufed in the Hortus
Malabaricus to exprefs an Indian fhrub, or tree, from the
roots of which they obtain an oil of a gold-yellow colour,
and very agreeable {mell, called appe/ oil. It is of a bitterifh
and fharp tafte, and is in great eiteem among them in pains
of the head.

NALA Sunxra, in Geography, a branch of the Indus,

3U 2 which

NAM
which feparates from the main ftream, 14 miles S.W. of
Naflerpour, and runs into the fea,- 30 miles W. of Booge-
booge.

NALABOO., a fea-port on the weft coaft of Sumatra.
N. lat. 4° 16!. E. long. 95° 5’. t

NALADIDY, a town of Hindcoftan, in Marawar;
35 miles N.W. of Ramanadporum.

NALDOROUK, or Natprooa, a town of Hindooftan,
in Dowlatabad; 76 miles E. of Viliapour. N. lat. 17° 27!.
E. long. 76° 45!.

NALIBOKI, a town of Lithuania; 25 miles N.E. of
Novogrodek.

NALIKAN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Nato ia;
25 miles E. of Efki-fhehr.

NALLABIGA, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 33
miles S.W. of Bahar.

NALLACOOD, a town of Hindooftan, in Golconda;
21 miles S. of Combamet.

NALLAGUNGE, a town of Bengal; 6 miles S.W.
of Chilmary.

NALUGU, in Botany, Rheede Hort. Mal. v.- 2. 43.
t. 26. See Leesa Sambucina.

NALUS, in Geography, a country and people of Africa,
between the rivers Nuno, Triftao, and Rio Grande, bor-
dering- on the country of Sierra Leone; not far from the
Atlantic, between 10° and 11° of N. lat.

NAM. See Naam.

NAMA, in Botany, a Greek name adopted, as it ap-
pears, without much reafon, by Linneus; nor can we offer
any thing fatisfattory refpeCting its origin or application.
—Linn. Gen. 124. Schreb. 173. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.
1326. Mart. Mill. Di@. v, 3. Browne Hift. of Ja-
maica, 185. Swartz. Obf. 109. Jufl. 134. Lamarck
Illuftr. t. 184. Gertn. t. 44.—Clafs and order, Pentan-

dria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Succulente, Linn. Convelvuli,
Juff.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, perma-

nent, cloven into five, lanceolate, acute, ftraight, fpreading
fegments. Cor. of one petal, wheel or falver-fhaped ;
tube fhort, limb divided into five, ovate, obtufe fegments,
the length of the calyx. Stam. Filaments five, thread-
fhaped, ovate at the bafe, inferted into the middle of the
tube, fhorter than the fegments of the limb, and alter-
nating with them; anthers oblong, cloven at the bafe, re-
volute, incumbent. Pi. Germen fuperior, ovate; ftyles
two, capillary, ereét, as long as the ftamens; ftigmas capi-
tate. Peric. Caplule ovate-oblong, obtufe, compreffed,
furrowed on both fides, of one cell, two valves, and fhorter
than the calyx. Seeds numerous, very {mall, affixed to the
flat receptacle in the mid{t of the partition.

Eff. Ch. Calyx very deeply five-cleft. Corolla five-
cleft. Capfule with one cell, and two valves.

1. N. ygamaicenfis. Linn. Sp. Pl. 327. (N. reclinata
viflofa, foliis oyatis, petiolis marginatis recurrentibus, flo-
ribus folitarjis; Browne Jam. 185. t. 18. f. 2.)—Native
of Jamaica, in cultivated ground, as well as in walte ftony
places. Root annual, fimple, thread-like. Stem from two
to fix inches in height, fubdivided, procumbent, downy,
branched from the axils of the leaves. Leaves oppofite,
wedge-fhared at the bafe, ovate, or roundifh, entire, downy,
their ftalke decarrent. Flowers axillary, from two to four
in aclulter, each on a feparate, fhort ftalk, {mall and white.
— Browne remarks, ‘* that this little plant {preads about the
root, that all its parts are fomewhat hairy, and that the
ftalk and bra: ches are margined,’”’

N. zeylanica, Linn. is now referred to HypRoLgA; fee
that article.

NAM

NAMACUL, in, Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Barramaul country; 42 miles S. of Darempoury. N.
laty.a1°,22'. Es longs78? 5!.

NAMAGANG, a {mali ifland in the Eaft Indian fea.
S. lat. 6° 45’. E. long. 132°.

NAMAMTIA, in Ichthyology, a name given by the
French to the manati, or fea-cow. See Tricuecus Ma-
natus.

NAMANDA, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the
ifland of Niphon; 32 miles S.S.W. of Iga.

NAMAQUA, 1n Ornithology, a {pecies of Tetrao (which

fee), in the dry ceferts of Africa inhabited by the Nama- ~

uas.

NAMAQUAS, in Geography, a people of Africa, near
the W. coatt, N. of the Cape of Good Hope.

NAMASKETT. See MippiesoroucH. |

NAMATION, Namario, in Law, the aét of diftrain-
ing or taking a diffre/s ; which fee. See alfo Naam.

In Scotland the word is particularly ufed for impound-
ing. See Pounp.

NAMBALLA, in Geography, a town of Peru, in the
audience of Quito; 40 miles N.W. of Jaen de Bracamoros.

NAMBE, a town of New Mexico; 40 miles. N. of
Santa Fé.

NAMBIOOR, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore; 20
miles W. of Erroad.

NAMBU, a fea-port cf Japan, on the E. coaft of the
ifland of Niphon; 200 miles N. of Jedo. N. lat. 38° 58/.
E. long. 142° 20’.

NAMDO, an ifland in the Baltic, near the E. coaft of
Sweden. N. Iat..59° 55'.. E. long. 18° 10/.

NAME denotes a word by which men have agreed to

exprefs fome idea; or which ferves to denote or fignify a
thing or fubject {poken of.

This the grammarians ufually call a noun, nomen, though
their noun is not of quite fo much extent as our name.
See Noun. barat aif

Seneca, lib. ii. de Beneficiis, obferves, that there is a
great number of things which have no name; and which,
therefore, we are forced to call by other borrowed names.
‘ Ingens eft,” fays he, ‘ rerum copia fine nomine, quas
cum propriis appellationibus fignare non poffumus, alienis
accommodatis utimur ;”’ which may fhew why, in the courfe
of this dictionary, we frequently give divers fenfes to the
fame word.

It was Adam who, probably under a divine direGtion,
firft gave things their names. Genefis, 11. Ig.

Names are diltinguifhed into proper and appellative.

Proper names are thofe which reprefent fome individual
thing or perfon; fo as to diftinguifh it from all other things
of the fame fpecies. As Socrates, which reprefents a cer-
tain philofopher.

Appellative, or general names, are thofe which fignify
common ideas; or which are common to feveral individuals
of the fame f{pecies ; as horfe, animal, man, oak, &c.

Proper names are either called Chriffian, as being given b
us at baptif{m; or /urnames: the firit, impofed for diftinc-
tion of perfons, anfwering to the Roman prenomen ; the
fecond, for the diltinétion of families, anfwering to the
nomen of the Romans, and the patronymicum of the Greeks.

Originally every perfon had but one name; as among the
Jews, Adam, &c.; among the Egyptians, Bofiris; among
the Chaldees, Ninus; the Medes, Aftyages; the Greeks,
Diomedes ; the Romans, Romulus; the Ganlk Divitiacus ;
the Germans, Arioviftus; the Britons, Caffibelan; the
Englifh, Hengilt, &c,; and thus of other nations, except

6 the

ns eae ath ii

———— Se Oe

NAME.

the favages of mount Atlas, whom Pliny and Marcellinus
reprefent as “ anonymi,”’ namele/s.

The Jews gave the name at the circumcifion, viz. eight
days after the birth: the Romans to females the fame day,
and to males on the ninth; at which time they held a feait,
called nominalia.

Since Chriftianity has obtained, moft nations have fol-
lowed the Jews, baptizing and giving the name on the
eighth day after the birth, though this is far from being an
uniform practice ; our Englifh anceftors generally baptized
and gave the name on the birtli day.

The firft impofition of names was founded on different
views, among different people; the moft ufual was to mark
the good withes of the parents, or to entitle the children
to the good fortune a happy name feemed to promife.
Hence Victor, Caftor, Fauttus, Statorius, Probus, &c.

Accordingly we find fuch names, by Cicero called bona
nomina, and by ‘Tacitus fau/ta nomina, were {til firft in-
rolled, and ranged in the Roman mutters; firft called to
ferve at the firft facrifices in the foundation of colonies, &c.
And on the contrary, Livy cals Atrius Umber, abominandi
ominis nomen: and Plautus, on occafion of a perfon named
Lyco, i. e. greedy wolf, fays:

«© Vofmet nunc facite conjecturam, ceterum
~ Quid id fit hominis, cui Lyco nomen ftet.”

Hence, Plato recommends it to men to be careful in giv-
ing happy names; and the Pythagoreans taught exprefsly
that the minds, aGtions, and fucceffes of men, were accord-
ing to their names, genius, and fate. Thus, Panormitan,
Ex bono nomine oritur bona prefumptio ; and thus the common
proverb, Bonum nomen bonum omen: and hence the founda-
tion of the Onomantia } which fee.

The abbé Barthelemi, in his * Travels of Anacharfis,’”’
(vol. v.) mentions it as a circumftance worthy of attention,
that the greater part of names found in Homer compre-
hends marks of diftin@ion. ‘They were given in honour of
the qualities mo efteemed in the heroic ages, as valour,
ftrength, fwiftnefs, prudence, and other virtues. From
polemos, fignifying war, have been formed Tlepolemos,
i. ¢. able to fupport the labours of war, and Archeptalemos,
i. e. able to dire&t the labours of war. By adding to the
word mache, or battle, certain prepofitions and different
parts of {peech, which may modify the fenfe in a manner
always honourable, are compofed the names Ampbimachus,
Antimachus, Promachus, Telemachus, &c. He adds, that
we find fearcely any degrading names in Homer.

Our Camden takes it for granted, that the names in all
nations and languages are fignificative, and not fimple founds
for mere diftinétion fake. This holds not only among the
Jews, Greeks, Latins, &c. but even the Turks; among
whom Abdallah fignifies God’s fervant; Soliman, peace-
able; Mahomet, glorified, &c. And the favages of Hif-
paniola, and throughout America, who, in their languages,
name their children Gliftering Light, Sun-bright, Fine
Gold, &c. And they of Congo, by the names of preci-
ous ftones, flowers, &c. f

To fuppofe names given without any meaning, however
by the alteration of languages their fignificaticn may be
loft, that learned author thinks, is to reproach our an-
ceftors; and that contrary to the fenfe of all ancient wri-
ters. Porphyry notes, that the barbarous names, as he
calls them, were very emphatical, and very concife: and
accordingly it was elteemed as a duty tobe otgasyuo, or

fui nominis bomines: as Severus, Probus, and Aurelius are
called fui nominis imperatores. :

And it was the ufual way of giving names, to wifh the

children might difcharge their names. Thus, when Gun-
thram, king of France, named Clotharius at the font, he
faid Crefcat puer et hujus fit nominis executor.

The ancient Britons, Camden adds, generally took
their names from colours ; becaufe they painted themfelves ;
but thefe names are now loft, or remain hid among the
Welfh. When they were fubdued by the Romans they
took Roman names, fome of which {till remain, corrupted ;
though they are, for the greateft part, become extinét,
upon the admiffion of the Englifh Saxons, who introduced
the German names, as Cridda, Penda, Ofwald, Edward,
&e. The Danes, too, brought.with them their names; as
Swayne, Harold, Knute, &c.

The Normans, at the Conqueft, brought in other Ger-
man names, as originally ufing the German tongue; fuch as
Robert, William, Richard, Henry, Hugh, xe. after the
fame manner as the Greek names, Afphafius, Boethius,
Symmachus, &c. were introduced into Italy, upon the
divifion of the empire. After the Conqueft, our nation,
which had been averfe to foreign names, as deeming them
unlucky, began to take Hebrew names, as Matthew, Da-
vid, Samfon, &c.

The various names anciently, or at prefent, obtaining
among us, from what language or people foever borrowed,
are explained by Camden in his Remains.

Of late years it has obtained among us to give furnames
for Chriftian names ; which forme diflike, on account of the
confufion it may introduce. Camden relates it as an opi-
nion, that the practice firft began in the time of Edward VI.
by fuch as would be godfathers, when they were more than
half fathers. Upon which fome were perfuaded to change
their names at confirmation; which, it feems, is ufual in
other countries. Thus, two fons of Henry II. of France,
chriltened Alexander and Hercules, changed them at con-
firmation into Henry and Francis.

In monatteries, the religious affume new names at their
admi:tance ; to fhew they are about to lead a new life, and
have renounced the world, their family, and even their
name: v. g. Sifter Mary of the Incarnation, Brother Henry
of the Holy Sacrament, &c.

The popes alfo change their name at their exaltation to
the pontificate; a cuftom firft introduced by pope Sergius,
whofe name, till then, as Platina informs us, was Swine-
fnout. -But Baronius refers it to pope Sergius I. and Onu-
phrius to John XII. or XIII. and at the fame time adds
a different reafon for it from that of Platina, viz. that it
was done in imitation of St. Peter and St. Paul, who were
firft called Simon and Saul. Indeed pope Marcellus, of
late, refufed to change his name.

In Italy; it is frequent to join the name of fome faint,
in a kind of devotion, to the Chriftian name; as Joannes
Baptilta Spinofa, &c.

Among the ancients, thofe deified by the heathen confe-
crations had new names given them, as Romulus was called
Quirinus ; Melicertes, Portunus or Portumnus, &c. New
names were alf given in adoptions, and fometimes by tefta-
ment: thus L. Aimilius, adopted by Scipio, took the name
of Scipio Africanus; and thus Auguiftus, who at firft was
called C. O&avius Thurinus, being adopted by the telta-
ment of Julius Czfar into his name and family, took the
name of Caius Julius Cefar Odtavianus. Names were
alfo changed at enfranchifements into new cities. Thus
Lucumo, at his firft being made free of Rome, took the
name Lucius Tarquinius Prifcus, &c. and flaves, when
made free, ufually aflumed their mafters’ names.

Thofe called to the equeftrian order, if they had bafe
names, were always new-named, nomine ingenuorum veterum-

que

NAM

gue Romanerum. And among the primitive Chriftians, it
was the pra@tice to change the names of the catechumens:
thus, the renegado Lucianus, till his baptifm, was called
Lucius.

Towards the clofe of the fifteenth century, fome of the
literati and wits of that period, particularly in Italy, changed
their baptifmal into claffical names. This was done by
Platina, the hiftorian at Rome, who aflumed the name of
Callimachus; initead of Philip, and thus awakened the fuf-
Picion of pope Paul II. This illiterate ecclefiaftic, con-
ceiving fome bad, but myfterious purpofe, in this practice,
wifhed to difclofe the fecret, and with this view had recourfe
to violent methods. Platina was cruelly tortured on this
frivolous pretext; and as he had no confeflion to make, the
pope, having ineffectually endeavoured to conviét- him of
herefy, fedition, &c. and having kept him for along time
in prifon, at length releafed him.

Name, Generical. See GENERICAL.

Name, Speajic. See Spxciric.

Name, of the, is a phrafe frequent among Hifforians and
Genealogiffs, to denote perfons of the fame quality and name,
It is near one thoufand years fince the emperors of the Weft
firft began to diflinguifh themfelves in this manner by their
number ; and in the Italia Sacra of Ughellus, we meet with
a charter of the emperor Louis le Debonnaire, ann. 515,
wherein that prince ityles himfelf the firit of the name. Le
Blanc mentions a charter of the year 1084, wherein the
emperor Henry III. ftyles himfelf king of Italy, the fourth
of the name: and.emperor the third of the name.

Some French writers obferve, that in a manufcript pre-
ferved in the king’s library, their Lewis XI. is only ityled
the ninth of the name; Louis the Debonnaire, and Louis
the Stammerer, not being then reckoned in the number, be-
caufe they were emperors, as well as kings of France: on
which footing, the late king, inftead of the feventeenth,
fhould only be the fifteenth of the name. .

NAMETZKY, in Geography, a town of Moravia, in
the circleof Brunn; 8 miles N:N.E. of Saar.

NAMIEST, atown’ of Moravia, in the circle of Ol-
mutz; 10 miles W. of Olmutz.—Alfe, a town of Mora-
via, in the circle of Znaym; 30 miles N. of Znaym.

NAMINGATA, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Ni-
phon; 56 miles N.W, of Fitaqua.

NAMIUM, Naam, in Law. See Naam.

Namium Fetitum, or prohibited Naam, isan unjutt taking
the eattleof another, or driving them to an unlawful place,
pretending damages done by them.

Such, e g. is that when the bailiff of a lord diftrains
beafts or goods, and the lord forbids his bailiff to deliver
them, when the fheriff comes to replevy them ; and to that
end, drives them to places unknown. Or when, without
avy words, they are fo effoined, as that they cannot be re-
plevied. Divers lords of hundreds, and courts-baron, have
power to hold plea de vetito namio.

In fuch cafe, the owner of the cattle may demand fatif-
faétion for the injury, which is called placitum de namia
velilo.

NAMMESTA, in Grography, a town of Norway, in
the diocefe of Aggerhuus; 28 miles 5,S.E. of Chrittiania.

NAMNAGUR, atown of Hindootftan, in Bahar; 58
milea S.S.W. of Patna,

NAMPHLO, Nameio, or Nanfio, Ses NAngio.

NAMSEN, a river of Norway, which runs into a bay of
the. North fea, to which it gives name, N. lat. 64° 35’

KE. long. 11° 25!

NAMSLAW, atown of Silefia, in the principality of
Breflaw, having a {trong cattle, fituated among morafles, on

NAM

the river Weyda; 12 miles S.E. of Oels. N. lat. 51° 31,
E. long. 17° 45’.

‘NAMUJOS, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of Trux-
illo ; 120 miles S.E. of Chacaporas.

NAMUR, Couaty of, lately one of the Catholic pro-
vinces of the Netherlands, now a part of France, contti-
tuting the department of the Sambre and Meufe ; which
fee. ;

Namur, a city of France, late of the Netherlands, and
capital of the county of Namur, now capital of the depart-
ment of the Sambre and Meufe, fituated in a valley at the
confiux of thefe two rivers, the greater part being on the
right fide of the Sambre, between two hills. Some fay that
it derived its appellation from ‘ Nam,” an armed idol,
fuppofed to be Neptune. This city was defended by a ftrong .
caltle, feated on a fharp rock on the oppofite fide of the
Sambre, which caftle was rendered an almoft impregnable
defence by Fort William and other conficerabie forts. Jn
1692, Louis XIV., with an army of 100,000 men, laid
fiege to this city, that moiety of the army which covered the
fiege being entrufled to the command of the duke of Lux-
emburgh. The garrifon, confilting of gooo men, was
commanded by the prince of Brabangen. The affailants,
though apprized that king William would attempt the relief
of the city, and that it was well fupplied, profecuted their
attacks with fuch vigour, that in feven days the place capi-
culated, and the garrifon withdrew to the citadel. The be-
fiegers, encouraged by the prefence of their monarch, and
affifted by Vauban, their engineer, purfued their attack with
fuch impetuofity, that the fort of Coehorn was furrendered
after an obftinate defence, and the famous engineer Ceehorn
himfelf dangeroufly wounded. On this occafion, Wauban
and Coehorn exhaufted the whole fcience. of attack and de-
fence, and although the befieged performed wenders, the
affailants prevailed, and the citadel furrendered in fight of king
William's army, confilting of 100,070 effetive men, encamp-
ed within cannon-fhot of Luxemburgh’s army, which Jay on,
the other fide of the river.. Namur remained in the poffeffion
of the French unt the year 1695, when king William de-
termined to makeevery poflible effort for retaking it. The
affault was defperate and fanguinary, and the garrifon was
defended with equal {pirit and perfeverance. On the rith of
July the trenches were opened, and on the fecond day of
September the capitulation was completed. Such had been
the French king’s confidence in the ftrength of the place,
that he caufed to be placed over one of the gates this in-
{cription: ‘* Reddi, non vinci, poteit,’’ that is, it may be
furrendered, but cannot be conquered. After the death of
Charles II. of Spain, the French feized Namur, together
with the reft of the Netherlands, and kept poffeffion of it till
the treaty of Utrecht, when the comté, town, and cattle,
were eto up to the States General, to ferve as a barrier
again{t France; the fovercignty and revenues being referved ©
for the elector of Bavaria, and the crown contributing its
quota to the maintenance of the Dutch troops and fortifica-
tions. In 1746 this fortrefs was taken pofleffion of by the
French, but by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle it was ceded to
the emperor; fince that time the fortifications have been de-
molifhed, except the citadel, which was captured bya de-
tachment of the French army under general Valence, in
December 1792, and again Coreen in the following
year, In 1794, after the defeat of general Clairfait near
Louvain, on the fifteenth of July, the Netherlands were
found untenable by the allies. On the goth, the keys of
the city were prefented at the bar of the national convention,
Namur is the fee of a bifhop, ereéted in, the year 1559 by
pope Paul IV. Before the reformation commenced by the

" late

NAN

late emperor Jofeph, it had four abbies of Benedictines,
fourteen of Ciitertians, one of the order of Premontré, one
abbey, and two priories of canons regular, feven chapters of
canons, three chapters of rioble canonefles, together with
a number of religious houles both for men and women,
and «feveral hofpitals. Its two divifions, N. and S.,
contain 16,090 inhabitants; the firft 11,500, and the
canton 18,537, on a territory of 1021 kiliometres, in 23
communes ; and the fecond, or S. divifion, containing 4500,
and its canton 11,328, ona territory of 170 kiliometres, in
20 communes; 25 miles S.W. of Liege. N. lat. 50° 26’.
Biiong?’ 5°!" :

Namur Marble. See Lucuttrum Marmor.

NAMUSA, in Geography. a {mall ifland in the Pacific
ocean, belonging to the clufter called Moanges. N. lat.

eae. Be) longs 126°"5 8!

NAMUSSO, a town of Mingrelia; 10 miles S. of
Anarghia.

NANAMOW, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; 32
miles S. of Fyzabad. . '

NANARSOAK, atown of Weft Greenland. N. lat.

61°. W. long. '47” 30’.

NANAS, a townof Hungary ; 4 miles S. of Tokay.—
Alfo, a mountain of Carniola, between Wipach and St.
Veit.

NANCASERAM, atown of Hindoofan, in Canara;
feven miles S. of Mangalore. :

NANCAY, atownof France, in the department of the
Cher ; 18 miles N-of Bourges.

NANCHE, a town of the ifland of Formofa, on the
W. coat.) N.lat. 23° 52’. E. long. r'tg® 45’.

NANCY, a city of France, formerly the capital of Lor-
raine, now the capital of the department of Meurthe, near
the river of that name, alternately capital with Luneville.
It is fituated in a beautiful and fertile plain, and divided into
Old and New Town ; the firft {mall and ill built, the latter
Jarger and better built, the ftreets being wider, and in a
ftraight line. Betore the revolution, it contained three
collegiate, three parifh churches, feventeen convents, an
univerfity, an academy of fciences, a medical college, an
hofpital, and acommandery of Malta. It was formerly for-
tified ; but by the peace of Ry{wick, the fortifications of
the New Town were deltroyed. The three divifions of
north, eaft, and weit, contain 29,740 inhabitants; the
firft, 7542, its canton 12,742, on a territory of 1372
kilometres, in 10 communes: the fecond, 11,189. its can-
ton 15,422, on’a territory of 70 kiliometres, in 19 com-
munes; and the third, 11,009,' its canton’ 15,547, on a
territory of 1674 kiliometres, in 11 communes. N, lat.
48° 42! E. long. 6° 16’. :

NANDEDURGAM, a town of Hindooftan, in My-
fore’; five miles S.S.W. of Chinna Balabaram.

NANDELSTETT, atown of Bavaria; g miles N.W.
of Mofburg. -

NANDENORE, a town of Hindvoftan, in the Carna-
tic; 8 miles N.N.E. of Chittoor.

NANDER, a town of Hindooftan, in Dowlatabad ;
132 miles N.N.W. of Hydrabad. N. lat. 19° 6’. E. long.

ia] ,

71.83 NDGEERY, 4 town of Hindooltan, in Vifiapour ;

14 miles N.E. of Sattarah.

NANDGOM, a town of Hindooftan, in Baglana ; 18
miles E.S.E. of Chandor.

NANDI,a town of Bengal; 25 miles $.S.E. of Moor-
fhedabad.

Nawot Ervatam, in Botany, the name of a {mall fhrub
which grows in the Eaft Indies, the whole of which is lac-

NAN

tefcent. The juice expreffed from it, mixed with oil, eafes
pains of the eyes, if the head is anointed with it; the root
matticated, and held in the mouth, eafes the tooth-ache; and
the fame boiled in oil, makes a good ointment for all indif-
pofitions of the head, efpecially pain; bruifed, and taken
in water, it kills worms ; bruifed with the juice of lemon,
and put into the eyes, it removes films.

NANDIGAW, in Geography, a town of Hirdooftan,
in the circar of Condapilly ; 15 miles N.W. of Condapilly.

NANDINA, in Botany, fo named by Thunberg from
its vernacular appellation among the Japonefe, Nandin.
Thunb. Nov. Gen. p. 1.14. Japon. 9. Schreb. 232. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 1. 230. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 3. Ait. Hort. Kew.
ed. 2. v. 2. 314.-Jufl. 429. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 261. Gertn.
t.g2. Clafs and order, Hevandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord.
uncertain. é

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth infericr, of many leaves, im-
bricated in fix rows, and furnifhed with about fix, ovate,
acute, {mooth, caducous feales in each row. Cor. Petals
fix, oblong, concave, acute, longer than the calyx, falling
off. Stam. Filaments fix, very thort; anthers chlong, ere&,
the length of the corolla. Pi/. Germen fuperior, ovate,
fmooth ; ftyle triangular, very fhort ; ftigma triangular.
Peric. Berry dry, globofe, fmsoth. Seeds two, hemifphe-
rical, {mooth.

Eff. Ch. Calyx inferior, many-leaved, imbricated. Co-
rolla of fix petals. Berry dry. Seeds two, hemifpherical.

1. N. domeftica. Garden’ Nandina> Linn. Syft. Veg.
ed. 14. 344. Sims in Curt. Mag. t. 1109. ‘fhunb. Japon.
'47. Banks Ic. Kempf, t. 13, 14.—(Nandsjokf, vulgo
Natten vel Nandin; Kempf. Amoen. 776.)—This orna-
mental plant is much cultivated both in Japan and China,
and is a native of the latter, from whence it was introduced
into the garden at Kew in 1804, by Mr. William Kerr.—
It flowers from May to July.—Root perennial. Stems nu-
merous, fhrubby, ereét, loofe, branched at the top, about
fix feet high, and half an inch in diameter. Branches
covered with the fheaths of the leaves, waved, leafy at the
upper part. eaves repeatedly compound ; leaflets ternate,
ovate, briftle-pointed, entire, with a reflexed margin; their
Jfalks remarkably compounded, the divifions branching off
nearly at right angles; at the lower ones more efpecially,
the joints are {wollen into a kind of globular bulbs.
Flowers in loofe, terminal, compound panicles, white, with
prominent, bright-yellow anthers. Berries red, the fize of
a pea, membranous within. Seeds two, convex on one fide,
and concave on the other; Kempfer compares them to what
are called in the fhops Crab’s-eyes; they are afh-coloured
or reddifh.

The leaflets of this plant -are remarkable for falling off
at the joints of their ftalks, as foon as it begins to dry be-
tween paper. :

NANDOULY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Rohilcund ; 30 miles W.S.W. of Pattiary.

NANDRAN, a town of France, in the department of
the Ourte, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of
Huy. The place contains 566, and the canton 10,322 inha-
bitants, on a territory of 252% kiliometres, in 28 communes.

NANDY-ALLEM, a town of Hindooftan, in Gol-
conda; 35 miles S.S.E. of Canoul.

NANDYOL, a town of Hindooftan, in Bengal; 10
miles S. of Goragot.

NANFIO, Namerto, or Namphio, an ifland in the Gre-
cian Archipelago, fituated S.W. of Stampalia, and little
more than feven leagues in circuit. Its firft name was Mem-
blizros, derived from Membliarus, a Pheenician, who, when
his relation Cadmus went in quelt of Europa, sie a

1D,

NAN

him, and fettled in the neighbouring ifland of Thera. It
has fince been named Anaphe, which in Pheenician language,
according to Bochart, fignifies fhaded and dark, an epithet
which this ifland acquired from its gloomy and thick foretts;
or, as others fay, from the Greek word ¢zw, to appear,
from the thunder having on a fudden occafioned it to arife
from the bottom of the waters, in order to receive the fleet
of the Argonauts on its return from Colchis, when aflailed
by a furious tempeft. This fable of antiquity is the hiftory
of the formation of Nanfio, which a volcano caufed to ap-
pear fuddeuly above the fea, in the midf of a violent agita-
tion of the atmofphere and of the waves, which has been the
cafe with fome other iflands of the Archipelago. In memory
of this event was built a temple, which was cenfecrated to
Apollo Egletes, or dazzling with light. Mirth, wine,
and pleafantry prefided at the feltivals which were here cele-
brated. Slight vettiges of the temple {till appear in the S.
part of the ifland; and the marble of which it was con-
itru€ted was taken from a fleep rock, of frightful afped,
on whofe fummit is a chapel, dedicated to « Our Lady of
the Reed,”? or in modern Greek ‘* Panegia Kalamitofa.”

The forefts which once darkened the ifland have difap-
peared, and have been fucceeded only by fome fcattered
fhrubs. Its mountains are barren and naked, nor do its plains
afford a much more brilliant vegetation. Agriculture lan-
guifhes, and notwith{tanding the fertility of the foil, barley
is almoft the only plant that produces any harveflt. Sore
{mall plantations of vines yield good wine, and honey is
common. Partridges formerly multiplied fo prodigioufly,
that in order to preferve the corn, all the eggs that could
be found were colieGted about the Eafter holidays, and made
into various fauces, and efpecially into amulets ; and yet,
according to Tournefort, covies of partridges were flill very
numerous. Their number feems now to be diminifhed. A
{mall town built to the S. contains the whole population of
Nanfio ; every thing befpeaks the wretchednefs {pread over
the territory of the ifland. Here is no harbour; but in
front of the town, fhips find a very good road-ftead, pro-
teted by a {mall fhoal, which is called ‘¢ Nanfio-Poulo,”’ or
Little Nanfio.

NANEFRI, a river of Sicily, which runs into the fea, on
the S. coaft, N. lat 37°3'. E. long. 14° 6'.

NANGA, a fea-port town of the ifland of Niphon,
fituated on a bay on the S. coafl; 55 miles S.W. of Jedo.
N. lat. 35° 52’. E. long. 88° 48!.

NANGABUSAN, a town of Bengal; 33 miles S.S.W.
of Calcutta. N. lat. 22° 12/. E. long. 88> 48'.

NANGALLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore; 13
miles N. of Vencatighery.

NANGAN, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in
Yun-nan; 1192 miles S.W. of Peking. N, lat. 24° 58’.
E. long. 101% 23/.

NANGANJEE, a river of Hindooftan, which runs into
the Ambravetty ; 11 miles S.W. of Carroor.

NANGASAKI, or Nacasak1, a fea-port town of
Japan, on the W. coalt of the ifland of Ximo, at the end of
a deep commodious bay. The harbour widens and deepens
from its mouth towards the interior part, in which is a rocky
ifland, where is good riding. About half a mile from the
town are two imperial guards, enclofed with palifades, each
of which confifts of 7oo men. Here are feveral forts, con-
{truéted along the harbour, but without cannon. The city
lies at the wideft end of the harbour, but it has no walls,
caltles, or other defence. ‘The ftreets are neither ftraight
nor wide. ‘Three rivers run through the town, which de-
fcend from the neighbouring hills; but they {carcely afford
water fufficient, during the greateft part of the year, to water

NAN

their rice-fields and gardens; though thefe ftreams, after
heavy rains, fwell into torrents fo impetuous, as to {weep
away whole houfes by their rapid current. The place is
diyided into the inner and outer town; the former contain-
ing 26, and the latter 61 ftreets, in which no ttrangers are
allowed to dwell; but they are confined under ftriét watch
to certain fuburbs. The chief public buildings are five
janaguras, or large houfes, near the fhore, conitruéted of.
timber; in which are kept three imperial jonks, or men of
war, ready to be launched at command, the powder-maga-
zine, the palaces of the two refiding governors, and other
princes and grandees; fome of whom refide conftantly, and
others occafionally there; about 62 temples within and
without the city; ufed partly for devotion, and partly for
recreation; the goknia, or common prifon, confifting of
about 100 large and {mall cages, or huts, feparate from each
other, where prifoners are confined, put to the torture, and
privately executed, according to their rank or crimes; the
brothel, confifting of two handfome itreets, fhut at each -
end by ftrong gates, in which proftitutes are kept, and let

out for hire, either to natives or foreigners. The houfes

are low and mean, though well inhabited, moftly by mer-

chants, tradefmen, and mechanics. The market is well

fupplied with fowls and grain of various kinds, fifh, and

cattle; though provifions, as well as merchandizes, fell here

at a dearer rate than at other parts. ‘The water is bad, and

is faid to occafion very violent and painful colics. The Por-

tuguefe were completely routed from Japan in the year

1639, and no further attempts were made on the’ part of

the Englifh till the year 1768, when the Eaft India Com-

pany fent a fhip to Nangafaki, with a letter from his Bri-

tannic majeity to the emperor of Japan. The emperor, pro-

bably under the influence of the Dutch, fent the Englifh a.
meffage, forbidding any intercourfe with his dominions.

Thus ended all communication with Japan, on the part of

the Englifh, until the year 1803, when a fhip was fent on

a mercanti‘e {peculation from Calcutta, which was refufed

admittance, and ordered to leave in 24 hours. In 1808,

captain Pellew, in the Phaeton frigate, entered the harbour

of Nangafaki under Dutch colours; but the event was un-

propitious. N. lat. 32°45’. E. long. 128° 46' 15", or

130 6!

NANGAXIMA, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Xi-
coco; 20 miles N.N.E. of Tofa.

NAN-GE-SU, a {mall ifland near the coaft of China.
N. lat. 25° 6’. E. long. 119° 24.

NANGIHAN Pornt, the fouthern extremity of the
ifland of Leyta. N. lat. 10° 2’. E. long. 124° 57. =

NANGIS, GumLtaume be, in Biography, an ancient.
French hiftorian, who flourifhed in the fourteenth century,
was a Benedittine monk of the abbey of St. Denis. He
wrote the lives of St. Lewis, and of Philip le Hardi, and
alfo two chronicles; the firft from the creation to the year
1300, the fecord a chronicle generally of the kings of
France. The lives were printed, for the firft time, in
Pithou’s colleGtion in 1596, and the chronicle from the year.
1113 was publifhed in the ‘ Spicilegium” of D, Luc
d’Archery. Moreri.

Nanais, in Geography, a town of France, in the department
of the Seine and Marne, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Provins; 12 miles W. of Provins. ‘The place
contains 1999, and the canton $g22 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 3224 kiliometres, in 19 communes.

NANG-KANG, a city of China, of the firft rank, in
the province of Kiang-fi, on the lake Po-yang, It has four
cities of the third clafs under its jurifdi€tion ; 637 miles S.
of Peking, N. lat. 29° 33’. E. long. 115 39!.

NAN.

NAN

NANGOTA, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Ximo ;
65 miles N. of Nangafaki. ; |

NANGU, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore; 25 miles
N. of Rettinghery. 4 :
' NANGUER, in Zoology, the Antilope Dama, has its
horns hooked forwards at the ends; the upper parts of the
body tawny yellow, the under parts white, with a white
{pot on the cheft. This is the dama of Pliny, Gefner, Ray,
&c. the fwift antelope of Pennant, and in his opinion, the
Knpes, or Cemas, of Elian. It inhabits Senegal. ‘his ani-
mal is three feet ten inches in length, from the nofe to the
origin of the tail, and two feet eight inches high at the
fhoulder; the greater part of the body is white, bat the
back, upper parts of the fides, and the head, are tawny or
yellowith; there are, however, varieties as to colour. Both
fexes have round horns, about eight inches long, bent or
hooked forwards, aud fharp-pointed; there are only fix
fore-teeth in the lower jaw. ‘The Nanguer is very fwift and
is eafily tamed. AE 'ian“compares the flight of the Knuz; to
the rapidity of a whirlwind.

NAN-HOANG-TCHIN-TAO, in Geography, a {mall
ifland near the coaft of China, in the Eaftern fea. N. lat.
38° 18’. E. long. 120° 44’.

NANI, Grampatista, in Biography, an Italian hifto-
rian, of a noble Venetian family, was born in 1616, and
educated under the eye of his father, who took him to
Rome in his fuite, being appointed embaffador from the
Venetian republic to pope Urban VIIT. In 1641, Nani
was admitted into the college of fenators, and foon after
was appointed embaffador to France, where he refided five
years. He was much efteemed by cardinal Mazarin, who
was in the habit of confulting- him on public affairs. In
1648 he returned to Venice, having obtained from the court
of Frage a confiderable aid of men and money for the de-
fence Sf Candia againft the Turks, The fuperintendance
of the affairs of war and finances was then entrufted to him;
and in 1664 he was fent embaffador to the Imperial court,
which he vifited a fecond time on the acceffion of the em-
peror Leopold. In 1670 he was delegated ‘upon a fecond
embafly to the court of France, and on his return was no-
minated a procurator of St. Mark; and was foon after raifed
to the poft of captain-general by fea. The maritime fer-
vice not agreeing with him, he continued to ferve the ftate
at home, and the office of hiftoriographe: was conferred
upon him, and the manner in which he performed its duties
rendered his name illuftrious. He died in 1678. He was
author of the ‘ Hiftory of Venice from 1613 to 1671,”’ of
which the firft part was publifhed at Venice in 1662, and
the fecond after his death in 1679. It is much elteemed
for the veracity of the narrative, and for the depth and
fagacity of the political refleGtions. To the new edition in
the colle&tion of Venetian hiftorians, the life of the author is
prefixed. It has been tranflated into the French and
Englifh languages. Moreri. ; :

Nant, in Geography, a town of Candahar; eight miles
S.W. of Ghizni.

NANIJAR, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Burfali.

NANIMAN, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 75 miles
W.S.W. of Havannah.

NANINA, a town of Abyfflinia ; 70 miles E. of Miné.

NANINO, Giovanni Maria pA VALERANO, in Bio-
graphy, was admitted into the pontifical chapel, as a tenor
finger, in 1577. He was a fellow ftudent and in ftri&
friendfhip with Paleltrina, Thefe two excellent matters
opened a mufic-{chool together at Rome, where they formed
many great fcholars, among whom was Gioy. Bernardino

Vou. XXIV.

NAN

Nanino, a younger brother of,Maria, according to Walther,
but called by P. Martini his nephew, and Antonio Cifra.
Antimo Liberati informs us of a circumftance, which will
be readily believed; that Paleftrina had no relifh for the
drudgery of attending a fchool, having his thoughts fo
much abforbed in his own ftudies; ee leaving .the
care of the difciples to Nanino, his vifits were not very fre-
quent or long, calling only from time to time in order to
explain to them fuch uncommon difficulties and doubts as
impeded the progrefs of their ftudies, and to adjuft the dif-
putes which arofe among the profeffors, who in great num-
bers conftantly attended the le€tures there. Though Nanino
was regarded by the Romans as one of the molt learned
muficians of his time, yet Sebaftian Raval, a Spaniard, then
at Rome, thinking they were all miftaken, and that he was
himfelf very much his fuperior, challenged him and his ceun-
tryman Seriano, another friend of Paleflrina, to a mufical
combat, which was to be determined by a weapon they had
both frequently wielded, the pen: in this engagement, how-
ever, the Spaniard was defeated. Many aurea fets of
madrigals, by Nanino, were publithed at Venice during the
latter end of the fixteenth century, which are now difficult
to find; there are, however, in the “ Studii di Palefrina,
feveral of his chants, which are excellent. P. Martini,
“¢ Storia della Mufica,” has given in his catalogue of au-
thors the titles of two very curious works: the firft of
thefe, by G. M. Nanino, is called “Centocinquanta fette_
Contrappunti e Canoni, a 2, 3) 45 5: 6, 7, 8, 11 Voc. Sopra
de Cantofermo intitolato la Baie di Cottanzo Fefta;’’ the
fecond is ftyled «* Trattato di Contrap. con la regola per
far Contrappunto a mente, di G. M. Nanino e Bernardino
Naninc, fuo Nipote.’””

Nanixo, Bernarpino, the younger brother of Maria,
according to Antimo Liberati, was a perfon of very extra-
ordinary abilities, who, by an inventive ftyle joined to a
perfect knowledge of harmony, had greatly improved the
art of compofition. The only produétions which we have
feen of this mafter, are two or three chants in the “ Studi
di Paleftrina.’’

NANKA Isranps, in Geography, three {mall iflands in
the Eaft Indian fea, the fouthernmolt of which lies clofe ta
the weltern fhore of the ifland of Banca. Sir Erafmus
Gower obferved, that it was very defirable for fhips to ftop
at the Nanka ifles, as wood for fuel is very conveniently pro-
cured from thence ; and the water thought preferable, for
keeping, to any before difcovered by the {quadron in thofe
feas. It difcharges itfelf from three {mall rills into a deep
refervoir. The tide rifes and falls about 11 feet, and flows
once only in the 24 hours. The latitude of the road is 2°
22'S., and the longitude 105° 41! E. This place is per-
fectly theltered from S.W. by S. to the N.W.; and there
can be no high fea with any wind, as the land is but ata
fhort diltance in the open points. The fea was very fhallow
clofe to thefe petty iflands, and heaps of ftone mixed with
iron ore were, in many places, feen juft rifing above the
furface, without the leaft covering of vegetation, and as if,
at no very remote period, vomited up by the force of fub-
aqueous fire. Staunton’s Embafly to China, vol. i. p. 307.

NAN-KING, or Krane-nina, a city of China, the
capital of the province of Kiang-nan, is faid to have been
formerly one of the moft beautiful and flourifhing cities in
the world. The Chinefe, in {peaking of its extent, fay,
that if two horfemen fhould go out by the fame gate, and
ride round it in full fpeed, taking different dire¢tions, they
would not meet before night. Although this account is ex-
aggerated, it is certain, fays Grofier, that Nan-king furpaffes
in extent all the other cities cf China. Its walls, it is faid,

3X are

NAN

are 54 leagues in circumference. A French miffionary
Na the following account of its extent. The fuburbs, he
ays, are very long, but not populous; the houfes ftand ac
fome diftance from one another, having reeds, pools of
water, or plantations of bamboo between them. Viewing it
from the sth ftory of the porcelain tower, which commands
an extenfive profpeét, it did not appear to be aboye two-
thirds as large as Paris. In order to reconcile this ap-
pearance with the accounts that have been given of its im-
menfe extent, they found, upon travelling a full league from
Nan-king, the walls of a city rifing amidft mountains, and
appearing as if cemented to the rocks. Thefe were the
walls of Nan-king, which, leaving the city where it now
flands, have, as it were, retired thither, to enclofe a fpace
of fifteen or fixteen leagues, twelve or thirteen of which are
not inhabited.

This city is fituated at the diftance of a league from the
river Yang-tfe-kiang ; it is of an irregular figure ; the moun-
tains within its circuit having prevented its being built"on a
regular plan. It was formerly the imperial city, and for
this reafon called Nan-king, 7. e. the fouthern court ; but
fince the fix grand tribunals have been transferred from
thence to Pe-king, it is called Kiang-ning in all the public
aéts. It has loft much of its ancient fplendour ; no veftige
now remains of its magnificent palace; other monuments
of its grandeur have alfo difappeared. A third of the city
is deferted, but the reft is all inhabited. Some quarters of
it are populous, and full of bufinefs. The ftreets are lefs

' broad than thofe of Pe-king ; but they are very. beautiful,
well paved, and bordered with rich fhops. One of the great
mandarins, called Tfong-gtou, refides here, to take cog-
nizance of all important concerns: the Tartars have a
numerous garrifon here, commanded by a general of their
own nation, and they occupy a quarter of the city, feparated
from the reft bya plain mall. ‘The palaces of the mandarins
are not particularly diftinguifhed from thofe of the capitals
of other provinces; and here are no public edifices cor-
refponding to the reputation of a city fo celebrated, except-
ing its gates, which are very beautiful, and fome temples,
among which is the famous porcelain tower, 200 feet high,
and divided into nine ftories, to the firft of which is an afcent
of forty fteps, and to each of the others twenty-one. The
port was formerly rendered commodious by the breadth and
depth of the river Yang-tfe-kiang ; but at prefent large
barks, or Chinefe junks, never enter it. In April and May
excellent fifh are caught in this river near the city, which
are fent to court, covered with ice, and tranfported by
barks kept for this purpofe. This city is more than 200
leagues Boi Pe-king, and the boats arrive there in eight
or nine days. This city, though the capital of the province,
has only eight cities of the third clafs under its jurifdiction.
N. lat. 32° 4'. E. long, 118° 24’.

NAN-NGAO-TCHING, an ifland near the coaft of
China, about 22 miles in circumferenee. N. lat. 23° 30!.
E, long. 116 49!

NAN-NG HAN, a city of China of the firft rank,
fituated in the moft fouthern part of the province of Kiang-fi:
it is a beautiful, populous, and commercial city, and much
frequented. It has dependent upon it four cities of the
third clafs.

NANNI, Giovanni, in Biography.
VANNI DE.

Nanni, or Nannius, Peter, a critic and philologift, was
born at Alcmaer, in Holland, in the year 1500. He re-
ceived an excellent education, and afterwards taught phi-
lofophy in his owa country. He was chofen profeflor of
the learned languages at Louvain, and in this fituation pafled

See Upinfé Gio-

NAN

eighteen years. He then obtained the canonry at Arras,
which he kept till his death, in 1557. His principal works
were “ Mifcellaneorum Decas,”? containing annotations upon
a number of angient authors in ten books; “ Dialogifmi
Heroinarum,’’ reckoned his beft work ; “ Annotationes in
Inftitutiones Juris Civilis; « Scholia in Cantica Canti-
corum,’’ and tranflations of feveral works, chiefly from
Greek authors. He is regarded as a ‘ good critic, an in-
eftimable poet, but an indifferent orator.” Moreri.

NannI1, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province
of Irak ; 110 miles E. of Ifpahan.

NAN-NING, a city of China, of the firft rank, in the
province of Quang-fi; 1145 miles S.S.W. of Pe-king. N.
lat. 22° 44!. E. long. 107~ 44!. :

NANNO, in Biography, a girl celebrated for her beauty,
for her talents in playing upon the flute, and for the poem
which Mimnermus made on the love with which fhe had
infpired him, though he was arrived at an age when we are
ufually exempted from fuch paffions.

«¢ What is life and all its pride,
If love and pleafure be denied ?
Snatch, {natch me hence, ye Fates, whene’er
The am’rous blifs I ceafe to fhare.
O let us crop each fragrant flow’r,
While youth and vigour give us pow’r ;
For frozen age will foon deftroy
The force to give or take a joy ;
And then, a prey to pain and care,
Detefted by the young and fair,
The fun’s bleft beams will hateful grow,
And only fhine on fcenes of woe !”?

NANNUCKLOO, in Geography, a {mall ifland near the
E. coaft of Labrador. N. lat. 56° 20'. W. long. 60°.

NANNY Town, O/d, a deferted town of theafland of
Jamaica; 16 miles E.N.E. of the town of Kingfton.

NANORE, a tewn of Bengal; 28 miles N. of Burdwan.

NANSA, a town of Spain, in Afturia; 18 miles S.W.
of Santillana.

NAN-SA-CHE, a town of China, near the W. coaft of
the ifland of Formofa. N. lat. 25° 2'. E. long. 120° 39!.

NAN-SAN, a {mall ifland near the coaft of China. N.
lat. 26° 50’. E. long. 119° 20!.

NANSEMOND, a county of Virginia, on the S. fide
of James’ river, and W. of Norfolk county, on the North
Carolina line, about 44 miles long, and 24 broad, containing
11,127 inhabitants, including 4408 flaves.—Alfo, a fhort
river of Virginia, flowing from Great Difmal Swamp ; firft
in a N., then in a N.E. diretion, and difcharging itfelf into
James’ river, a few miles W. of Elizabeth river.

NAN-SHOO-FOU, the frontier city of the province of
Quang-tong, according to fir G. Staunton’s Embafly to
China. The Chinefe Atlas places here a city, called Nan-
yong, which is under{tood to be the fame place. See Nan-
YONG.

NANT, a town of France, in the department of the
Aveyron, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri€ of Mil-
hau; 10 miles S.E. of Milhav. The place contains 2¢71,
and the canton 8289 inhabitants, on a territory of 310 kilio-
metres, in g communes, 4

NAN-T.\-KI, a town of China, on the W. coait of the
ifland of Formofa. N. lat. 24° so'. E. long. 120° 20/.

NANTASKET Roap, the entrance into the channels
of Botton harbour, in which a veffel may anchor fafely in
from feven to five fathoms. ‘I'wo huts are ereéted here with
accommodations for fhipwrecked feamen.

NAN-TCHANG, a city of China, of the firlt rank, and

capital

NAN

eapital of the province of Kiang-fi. This city has no trade
but that of porcelain, which is manufaétured in the neigh-
bourhood of Jao-tcheou. It is the refidence of a viceroy,
and comprehends in its diftri&t eight cities, feven of the firft
clafs and one of the fecond. The adjoining country is fo
much cultivated, that the paftures which remain are {carcely
fufficient for the flocks; 695 miles S. of Pe-king. N, lat.
28° 36!. E. long. 115° 30’. See Kine-tr-cHINe.

NANTERRE, a town of France, in the department of
the Seine, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of
St. Denis; 5 miles W. of Paris. The place contains 2300,
and the canton 11,000 inhabitants, on a territory of 54
kiliometres, in 7 communes.

NANTES, a city of France, and capital of the de-
partment of the Lower Loire, formerly capital of a dif-
tri, called Nantois in Bretagne. It is fituated on the
Loire, and has been reckoned one of the greateft trading
cities in the kingdom: it is large and populous, confift-
ing of fix parts, and comprehending 73,649 inhabitants :
its cantons are fix, including 81,638 inhabitants, on a ter-
ritory of 1074 kiliometres, in ¢ communes. Before the
revolution, it was the fee of a bifhop, the feat of an in-
tendency, a chamber of accounts, or board of finances, a
mint-office, &c. &c. In it were, exclufively of the cathe-
dral, and a collegiate church, eleven parifh churches, four-
teen convents, two hofpitals, one college, and an univerfity
founded about the year 1460, a fociety of agriculture and
arts, a fchool of anatomy and furgery, and a large rope mant-
faéture. Nantes has been accuftomed to carry on a very
large trade to the French colonies, to America, to Spain,
Portugal, and other parts; though fhips of burthen can
come no further up the Loire than to Paimbceuf, a market-
town, where the cargoes:are transferred to f{maller veffels,
and conveyed to Nantes. The temperature of Nantes ap-
pears, from four years obfervations, to be 55°.53, and there-
fore differs very little from the ftandard, which is 55° 5/.
N. lat. 47° 13. E. long. 1° 26).

Nantes, EdiG of, in Ecclefiaftical Hiffory, a famous
edi& promulgated at Nantes in the year 1598, by which
Henry IV. granted to the profeffors of the reformed or
Proteftant religion, the liberty of ferving God according to
their confciences, and a full fecurity for the enjoyment of
their civil rights and privileges, without perfecution or mo-
leftation from any quarter. This ediét reftored and con-
firmed, in the fullett terms, all the favours that had ever
been granted to the Proteftants by other princes, and parti-
cularly by Henry III. To thefe privileges others alfo
were added, which had never been granted, nor even de-
manded before: fuch as free admiffion to all employments
of truft, honour, and profit, the eftablifhment of courts and
chambers, in which. the profeflors of the two religions were
equal in number; and the permitting the children of Pro-
teltants to be educated, without any moleftation or con-
ftraint, in the public univerfities. This ediét was revoked
by Lewis XIV., at the inftigation of the bifhops and Jefuits,
in the year 1685, a meafure which, though accompanied
with the applaufe of Rome, excited the indignation even of
many Roman Catholics, whofe bigotry had not effaced or
fufpended, on this occafion, their natural fentiments of ge-
nerofity and juftice. This revocation was followed by
another meafure, {till more tyrannical and fhocking, even
an exprefs order, addreffed to all the reformed charches, to
embrace the Romifh faith. The confequences of this cruel
and unrighteous proceeding were highly detrimental to the
true intere(ts and the real profperity of the French nation,
by the prodigious emigrations it occafioned among the
Proteftants, who fought, in various parts of Europe, that

NAN

religious liberty, and that humane treatment, which their
mother-country had fo cruelly refufed them. Thofe among
them whom the vigilance of their enemies guarded fo clofely
as to prevent their flight, were expofed to the brutal rage
of an unrelenting ice and were aflailed by every bar-
barous form of pererntion that might tend to fubdue their
courage, exhauft their patience, and thus engage them to
a feigned and external profeffion of Popery, which in their
confciences they beheld with the utmoit averfion and dif-
guft. From this evil, however, good has ultimately pro-
ceeded. The event was very beneficial to almoft all the
Proteftant countries of Europe; and more efpecially to the
commerce of Holland, Brandenburg, and England. The
number of refugees, who on this oceafion fled from France,
and carried their fkill and induftry in various manufaGtures
to other countries, was, at a moderrte computation, more
than half a million.

The revocation of the edict of Nantes was followed by a
perfecution of the Huguenots, called, from the dragoon
troops employed in it, the “ Dragonade.”’ It is but juf
tice to acknowledge, that this horrid perfecution was con-
demned by the greateft and beft men in France. M.
d’Auguefleau, the father of the celebrated chancellor, re-
figned his office of intendant of Languedoc, rather than be
a witnefs of it: his fon repeatedly mentions it with ab-
horrence. Fenelon, Flechier, and Bofluet, confefledly the
ornaments of the Gallican church, lamented it. To the ut-
moft of their power they prevented the execution of the
edi&, and foftened its feverities, where they could not
prevent them. This practical condemnation of the refort to
temporal power, in effecting religious converfion, does all
thefe iliuftrious charaéters the greateft honour, as the doc-
trine of religious toleration was, at that time, little under-
ftood. Weare conftrained, however, to allow that Bofluet,
the bifhop of Meaux, feems to admit, in theory, the ge-
neral right of Chriftian princes to enforce ats of religious
conformity, by wholefome feverities ; and thus allows them,
for effecting a fpiritual good, a refort to temporal means,
which the divine founder of our faith fo explicitly difclaimed
for himfelf.

NanTEs, or Swimming, in the Linnean fyftem of Zoology,
is the name of an order of animals under the clafs of am-
phibia ; the chara¢ters of which are, that they are pinnated,
and breathe by lateral branchie or gills. This order com-
prehends fourteen genera, and feventy-fix f{pecies. To this
order belong the petromyzon, raja, {qualus, &c.

NANTEUIL, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Aifne, between Meaux and Chateau-
Thierry:x—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of
the Marne; 6 miles N. of Epernay.

NanteEvit-le-Haudouin, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Oife, and chief place of a canton, in the
dittriét of Senlis; 9 miles E.S.E. of Senlis. The place
contains 1420, and the canton 8980 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 170 kiliometres, in 22 communes.

NANTIAL, a town of France, in the department of
the Upper Vienne, and chief place of a canton, in the did
trict of Beliac. The place contains 1570, and the canton
12,385 inhabitants, on a territory of 290 kiliometres, in 12
communes.

NANTICOKE, a town of America, in Suflex county,
Delaware, containing 1832 inhabitants.

Nanticoke Creeé, a river of Upper Canada, now called
Wavenny, which diicharges itfelf into lake Erie, between
Long Point and Grand river.

Nanticoke, a navigable river of the eaftern fhore of
Maryland, which runs into Chefapeak bay.

a NANTI-

NAN

NANTICOKES, tribes of Indians, who formerly lived
in Maryland, upon the above-mentioned river. They firft
retired to the Sufquehannah, and then further north. By the
fhocking act of poifoning, in which they excelled, they al-
moft extirpated the whole nation, and deftroyed fome of
their neighbours. Thefe, with the Mohickons and Conoys,
‘about forty years age inhabited Utfonango, Chagnet, and
Owegy, on the E. branch of the Sufquehannah. At that
period the two faid tribes could furnifh 100 warriors each ;
and the Conoys 30.

NANTIGNI, Louis Cuazor pg, in Biography, cele-
brated for his genealogical writings, was born in 1692 in
Burgundy. He ftudied at Dijon and Paris, and at the latter
city he was entrulted with the education of fome young men
of rank. Having a turn for hiftorical refearches, he em-
ployed all his leifure in drawing up genealogical tables, and
from 1736 to 1738 he publifhed the fruits of his labours in
a work entitled “ Génealogies Hiftoriques des Rois, des

Empereurs, et de toutes les Maifons Souveraignes,”? in four

vols. 4to. He alfo publifhed « Tablettes Geographiques;””
« Tablettes Hiftoriques, Genealogiques, et Chronologiques ;”’
and “ Tablettes de Themis.’? He fupplied many articles for
the fupplement of Moreri, and fupplied the genealogical part
of the “ Mercure.” He died in 1755, but had the- mis-
fortune totally to lofe his fight fome time before his death.

NANTILDA. Fauchet relates that Dagobert, being
at vefpers in the abbey of Romilly, heard a nun fing fo ex-
quifitely, that he entered into the convent to fee her; and
being equally charmed with her beauty as with her. voice, he
married her ; and fhe merited, by her conduct and piety, a

lace among the faints. i

NANTING-SU, in Geography, a {mall ifland near the
eoalt of China. N. lat. 24° 10'. E. long. 118° 6!.

NANTRILL, E. and W., two townfhips of America, in
Chefter county, Pennfylvania.

NANTUA, a town of France, and principal place of a
diftri&, in the department of the Ain; 36 miles W. of
Geneva: The place contains 2791, and the canton 8259
inhabitants, on a territory of 1374 kiliometres, in 10 com-
munes. In the time of the Romans this town was called
Nantuacum, and appears, by medals and fragments of in-
{criptions which have been found here, to have been a place
of confequence before the revolution. It had two convents,
one for men avd another for women. It has manufa&tures
of gauzes, taffetas, ftockings, nankeens, and printed cali-
coes or chintzes. The adjoining lake, called by its name,
and about four or five miles in circumference, abounds with
fifh. Its length is confiderable, and on the S.E. fide the
mountains are abruptly and highly elevated; and towards
the fouthern extremity of Nantua, there are quarries of
different forts of gypfum. N. lat. 46° 9. - E. long. 5° 41.

NANTUCKET, an ifland of North America, belong-
ing to the itate of Maffachufetts, and fituated between 41°
13, and 41° 22! 30" N. lat., and between 69° 56!, and
70° 13! 30” W. long., about eight leagues S. of Cape Cod,
and E. of the ifland of Martha’s vineyard. It is 15 miles
long, and 11 broad, including Sandy point, but its general
breadth is 3{ miles. It has only one bay of note, formed
by a fandy point, extending from the E. end of the ifland
to the N. and W., on which was ereted a light-houfe in
1754, and on the N. fide of the ifland as far as Eel point.
This is a fine road for fhips, except when the wind is at
N.W., which caufes a heavy fwell. The ifland conftitutes
a county of its own name, and contains 5617 inhabitants, and
fends one reprefentative to the General Court. It has ten
fpermaceti works. ‘he inhabitants are, in general, robuit
and enterprifing, molt of them being feamen and mechanics,

NAN

The feamen are fingularly expert whalemen. The whale
fifhery originated among the white inhabitants in 1690: and
advanced to a confiderable ftate of profperity, which was
almoft ruined by the late war ; but it has fince revived and
extended to the great Pacific ocean. ‘The ifland had formerly
plenty of wood. The people who inhabit it, and particu-
larly the females, are much attached to it, and have no wifh
to emigrate. They are moftly Friends, or Quakers; but
there is one fociety of Congregationalifts. There are at
prefent about 300 proprietors of the ifland ; among whom
the proportional number of cattle, fheep, &c. are put out to
pafture, and the quantity of ground appropriated to the
railing of crops is fubje€t to particular regulations; and
proper officers are appointed who keep books for debiting
and crediting the different proprietors.

Nantucket, formerly ‘ Sherburne,” a poft-town, ca-
pital, and port of entry in the above-mentioned ifland ;
123 miles S.W. of Bofton.

Nantucket Shoal, a bank which ftretches out above 1 5
leagues in length, and fix in breadth to the S.E. of the ifland
of its name.

NANTUXET Bay, a bay of New Jerfey, on the E.
fide of Delaware bay, oppofite to Bombay Hook.

NANTWICH, or Namrtwicu, a market-town in the
hundred of Nantwich, and county palatine of Chefter, Eng-
land, is feated in a luxuriant vale, on the high road from
London to Chefter, at the diftance of 170 miles from the
former place, and 20 from the latter. The earlieft mention
of this town is in the reign of William the Conqueror, when
a fanguinary battle between the Englifh and Welfh is. faid
to have been fought in its vicinity. In 1113 it was laid
waite by the Welfh, and in 1146 we find a band of thefe
mountaineers defeated here when returning homewards from
a predatory excurfion. From this time hiftery is filent con-
cerning it, till the era of the civil wars between the king and
the parliament in the feventeenth century, wken it appears
to have been fortified with mud-walls and ditches, and to
have been feveral times taken and retaken by each of the
contending parties. Lord Byron befieged it for the king in
1644, but before he was enabled to reduce the garrifon, his
army was attacked and defeated by the parliamentary forces
under fir William Fairfax. Fire and peftilence have alfo
produced very deftruétive effects in this town: for in 1438,
almoft every houfe was confumed by the former; and in
1604, the latter produced a mortality of upwards of 500
perfons.

Extenfive falt-works were formerly eftablifhed here: but
thefe are nearly relinquifhed. Many of the lower clafs of
inhabitants now derive a livelihood from fhoe-making for
the London fhops ; anda {mall cotton manufactory has been
lately eftablifhed. The church of Nantwich is built in the
form of a crofs, having large pointed windows in the eaft
and welt ends, adorned with very elegant tracery. The
market-houfe is a neat modern edifice, occupying the {cite
of an ancient fabric, which fuddenly fell to the ground in
the yearr739. There are various alms-houfes, a workhoule,
erected in 1780, and a free-{chool. It is faid there were like-
wife formerly feveral hofpitals, now gone to ruin, and their
funds applied to other purpofes. ‘The petty feflions for the
hundred are held in this town ; and the inhabitants poffefe
an exemption from ferving on juries except within its limits.
Saturday is the market-day, and there are three fairs during
the year. Nantwich, according to the parliamentary re-
turns of 1811, contained §73 houles, and 3999 inhabitants.

Adjoining to the town are feen the foundations of the
caftle, which was a ruin fo early as the reign of Henry VII.,
when it was demolifhed, and the ftenes made ufe of for the

purpofe

N AP

purpofe of enlarging the parifh church. The fcite is now the
property of earl Cholmondeley, whofe chief refidence is fitu-
ated about five or fix miles further to the eaftward. (See
Marpas.) Crewe-hall, the feat of lord Crewe, lies to the

- welt of Nantwich ; and is a very fine fpecimen of the archi-
teéture of the 17th century. This manfion was garrifoned
for the parliament at the commencement of the civil wars,
but was taken, after an obftinate refiftance, by the royal
army under lord Byron, in 1643. A view of a curious f{tair-
cafe in this houfe, with a hiftory and defcription of the build-
‘ing, are publifhed in Britton’s “ Architeétural Antiquities
ot Great Britain,’ vol. ii. Doddington caftle, which ttands
four miles to the fouth of the town, is alfo remarkable for
having been feveral times befieged and taken during the fame
unfortunate era, Lyfons’ ** Magna Britannica,’’ vol. ii. 4to.
1810, Beauties of England and Wales, vol. ii.

NANUI, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak ;
54 miles N.E. of I{pahan.

NAN-YANG, a city of China, of the firft rank, in
the province of Ho-nan. It is fituated on the banks of a
{mall river ; and though neither large, rich, nor populous,
its jurifdiction comprehends two towns of the fecond clafs,
and fix of the third clafs, and abounds with provifions, fo
that numerous armies have remained in it without occafioning
any perceptible fcarcity. Lapis lazuli has been found in
fome of the mountains that furround it; 462 miles S.S.W.
of Peking. N. lat. 33°6!. E. long. 112° 14!

NAN-YONG, or Nan-kiona, a city of China, of the
firft rank, in the province of Quang-tong, fituated in a
fertile country at the foot of a mountain, which feparates
the province of Quang-tong from that of Kiang-fi, and
carrying on an extenfive trade. Its jurifdiction compre-
hends two towns of the third clafs; go2 miles S. of Pe-
king. N. lat. 25° 10!. E.long. 113° 32!.

NANZOO, a town of the Birman empire ; 16 miles W.
of Ava.

NAOUAT, or Naouaout, the furname of Al-Schafei,
in Biography, a muflulman doétor, who wrote many works by
which he acquired great celebrity, was born at Naoua, a {mail
town within the jurifdiGtion of the city of Damafcus, at which
place he went to live at the age of thirteen, or, as others
fay, nineteen; this is the more probable, as it was at this
early period of life he was created doétor of law. ‘The
muffulmen call him Imam abe] Zamanehi, or the great Imam
of his age; and they fpeak of him as a doétor intimately
converfant in the knowledge of religion, who lived retired
from the world, in the pra¢tice of all the duties of piety ;
who was thoroughly initruéted in traditions, and a great
matter of jurifprudence. He died at Damafcus in the year
of the Hegira 676, or 1298 of the Chrittian era. He
was buried at his native place, where he received the ho-
nours of faintfhip. He was author of * Treatifes on Ju-
rifpradence ;’’ “ A Treatife on Muffulman Traditions;”’ a
work “ On the Fondamental Principles of the Mahometan
Religion ;” and other pieces. He is fometimes referred to

as “the doGtor in traditions of the city of Damafcus.”’
Gen. Bio.

NAOUR, in Geography, a town of Nubia, on the Nile ;
15 miles N.E. of Motcho.

NAP of Grayland, a cape on the W. coalt of the ifland
of Yell. N. lat. 60° 56’. W. long. 1° 31’.

NAPABEICHIC, a townof Mexico, in the province
of New Bifcay ; 160 miles N.W. of Parral.

NAPACAR, a town of the ifland of Calpenteen, in
the Indian fea. N. lat. 7. 56. E. long. 79” 48’.

NAPA, in Botany, 1o named either by Linneus or
Clayton, from Napee, the goddeffes or nymphs: of the

2 .

NAP

groves, mentioned in Virgil's Georgics, “ faciles venerare
Napzas.”?—Linn. Gen. 352. Mart. Mill. Di&. v.3 Ait.
Hort. Kew. ed. 1. v. 3.417. Juff. 273. Lamarck II-
luftr. t. 579. Gaertn. t. 136. (Sida; Schreb. 463.
Cavan. Diff. r.)—Clafs and order, Monadelphia Polyandria.
Nat. Ord. Columnifere, Linn. Malwacea, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, five-cleft,
round, urn-fhaped, permanent. Cor. Petals five, oblong,
concave, f{preading, conneéted by oblong claws. Stam.
Filaments numerous, capillary, the length of the corolla,
united below into a cylindrical column ; anthers roundifh,
comprefled. Pi/?. Germen fuperior, conical ; ftyle cylin-
drical, ten-cleft at the top, as long as the corolla; ftigmas
fimple. Peric. Capfule ovate, compofed of a number of
fharpifh, pointlefs cells, not buriting, finally deciduous.
Seeds {olitary, kidney-fhaped.

Obf. Linnzus, in his Mantiffa, and Murray, in the four-
teenth edition of the Sy/fema Vegetabilium, removed this ge-
nus to the clafs Dioecia, both the fpecies proving to be dioe-
cious by occafional or perhaps con{tant imperfeCtion of the
refpective organs of impregnation. Cavanilles thought that
this was the only point in which Napea differed from Sida,
but there appears to bea further difference in their fruit,
Juffieu obferves alfo that the petals of the genus before us
are not oblique, neither is the flower-ftalk jointed, whilft
the calyx is broader at the bafe.

Eff. Ch. Calyx inferior, five-cleft. Petals five. Cap-
fules roundifh, depreffed, of many cells, not burfting. Seeds
folitary.

1. N. /evis. Smooth Napa. Linn. Syft. Veg. ed. 14.
896. (N. hermaphrodita; Linn. Sp. Pl. 965. Sida Na-
pzxa; Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 766. Malva virginiana, Ricini
folio; Herm. Lugd. 22. t. 23.)—Stalks naked, fmooth.
Leaves lobed, {mooth. -- Native of North America, flower-
ing from. July to September, and ripening its feeds in au-
tumn, when the ftalks decay.—Root perennial, creeping.
Stems three or four feet high, fmooth. Leaves alternate, on
longifh, flender footftalks, acutely three-lobed, ferrated,
about four inches long at the bottom part of the ftem, but
gradually diminifhing upwards. Stalks three inches in length,
divided at the top into about three fmaller ones, each bearing
a fingle white flower.

2. N. feabra. Rough Napea. Linn. Syift. Veg. ed. 14.
896. (N. dioica; Linn. Sp. Pl. 965. Amoen. Acad. v. 3. 18.
Sida dioica; Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 766.)—Stalks braGteated,
angular, leaves palmate, rough.—Native of North America
like the laft, flowering and fruiting ac the fame time with
that — Root perennial, compofed of numerous, thick, flefhy
fibres, connected at the top into a large head, from which
proceed many rough, hairy /aves, nearly a foot in diame-
ter, deeply cut into fix or feven lobes, irregularly toothed.
Stems feven or eight feet high, divided in the upper part.
Stalks bearing feveral large, white flowers, in heads. Fruit
orbicular, depreffed, confiiting of eight or ten ceils.

Napa, in Gardening, contains plants of the hardy, her-
baceous, flowery perennial kind, ot which the fpecies moftly
cultivated are; the {mooth napza (N. levis); and the
rough napza (N. fcabra),

Method of Culture —Thefe different plants are eafily in-
cereafed by leeds, which fhould be fown on a bed of common
earth in the fpring, keeping them clear from weeds till au-
tumn, and then tranfplanting them where they are to remain.
They fucced beft ina rich moift foil, in which they will
grow very luxuriantly, and muft be allowed room. And the
firft fort may alfo be increafed by parting the roots, and
pang them out where they are to remain in the autumnal
eafon.

Thefe

MAP

Thefe plants afford variety among other plants in the bor-
ders and other places.

NAPA, in Mythology, nymphs who prefided over the

roves, See NyMPHS. i

NAPASHISH, in Geography, a lake of North America.
N. lat. 622 10’. W. long. 99° 50’.

NAPATA, a town OF Nubia, near the E. coalt of the
Nile; 210 miles E.S,E. of Dongala.

NAPAUL. See NEpaAvL.

NAPAYOL, or Napayepia, a town of Moravia, in
the circle of Hradifch ; 8 miles N. of Hradifch.

NAPE is ufed for the hinder part of the neck ; by rea-
fon, perhaps, of the foft fhort hair growing thereon, like
the knap of cloth.

Nape, in Rural Economy, a provincial term applied to a
piece of wood ufed for fupporting the fore-part of a loaded
wain-

NAPELLUS, in Botany. See Aconitum.

NAPHA, a name given by many of the writers in phar-
macy to orange-flower water.

NAPHTHA, in Chemifiry, is an inflammable liquid of
a yellow colour, being the moft volatile and colourlefs part of
petroleum, from which it is diftiiled. Hence naphtha appears
to have the fame relation to petroleum, which turpentine
and tar have to the oil of turpentine, and what is called
fpirit of tar.

The word in the original Chaldee fignifies /fillare, to ooze,
or drop; naphtha, according to Pliny, running like a kind
of bitumen. :

There feems to be a ftrong alliance between the volatile
acids and naphtha, extending to all the volatile fluids diftilled
from the different fpecies of bitumen. This, in all probabi-
lity, is the natural {tate of this defcription of inflammable
bodies ; the vifcidity, folidity, and colour depending upon
the agency of oxygen.

Itis the general opinion that the oxygen becomes a com-
ponent part of the volatile oil, in order to affume the form of
refin. It is, however, much more probable, that the oxygen
confumes the hydrogen, forming water, leaving the remainder
a compound of hydrogen and carbon, with more of the
latter element, to which it owes its colour, confiftence, and
fixity.

Petroleum may, therefore, be regarded as naphtha rendered
vifcid, and coloured by the air, from which the naphtha, {till
unchanged, being diftilled, leaves a fubftance which contains a
lefs proportion of hydrogen, and which is known by the
name of afphaltum: See PerroLeum and AsPHALTUM.

Naphtha has been employed by fir H. Davy for the pur-
pofe of preferving the metals potafium and fodium, for
which it feems particularly adapted, from two of its proper-
ties, namely, its {mall fpecific gravity, and its not contain-
ing oxygen. Although the fpecific gravity of potafium is
but .77, it finks in pure naphtha, which is fometimes not
more than .7,

NAPIER, in Biography. See Never.

Napien’s, or Neper’s Bones. See Nerer’s Bones.

NAPIMOGA, in Botany, a genus of Aublet's, fo called
from the Caribean name of the tree, Napimogal. Aub.
Guian. v. 1. 592. Jufl. 344. Lamarck LIlluftr. t. 484.—
Clafs and order, Polyandria Trigynia. Nat. Ord. Ro/facce,
Jul.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, f{mall,
concave, in fix roundifh, acute, permanent fegments. Cor.
Petals fix, ovate, villous, inferted into the receptacle of the
flower, oppofite to the calyx. Stam. Filaments eighteen, in-
ferted into the fame part ; anthers roundifh, of two cells,

N sAcP

Pift. Germen inferior, crowned by the calyx ; ftyles three :
ftigmas obtufe. Peric. and Seed unknown.

_Eff. Ch. Calyx in fix deep fegments. Petals fix, villous.
Stamens three to each petal. Germen crowned with the
calyx. e

1. N. guianenfis. Aubl.t. 237.—A tree, whofe trunk
rifes to the height of twenty-five feet, and is one anda half
in diameter, with a reddifh, wrinkled, and cracked dark.
The wood is white and foft. The branches {pread in eve
direGtion. Leaves alternate, on very fhort and fleader ftalks,
elliptical, fmooth, ferrated, with a blunt point. Stipulas
{mail, in pairs at the bafe of the footftalks, deciduous,
Flowers {mall, greenifh, in flender, axillary, long-ftalked
{pikes, each flower accompanied by a {mall {cale-like
bra&ea:

This tree is a native of the woods of Guiana, flowering
in November. Juffieu ranges the genus next after Homalium,
to which it appears to have fome affinity ; but the barbarous
name is inadmiffible, and can only be tolerated till enough is
known of the plant to eftablifh its generic chara€ter with
certainty. i!

NAPLES, in Geography, a kingdom of Italy, compre-
bending ancient Samnium, Apulia, Campania, Lucania,
and Bruttium, and bounded on the N.W. by the province
of Campagna di Roma, Umbria, and the marquifate of
Ancona; on the N.E. by the Adriatic, and on its other
parts by the Mediterranean. It lies between 37° 46’ and
42° 55' N. lat., and between 13° 20! and 19° 15' E. long. ;
its greatelt length from S.W. to N.E. being 450 ie
miles, its greateit breadth 140, and its circuit 1468. ‘Ac-
cording to Zimmermann, it contains 20,384 {quare miles,
This country is in general mountainous, or rather hilly ; it is
hot, and it is very rarely that ice, or even {now, is obferved
in the plains. The foil is exceedingly fertile, producing all
kinds of grain, with the fineft fruits and vegetables ; but it
1s badly cultivated. It is calculated that the culture of corn
employs ten perfons, and that of the vine at leaft twenty.
Corn is chiefly exported from the provinces of Capitanata,
Bari, Otranto, Abruzzo, Molife, Calabria, and Bafilicata,
which fupply the internal confumption of the kingdom, and
the foreign markets. ‘The produce of the Terra di Lavora
and Salerno is referved for the ufe of the capital. The ex-
ports of the kingdom of Naples are wheat, barley, le-
gumes, Indian corn, hemp, linfeed, cumin, fennel, and anni-
feeds; wool, oil, wine, cheefe, fifh, falt flefh, honey, wax,
frefh and dry fruit, manna, faffron, liquorice, gums, locuft
beans, capers, lupins, macaroniof various forts, falt, potafh,
brimftone, nitre, argal, pitch, tar, fumach, {kins, cattle,
oranges, lemons, brandy, vinegar, me<als, minerals, mar-
ble, filk, hemp, flax, cottons, and various forts of manu-
factures. Horfes and cattle might alfo become valuable ar-
ticles of exportation, if the breed were duly regarded. The
provinces that abound mott in oil, are Bari, Otranto, Cala-
bria, and Abruzzo. The beit almonds are obtained from
Bari, whence they are exported to Venice and Triefle. The
annual produce of filk inthe kingdom is computed at about
800,000lbs. weight, half of which is {uppofed to be wrought
at home, and the other half exported raw. The exportation
of thrown filk, upon an average of many years, amounts to
148,217lbs. The beft cotton is inthe province of Otranto.
In Calabria there are natural mountains of falt, which is
ftronger and more aétive than fea-falt. Among the chief
articles imported into Naples, we may enumerate the fol-
lowing ; viz. from England, woollen goods of all forts, filk
and worfted ftockings, hats, tanned hides, lead, tin, pep-
per, hardware, linens, handkerchiefs, fans, canes, gums,
dyeing woods, drugs, watches, clocks, mathematical in-

al ftruments,

NAPLES,

~ ftruments, houfehold furniture, falt cod, pilchards, herrings,
coffee, tea, cocoa, fugar, and occafionally calicoes, and
Ealt India goods ; —from Holland, cinnamon, cloves, nut-
megs, pepper, medicinal drugs from the Eaft and Weft In-
dies, fine cloths, particularly the fine, called Segovia, linen
for fhirts and other ufes, muflins, chintz, calicoes, feveral
forts of cocoa, whalebone, tobacco, filk ftuffs, and velvet :
—from France, an immenfe quantity of fugar, indigo, coffee,
dyeing woods, verdigris, Levant drugs, cocoa, hardware,
filk ftuffs, gold and filver fays of Le Mans, deroys, cloth of
Elbceuf, and ail forts of women’s apparel :—from Spain, ce-
chineal, dyeing woods, cocoa, hides, falted and in the hair,
medicinal American drugs, Jefuits’ bark, farfaparilla, jalap,
balfam of Peru, ipecacuanha, cloths of divers forts, wine,
tobacco, fnuff of Seville and Havanna, lead, gun-barrels,
honey, &c. ;—from Portugal, Brazil fugar, tobacco, cocoa,
drugs, hides, &c. ;—from Venice, books, cordovans, look-
ing-glaffes, cryftals and glaffes of all forts, Padua cloths,
called Venetian, fays, for the confumption of the provinces,
fine Verona cloths, equal to Englifh fearlet, ftockings,
woollen caps, fine hats, wax candles, white loaf fugar, Sine
linen, medicinal and Levant drugs, all forts of paints, fubli-
mate, cinnabar, quickiilver, turpentine, dragon’s blood,
iron of divers forts of the manufa€tures of Germany and
Brefcia, paper, &c.:—from Genoa, American goods from
the Spanifh main, and from the Portuguefe Eatt Indies, vel-
vets, iron in great quantities, nails, ordinary hats, wax from
Tunis and the African coaft :—from Leghorn, all forts
of goods at fecond hand from the Levant, Barbary woods,
linens of Egypt, wax, and many filk manufa€tures ;— from
Peterfburg, hides, vsax, iron, furs, &c. ;—from Sardinia,
an smafnente quantity of tunny fifh and cheefe :—from Germa-
ny, Silefia linens of all forts, white and painted, iron of di-
vers manufactures, vitriol of Hungary, cryftals of Bohe-
mia, large glaffes for watches and windows, hats and goods
of the new Vienna fabric, turpentine, quickfilver, hard-
ware, manufactures of Ofnaburg and Nuremberg, copper, tin
plates, boards, cloth, &c. The duties in general upon goods
imported into the city of Naples, amount to about 25 fer cent. ;
ugar and wax pay 40 or 50 fer cent. upon the market price.
The duty upon fugar produces about 80,000 ducats an-
nually. Calabria affords a great quantity of manna, which
fee ; and alfo excellent faffron. Here alfo are obtained alum,
vitriol, fulphur, rock cryftal, marble, and quantities of mi-
nerals. Glafs-works conftitute a very beneficial branch of
trade, and alfo the Neapolitan horfes, which are much ef-
teemed. The wool of the fheep is fine and good, and filk
is exported to a confiderable value. Of the filaments, ora
kind of hair or wool, of an olive-green, growing on fome
fhell-fifh, at Malta, Corfica, Sardinia, and the gulf of Ve-
nice, are made waiftcoats, caps, ftockings, and gloves,
warmer than the wool, and though not fo fine and foft as
filk, yet always retaining a peculiar glofs. The filk, woollen,
and other manufactures, together with the improvement of
arts, owe their firft eftablifhment to Ferdinand of Arragon,
who patronifed them ina very liberal manner. Thefe ma-
nufactures, joined to the native produce, are a fource of
confiderable trade to the kingdom of Naples.

Among the chief mountains of Naples are'the Apen-
nines, which extend through the whole length of the country,
and terminate at the ftraits of Sicily. (See APENNINES.)
Of rivers there is not any one of note in the kingdom; but
{mall {treams defcend, in every direétion, with rapidity from
the interior parts, and lofe themfelves in the fea. The mott
remarkable natural curiofity is Vefuvius, an infulated moun-
tain, well known for its fiery eruptions. (See Vesuvius.)
A confiderable part of this country, as well as other pro-

vinces in Italy, has been at remote periods affected by fire.
This fa& is fufficiently teftified by the prefent appearance
of the country. Naples, Rome, and molt of the ancient
Roman highways, are paved with lava, and the founda-
tions of the houfes in the fubterraneous city of Hercula-
neum, are compofed of the fame materials. All the moun-
tains and hillocks in the vicinity of Naples are merely a
ma{s of various forts of matter vomited forth by volcanos
which no longer exift, and whofe ernptions, anterior to
hiftory, have probably formed the ports of Naples and Puz-
zuoli. The Apennine mountains exhibit a* confiderable
number of vifible fires under different forms: and the earth-
quakes to which this country is fubje% have diftreffed its
inhabitants with frequent apprehentions and calamities. The
{warms of lizards and fcorpions that infeft it are likewife
always alarming, and fometimes injurious and fatal. The
provinces of which the kingdom of Naples confifts were
formerly a part of the dominions of the Roman republic,
and afterwards of the emperors. After the fall of the Ro-
man empire, this part of Italy underwent various revolu-
tions. The powerful princes of Benevento furvived the
conqueft of the north of Italy by Charlemagne; and with
other potentates in this quarter acknowledged the fupremacy
of the Greek empire, from which Sicily had been wreited
A.D. 828, by the Saracens, who poffefled it till the year
1058. Both Saracens and Greeks were afterwards expelled
by the Normans; and the Norman leaders became dukes of
Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily ; and Roger was named king
of Sicily by the pope, A.D. 1130. ‘The Normanline con-
tinued till their kingdom was fubdued by Henry VI., em-
peror of Germany. After internal contefts, Charles of
Anjou became king of Sicily in 1266: after the Sicilian
vefpers, 1282, Sicily was feized by a fleet fent by the
kings of Arragon; but Naples continued to acknowledge
the line of Anjou, which expired in the infamous Jean, 1382.
René of Anjou, king of Naples in 1435, was the father of
Margaret, wife of Henry VI. of England; but the French
line failed in 1481, in Charles count de Maine, who named
Louis XI., king of France, his heir, whence {prung the
pretenfions of France to the kingdom of Naples. The
Spanifh line of Naples and Sicily continued till 1714, when
they paffed to the houfe of Auttria; but were transferred
to that of Bourbon in 1736, in the perfon of Don Carlos,
duke of Parma and Placentia, fon of Philip V. king of
Spain, and Elizabeth of Parma, who fucceeding to the
crown of Spain in 1759, conferred his Italian kingdom on
Don Ferdinand, his third fon, who married the fifter of
the emperor of Germany in 1768. The kingdom of Naples,
in confequence of fubfequent revolutions, was afligned to
prince Jofeph, the brother of the French emperor, without
a fingle ftruggle; the people having been fo much op-
prefled by taxation, that a change of matters had become
an object of indifference, if not of hope.

The Jews came into this kingdom about the year 1200,
but in 1540 were expelled ; however, they obtained here,
as well as in Sicily, in 1740, exemptions and privileges be-
yond what they enjoyed in any part for many centuries palt.
The Neapolitan nobility conititute a numerous body ; and
they are exceflively fond of fplendour and fhow. This ap-
pears in the brilliancy of their equipages, the number of
their attendants, the richnefs of their drefs, the grandeur of
their titles, and the magnificence of their entertainments,
Dr. Moore, in his “ View of Society and Manners in
Italy,’’ (vol. ii.) informs us, that the king of Naples
counts 100 perfons with the title of prince, and a {till
greater number with that of duke, among his fubjects.

Six or feven of thefe have eftates, which produce fro. ten
to

NAPLES.

to twelve or thirteen thoufand pounds a-year ; but the an-
nual revenue of moft is not above one or two thoufand
pounds. As to the inferior orders of nobility, they are
much poorer; many counts and marquifles not having
above three or four hundred pounds a-year of paternal
eftate. The hereditary jurifdiGtion of the nobles over their
vaflals, fubfifts, both in the kingdom of Naples and Si-
cily, in the full rigour of the feudal government. The
peafants therefore are poor ; and it depends altogether on
the perfonal charaéter of the matters, whether their poverty
is not the leaft of their grievances. If the land was leafed
out to free farmers, whofe property was f{carce, and the leafes
of a fufficient length, to allow the tenant to reap the fruite
of his own improvements, the eftates“of the nobility would,
without doubt, produce much more. The landlord might
have a higher rent paid in money, inftead of being collected
in kind, which fubjets him to the falaries and impofitions
of a numerous train of ftewards:-and the tenants would be
enabled to live much more comfortably, and to lay up, every
year, a fmall pittance for their families. But fuch is the
love of domineering, that many perfons would rather fub-
mit to be themfelves flaves to the caprices of an abfolute
prince than become perfeétly independent, on the condition
of giving independence to their vaffals. Although the Nea-
politan nobility fill retain the ancient feudal authority over
the peafants, yet their perfonal importance depends, in a
great meafure, on the favour of the king ; who, under pre-
text of any offence, can confine them to their own eftates,
or imprifon them at pleafure; and who, without any al-
leged offence, and without going to fuch extremes, can in-
flict a punifhment, which they will fenfibly feel, by not
inviting them to the amufements of the court, or not re-
ceiving them with fmiles when they attend on any ordinary
occafion. The government of this kingdom 1s nearly def-
potic. The laws of it are contained in the ‘* Codex Caro-
linus,’ publifhed in 1754. . The religion of Naples is the
Roman Catholic, but the Neapolitans have always refo-
lutely oppofed the introduction of the inquifition; and
independently of this, no papal bulls or mandates can be
made public without the kinz’s ‘“ exequatur.”” The num-
ber of monatteries and conventsis very great, and the clergy,
who are very numerous, are wealthy, whilft the laity are
poor. The number of archbifhoprics in the kingdom is no
lefs than 21, and that of bifhoprics 125; but here is no
univerfity of any reputation. The ecclefiaftics are com-
puted at 200,000 ; and it is f{uppofed that about one-half of
the lands is in their poffeffion.

The kingdom of Naples is divided into twelve provinces,
called « Giuttizierati,’’ or jurifdi€tions, containing 2067
univerfita, under the denomination of cities, towns, and vil-
lages. This divilfion is commonly attributed to the emperor
Frederick 1I. The provinces are Terra di Lavora, Princi-
pato Citra, Principato Ultra, Capitanata, Molife, Abruzzo
Citra, Abruzzo Ultra, Bari, Otranto, Bafilicata, Calabria
Citra, and Calabria Ultra ; which fee refpeétively. An ef-
timate of the population of this kingdom is publifhed an-
nually by authority. Inthe year 1767, there were 1,819,267
males, 1,886,875 females, and 107,612 ecclefialtics, fecular
and religious, 81,898 males, and 76,770 females were born,
and 123,041 of both fexes died: in 1777, 2,092,745 males,
2,124,030 females, and 94,728 ecclefialtics: in 1778, the
number of inhabitants amounted to 4,564,445 3 in 1779, to
4:05 1,293.

Narces, the chief city of the above-defcribed kingdom,
fituated in the country of Lavora, partly on a mountain,
and partly towards the fea, and elleemed, after Conftanti-
nople, the inoft beautiful eapital in the world. ‘This city

was founded by the Greeks, and their choice of its fitua-
tion is one proof, among many others, of the fine tafte of
that ingenious people. The bay is about 30 miles in cir-
cumference, and 12 1n diameter ; it has been called *‘ Crater’”
from its fuppofed refemblance to. a bowl; which bowl is
ornamented with the moft beautiful foliage, with vines,
olive, mulberry, and orange trees, with hills, dales, towns,
villas, and villages. At the bottom of the bay, the town
is built in the form of an amphitheatre, floping from the
hills towards the fea. Independently of its fituation, Naples

is a very beautiful city. Although the ftyle of architec- »

ture is inferior to that of Rome, and Naples cannot vie with
this city in the number of palaces, or in the grandeur and
magnificence ef the churches, the private houfes in general
are better built, and are more uniformly convenient: the:
ftreets are alfo broader and better paved. No ftreet in
Rome equals in beauty the Strada di Toledo at Naples:
and {till lefs can any of them be compared with the beauti-
ful ftreets which are open to the bay. This, fays Dr.
Moore, is the native ccuntry of the zephyrs*; here the ex-
ceffive heat of the fun is often tempered with fea-breezes,
and with gales, wafting the perfumes of the Campagna
Felice. The houfes, in general, are five or fix ftories in
height, and flat at the top; on which are placed numbers
of flower vafes, or fruit trees, in boxes of earth, ,producing
a very gay and agreeable effet. The fortrefs of St. Elmo
is built on a mountain of the fame name, and the garrifon
{tationed in it has the entire command of the town. A
little lower on the fame mountain is a convent of Carthu-.
fians, upon which a large fum has been expended in order
to render the buildings and gardens equal in point of beauty
to the fituation, Although Naples is excellently fituated
for commerce, and no kingdom produces the neceflaries
and luxuries of life in greater profufion, yet trade languifhes y
the bett filks come from Lyons, and the beft woollen goods
from England. The chief articles manufa&tured here are
filk ftockings, foap, f{nuff-boxes of tortoife-fhell, and of
the lava of Mount Vefuvius, tables, and ornamental fur-
niture of marble.
better than in France, and their macaroni is preferred to
that made in any other part of Italy. The Neapolitans
excel alfo in liqueurs and confections. The walls of
Naples form a circuit of nine Italian miles ; but including
the fuburbs, the entire circumference caynot be lefs than
18 or 20 Italian miles. It is embellifhed by a confiderable
number of fountains, furnifhing indifferent water, and water
is alfo conveyed to the city, from the foot of Mount Vefu-
vius, by avery grand aqueduct. It {warms with prices,
dukes, marquiffes, and other nobility, to whom are appro-
priated five large piazzas; and the commonalty have alfo
their peculiar piazza ; the citizens forming a fociety of their
own perfeétly diftinét from the nobility. In the moft
refpectable clafs of citizens are the lawyers, of whom
there is an incredible number iu thistown. ‘Che number of
priefts, monks, and ecclefiaftics of all the various orders
that {warm in this city is prodigious, poffefling, as it is
faid, above one-third of the revenue of the whole kingdom,
befides what fome particular orders acquire by begging for-
the ufe of their convents, The unproduétive wealth, which
is lodged in the churches and convents of this city, amounts
to a very large fum ; and though the churches and convents
of Rome furpafs thofe of Naples in point of archite@ure,
yet the latter are fuperior to the former in riches, in the va-
lue of their jewels, and in the quantity of filver and golden
crucifixes, veflels, and implements of various kinds. The
monatteries and convents of both fexes are computed at
149, befides which here are 34 houfes for poor boys, girls,
and

They are thought to’ embroider here

1 ee

NAP

and women, 11 hofpitals, 4 capital churches, 32 parifh
churches, 70 other chapels and churches, and upwards of
130 oratories or chapels of religious fraternities. Naples is
the fee of an archbifhop, whofe cathedral, called «11 Duomo,”’
is a fine Gothic building, The greateft curiofity in it is the
magnificent chapel, called ‘ I] Teforo,’’ where Januarius’s
head, and fome of his blood are kept. (See JANUARIUS. )
The “ Lazzaroni,"’ or blackguards, form a confiderable
part of the inhabitants of Naples; and thefe have, on fome
occafions, had the government for a fhort time in their
hands. They are computed at above 30,000; moft of them
have no fixed habitations, but fleep every night under por-
ticos, piazzas, or any kind of fhelter they can find. Thofe
of them who have wives and child?en, live in the fuburbs of
Naples, near Paufilippo, in huts, or in caverns, or chambers
dug out of that mountain. Some of them gain a fubfift-
ence by fifhing, others by carrying burdens to or from the
fhipping : many walk about the ftreets ready to run on er-
rands, or to perform any labour for a {mall recompence.
They have been generally reprefented as a lazy, licentious,
and turbulent clafs of people: but Dr. Moore has a more
favourable opinion of their chara¢ter; afcribing their idle-
nefs to wantofemployment. The ecclefiaftics are eftimated
at about 10,000; and the whole number of inhabitants at
350,000. There is not perhaps a city in the world with the
fame number of inhabitants, in which fo few contribute to
the wealth of the community by ufeful, or productive la-
bour, as Naples ; but the number of priefts, monks, fiddlers,
lawyers, nobility, footmen, and Lazaaroni, furpafs all rea-
fonable proportion.

For the defence of the city, and keeping it in fubje€tion,
there are five ca(tles, confifting only of very ftrong walls.
The Caftello Nuovo communicates by a covered way with
the king’s palace, and on one fide is contiguous to the fea.
Its fubterraneous works and mines are admirable. At its
entrance itands a triumphal arch, of very curious {culpture.
The Caftello del Uovo, fo called from its oval figure, is
ftrong, and ftands on a rock in the fea: of the caftle
St. Elmo we have fpoken already. Provifions are plentiful
and cheap at Naples, fo that the inhabitants procure ample
fupplies with little labour. Many of the ftreets are crowded
more than thofe of London and Paris by the number of idle
people, who, having no public walks or gardens, amufe
themfelves with traverfing the ftreets. But, notwithftand-
ing their want of employment, riots and outrages feldom
occur, whichis partly owing to the national character of the
Italians, and partly to the univerfal fobriety of the people.
The great luxury of the inhabitants is iced water and
lemonade ; thefe are carried about in little barrels, and re-
tailed in halfpenny’s worth. Nothing would be more likely
to caufe difturbance than the want of ice, the monopoly of
which is granted to certain perfons, who fell it about 3s. 4d.
2 pound.

According to Diodorus Siculus, the founder of this city
was Hercules; others fay, that it was built by the Pho-
czans, and others afcribe it to Ulyfles, who named it Par-
thenope, in memory of one of the Syrens, who, according
to the fable, not being able to detain that hero by the har-
mony of her voice, was fo irritated and defpairing, that fhe
threw herfelf from a precipice, and was buried on the fpot
where now ftands the church of St. Gio Maggiore. Other
authors deduce its name from Parthenope, daughter to a
king of Theflaly, who conducted hither a. colony from the
ifland of Eubea. Others, again, attribute its origin to one
Phalerus, tyrant of Sicily ; whereas Strabo reports, that it
was founded by the Rhodians long before the inftitution of
the Olympic games. However thie be, it is moft probable

Vor. XXIV.

NAP

that Naples was founded by the Greeks, and that it exilted
long before Rome itfelf. - In 1799, Naples was taken by the
French ; 100 miles S.E. of Rome. N, lat. 40° 54’. E.
long. 13° 30.

Naples, with fo many advantages over other great cities,
in fituation, climate, antiquities, harbour, &c. has likewife,
at all periods of its hiftory, diftinguifhed itfelf by the
cultivation of the arts, equally, if not in a fuperior manner,
to any other city in Europe (fee Vicende della Cottura,
di Nipoli Signorelli) ; but in none fo much as mufic during
the laft century, by the numerous great compofers and per-
formers which have iffued from its famous feminaries, the
confervatories, under the direction of Aleffandro Scarlatti,
Leo, Durante, and Sala, whofe éléves have not only done
honour to Italy, but fupplied all the reft of Europe with
men of fuch eminence in their art, as no other city on the
globe can boaft ; which will be readily allowed by all thofe
who love and have cultivated mufic, when they are reminded
that not only the two Scarlattis, Leo, Pergolefi, Durante,
Porpora, Vinci, Jomelli, Perez, Piccini, Sacchini Anfofci,
Traetta, Rinaldo di Capua, Gugliemi, Genaro Manna,
Ciccio de Maja, Latilla, Sala, Cimarofa, Paefiello, were all
Neapolitans.

Thefe were compofers; but the eruptions of Mount
Vefuvius have not been much more wonderful than fome of
the Neapolitan fingers, fuch is Nicolini, Farinelli, Caffarelli,
Aprile, De Amicis, Millico and Pacchierotti.

Naptes Yellew, or Giallolino, is a porous, heavy, granu-
lar fubftance of an earthy nature ; it is friable, adheres a
little to the tongue, and, when expofed to the air, neither
undergoes decompofition nor changes its colour, which is a
pale orange yellow. Reduced to an impalpable powder it
remains fufpended in the water for a confiderable time, and
at laft falls down as a pafty mafs. Boiled in water the fluid
acquires a falt tafte. It does not effervefce with acids, but
is partly diffolved by nitro-muriatic acid; it is fufed with
difficulty, and in this ftate undergoes no change, except
that its colour becomes rather more red. When fufed with
colourlefs glafs the produ& is a milk white enamel, whick
proves the abfence of iron. When mixed with inflammable
fubftances a regulus is obtained, which appears to be a com-
pound of lead and antimony.

This article is principally brought tous from Naples; gene-
rally in the fhape of an earthy cruft, from three to four lines
thick, and fometimes exhibiting the fhape of the veffel in
which it has been fuffered to harden. It is alfo often feen
as powder,

It is not known with certainty at what period this fub-
ftance has become an objeé&t of commerce. Pomet is the
firft writer on drugs who makes mention of Naples yellow,
and he obferves that it is extremely fcarce. Kunkel, who’
gives a pretty complete lift of the fubftances ufed for co-
louring glafs and enamel, is filent refpeGting Naples. yellow
or giallolino ; but if the name of this produétion can be con-
fidered as a proof of its antiquity, it may be faid to have
been known in Italy as early as the end of the 16th century.
Ferrante Imperato {peaks of two forts of giallolino, one of
which appears to be the oxyd of lead, called Mafficot, while
the other is unqueftionably the fubftance under confidera-
tion. But no writers on colours appear to have been ac-
quainted with the nature of the true Naples yellow ; fome
have confidered it as a volcanic production of mounts Vefu-
vius and Etna; others as a variety of native ochre; Guet-
tard (Mém. de l’Acad. des Sciences, 1762) miftook it for a
bolar earth; but Pott (Lithogeognofie, p. 2.) is neareft
the truth, for he fufpeéts it to be the refult of artificial
preparation, Fougeroux (Mém de!’ Ac. des Sciences, 1766)

3° fub-

NAP

fubferived to Pott’s opinion, and pointed out a method of

preparing this colour by boiliug a mixture of twelve parts of -

white lead, one of alum, one of fal ammoniac, and three
parts of oxyd of antimony (Ant. diaphoreticum.) But
before Fougeroux, (who had probably acquired fome know-
ledge of this procefs on his travels in Italy,) a more exaét
account of the manner of preparing this colour had been
given by Giambattifta Pafferi in his interefting work on
porcelain painting. ‘The ingredients, according to this au-
thor, are, one pound of antimony, one and a half pound of
lead, one ounce of a falt which he calls allume di feccia,
and the fame quantity of common falt. It is ‘probable
that this receipt was not unknown to Fougeroux, who mif-
took the allume di feccia for common alum. But profeffor
Beckmann (from feveral circumftances relative to the
various methods of preparing this colour defcribed by Paf-
feri) is of opinion that allume di feccia is meant for tartrate
of potafh (falt of tartar), and indeed Pafferi often makes
ufe of the word féeccia alone, which certainly implies tartar.
The following are the different modifications propofed by this
author.

‘4. Six pounds of lead, four pounds of antimony, one
pound of tartrate of potafh (feccia).

2. Three pounds of lead, four pounds of antimony; one
iam of tartrate of potafh (feccia), fix ounces of common
dalt.

3. Five pounds of lead, four pounds of antimony, fix
ounces of tartrate of potafh (feccia).

4. Four pounds of lead, two pounds’ of -antimony; fix
ounces of tartrate of potafh (feccia).

5. One and ahalf pound of lead, one pound of antimony,
one pound of tartrate of potafh (feccia), and one pound of
common falt.

6. Three and a half pounds of lead, two pounds of an-
timony, and one pound of tartrate of potafh (feccia).

The metallic fubflances are employed in the ttate of
oxyds. ‘ -

The difference in the proportion of the ingredients, as
given above, is indeed not very confiderable, but fufficiently
fo to produce thofe different tints which we obferve in the
yellow employed by different mafters. See Pafflerim Nuova
raccolta d’opufcoli {cientifichi, vol. iv.

After the publication of Fougeroux’s Memoir, De Lalande
deferibed another method of preparing the Naples yellow,
which he had obtained from prince San Severo. Accord-
ing to him only lead and antimony are employed.

Take lead perfecily oxydated, pafs it through a fieve, and
mix it with a third of its weight of antimony prepaved in
the fame'manner. After this, take a large difh of unglazed
earthen ware, cover it with a fheet of white paper, and lay
on the powder fo as to be two inches in thicknefs.. Thefe
difhes are to be placed at the upper part of a potter’s fur-
nace, where the reverberation of the flame is fufficient to
produee the defired refult. After having been expofed
for fome time to this moderate degree of heat, a hard
yellow coloured mafs will be found, whichis to be triturated
with water on a ftone, and afterwards put into veffels and
dried for ufe. .

A neceffary precaution, in the preparation of this colour,
is to avoid the ufe of iron, the contact with this metal impart-
ing to it a dirty and fometimes a greenifh tint ; whence alfo
in grinding the colour on the ftone, a f{patula of ivory is to
be made wfe of for the purpofe of collecting the mats.

The Naples yellow is principally ufed for paisting in oil,
it poffefling much more richnefs and brilliancy than the ochres,
maflicot, or orpiment, and being far more durable. It may
alfo Be advantageoufly applied for enamel painting.

NAR

NAPLOSA. See Nastous.

NAPO, in Geography, a town of South America, ona
river of the fame name, in the audience of Quito; 200
miles S.E. of Quito. The river rifes about 20 miles S.
of Quito, and after a fouth-eaflerly courfe of about 360
miles, difcharges itfelf into the river of the Amazons, S.
lat. 30° 30'. W. long. 71° 101.

NAPO-BRASSICA, in Botany, &c. See Brassica.

NAPOLI de Romania, in Geography, anciently « Nau-
plias,’’ a fea-port town of European Turkey, in the Morea,
fituated oa a peninfula, in a bay of the Mediterranean, called
the «© Gulf of Napoli? The harbour is fpacious, though
narrow at the entrance, and is defended by a {trong caftle.
It is the fee of a Greek archbifhop, and inhabited by
Turks, Jews, and Chriftians, who perform their own wor-
fhip refpectively, without controul ; 60 miles S. of Livadia,
N. lat. 37° 39’. E. long..22° 48). _ ;

Napout di Malvafia. See MALvasia.

NAPPA, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat; 27 miles
S. of Amedabad. ;

NAPRUNG, a town of Meckley; 25 miles W. of
Munnypour.

NAPUS, in Botany, the Navew, Rape, or Cole-feed.
A genus of Tournefort’s thus curioufly defined. ‘ ‘The
Napus is a genus of plants differing from Rapa (the Turnip)

- only in a certain peculiar afpeét, by which it is eafily known

to gardeners and hufbandmen ; it may therefore be referred,
by any one who pleafes, to the fame genus.’? No figure is
given to fhew what this ‘peculiar afpe&t’’ is; but Juffieu
obferves that the root of Mapus is {fpindle-fhaped, that of
Rapa {pherical, and the calyx in both is of the fame colour
as the corolla. In this laft particular they both differ from
the Braffica of Tournefort, whofe calyx is greenifh. They
are all three comprifed, of courfe, by Linnzus, and even
by Juffieu, under Brassica; fee that article.

Napus, in Conchology, a name given to the fpecies of
voluta, approaching to the nature of the famous admiral-
fhell, and more commonly known by the name of the fale
admiral, or baflard admiral.

NAPUT, in Botany, the name given by the Norwegians
to aplant whofe root is an excellent remedy for the colic.
It grows plentifully in the northern parts of Norway, and
is the conftant remedy ufed by the miners for their colics,
which are particularly fevere. The tafte is faid to be agree-
able, being at firft chewing fomewhat like a raddifh, but
afterwards having the flavour of the garden angelica. Phil.
Tranf. N° 114. » ;

NAR, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Warfaw;
80 miles E. of Warfaw.

NARA, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon; 24
miles from Meaco.—Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in Goi-
conda: 28 miles S.W. of Indelavoy.

NARACALLY, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Aurungabad ; 53 miles E.S.E. of Aurungabad.

NARADUCONDA, a town of Hindooflan, in the
circar of Mahur ; 14 miles N. of Neermul.

NARAGANSET, or NarraGanset Bay, a bay of
America, whieh embofoms. many fruitful and beautiful
iflands, the chief of which are Rhode ifland, Canonical,
Prudence, Patience, Hope, Dyer’s, and Hogs _iflands.
The principal harbours are Newport, Wickford, Warren,
Briftol, and Greenwich, befides Providence and Patuxet :
Taunton river, and many {mailer ftreams, fall into this capa-
cious bay ; which affords fine fifh, oyfters and lobiters, in
great plenty.

NARAGUNTLA, a town of Hindooftan, in the Car-
natic 3 5 miles 2,$,E. of Chittoor.

NARAHA,

NAR

NARAHA, a town of Hindooflan, in Bahar; 45 miles
E. of Bettink. f
NARAILDIPETTA, a town of Hindooltan, in the
Carnatic; 8 miles S. of Chittoor.
NARAINGUM, a town of Hindooftan, in Dowlata-
bad; romiles S.E. of Junere.
NARAINPOUR, a town of Bengal; 5 miles S. of
Koonda.
NARAMPURKRY, a town of Hindoofan, in Bahar;
32 miles S.E. of Bettiah.
NARAN, a town of Hindcoftan, in Bahar; 42 miles
E. of Hajypour. N. lat. 25° 41'._ E. long. 86° 10%.
NARANGABAD, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ; 25
miles N.W. of Kairabad. N. lat. 27° 50’. E. long. 80°
ey)
*NARANGPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bengal,
24 miles W. of Comillah.
NARANGUNGE, a town of Bengal, onthe Dulkafery ;
7 miles SE. of Dacca. N. Jat. 23° 37'._E. long. go’ 38’.
NARANGUR, a town of Bengal; 18 miles S, of Mid-
mapour. N. lat. 22° 10!. E.long.87°30'. —-
NARANJA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Fez ;
75 miles N. of Fez. Baris ayy j
NARANJAL, atown of South America, in the audience
of Quito; 12 miles S.E. of Guayaquil.—Alfo, a river of
Peru, which runs into the Pacific ocean, S. lat. 2° 28’.
NARANJOS, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of Truxillo;
15 miles S. of Chacapoyas.—Alfo, two {mall iflands in the
Spanifh main, near the coaft of Darien. N. lat.g° 30!. W.
long. 79° 58'—Alfo, aclufter of fmall iflands, among the
Philippines; 12 miles N.E. of Mafbate. N. lat. 12° 29,
E. long. 123° 54'. : P
NARANPOUDR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar;
25 miles $.S.W. of Arrah.—Alfo, a town of Bengal ; 10
railes S. of Kifhenagur.—Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in
Oude ; 40 miles N.N.E. of Munickpour.—Alfo, a town
of Bengal ; 30 miles S.E. of Dacca. ;
NARAPILLY, a town of Hindsoftan, in Golconda ;
to miles E. of Hydrabad. :
NARBETH, a market and poit-town in the hun-
dred of that name, and county of Pembroke, South Wales,
is fituated at the diftance of 2294 miles N.W. from London,
and 12 miles N.E. from Pembroke. This place has greatly
increafed of late years, both in fize and opulence. In 1So1,
the number of houfes and inhabitants in the town appeared,
from the parliamentary returns, to amount '0 340 of the
former, and 1531 of the latter; but in 1811, the fame
authority {tates the houfes at 402, and the population at
1779 perfons. The market day is Thurfday, and there
are fix well attended fairs during the year, which privileges
have been enjoyed fince the reign of James II. A mail
coach paffes through the town every day, to and from Lon-
don to Milford. Here are held the petty feffions for the
hundred. The church is an ancient building, founded by
fir Andrew Perrot, in the reign cf Henry II. The living
is a reétory in the gift of the crown, and one of the moft
valuable preferments in the diocefe of St. David's. On a
confiderable eminence, clofe to the town, are the ruins of
the caftle of Narbeth, which are now of very fmall extent ;
but from the outline of walls that may ftill be traced, it mult
at one time have been*a, very large and magnificent pile,
and of great importance as defending one of the mott fre-
quented pafles in the county, Hence it was frequently
affaulted, and fometimes taken, by the Welfh princes, during
their defultory wars to repel the aggreffions of the Anglo-
Wormans, and afterwards the Englith.
About two miles north-eaft from Narbeth ftand the ruins

NAR

of Lawhaden caftle, anciently the palace of the bifhops of
St. David’s, and confequently that from which they derived
their title to a feat in the houfe of peers. This fuperb edi-
fice crowns the fummit of a fteep, wooded hill, and though ap-
parently placed on the very edge of a precipice, was moated
and approached by a drawbridge, at the grand entrance,
which was under a gate-way between two o¢tagon baftions
of very maffive archite@ture. The whole building has been
formerly very {pacious and fumptuous; as is evident from the
prefent remains, though thefe have been much deteriorated
of late years by the barbarous practice of ufing its mate-
rials for the repair of the roads. It is conftruéted entirely
of cut ftone, and highly finifhed, and within it is an elegant
chapel, which was built by bifhop Vaughan. At what era
this caftle was eredted is uncertain ; but Mr. Fenton inclines
to think that it is chiefly indebted for its grandeur to
Thomas Beke, who was bifhop of St. David’s from 1280 to
1293, and made this the principal place of his refidence.
Attached to itisa large park anda foreft, which Leland tells
us were well {tocked with red deerin his tine. The keepers
of this forelt were frequently gentlemen of the firft families
in the county; a circumfance alone fufficient to indicate
the high ftyle in which ther» ~ient bifhops were accultomed
to live. T'womiles to the fouth-ealt of this palace is Slebech
hall, a very elegant manfion, which occupies the {cite cf an
ancient commandery of knights hofpitallers, though not a
trace of the eftablifhment of this church-militant now re-
mains, except the church itfelf, a very fmall but refpe@table
edifice, ftanding clofe upon the river Cleddy, which fkirts
the pleafure-grounds, and contributes greatly to their beauty.

Piéton cattle, lying eaftward from Slebech, though built in

the reign of William Rufus, is, by the hereditary attention
of its poffeffors, ftill almoft in as good condition as when firft
ere&ted. This manfion of the noble family of Philips is
furrounded by very extenfive plantations and gardens, laid
out with great tafte. Within thefe is an old encampment,
called Caftle-lake, a poft of confiderable ftrength by nature,
and rendered more fo by a very high agger on its weltern
fide. At Templeton, a village fouth-eaft from Narbeth,
is a chapel, now in ruins, which belonged to the knights of
Slebech, who are faid to have much frequented this place
during their hunting parties. In’ the centre of the main
itreet are the ruins of an ancient crofs. The houfes here,
though thinly feattered, are well built, and preferve the
veltiges of former opulence. Indeed there can be no doubt
of this having been formerly a confiderable village ; and by
fome it is conje&tured to have been early a manufacturing
town fubordinate to the great colony of Flemings, who
eltablifhed themfelves at Tenby. Fenton's Hiftorical Tour
through Pembrokefhire, gto. 1811. Carlifle’s Topogra-
phical Dictionary of Wales, gto. 1812.

NARBIMSKOI, a lake of Ruflia, 36 miles in circum.
ference; 220 miles N.N.E. of Turuchanik.

NARBO, or Narso Martius, in Ancient Geography, a
city of Gaul, in Gallia Narbonenfis. See NARBONNE.
- NARBONENSIS Gattia. See Gaur.

NARBONNE, in Geography, a town of France, and
principal place of a diftriét, in the department of the Aude,
fituated on a canal, which communicates with the Aude.

‘When the Romans firft entered Gaul, this was a flourifhin

city, and they made it a Roman colony, under the appella-
tion of Narbo Martius.” About 116 years B. C., Julius
Cefar fent hither anew colony of the veterans of the roth
legion ; and under Auguftus it was the capital of “ Gallia
Narbonenfis.”” Under the kings of France, it was the
fee of an archbifhop, the feat of an admiralty, and the refi-
dence of a governor; aud it contained two collegiate

Ege churches,

NAR

churches, befides the cathedral, a college, two feminaries,
thirteen convents, and feveral hofpitals. Its lords were
formerly powerful, and it was ftrongly fortified ; but its
only defence at prefent is a wall, flanked with baftions.
its population is not proportional to its extent; nor is it
rich or commercial. The town contains 9086, and the
canton 12,722 inhabitants, on a territory of 2224 kilio-
metres, in g communes. Narbonne has been reckoned fa-
mous for its honey, which is beautifully white, and delicate
in its favour. At Narbonne there is a little ftream, which,
by the induftry of the inhabitants, proves to them a more
certain fource of wealth than if its lands were gold. It
difcharges itfelf into a canal by more than half a mile in
length, by the fide of which they have extenfive gardens,
watered from it by hydraulic machines of remarkable fim-
plicity. Thefe are defcribed by Mr. Townfend in his
Journey through Spain, vol. i. N. lat. 43° 11’. E. long.

© 6!
NARBOROUGH Istanp, a {mall ifland in the South
Pacific ocean, difcovered by fir John Narborough, affording
wood and water, but deftitute of inhabitants. S. lat. 45°
12’. W. long. 76° 12!.

NARCE, saexn, in Medicine, a torpor, ftupor, or dull-

‘nefs of fenfation, ufed either for a natural ftupidity, or for p

that ftupefaction of the fenfes brought on by medicines, to
alleviate the violence of pains.

NARCISSI, in Botany, the 17th natural order in Juffieu’s
fyftem, or the 7th of his third clafs. It is named, as ufual,
from the moft common or confiderable genus of the whole, and
is nearly equivalent to the gth order of Linnzus, Spathacea.

For the full charaGters of Juffieu’s third clafs, fee Lira.

The order of Narciffis thus defcribed.

Calyx (that is the corolla of Linnzus and moft authors)
fuperior, or fometimes inferior, coloured ; its bafe tubular ;
its limb in fix deep fegments, for the moft part equal.
Stamens fix, inferted into the tube, their filaments diftinét,
rarely united at the bafe. Germen fimple, in mott inftances
inferior, in a few fuperior ; ftyle fingle ; ftigma either three-
lobed or fimple.
cells and three valves, with many feeds; (in Hemanthus it
is pulpy, with only three feeds. )

The root is moftly bulbous. Leaves radical, fheathing.
Flowers terminating a radical ftalk, accompanied by fheaths,
folitary or umbellate, and having a common fheath, either
fimple or divided, embracing the umbel.

SeGtion 1; germen fuperior, confifts of Gethyllis, Bulboco-
dium, Hemerocallis, Crinum; and Tulbagia.

Se&tion 2; germen inferior, contains Hemanihus, Ama-
ryllis, Pancratium, cS Leucoium, and Galanthus.

A third feétion is fubjoined of “ Genera not perfe@ly
akin to the Narciffi."’ hefe are five, Hypoxis, Pontederia,
Polyanthes, Alftroemeria, and Tacea.

This order of Juffieu’s is divided by Mr. Brown, the firft
fettion, except Gethyllis, making his Hemerocallidee, the
fecond his Amaryllidee. He confiders the fingular genus
Tacca as intermediate between the Aroidee and Ariflolochia
of Juffieu and himfelf. See Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 340
and 295. Polyanthes and Alflroemeria are, even by Juflieu,
fufpected to be nearer related to his Lilia.—Pontederia is
referred by Linnezus to his Enfate; but belongs to a new
order, con/lituted by Mr. Brown, called Commelinea, a tribe
very unfuitably arranged by Juffiea amongtt his Junci, as
we have already hinted. See Junct.

NARCISSITES, in Matural Hiflory, a name given by
fome authors to a f{pecies of alteropodium, from its fup-
pofed refemblance to the flowers of the narciflus ; others

3

Capfule either inferior or fuperior, of three +

NAR

have called fome of the coralloid fungufes by that names
and others a {pecies of echinites of the pileated kind.

It is, however, a name that none of them have any title to,
fince the refemblance will appear very {mall when nicely con-
fidered.

NARCISSO-LEUCOIUM, in Botany, &c. See Lev-
cOIUM.

NARCISSUS, a name adopted from the poets, who
have fabled that the flower which bears it originated in the
transformation of a beautiful youth, who pined away with
admiration of his own image in a fountain. The origin
of the word, neverthelefs, appears to lie deeper, vaexisc@-
being derived from vaexn, /fupor, and alluding to the effeéts
of the fmell of a Narciffus. Thefe are frequently an intenfe
headache, and partial lofs of recolleétion, to which the
writer of this can bear witne{s in fome of the {pecie’, as well
as in Honeyfuckles, and a few other very {weet flowers.
The name of the youth might apply to the ftupidity of his
paffion, and of the flower to its own properties, before
Ovid elegantly combined them. The defcription of Diof-
corides, unufually full, leaves no doubt of his vagxioco; being
the fame as ours, the “ white {pecies, purple within,” an-
fwering exaétly to the beautiful, though very common, WN.
oeticus of botanifts. Linn. Gen. 161. Schreb. 216.
Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2.34. Mart. Mill. Di@. v. 3. Ait. -
Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 2. 214. Sm. Fl. Brit. 353. Ha-
worth’s Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 5. 242. Salif. Prod. 220.
Juff. 55. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 229. Tourn. t. 185.—Clafs
and order, Hexandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Spathacea,

Linn. Narcifi, Suff.
Gen. Ch. Cal. an oblong, obtufe, compreffed, membra-

nous fheath, fplitting along its flat fide, containing one or
many flowers, permanent. Cor. Petals fix, ovate, pointed,
flat, equal, inferted into the tube of the ne@ary on its out-
fide, at fome diftance above the bafe. Neary of one
leaf, funnel-fhaped, regular, cylindrical below, with a co-
loured border. Stam. Filaments fix, awl-fhaped, inferted
into the tube of the neétary, and fhorter than its border ;
anthers rather oblong. iff. Germen within the fheath,
below the corolla, roundifh, bluntly triangular ; ftyle thread-
fhaped, longer than the ftamens ; {tigma three-cleft, concave,
obtufe. Peric. Capfule roundifh, with three blunt angles,
membranous, of three cells, and three valves, with central
partitions. Seeds feveral, giobofe.

Eff. Ch. Corolla fuperior, of fix equal petals.
funnel-fhaped, of one leaf, bearing the petals.
within the nectary. Stigma three-cleft.

This favourite genus has engaged the particular attention
of feveral Britifh botanifts, efpecially Mr. Salifbury, Mr.
Haworth, and the late Mr. Curtis ; as well as of Mr. Ker-
Bellenden, who in his contributions to the continuation of
the Botanical Magazine, has attended to this among other
liliaceous genera, or their allies. He thus charaCterifes the
habit of Narciffus, in p. 925 of that work.

Bulb inveited with membranous tunics. Leaves feveral,
in two ranks, linear-{trap-fhaped, thickifh, and fomewhat
fucculent ; ufually flat, a little deprefled above, keeled and
ribbed beneath; fometimes rufh-like, and half cylindrical,
with a flight channel above. Flower-{talk naked, central,
moftly comprefled, or two-edged. Flowers yellowith or
whitifh, or partaking of both colours. Style triangular, as
if compofed of three combined. Capfule membranous. It
differs from Pancratium in having the ftamens unconnected
with the central crown or cup of the flower, but more or
lefs cohering with the tube.

The number of fpecies is fourteen in the 14th edition of
the Syft. Veg. of Linneus; Willdenow and Aiton ~

eac

Neary
Stamens

NARCISSUS.

each feventeen, but each has three fpecies which the other
omits. We fhall chiefly take thefe authors for our guides,
declining the great multiplication of {pecies to which others
are, in our opinion, rather too prone. Three Narciffi are
found wild in England.

1. N. poeticus. Poetic Narciflus. Linn. Sp. Pl. 414.
Engl. Bot. t. 275. Redout. Liliac. t. 160. (N. medio
purpureus ; Ger. em. 123 ; and with a double flower, 124.)
—Sheath moftly fingle-flowered. Cup of the neétary
very fhort, wheel-fhaped, membranous, crenate. Leaves
bluntly keeled, reflexed at the margin.—Native of England,
Germany, France, Switzerland, and Italy, on open, rather
fandy, hills, flowering in May. Wheeler mentions this {pecies
as growing on Helicon, and other hills in Greece, upon
whofe authority it was admitted into the Prodr. Fl. Grac. ;
for Dr. Sibthorp did not meet with the plant himfelf,
though he very juftly indicated it, in his manufcripts, as what
Diofcorides had mentioned. That ancient writer {peaks of
the root as emetic, and as ufeful for burns if applied with
honey, or for injurious effeéts of the fun upon the fkin, if
ufed with nettle-feed and vinegar. He alfo celebrates its
effects in cleanfing ulcers and ripening abfceffes—With us
the plant is chiefly valued for the beauty and fragrance of
its fower, which is the largeft of the white kinds, and kaown
from all others, except the next, by the crimfon border of its
very fhallow, and almoft flat, cup of the nefary. The
double variety is moft frequent in gardens. Sometimes there
are two flowers in a fheath.

2. N. anguffifolius. Narrow-leaved Crimfon-edged Nar-
ciflus. Curt. Mag. t. 193. Ait. n. 2.——Sheath fingle-
flowered. Cup of the ne€tary very fhort, cup-fhaped, mem-
branous, crenate. Leaves not broader than the flower-
ftalk.—Native of the fouth of Europe. Cultivated in
England as early as 1570, according to Lobel, and diftin-
guifhed by the writers of that period, though confounded
with the foregoing by Lionzus, and other modern botanifts,
till lately. It differs in being fearcely above half fo large,
with /eaves of a narrower proportion and flatter form,
and the edge of the ne@ary more ere&t. The wooden cut of
Dodonzus, cited for this by Mr. Curtis, is what we have
quoted from Gerarde under the former, to which it appears
to us certainly to belong. Gerarde diftin@ly notices the
prefent, and mentions its early flowering, which is in the
beginning of April, full fix weeks before the poeticus.

3- N. difforus. Pale Narciffus, or Primrofe peerlels.
Curt. Mag. t.197. Sm. Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 276.
Willd. n. 11. (N. medio luteus ; Ger.em. 124.)—Sheath
two-flowered. Cup of the neétary very fhort, wheel-fhaped,
membranous, crenate. Leaves acutely keeled, inflexed at
the margin.—Native of Spain, England, and Ireland. It
was gathered on a rabbit-warren at Shorne in Kent, with the
poeticus, by Mr. Jacob Rayer, but generally blooms a little
earjier than that {pecies, and is common in gardens, bein
valued for its beauty and fcent, though the latter foon
becomes oppreffive in a room. From the firft fpecies it
differs in the fection of the eaves being triangular, and their
edges inflexed ; the flowers ufually two, fometimes one or
three, from each fheath; the petals of a cream-colour, or
yellowifh, not of a pure fnow-white; the nefary yellow,
with a pale edge, but no crimfon circle. All thefe marks
are permanent and invariable, except the number of flowers.
Their fize is always lefs than that of the poeticus.

4. N. tenuior. Slender Narciffus. Curt. Mag. t. 379.
Ait. n. 4.—Sheath fingle-flowered. Cup of the neétary
very fhort, cup-fhaped, plaited. Leaves linear-awlfhaped,
channelled.—A_ native probably of Europe, but known to
-us only as having been procured from the gardens of Hol-

land. Meffrs. Grimwood and Barrit are mentioned by Mr.
Aiton, as having firft cultivated it in 1789. This is a hardy
{pecies, flowering in May, and moft refembles the lait in
colour, but the petals are rather more yellow, the edge of
the cut ere&t, more plaited, neither white nor membranous,
but brown as the flower advances. The fragrance is con-
fiderable. The leaves gradually taper to a blunt point.
Stalk round, flender, taller than the leaves, flizhtly com-
prefled above, and always fingle-flowered. Germen and tube
of the fower flender, ftanding horizontally, Curtis.

5. N. incomparabilis. Peerlefs Daffodil. Curt. Mag.
t.121. Willd.n.2. Ait. n.5. (N.amplus; Salif.n. 17.
N-sodorus; Linn, Am. Acad. v. 4. 311. N. omnium

maximus ; Ger. em. 135.)—Sheath fingle-flowered. Cup
of the nectary bell-fhaped, plaited, crifped, half as long as
the petals. Leaves acutely keeled.—Native of Spain and
Portugal, according to Miller. Parkinfon {peaks of it as
cultivated in 1629, but it was perhaps known here much
earlier. He gives a fufficiently expreffive figure of this
plant, in his Garden of Pleafant Flowers, p. 71. f. 1. It
is known by the bell-fhaped; wavy, and:plaited cup of the
neG@ary, which is much longer than any of the preceding, and
of a rich orange colour. The petals are pale yellow, but
fometimes almoft white. The double variety, N. incom-
parabilis, Rob. Ic. t. 20, in which the colours are moft
ftrongly contrafted, is moft admired, and called the Butter
and Egg Narciffus, or Orange Phoenix. This fpecies is
very hardy, flowering in April. The bulbs of the double
fort fhould be taken up yearly, or they are apt to dege-
nerate, or rather to return towards the natural fingle ftate
Of the flawer.

Curt. Mag. t. 948 is now confidered by the editor a va-
riety of this.

6. N. Pfeudo-narcifus. Common Daffodil. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 414. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n.6. Engl. Bot. t. 17.)
Pfeudo-narciflue anglicus; Ger. em. 133. | Pfeudo-narciffus
luteus multiplex ; ibid.) —Sheath fingle-flowered. Cup of
the ne&tary bell-fhaped, ereét, crifped, obfeurely fix-cleft,
as long as the ovate upright petals.—Native of England, as
well as of Germany, France, Switzerland, and Italy, in
rather moift woods or thickets, flowering in March, its
growth being rapid, and duration fhort. The aves are
two or three, glaucous, bluntly keeled. Stalé compreffed,
two-edged, about the fame height, which is {carcely a foot.
Flower drooping, not pleafantly feented, with nearly erect
petals, df a pale yellow, the long tubular neGtary being of a
golden hue. Such is the wild plant. ‘The garden varieties
differ in the fullnefs of colour, as well as in the fhape and
pofition of their numerous petals, and diftorted divided nec-
tary.

7- N.dicolor. White and Yellow Daffodil. Linn. Sp. Pl. 415.
Curt. Mag. t. 1187. N. albus, calyce flavo, five tubo fim-
briato; Rudb. Elyf. v. 2. 70. f. 7.)—Sheath fingle-flowered.
Cup of the nettary bell-fhaped, ereét, crifped, longer than
the ovate, flat, fpreading petals. Leaves flightly concave,
nearly ftraight.—Native of the Pyrenées. Common in old
gardens, flowering in April or May, a month after the laft-
defcribed, from which it differs in having lefs glaucous daves,
fhorter and horizontal petals ; the tube of the neGary being
fcarcely longer than the germen, whereas in Pfeudo-narciffus
itis thrice as long. Its fcent too is much fweeter.

8. N. major. Great Yellow Daffodil. Curt. Mag. t. 51
and 13or. (N. major totus luteus, calyce prelongo; Bauh.
Pin. 52. Rudb. Elyf. v.2. 71. f. 9. N. bicolor £;
Willd. n.4. Ait. n.7. Pfeudo-narciffus hifpanicus ; Ger.
em. 133.)—Sheath fingle-flowered. Cup of the nectary
bell-fhaped, erect, the length of the oblong oblique petals ;

ts

NARCISSUS.

its margin {preading, lobed, and crifped. Leaves twilted.—
Native of Spain. Common with double flowers in gardens,
but rarely feen fingle. The twifted, fomewhat glaucous,
leaves, very large flower, of an uniform golden yellow, and
the other drfferences expreffed in the {pecific character, feem
to us abundantly fufficient to diftinguith this from the dicolor.
It flowers in April, and is very hardy.

g. N. minor. Small Daffodil. Linn. Sp. Pl. 415. Willd.
n. 5. Ait. n.8. Curt. Mag. t.6. (N. parvus, totus lu-
teus; Rudb. Elyf v. 2. 72. f. 11. Pfeudo-narciffus minor
hifpanicus ; Ger. em. 133.)—Sheath fimgle-flowered. Nec-
tary inverfely conical ; its cup fix-cleft, crifped, longer than
the lanceolate petals. Leaves fpreading.—Native of Spain ;
very hardy with us, flowering in March or April. As the
preceding is the largeft, this is the {malleft of the Daffodils.
Its fpreading, fhort, glaucous ‘aves, and the gradually
dilated neéary, not well delineated by the old authors, mark
the {pecies well. The petals are of a pale yellow, the cup
darker. Mr. Salifbury divides this {pecies into two, by the
names of exiguus and pumilus, but we cannot fatisfy our-
felves of the propriety of fo doing, nor has the meafure
been adopted by others.

to. N. mofchatus. White Long-flowered Daffodil. Linn.
Sp. Pl.ars. Herb. Linn, Willd. n.6. Ait. n.g. Curt.
Mag. t. 924 and 1300. (N. albus; Haworth Tr. of Linn.
Soc. v.5.n.5. N. candidiflimus; Redout. Liliac. t. 188.
N. albus, calyce przlongo, flore pendente; Rudb. Elyf.
v. 2. 73. f. 16. - Pfeudo-narciflus albo flore ; Ger. em. 134.)
—Sheath fingle-flowered. Flower drooping. Cup of the
neétary cylindrical, erect, crenate, furrowed, the length of
the oblong twifted petals. Leaves concave, glaucous.—
Native of Spain; kept in rather curious gardens, where it is
hardy, flowering in April. The long cylindrical cup, lon-
gitudinally furrowed, flightly contraéted in the middle,
rarely a little dilated at the top, of the fame length, and
cream-coloured white, as the {preading twifted petals, well
marks this {pecies. Mr. Ker-Bellenden is difpofed to un-
dervalue the labours of Linneus with refpeét to this plant,
which is neverthelefs correétly defined by that author, from
a living f{pecimen, raiféd in the Upfal garden, and pre-
ferved in the Linnean herbarium; nor are we inclined to
exchange our great mafter’s “ ‘hort phrafes by way of
defcription,’’ to which he owes his deferved fame, and all
natural hiftory its perfection, for the longer, and proportion-
ably feeble, charaéters of this or other writers, who have
neverthelefs their ufe and their merits. It is true that the
fynonyms of Linnzus are not all correét, in this place any
more than in others, and the name of mo/chatus may have
been taken from fynonyms, certainly erroneous, of Bauhin
and Rudbeck. Mutfkinefs is however one of the moft va-
rious and evanefcent flavours in the fcent of plants. The
fragrance of N. mo/chatus is compared by Mr. Ker to ginger.
We have found it flightly fweet and pungent, varying at
different hours of the day, as in other inftances. We would
further obferve, that the very frequent and wide alterations

in the »pinion of the ingenious author laft mentioned, in his
progrefs through the Botanical Magazine, as to the {pecies
of Narcifjus and their fynonyms, may excufe fome miltakes
or | Al | Linneus, who had not a tenth part of
tl Advantages,

ii. N. triandrus. Reflexed Narciflus. Linn. Sp. Pl. 416.
W n. 7 on, 10, Curt. Mag. t. 48. (N. cernuus;
S 11 N, juncifolius reflexus, flore albo; Ger,

(N. calathinus; Redout, Li-
fynonyms,) -Sheath with two
Cup of the nectary bell-fhaped,

lag, t. 1262.
I ; - ; udin the

ree | idulous Mowers,

crenate, half the length of the reflexed petals. Three
ftamens much the longett. Style fomewhat protruding. —
Native of Portugal, and the Pyrenean mountains ; rare in
gardens, though hardy, flowering in March and April.
The flowers are inodorous, ufually white or cream-coloured ;
in the variety @ ftraw-coloured; pendulous, fcarcely bigger
than thofe of minor ; their cup of a much greater diameter
than the tube of the nedary, its edge very fliyhtly crenate ;
petals lanceolate, reflexed. Leaves {preading, narrow.
Stalk round. This fpecies is not in the herbarium of Lin-
nus, but is doubtlefs what he intended, though he has
confofed its fynonyms.

12. N. odorus. Sweet Yellow Narciffus. Broad-leaved,
or Great, Jonquil. Lino. Sp. Pl. 416. Willd. n. 10. Ait.
n, 12. Curt. Mag. t..78. Redout. Liliac. t. 157. (N-
calathinus; Linn. Sp. Pl. 415? Curt. Mag. t.934. N.
confpicuus; Salif. n. 14, N. Jetus; Salif. n. 15. Ait.
n. 13. N. trilobus; Linn. Sp. Pl. 417. N. juncifolius,
amplo calyce; Ger. em. 128.)—Sheath with about two
flowers. Cup of the neétary half the length of the ovate
petals, bell-fhaped, with fix fhallow, rounded, equal feg-
ments. Leaves femicylindrical, channelled. Stem round.
—Native of the fouth of Europe, long cultivated in our
gardens, where it is very popular, efpecially in the country,
flowering in Apriland May. The /eaves are femicylindrical,
narrower than fome of the firft-defcribed, grafs-green.
Flowers of a golden yellow, highly fragrant, about as
broad as the NV. poeticus ; their cup is {ometimes darker than
the petals, but rarely, and the edges of its fegments are now
and then crifped. We carmot make more than varieties of
the odorus and /etus of Hort. Kew. and the érilobus, faultily
defcribed by Linnzus, is certainly the fame thing. Ge-
rarde, or his editor, wrongly fpeaks of the flower as white.
Clufius, whofe cut they ufe, fays it is yellow, the cup fome-
what darker than the petals. Mr. Curtis mentions a double
variety, as often ufed for forcing.

13. N. nutans. Nodding Jonquil. Haworth Mife. 179.
Ait. n.14. (N. trilobus; Curt. Mag. t.945. N. anguf-
tifolius pallidus, calyce flavo; Rudb. Elyf. v. 2. 61. f, 3.)—
Sheath with two or three drooping flowers. Cup of the
nectary not half the length of the fpreading ovate petals,
bell-fhaped, abrupt, flightly notched, fhorter than the ityle.
Leaves channelled.—Native of the fouth of Europe, culti-
vated here in 1789 by Mr. Whitley. It is hardy, flowering
in April and May. ‘This is, as Mr. Ker remarks, inter-
mediate between the preceding and the following fpecies,
moft akin perhaps ‘to the latter, of which we {fhould,
but for the above authorities, be inclined to make it a
variety. © The petals are paler, and cup deeper ; the /fyle re-
markably prominent, but this might arife from the only
{pecimen we haye feen defcribed having been perhaps more
perfeé in that organ, than is ufual in plants whofe bulbs are
{fo prolific.

14. N. Jonguilla. Ruth-leaved fougull Linn. Sp. Pl.
417. Willd. n. 16, Ait. n. 16. Curt. Mag. t. 15.
Redout. Liliac. t. 159. (N. juncifolius precox et fero-
tinus; Ger, em. 127.)—Sheath many-flowered, Cup of
the neCtary bell-fhaped, very fhort, crenate. Leaves awl-
fhaped, flightly channelled above. ‘This favourite fpecies,
fo generally cultivated, in a fingle or double ftate, for the
fake of its rich and powerful f{weetnefs, is faid to be a
native of Spain. Its narrow ruthy /eaves at once diltinguith
it from all the foregoing, though they are not much more
narrow than thofe of the laft. “Che fowers are of a golden
yellow, {carcely more than half the fize of pocticus; whofe
form: the y molt refemble, the cup being very fhort and cre-
nate, and the petals elpiptical, ipreading widely, their fides

5 fomes

NARCISSUS,

fomewhat deflexed. The number of flowers 1s from three
to fix, and they droop in fome degre@, though lefs than in
the laft fpecies. A quantity of thefe fowers in aclofe room,
efpecially in the evening, is to many people intolerably
oppreffive.

15. N. ferotinus. Autumnal White Narciffus. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 417. Willd. n. 16. Cluaf. Hift. v. r. 162. Desfont.
Atlant. v, 1. 283. t. 82. (N. minor ferotinus ; Ger. em.
124.) —Sheath with one or more flowers. Cup of the nec-
tary extremely fhort, crenate. Petals lanceolate. Leaves
flat.—Native of Spain, Italy, and Barbary. We have it
from M. Desfontaines, who moft unaccountably fpeaks of
it as a variety of N. Tazzetta hereafter defcribed, from
which furely no fpecies can be more diftin@. The /eaves are
in breadth mot like thofe of Jonguilla, but flat. Whole
plant very flender in all its parts. Sva/k round. Flowers
from one to feven, with a very flender tube, fix white, lan-
ceolate, long, and narrow feta/s, and an extremely {mall and
fhort yellow cup, beyond whofe wavy edge three of the
anthers project. We have never heard of this plant in the
gardens of Britain.

16. N. Tazzetta.
416. Willd. n. 13.

Folyanthus Narciffus. Linn. Sp. Pl.

Ait. n. 15. Redout. Liliac. t. 17.
Curt. Mag/t. 925. Fl. Grec. Sibth. t. 308, unpublifhed.
(N. orientalis 8 ; Curt. Mag. t. 1026. N. medio luteus,
copiofo flore, odore gravi; Rudb. Elyf. v. 2.57. f. 11.
N. medio luteus polyanthos; Ger. em. 124. N. pifanus;
ibid. 125.)

&. N. orientalis; Ait. n. 11.
1298, 940?

y- N. italicus; Curt. Mag. t. 1188.
Curt. Mag. t. 948 ?)

3. N. papyraceus ; Curt. Mag. t. 947.
Ger. em. 126.)

Sheath with very numerous flowers. Cup of the neétary
bell-fhaped, plaited, abrupt, one-third the length of the
elliptical petals. eaves nearly flat— Native of the fouth
of Europe and the Levant, as well as of the northern parts
of the Eaft Indies, and apparently of China and Japan. We
have a wild fpecimen, gathered by Dr. Buchanan, at Na-
rainhetty in Nepal, flowering in September. With us this
is a hardy garden’ {pecies, though often forced, fo as to
bloom in the winter or early fpring. It is known by its
large bulbs ; broad, nearly flat, deep-green caves, upright,
two feet long ; and the very numerous flowers, which, com-
pofe a roundifh umbel. The petals are, in a natural ftate,
yellow, the cup of the neary orange, hemifpherical, its
margin undulated, but fearcely notched. See the figures
we have cited firft. The fcent is very powerful, and fome-
times oppreffive, though, in moderation, agreeable, This
being the {tate in which Dr. Sibthorp found the plant in
Greece, it appears to be that which Diofcorides defcribes
«with a faffron-coloured centre,” though he fays the relt
of the flower is white. It is probable that the ftate to
which this fpecies returns, if left to naturalize itfelf, as it
were, under the fouth wall of fome cottage garden, when
the petals ufually become cream-coloured, and the cup of a
gelden yellow, may be its original appearance. So it is
moft generally reprefented in Camefe and Japanefe paintings.
We have difpofed under three varieties the references, chiefly
to the Botanical Magazine, which indicate what we do not
fiad fufficient materials for eftablifhing as fpecies. This is
one of thofe garden flowers, which the potver of cultivation
has transformed in*o numerous, but moitly evanefcent, va-
rieties. Long and repeated experiments would be requilite
to determine whether any, of thofe to which we have re-
ferred, con{titute permanent fpecies. The opinion of, the

Curt. Mag. t. 946, 1or1,
(N. orientalis 6 ;

(N. totus albus;

obferving writer in the Magazine has from time to time
varied refpeGting them. We agrce with him that the orien-
talis of Linneus, of which We have no authentic {pecimen,
may be our diflorus. Whether Mr. Ker’s and Mr. Aiton’s
orientalis, whofe fynonyms Linnezus has confounded with
the former, be a good {pecies, and which of the varieties we
have noticed belong to it or to Tazzetta, mult at prefent
reft in great uncertainty. We prefume to fufpe& that Mr.
Ker’s bifrons, Curt. Mag. t. 1186, 1299, is not a permanent
{pecies. We fhould, from obferving its ufual afpe&, when
firft imported from the Dutch gardens, t. 1299, judge it a
variety of Yazzetta; but Mr. Ker informs us, that t. 1186
is the appearance it aflumes after it has been feveral years
with us, which therefore is, probably, rather an approach
to its original or natural ftate. Hence it feems more akin
to odorus, which the conftantly fix-lobed cup confirms.

N. dubius, Gouan. Obf. 22. Willd. n. 14, is indeed too
doubtful to be admitted upon truft, and has the figns of a
variety of Tazzetta, at lealt as far as can at prefent be con-
jetured. N. anguftifolius albus minor, Bauh, Prod. 27.
Rudb. Elyf. v. 2. 61. f. 2, appears to be this plant, which
is faid, by Bauhin as well as Gouan, to grow wild near
Montpellier. May this really be a good aoe and the
original of the Paper-white, or Italian, Narciffus, Curt.
Mag. t.947, which the younger Linnzus thought diftin&
from Tazzetta ?

17. N. Bulbocodium. Hoop-petticoat Narciffus. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 417. Willd. n. 15. Ait. n.17. Curt. Mag. t. 88.
Redout. Liliac. t. 24. (N. juncifolius montanus minimus ;
Ger. em. 136, alfo n. 7 and 8, 137. N. minimus, calyce
campanule; Rudb. Elyf. y. 2. 76. f. 7.)—Sheath fingle-
flowered. Cup of the nectary funnel-fhaped, much larger
than the linear petals. Stamens and ftyle declining. — Native
of Spain and Portugal ; hardy in our gardens, though not
common, flowering in May. The aves are numerous, femi-
cylindrical, narrow, dark green. _Sta/é round, a {pan high,
Flower inodorous, of a golden yellow, very confpicuous for
its large funnel-fhaped neéary, furrounded by {mall petals,
which gives it an appearance totally unlike the reft of its
genus. This plant is fubje& to two or three variations, of
which fome botanifts make fpecies. See Salif. Prod. 222.

Narcissus, in Gardening, comprehends plants of the
bulbous-rooted, perennial, flowering kind, of which the
{pecies cultivated are, the common daffodil (N. pfeudo-nar-
sine) 5 the poetic, or white narciflus (N. poeticus) ; the
two-flowered narciflus, or pale daffodil (N. biflorus) ; the
two-coloured narciffus (N. bicolor) ; the leaft daffodil (N.
minor) ; the rufh-leaved narciffus, or reflexed daffodil (N.
triandrus) ; the oriental narciflus (N. orientalis) ; the hoop-
petticoat narcifius (N. bulbocodium) ; the polyanthus nar-
ciflus (N.-tazzetta) ; the late-flowering narciflus (N. fero-
tinus) ; the fweet-fcented narcifflus, or great jonquil (N.
odorus) ; the calathine yellow narciffus (N. calathinus) ;
and the common jénguil ( N. jonquilla. )

The firft has varieties with white petals, and a pale yellow
cup,. with yellow petals, and a golden cup, with a double
flower ; with three or four cups within each other; Tradef-
cant’s large double; long-tubed floweréd; fhort-tubed ;
dwarf-ftalked ; and the peerlefs daffodil. And many other
varieties haye likewife been noticed by writers.

Of the fecond f{pecies there are alfo varieties with double
white flowers, with purple-cupped flowers, and with yellow-
cupped flowers.

And of the third there are two or three varieties, as with
fulphur-coloured flowers, and with white reflexed petals,
with gold-coloured borders.

The fourth f{pecies has a large variety, which approaches,

in

NARCISSUS.

in its general appearance, very near to the firft fort; but
it is a much taller plant, and has its leaves more twifted, as
wellas more glaucous: the flower, but efpecially the neétary,
is much larger, and the petals are more fpreading. It is
of a fine deep yellow colour, having fub-varieties with
double flowers, and is a native of Spain, flowering in April.
This is fometimes known by the title of great yellow Spani/b
baftard daffodil.

Of the fixth fort, there are varieties with the cup and
petals wholly of a gold colour; with yellow, with a white
cup; and with white, with a yellow cup.

The feventh has likewife feveral varieties, the principal
of which are with yellow petals, with orange, yellow, or
fulphur-coloured cups or neétaries; with white petals,
with white cups or neétaries, and with double flowers of
the different varieties. And the flower catalogues contain
about a hundred fub-varieties under thefe heads. It may
be noticed, that the varieties with white petals and white
cups are not fo much efteemed as the others; there are,
however, two or three with large bunches of {mall white
flowers, which are valuable for their agreeable odour, and
for flowering later than moft of the others. There is alfo
one with very double flowers, the outer petals white, thofe
in the middle fome white, others orange-coloured, which
has a very agreeable f{cent, flowers early, and is generally
called the Cyprus narciffus, and is the moft beautiful of all
the varieties when blown in glaffes in rooms, or other places
in the houfe.

The eleventh f{pecies varies with double flowers.

And the thirteenth alfo varies with double flowers.

Method of Culture.—A\\ thefe different fpecies and va-
rieties may be increafed with facility, by planting the off-
fet bulbs from the roots; and by fowing the feed in order
to procure new varieties, which is chiefly pra¢tifed for the
fine forts of polyanthus narciffus. But for this la{t purpofe,
the feed fhould be carefully faved from the beft and mott
curious plants, after being perfeétly ripened.

With refpeét to fowing the feed, it fhould be done foon
after it becomes ripe, as about the beginning of Auguit, in
fhallow boxes, or flat pans, perforated with holes in the bot-
toms, and filled with frefh light fandy earth, being covered
about a quarter of an inch deep with fine fifted mould, and

laced in fuch fituations as are only expofed to the morning
Pn, till the beginning of winter, when they fhould be re-
moved, to have the full fun, and be theltered from fevere
weather. In the {pring, when the plants appear, they
fhould be occafionally watered in dry weather, and fereened
from the mid-day heat, removing them into cooler fituations
as the warm feafon advances, Bacpiay them free from all
forts of weeds. Towards the latter end of the fummer,
when their ttems decay, the furface mould of the boxes
or pans fhould be ftirred or wholly removed, and fome
frefh mould fifted over the plants, being careful not to
difturb the roots, and keeping them rather dry in a fhaded
ace,

And they fhould have the fame management annually, till
the period of their leaves decaying in the third fummer,
when the bulbs fhould be taken up, and the largeft fepa-
rated, and planted out on raifed beds of light fine mould, in
rows fix inches apart, and three or four diftant in them,
having the depth of two or three inches. The {maller
bulbs may be covered in on another bed with fine mould,
to remain till of fufficient fize to be planted out as above.
They thould afterwards be kept clean; and when they thew
flowers, fo as to afcertain their properties, they may be re-
moved, and managed in the manner direéted below,

And the off-fet bulbs of the old plants, efpecially the

double forts, fhould be feparated from the roots annually,
or at fartheft every two or three years, in the latter part of
the fummer, when their leaves and ftems decay ; planting
their larger bulbs out at different times, from the end of
Auguft to the beginning of November, in order to afford
variety ; but the earlier they are planted, the ftronger they
blow. When left out of the ground till February, or later,
they moftly appear weak.

Thefe bulbs fucceed belt where the foil is of a light, dry,
frefh, hazel, loamy quality, and the afpect fouth-eafterly ;
as, where inclined to moifture, they are very apt to be de-
flroyed. They afterwards cnly require to be kept free
from weeds, and to have the ground flirred above them in
the autumnal feafon.

The {mall bulbs may be planted out in rows in nurfery-
beds to increafe, for being planted in the fame manner as the
others.

When thefe roots are planted in the open borders, or other
places, in affemblage with other bulbous-rooted flowers,
they fhould be depofited in little patches, about three er
four roots in each, putting them in with a blunt dibble, or
holing them in with a garden trowel, three or four inches
deep; in which mode they difplay their flowers more con-
fpicuoufly than when planted fingly. :

And where a large quantity is planted out alone in beds,
in order to exhibit a full bloom, as is often practifed with
the fine polyanthus-narciflus, jonquils, &c., the beds fhould
be four feet wide, with foot-and-half or two feet wide
alleys between them. In thefe beds the roots fhould be

lanted in rows lengthways, nine inches afunder, either with
a blunt dibble or with a hoe, three or four inches deep, and
fix diftant in each row, covering them evenly with the earth,
and raking the furface fmooth and even.

But in order to blow the polyanthus-narciffus and jonquil
in the higheft perfeGtion, curious florifts often bettow par-
ticular care in their culture; fome preparing beds of com-
poft, as for the fine hyacinths, &c. managing them in the
fame manner, But they fucceed weil in beds of light dry
mould.

In cafes where the bulbs of this fort are intended for fale,
they fhould be lifted at fartheft every two years, to prevent
their becoming flattened by preflure, and of courfe lefs
valuable.

The bulbs may be retained out of the ground two or
three months, where it is neceflary ; but it is better to re-
plant them in the above manner.

Method of Culture in Glaffés.—It is fometimes the practice
to cultivate the polyanthus-narciflus, and fome of the large
jonquil kind, in glaffes in rooms, in order to blow in the
winter or early {pring feafon. or this purpofe, dry firm
bulbs fhould be chofen, and one placed in each tingle glafs
or bottle provided for the purpofe, any time from O&ober
till the fpring, being then filled up to the roots of the bulbs
with foft water, and depofited in a light warm place. In
this method the plants foon begin to grow, and fend forth
flower-{tems, affording good flowers, which have a very
ornamental appearauce. The principal circumf{lances to be
regarded in this management are thofe of Keeping the

laffes well fupplied with freth portions of water, fo as con-
flatly to be up to the lower part of the roots, and changing
the whole, fo as to keep it always in a pure {tate,

And they may likewife be raifed in pots filled with light
fandy mould, and placed in the fame fituations; alfo in hot-
houfes they may be made to blow early, when kept either
in pots or glaffes. :

Where planted out in the manner mentioned above, in the
borders, clumps, and other parts of pleafure-grounds, they

are

NAR

are moft of them highly ornamental, producing much variety
in the early {pring months.

All the different principal forts may be procured from
the feedfmen in London, who import them for fale from
Holland, where they are raifed in large quantities for that
purpofe,

Narcissus, in Fabulous Hiflory, a youth of exquifite
beauty, born at Thefpia, a city in Bocotia, was deemed to
be the fon of Cephifus, a prince who gave his name to that
river. According to the fable, he was enamoured with his
own figure, which he faw in a well, and contemplating it
for a long time, without perceiving that he faw merely his
own fhadow, he pined away with love and defire. Thus
Ovid relates the fable. But Paufanias, rejeCting this -ac-
* count as incredible, refers to another tradition, according to
which Narciffus had a twin-fifter, who perfeétly refembled
him, and with whom he fell in lcve; but having had the
misfortune to lofe her, while they were hunting together,
he abandoned himfelf to melancholy, and frequented the
bank of a fountain, whofe water ferved as a mirror to refle&
his own figure, which, refembling that of his filter, gave
him fome confolation. The flowers called narciflufes, how-
ever, are faid to be more ancient than this adventure; and
the origin of their name is reported to have been as follows :
The daughter of Ceres was gathering flowers in a meadow,
when fhe was ravifhed by Pluto; aad the flowers fhe was
gathering, and which Pluto ufed for feducing her, were
rarciffufes and not violets. It is faid that the manner of
Narciffus’s death has no other foundation befides his name,
which is derived from a Greek werd that fignifies ‘ to be
benumbed,”’ or “ without fenfation;"’ whence foporific drugs
have ben called ‘* narcotics.” Narciffus, it is added, having
manifefled only difdain of all perfons who conceived an af-
fe&tion for him, Love himfelf is faid to have taken vengeance
upon him for his indifference, by caufing him to be in love
with himfelf; and Ovid, who always inclines to the mar-
vellous, has confidered this {tory in a light that beft anfwered
that end. After this adventure, the Thefpians are faid to
have honoured /ove with a particular worfhip. Ovid adds,
that as this youth was deltined to have merely phantoms for
the objeéts of his paffions, and of thofe which he infpired,
the nymph « Echo’’ fell in love with him, and that his dif-
dain obliged her to retire into caves and rocks, where fhe
retained nothing but the voice. :

NARCONDAM, in Geography, an ifland in the Ealt
Indian fea, about 20 miles in circumference. It is a mere
barren rock, without vegetation, and without inhabitants ;
75 miles E, from the great Andaman. N. lat. 13° 23’. E.
long. 94° 40!. ;

NARCOS, in Ichthyology, a name given by Joannes
Cuba, and other writers, to the torpedo, or cramp-fifh; a
fpecies of raia, diltinguifhed by Artedi by the name of the
raia tota levis, the wholly fmooth raia. See Torrepo.

NARCOSIS, in Medicine, a ttupefa&tion or infenfible
ftate, whether brought on by medicines, or happening from
natural caufes.

NARCOPIC Principce, in Chemiffry, a peculiar ve-
getable fubltance obtained from feveral plants, fuch as the
lettuce, the poppy; and other vegetables, to which they
are faid to owe their narcotic and ftupefying qualities, It
appears to be obtained in the largeit quantity from the
papaver album, “ white poppy.’’ The following is the pro-
cefs for procuring the above fubltance, given by Dérofne
in the Ann. de Chim. vol. xiv. p. 263, to. whom we owe its
difcovery. : .

Evaporate the aqueous folution of opium to the con-
fiftence of fyrup, when a gritty precipitate begins to be

VoL. XXIV,

NAR

formed, which is increafed by dilution with water. Thig
precipitate confilts principally of refin, extraét, and the nar.
cotic principle, The extra¢t in this procefs is rendered in-
foluble in water, by abforbing oxygen; and alfo nearly in-
folufle in alcohol. “When, therefore, the latter is poured
upon the above precipitate, the refin and the narcotic prin-
ciple are diffolved, while the extra@ remains unaffected, and
is feparated. The folution being left to cool, the narcotic
principle is depofited in cryltals. Thefe, by repeated folu-
tion and cryttallization, become of a white colour, in the
form of rhomboidal prifms. This fubftance is infoluble in ~
cold water, but diffolves in 400 parts of boiling water,
which, however, is depofited on cooling. It diffolves in
24 parts of boiling alcohol, and in 100 parts of cold. When
water is added to this folution, the folution is decompofed,
the narcotic principle being precipitated in the form’ of
white powder. Ether diffolves it with heat, but it falls
down on cooling. When heated alone ma retort, it melts
like wax, becomes frothy, and gives out white vapours,
which condenfe into a yellow oil. If the heat be raifed,
carbonat of ammonia, carbonic acid, and carburetted hy-
drogen gas, come over, leaving behind a coaly fubftance,
which, when berned, affords potafh. The narcotic prin-
ciple diffolves in acids, but it is precipitated in the form of
white powder by the alkalis. The latter alfo render it a
little more foluble in water. The volatile oils diffolve it;
but on cooling, it is depofited in the form of oils, which
afterwards cryttallize.

When it is fubjeGed to the ation of nitric acid, it be-
comes red, and is diffolved. Oxalic acid and a bitter fub-
itance are produced.

When potath is added to the aqueous folution of opium,
the narcotic principle is precipitated, carrying with it a por-
tion of the alkali.

It is the opinion of this chemift, that its folubility in
water and alcohol, in the procefs for obtaining it, is owing
to the prefence of refin, and the extra¢tive matter, by both
of which it is rendered foluble.

This peculiar fubftance has all the properties of opium in
a concentrated ftate. Dérofne made experiments with it
upon dogs, and found it more powerful than opium. He
alfo found that, like opium, its bad effeéts were countera@ted
by vinegar. This circumftance led him to fuppofe that the
vinegar diffolved this fubftance. See Orrum.

Narcotics, in Medicine, from yzexvcis, drowyfinefs, or
Stupor, thofe drugs which occafion drowfinefs or fleep ; fuch
as opium, henbane, hemlock, &c. See Oprare.

NARDECK, in Geography, a circar of Hindooftan, in
the fubah of Delhi, bounded on the north by Hiffar, on
the eaft by Ballogiftan, on the fouth by Nagore, and on
the weft by Moultan; a woody diftriét, containing few
towns.

NARDEN. See Naarpen.

NARDI, Jacoro, in Biography, an eminent Italian hif-
torian, was born of a noble family at Florence in 1476.
After fuftaining feveral important offices in his native city,
he was fent ambaffador to the republic of Venice in 1527.
Upon his return to Florence, he married a lady conneéted
with the party adverfe to the Medici family, and diftin-
guifhed himfelf as well in councils as in arms. His op-
ponents gaining the afcendancy, he was imprifoned, and
afterwards fent into exile, being firft {tripped of all his pro-
perty. He was one of the emigrants, who, in 1535, laid
their complaints before the emperor Charles V. at Naples;
but the application proving fruitlefs, he retired to Venice,
where he employed his latter years in cultivating literature,
and compofing ‘various works. He was preffed by his

rive friends,

NAR

friends, and even by the grand duke Cofmo, to return to
Florence ; but it does not appear that he attended to the in-
vitation. The time of his death is not known. He was
alive in July 1555, when, ina letter, he modeitly defcribes
himfelf as afcending with his ftaff the laborious fteep of the
8oth year of his mifpent life. Nardi wrote the hiltory of
Florence from 1494 to 1531, containing facts within his
own obfervation; but it. was not publifhed till 1582, when
it made its appearance at Lyons. It has been feveral times
reprinted. He likewife compofed the life of Antonio Gia-
comini Tebalducci Malefpini, printed at Florence in 1597.
He obtainedia high reputation by a tranflation of Livy, fir ft
publifhed at Venice in 1540, which is accounted one of the
beit-verfions in the Italian language. He alfo tranflated
Cicero’s oration for Marcellus, He cultivated Italian
poetry, and compofed fome ‘ Canti Carzafchiaiefchi,”
printed in collections of poems; anda comedy in verle, en-
titled « L’ Amicizia.”” :

NARDINI, Pierro, the favourite difciple of Tar-
tini; His performance on the violin was very much in the
ftyle of his mafter, highly polifhed and correct. He com-
pofed feveral books. of folos for his inftrument, in which
he could not approach his matter fo nearly as in playing;
and even in his performance there was a want of that
energy and. fire, in which no one of Tartini’s pupils could
ever come near him... He lived many years at Leghorn; but
in 1770 he remoyed to Florence, where he was placed at the
head of the grand duke’s band. He died im 1794, very
much. lamented by his private friends, wha regarded him as
a man of great worth and probity. °

NARDINUM Uncuentum, Ointment of Spikenard, an
ointment, greatly celebrated among the ancient writers in
medicine, It feems to have been varioufly prepared, but
always with a great number of aromatic ingredients, and al-
ways with {pikenard for the bafis. ;

Diofcorides fays, that, the malabathrum, or Indian leaf,
was fometimes an ingredient in it, but that it was alfo fome-
times made without it. It was generally, however, mixed
with the oleum balaninum, or amphacinum, infpiffated
with an addition of fchenanth ; and to increafe its fragrancy
there were added coftus, amomum, myrrh, and balm of
Gilead, ;

The fineft. was accounted that which was of a thin con-
fiftence, and very fragrant {mell. It was faid to be atte-
nuating and deterfive, but fomewhat aerimonious ; and was
fometimes, for particular ufes, reduced to a folid confiftence
with refin. | ‘

NARDO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the pro-
vince of Otranto, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Buindifi,
but exempt from his jurif{diction; 22 miles W. of Otranto.
N. lat. 40° 27’. E. long. 18°. ;

NARDOLE, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Rajamundry ; 12 miles S.W.of Rajamundry.

NARDUS,,. in Botany, a name retained from the Greek
and-Latin writers, is faid to be of Hebrew origin. But the
Nardus of the ancients, though a grals of fimilar habit, is
believed to be a {pecies of Andrapogan, remarkable for its
aromatic qualities, of which however the prefent genus 1s
totally deititute. Linn. Gen. 30. Schreb. 42. Willd.
Sp. Pl. y. 1. 314. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 3. Sm, Fl. Brit,
61. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2..v. 1.134 Vahl. Enum.

v.24 396. Jufl. 33. Lamarck Illuftr, t. 39—Clafs and
order, Triandria Monogynia. Nat, Ord. Gramina, Lina.
and Juff,

Gen. Ch. Cal, Perianth none. Cor. of two valves 5
outer lanceolate or linear, long, pointed, inclofing the inner,
which is {maller, linear, and pointed, Nettary none. Stam,

9

NMA &

Filaments three, capillary; fhorter than the corolla; anthers
oblong. Pi?. Germen oblong; ftyle fingle, thread-{haped,
long, downy; ftigma fimple. Peric. none, except the
clofed corolla adhering to the feed. Seed fnlitary, covered,
linear-oblong, pointed at each end, narrower on the upper
part. . :
Eff. Ch. Calyx none. Corolla of two valves. ,
1. N. fri@a. Mat-grafs. Linn. Sp. Pl 77. Engl.
Bot. t. 290. Syenfk. Bot. t. 174. Mart. Fl. Ruft. t. 27.
Hoft. Gram. Aultr. v. 2. 4. t-4. Knapp. Gram. t. 2.
Cayan. Ic. vs 3. 224. t. 204. f£. 2,—Spike flender, ereét,
the flowers all pointing one way.—Native of Europe, oc-
curring in various parts of Britain, on fandy heaths, efpe-
cially in mowt or moorifh fpots; flowering from May or
June to Auguft. Root perennial, compofed of thick,
downy fibres. Stems.a little incurved, about fix inches mm
height, rigid, flightly angular, fmooth. Leaves radical,

thickly tufted, linear, harfh and rigid, divaricating; their

bafe enveloped with {cales externally, and crowned at the
divarication with the ufual ftipula of graffes.” Flowers in

flender, terminal fpikes, all pointing one way, afh-coloured ;

valves purplifh, bearded, rough. 2 F
This grafs is by no means celebrated either for its agri-
cultural or efculent properties.
was fought after by crows for the fake of the larva of fome
Tipula which they find at the root. .
goats and horfes eat it, but that cows and fheep will not
touch it. From its Englifh appellation this plant might be
fuppofed to be very -ufeful for the manufa@ture of mats or
bafkets, but it appears that. many grafles are better cal-
culated for fuch purpofes, efpecially Stipa tenaciffima.

2. N. ariffataz. Awned Mat-grafs. Linn. Sp. Pl. 78.
(N. incurva; Gouan. Hort. 33. Flor. 114. Gramen
junceum, nodofum, minimum, capillare; Barrel. Tc. t. 117.
f. 1.)—Spike incurved. The outer valve of the corolla ter-
minated in a bearded point.— Native of the fouth of Europe,
about Rome, ina fandy, barren foil. Roof biennial. Stems
fhor:, divided. Leaves {mall and fetaceous, foon, “difap-
pearing. Sprke incurved at theend. owers in pairs, as in
the genus Lolium, on very fhort ftalks, their valves ter-
minated by a little awn. q

3- N. ciliaris. Fringed Mat-grafs.
Willd. n, 4.—Spike incurved, fringed.—Native of India.
Leaves flat and grafly. Flowering-/lu/k a {pan in height.
Sita compofed of twelve or fifteen, alternate, ere& flowers,
all pointing one way ; their outer valve ovate-oblong, awn-
lefs, fringed along the edge with numerous rugged feales ;
on one fide, of the flower there is a fhort briltle. “We know
nothing of this {pecies but from Linnzus’s defeription of it,
nor are we aware that it is figured any where.

N. indica of Linnzus and other authors is now become a
new genus. (See Microcutoa.) WN. gangitis alfo is re-
moved by Dr. Smith to Roitbollia.

Narous. Ruflica, a name attributed by fome authors to
the afarabacca, and by others to the baccharis Monfpeli-
enfium. ;

NAREA, in Geography, a country of Africa, in the
fouthern part of Abyfiinia, formerly governed by its own
princes; but having been conquered, and converted to
Chriftianity, part of it is become fubje&t to the Abyffinian
emperor. The conquered part, however, does not extend
more than about 30 or 4o leagues either way. The whole
kingdom is reckoned rich and’ fertile, producing great
plenty, and vaft quantities of cattle, and carrying ona very
confiderable commerce with the Caffres, who convey thither
abundance of gold, which they exchange for clothes, falt,
and other commodities. The Nareans are allowed, by the

Abyl-

Linnzus obferved that it.

He afferts alfo that

Linn. Sp. Pl. 78.

ee

NAR

Abyffinians themfelves, to be the beft and handfomett people
in all Ethiopia, tall, ftout, and well-fhaped; and in their
dealings, honeft, wife, faithful, and undifguifed.. They are
alfo brave and warlike, and have gallantly defended their
country againft the incurfions of the wild and barbarous
Galles. The tribute they pay to the Abyffinian emperor
feems to proceed rather from their loyalty than from any
obligation or compulfion.

NAREDCOTTY, a town of Thibet; 28 miles S. of
Gangotri.

NARELLA, a town of Hindooftan; 15 miles N.N.W.
of Delhi.

NARENDA, a town of Hindooftan, in Agimere;
4 miles N.E. of Roopnagur.

NARENZA, anciently Narenta, a town of Dalmatia,
on a river of the fame name, formerly the capital of Dal-
matia, and one of its principal fortrefl=s; governed by a
Roman proconful andygouncil, having many places under its
jurifdition. Ata fucceeding period, the Sclavonians, under
the appellation of Narentani, fettled here, and molefted the
navigation of thefe parts till the year 987, when the Ve-
netians took poffeflion of the town; but in 1479 they be-
came fabject to the Turks, No traces of the ancient town
remain; but in its vicinity is Narenza, fo called from a river,
and fortified by the Venetians, but difmantled in 1716;
36 miles N.N.W, of Ragufa. N. lat. 43° 34’. E. long.
18° q!. ?

ee a river of Dalmatia, which rifes near Moftar,
and runs into the Adriatic, The adjoining territory. is fer-
tile, but thinly inhabited on account of the infalubrioufnels
of the air, which has given occafion to the proyerb, ‘ Na-
retva od Boga procleta,’’ Narenta curled of God... The
Narentine autumnal fevers are reckoned by, Dr. Guifeppe
Pugati, a celebrated profeffor of phyfic in the univerfity of
Padua, a fpecies of plague.

NARES, in Anatomy, the two (right and left) cavities
of the nofe. The term is nearly equivalent to the English
word noftril, See Nose.

Nares, Dr., in Biography, organift and compofer to his
majefty, and brother to judge Nares, was a ftudious and
found mufician, who had diftinguifhed himfelf at York as
an organ-player and compofer of anthems, before his ad-
vancement to the chapel royal in 1758, as fucceffor, to
Travers. On the death of Bernard Gates, he was likewife
appointed mafter of the children of his majefty’s chapel;
and in both thefe capacities, his diligence in compofing for
the chapel, and inftru&ting the children, to which he deyoted
his whole time, acquired him great refpe&. Belides his
choral compofitions, Dr. Nares publifhed feveral books of
leffons for the harpfichord, a royal paftoral on his majeity’s
nuptials, and a ufeful elementary treatife on finging. Dr.
Nares, dying in 1783, was fucceeded-in the cliapel royal
by Dr. Arnold, and as mafter of the children by Dr.
Ayrton,

NARESTBAD, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Kerman; 120 miles E, of Kabis.

NAREW, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Bielfk ;
12 miles N. of Bielfk.

NARGHIN, a fmall ifland in the Cafpian fea, near the
welt coaft; 10 miles S.E. of Baku.

NARGHIS, a town of Perfia, in the province of Far-
fiflan; 100 miles S.W. of Schiras,

NARGON, a {mall ifland in the gulf of Finland. N. lat.
59° 30'.. E. long: 24° 36'. Tir

NARHAI, a town of Hindooftan, in Mewat; 35 miles
N. of Cotputly. ; dt

NARHWAL, in Zoology. See Monopon Monocaros.

NAR

NARICA, a {pecies of Viwerra ; which fee.

NARIFUSORIA, a name given by authors to fuck
medicines as were meant to be inttilled into the noftrils, for
diforders of the head and eyes.

NARIGA, .in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the go-
verment of Archangel, on the coaft of the Frozen ocean,
near the mouth of the Petchora; 168 miles N.E. of
Mezen.

NARIM, atown of Ruffia, at the conflux of the Ob
and Ket, in the government of Tobolfk, defended with
palifadoes and wooden towers. The environs abound with
foxes, black, white, and grey, ermines and fables ; 400.miles
E. of Tobolfk. N.lat. 59° 5’... E. long. 81° 14’,

NARIMANTI, a town of Turkifh Armenia, on the
Batoun; 57 miles N.E. of Erzerum. bey

NARINARL the Brafilian name of a fith of the aquila
marina kind, called by the Dutch piilfert and /eicle.

It is very large and flat, and the figure of its body is nearly
triangular, its fides or wings being very broad, and large ;
the head is very large, and has a furrow down its middle ;
the mouth is fomewhat triangular, but rounded atthe
corners; it has no teeth; but in the place of them has a_
bone in the under part of its mouth in the fhape of a
tongue, of four fingers long, and.a finger and ah broad,
and a fmaller bone of the fame fhape in the upper part;
between thefe it crufhes its prey ; the body is ufually a foot
and a half long, and the tail four feet; its flefh is finely
flavoured. aA de

The bones of this and the jike fifhes’ mouths, are the foflile
filiqueftra. nah ot

NARINGA,, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; 60 miles
W.N.W. of Midnapour. ; ,

NARTPARIDURGA, a town of Hindooftan,, in the
circar of Cuddapa ;;22 miles W.S.W. of Cuddapa.

NARIUM Ossa, in Anatomy, the {mall bones which
form the bridge of the nofe. See Cranium.

NARIZ, in Geography, a town, of Perfia, in the ‘pro-
vince of Adirbeitzan ; go miles $.S.W.of Tabris.. ......

NARKSALIK, a town of Weft Greenland. N. lat.
$2 Be W. long. 48°. ’ ss

ARKSARSAAK, a town of Eaft Greenland., N.
lat. 60° 35'. W. long. 44° 30!. ae

NARNALLA, a town of Hindooftan, in the country
of Berar; 35 miles W.N,W. of. Ellichpour. N_ lat., 21?
25!. -E. long. 77° 34!. 4p

NARNAVERAM, atown of Hindooftan, in the Car-
natic; eight miles E.N.E. of Bomrauzepollam. 4

NARNI, a town of Italy, inthe duchy of Spoleto,, the
fee of a bifhop, fituated on the Nera, and containing feven
parifh churches and: twelve convents. Under.the Roman re-
public it was called «* Nequinum,’’, from the word *<ne-
quam,” a rogue, on account of the tricks of its inhabitants.
It became a Roman colony in the year of Rome 452. In
1785 it was much damaged by an earthquake; 16 miles
S.S.W. of Spoleto... N; lat. 42°31), E.dong. 12° 34!,, ».

NARNOL, a. town, of .Hindooftan, in the, Mewat
country ;.80 miles S.W.of Delhi......N. lat. 28° 50'., Ex
long. 76° 28), ' od

NARO, a town of Sicily, in,the valley,of Mazara ; 411
miles E. of, Girgenti...N. Jat. 37°;24'. . E. long, 13°:45'.

NAROCZ,.a town of Lithuania, in,,the palatinate of
Wilna.; 48 miles E. of Wilna.., :

NARODICZ, atown of Poland, in Volhynia; 60 miles
N.N.E. of Zytomiers.

NAROLLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ; 20
miles N.E, of Surat... ,.9 5

NAROVA, a river of Ruffia, which divides the two pro-

3Z2 vinces.

NAR

vinces of Ingria and Efthonia, In this river are two falls,
which, though pompoufly defcribed by travellers, appear
trivial and uninterefting to thofe who have feen the fall of
the Rhine at Schaffhaufen, of the Dahl near Gefle in Sweden,
and the ftupenduous cataracts of Trolhetta. The breadth
of the river is 200 feet, and the perpendicular Height of the
falls fcarcely exceeds 20. The fteep and chalky banks of
the river, its rapid and turbid ftream, and a rocky ifland
which feparates the two falls, form a rugged and_pic-
turefque {cene, which is heightened by the foam and roaring
of the catara&.

NAROVTCHAT, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Penza; 84 miles W.of Penza. N. lat. 53° 44’. E.
long. 437 14'.

NARRAGANSET. See NaraGansetT.

NARRAGUAGAS Bay, a part of the bay between
Goldfborough and Machias, in Wathington county and ftate
of Maine ; adjoining to it are feveral iflands which are inha-
bited and which make a fine appearance. A river of the
fame name falls into the bay, through the town of Harring-
ton. See STEUBEN.

NARRATION, in Oratory and Hiftory, a recital, or re-
hearfal of a fa as it happened, or as it is fuppofed to have
happened. pial

Narration is of two kinds: either fimple and hifforical ;
as where the auditor or reader is fuppofed to hear or read of
a tranfaGtion at fecond-hand: or artificial and fabulous ; as
where their imaginations are raifed, and the action is, as it
were, re-acted before them. A

The narration, according to the writers of rhetoric, makes
the fecond part of a juft {peech, or harangue ; viz. that im-
mediately following the exordium, or introduction.

It LS the whole of a hiftory ; abating for the occafional
tefleGtions, epifodes, and digreflions. dea

Cicero, Orat. Part. c. 9. requires four properties in a
good narration ; viz. perfpicuity, probability, brevity, and
{weetnefs.

The narration is rendered perfpicuous, by obferving the
order of time, by ufing none but proper and known terms,
with fhort, though full and explicit fentences, joined by
proper particles, fhewing their connection and dependence,
and by reciting the action uninterruptedly, and with fuirable
tranfitions. ;

It is rendered probable by the credibility of the narrator,
by the fimplicity and opennefs of the narration, by avoid-
ing every thing far remote from the common fenfe and
opinion of mankind, and by a precife detail of circum-
ftances. :

It is rendered brief, by taking it up no higher than is juft
neceflary ; nor fetching it back, as that impertinent author
in Horace, Qui gemino bellum Trojanum orditur ab ovo ; and by
avoiding trivial circumftances.

The orator fhould be careful, however, whilft he endea-
yours to ayoid prolixity, not to run into obfcurity. Accord-
ly Horace, apprized of this danger, fays (Art. Poet. v, 25.)
“« by ftriving to be fhort, I grow obfcure.” rt

Laftly, it is rendered fweet, pleafant, or entertaining,
by ufing fmooth, numerous, and well founding words ;
by arranging them fo as to avoid any hiatus, or clafh-
ing ; by the greatnefs, novelty, and lo Spc Ra of
the things related; and by enriching it with tropes and
figures; as, frequent admirations, exclamations, inter;
rogations, éxpeGtations, fufpenfes, furprifing events, by
grief, joy, fear, &c. See Numsens, Capence, and
‘Tropes.

In pleadings at the bar, fays Dr. Blair, (Lect. on Rhe-
toric, &c. val ii.) narration is often a very important part

NAR

of the difcourfe, and requires particular attention. In nar-
ration at the bar, there is a peculiar difficulty. The pleader
mutt fay nothing but what is true ; and, at the fame time, he
muft avoid faying any thing that will hurt his caufe. The
fa&s which he relates are to be the ground-work of all his
future reafoning. ‘To recount them fo as to keep ftriétly
within the bounds of truth, and yet to prefent them under
the colour moft favourable to his caufe ; to place, in the
molt ftriking light, every circumftance which is to his ad-
vantage, and to foften and weaken fuch as make againft
him, demand no fmall exertion of his fill and dexterity.

He muft always remember, that if he difcovers muchart, he

defeats his own purpofe, and creates a diltruft of his fince-
rity. Qutnétilian very properly dire&ts, * Effugienda, &c. ;
i.e. in this part of his difcourfe, the {fpeaker muft be very
careful to fhun every appearance of art and cunning. For
there is no time at which the judge 1s more upon his guard,
than when the pleader is relating faéts. Let nothing then
feem feigned ; nothing anxioufly con@taled. Let all that is
faid appear to arife from the caufe itfelf, and not to be the
work of the orator.”

Clearnefs and diftin€tnefs, probability and concifenefs,
are, as we have already fhewn, the qualities which critics
chiefly reqzire in narration. Diftinétnefs is particularly
requilite in narration, which ought to throw light on all
that follows. A faét, or a fingle circumitance left in ob-
{curity, and mifapprehended by the judze, may deltroy
the effe€t of all the argument and reafoning which. the
{peaker employs. If his narration be improbable, the judge
will not regard it ; and if it be tedious and diffufe, he will
be tired of it, and forget it. In order to produce diftin@-
nefs, befides the ftudy of the general rules of perfpicuity,
narration requires particular attention to afcertaia clearly the
names, the dates, the places, and every other material cir-
cumt{tance of the fa&ts recounted. In order to be proba-
ble in narration, it is material to enter into the characters of
the perfons of whom we {peak, and to fhew that their a€tions
proceeded from fuch motives as are natural and likely to gain
belief. In order to be as concife as the fubje& wiil admit,
it is neceffary to throw out all fuperfluous circumftances ;
the rejection of which will likewife tend to make our nar-
ration more forcible and more clear. Cicero is diftinguifhed
by his talent for narration; and his orations furnith inftruive
examples of it. The narration, ¢. g. in the celebrated ora-
tion for Milo, has been often and juftly admired.

Narration, in Poetry, is ufed more particularly for
the ation, or event, that makes the fubje&t of an epic
poem.

F. Boffu obferves, that the aGions in poetry are equally
fufceptible of the two kinds of oratorial narration, and that
each con{titutes a particular fpecies of poetry.

Thofe under the artificial or ative form, are now called
dramatic. And thofe only related by the poet, who here
perfonates an hiftorian, are called epic.

In the drama, the narration is the whole of the piece; in
the epopca, itis only a part, though in effect it is the prin-
cipal part, and the main body of the poem. _ It is preceded
by the propofition and invocation, which Boffu calls the pre-
ludes ; and is frequently interrupted by the poet’s {peaking
in perfon, demanding pardon, favour, &c.

The narration includes the whole action, epifodified, with
all its circum{tances and its ornaments.

It is in this part that the ation is to be begun, carried on,
and ended. It is this which is to thew the caufes of all
that is related: in this the difficulties are to be propofed
and refolved, and the perfons, both human and divine, are
here to thew their interefts, their manners, and their quali-

ties,

NAR

tres, by their actions, and their difcourfe ; and all this is
to he defcribed with the beauty, the majefty, and force of
verfe, ftyle, fentiments, comparifon, and other ornaments
proper to the fubject in general, and to each thing in par-
ticular.

The qualities of the epic narration are, that it be agree-
able, probable, moving, furprifing, and active.
~ Horace fpeaks of the utile and dulce as on the fame foot-
ing.
Boffu looks on the utile as an effential property ; and the
dulce as no more than an additional quality.

NARRICKEE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan ;
20 miles E.N.E. of Agra.

‘NARROW, inthe Manege. A horfe is faid to narrow,
when he does not take ground enough, or does not bear
far enough out to one hand ortothe other. If your horfe
narrows you mutt affit him with the infide rein, that
is, you muft carry your hand to the outfide, and prefs
him forward upon ftraight lines with the calves of your
legs.

a aun is alfo a term among bowlers.
ING.

Narrow Jfland, or Stenofa, in Geography, a {mall and
uninhabited ifland of the Grecian Archipelago, E. of
Naxia, but near it.

NARROWS, Tue, anarrow paflage from the fea, be-
tween Long and Staten iflands, into the bay which {preads be-
fore New York city; nine miles S. of it.—Alfo, a ftrait about
three miles broad, between the iflands of Nevis and St.
Chriftopher in the Weft Indies.—Alfo, a ftrait, called
‘ Petit Droit,” in the river St. Lawrence, in Upper Cana-
da, between Grenadier ifland, and the townthip of Efcot,
now included in Yonge.

NARRYTAMOE, a province of Thibet, N. of Na-

See Bow -

aul.
x NARSAPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Ellore, on the Godavery ; 40 miles E.S.E. of Ellore.—
Alfo, atown of Hindooftan, in the circar of Ellore; 25
miles N.W. of Ellore.—Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in
Golconda; 10 miles E.S.E. of Damapetta.—Alfo, a town
ef Hindoottan, in Myfore; 22 miles N. of Bangalore.

NARSERAY, a town of Hindooftan, in Mewat ; 10
miles S. of Cotputly.

NARSES, in Biography, ftyled the Eunuch, a celebrated
gericral, who was brougit up in the palace of Juftinian I.
to thofe domeftic feminine fervices in which perfons of his
condition are ufually employed: by his infinuating talents he
obtained the favour of the emperor, who gave him the pofts
of his chamberlain and private treafurer. He was gradu-
ally introduced into public bufinefs, and in the year 538 was
placed at the head of a body of troops to affit Belifarius ia
Italy, who was engaged againft the Oftrogoths. Some dif-
ferences between him, and the general affociated in the
fame fervice, led to his recal, and from this time till 552 he
continued to ferve the emperor in a civil capacity. At this
latter period he was fent to oppofe Totila with unlimited
powers. Hemet his antagonift on the Apennines, totally
defeated his army, and flew Totila. Narfes marched on to
Rome, and having employed himfelf in repairing the ruined
walls of the metropolis, he purfued the Goths, defeated, and
flew their general Teias, and reduced his remaining forces
to ebedience. The Franks and Alamani entered the north
of Italy as allies to the Goths, and fpread like a torrent
along the coait of the Adriatic to Apulia and Calabria.
acs, at firft, gave way to an iiundation that he could
not ftop, attending chiefly to the defence of the cities. But
while the invaders were melting away from the effects of im-

12

NAR

temperance, and an unaccultomed climate, he was employin

all his refources in affemblfng an army -and enuring it to m-
litary exercifes, and in the enfuing {pring he almott annihili-
lated the barbarian army, and that with little lofs on his own
part. Previoufly to the battle, a leader of the Heruli, a
people in the imperial fervice, had killed his rervant for fome
trifling offence, Narfes canfed him inftantly to be put to
death ; and while the Heruli were fhewing marks of indig-
nation at this exertion of authority, he called on them to
march forward left they fhould lofe their place in the field of

- honour, and he was oheaes without a murmur, a circum-

{tance that evinced his fortitude, and the confidence which
he had in the troops.

Having overthrown the dominion of the Goths in Italy,
he was appointed to the fupreme authority of that country,
a poft which he occupied for fifteen years, during which he
acquired the habits of avarice, and accumulated vaft riches
by methods which rendered his government unpopular, and
excited a complaint preferred againft him before the throne
of JuftinII. He was recalled by the emprefs Sophia,
who infultingly defired ‘he wouldleave to men the exercife
of arms, and refume the diftaff which was fitted for the hands
of an eunuch.’’ To this he indignantly replied, «* I will fpin
her fuch a thread as fhe will not eafily unravel,’ and he in-
vited the Lombards to that invafion of Italy which followed
under Alboin. He retired to Naples, where he was vifited
by the pope, who perfuaded him to return to Rome. He
died in 567, at a very advanced age. ‘* His death,” fays
Gibbon, “ though in the extreme period of old age, was
unfeafonable and premature, fince Ais genius alone could
have repaired the laft and fatal error of his life.”? Univer.
Hilt. Gibbon.

NARSINGAPATAM, in Geography, a town of Hin-
dooftan, in the country of Cattack, near the coalt of the bay
of Bengal; 45 miles S. of Cattack.

NARSINGUR, a town cf Hindooftan, in Bengal ;
44 miles W. of Midnapour.

NARSYZSK, a town of Poland, in Volhynia; 64 miles
N.N.E. of Zytomiers.

NARTHECIUM, in Botany, a name ufed by Theo-
phraltus for fome plant with a reed-like ftem, and derived
from yze$né, ferula. udfon and other authors have applied
it to the prefent genus from a fimilar idea. Juffieu and Mi-
chaux include the Tor1ecp1a of the Fora Britannica under
Narruecium ; but as that genus is furnifhed with a calyx,
aid has three ftigmas, we venture to keep them feparate.—
Hudf. Fi. Angl ed. 2.145. Sm. Fl. Brit. 368. Mezh-
ring. Gorter. —Clafs and order, Hexandria Monogynia. Nat.
Ord. Coronaria, Linn. Junci, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth none. Cor. Petals fix, inferior,
equal, lanceolate, acute, rather ereét, permanent. Stam.
Filaments fix, awl-fhaped, woolly ; anthers {mall, incumbent.
Pift. Germen fuperior, triangular ; ftyle none; ftigma ob-
tule. Peric. Capfule ovate, acute, triangular, of three
cells and three valves. Seeds numerous, chaffy at each end.

Eff. Ch. Calyx none. Petals fix, fpreading, permanent.
Stamens thread-fhaped, hairy. Capfule fuperior, prifmatic.
Seeds with an appendage at each end.

1. N. ofifragum. Lancafhire Afphodel. Sm. FI.
Brit. 368. Hudf. 145. With. 339. Engl. Bot. t. 535.

(Anthericum offifrazum; Linn. Sp. Pl. 446. Fl. Dan.
t. 42. Afphodelus Lancaltrie; Ger. em. 95.)—Clufter
continued, fimple. Stalks {mooth.—Found on black turfy
bogs in the north and eaftern parts of England, flowering
in July and Auguft.—Root perennial, fibrous, {omewhat
creeping, as in the genus Jris. Stems fix or eight inches
in height, afcending, fimple, round, {mooth, rather wary

almoft

NAS

almoft naked. Radical leaves equitant, fword-fhaped, nerved ;
thofe of the ftem alternate, fhort, carinated. Clufter ter-
minal, ere&t, many-flowered; {talks alternate, ere&t, fingle-
flowered, angulated, furnifhed with draéeas. Petals yellow,
greenifh on the outfide. Cap/uletawny, polifhed, rigid.

2.-N. glutinofum. American WNarthecium.—Michaux
Boreal-Amer. v. 1. 210. Sims in Bot. Mag. t. 1505.—
Clufter interrupted, fafciculated.—Native of North Ame-
rica, from Quebec to lake Miftaffin. It bloffoms in July
and Auguft. Very fimilar in habit ‘to the laft.— Root pe-
rennial. Stem (according to Michaux) rough and glutinous,
(though no traces of fuch chara&ters were to be found in
the {pecimen figured by Dr. Sims) round, ftri&, fimple,
glaucous. Radical leaves feven or eight ina bundle, fword-
fhaped; thofe of the ttem very few, alternate. Clufler ter-
minal, diffufe, many-flowered. Flowers pale yellow; the

ubefcence of the filaments very fhort.

NARVA, in Geography, afea-port town of Ruffia, which,
together with its fuburbs, is fituated, according to a geogra-
phical divifion, partly in Ingria, and partly in Efthonia ; as thé
river Narova divides thefe two provinces; but in the divifion
of governments eltablifhed by the late emprefs, is comprifed
in Ingria, or the government of St. Peterfburgh. Narva,
fuppofed to have been built in 1224, ftands on the Narova,
nearly roo miles from Peterfburgh, 24 from the point where
that river iffues from the lake Peipus, and eight miles from
its mouth, where it falls into the gulf of Finland. The
houfes are built of brick ftuccoed white, and it*has more
the appearance of a German than of a Ruffian town. In
the fuburbs, called Ivangorod, the coloffal remains of an
ancient fortrefs, built by Ivan Vaffilievitch the Great, im-
pend ina piéturefque manner over the fteep banks of the
Narova. The principal exports are hemp, flax, timber, and
corn; the imports are falt, tobacco, wine, falted herrings,
fpices, tea, {ugar, and other grocery wares. The commo-
dities which go to Narva along the Narova are obliged, on ac-
count ‘of the falls of that river (fee Narova), to be car-
ried a great way by land. Near Narva is the {pot celebrated
for the viétory which Charles XIJI., in the 1gth year of his
age, gained over the Ruffian army, A.D. 1700. On that
memorable day Charles headed at leaft gooo men, aid. the
Ruffians did not exceed 32,000. Six thoufand Ruffians, in-
cluding thofe that were drowned in attempting to pafs the
Narova, fellin this engagement; but the confequences were
{till more fatal to the Ruffian arms, as the whole artillery was
loft, and the greater part of the infantry furrendered to the
conqueror. ‘I'he number of prifoners was fo great, that the
officers were only detained ; the reft were driven, like a flock
of theep, to the diftance of a league from Narva, and dif-
miffed: N. lat. 59° 16’. E. long. 28° 3!.

NARUNGPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Allahabad,
on the Ganges ; 17 miles E. of Gazypour.

NARWA, a town and fortrefs of Hindooftan, in the
country of Agra, on thé Sinde; 98 miles S. of Agra.
N. lat. 25° go’. E. long, 78° 18).

NARWAL, a name given to a fifh of the whale kind,,
more frequently called the fea-unicorn, See Monopon Mo-
noceros.

NARWUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Guzerat ; 21 miles S. of Darempour.

NAS, a town of Sweden, in the province of Upland;
21 miles S. of Upfal.—Alfo, a town of Norway, in the
province of Aggerhuus; 60 miles N. of Chriftiania.

NASACARA, a town of Japan, inthe ifland of Ximo;
1g miles E. of Kokara.

NASADKA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Perm; 16 miles S.E. of Perm.

NAS

NASAGAR, a town of Hindooftan, in Lahore ; 56
miles S.E. of Nagercote.

NASAL, fomething belonging to the nofe, nafus. As,
the nofe-piece of a helmet, anciently called the na/ale.

Nasat, in Grammar, &c. is applied to thofe founds, or
letters, in whofe formation the nofe is the principal organ ;
and particularly where the found formed 1s pafled through
the nofe. :

In moft Englifh words, the founds expreffed by the cha-
raters an, en, in, on, un, are fimple founds, and proper nafal
vowels. See M, N, &c.

Nasa Dud, Obftruétion of, in Surgery. See Fistura
Lachrymalis. v

Nasa Polypi. See Potypus.

NASALIA, in Medicine, a fort of remedies to be taken
by the nofe; called alfo errhines.

NASALIS Labi Supcrioris, in Anatomy, a name given
by Albinus to a few fibres of the orbicularis oris. See the
defcription of that mufcle in the article DecLuTiTion.

NASAMMONITES, in Natural Hiffory, a name given
by the ancients to a ftone, which Pliny defcribes to have
been of a blood-colour variegated with veins of black. We
know no {tone which anfwers to this chara¢ter at prefent, un-
lefs it be fome of the agates, ina variegated ftate.

ASAMONES, in Ancient Geography, a numerdus
people of Africa, who inhabited a part ot Cyrenaica, which
fee. According to Pliny, Silius, and Lucan, the Pfylli and
Nafamones mutt have been feated near the greater Syrtis, or
behind the Regio Syrtica and Cyrenaica, if we adopt
Strabo’s opinion. The Pfylli, as Herodotus informs us,
having once had all their refervoirs of water dried up by the
fouth wind, advanced into the Sahara, in order to make war
upon that wind ; but asit blew with extreme violence, they
were overwhelmed with torrents of fand, and all perifhed.
After this tragical event, their neighbours, the Nafamones,
annexed the territories which they poffefled to their own do-
minions. Heredotus reprefents the Nafamones as a power-
ful nation in his time, and remarkable for fome fingular cuf-
toms then prevalent amongft them. During the fummer
feafon, they left their cattle on the coaft, and difperfed'them-
felves over the plains of AXgila or Augila, in order to gather
the fruit of the palm-trees, or dates, with which this place
abounded. Here likewife they found an immenfe quantity
of grafshoppers, which, being dried in the fun, they pul-
verized, and infufed into milk. The liquor compofed of
thefe two ingredients was highly efteemed by them, as a moft
pleafant beverage. They had many wives, whom they ufed
in public, like the Maflagetz, after having ere¢ted a ftaff
fora mark. The bride amongit them lay the firft night with
all the guefts invited to the wedding ; and received from each
of them the next morning a prefent, which he had brought
with him for that purpofe. When they took an oath, they
laid their hands on the fepulchres of thofe who had been ge-
nerally efteemed the moft juft and excellent perfons amongit
them. At their divinations, they went to the tombs of their
anceftors, where, after certain prayers, they fell afleep, and
grounded their prediétions on the dreams that then occurred
tothem. They pledged their faith to each other by mutually
prefenting a cup of liquor. When they had no liquid, the
parties took up duft from the ground, which they put into
their mouths. According to fome authors, the Nafamones
were regarded by the ancients as no better than a numerous
gang of banditt; ; as they made frequent incurfiens upon the
territories of their neighbours, which they plundered and
ravaged in a barbarous manner. A people of the fame name,
as we learn from Philoftratus, inhabited part of Ethiopia.

NASARD, a {top in the large cathedral organs of France,’

an

NAS

an oétave above the rath. The pipes are of metal, with a
funnel or chimney at the top.

NASAS, in Geography, a river of North America, in
New Bifcay, which joins the Sauceda in N. lat. 25° 10!.
W. long. 102° 31'; forming with it the Rio Palmas, which
runs into the gulf of Mexico, N. lat. 25°. W. long. 98°

6.

’ NASBINELS, atown of France, in the department of
the Lozere, and chief place of a canton, in the diltri¢t of
Marvejols; 12 miles N.W. of it. The place contains 1571,
and the canton 5593 inhabitants, ona territory of 177% ki-
liometres, in five communes.

NASBY, atown of Sweden, in Nericia; 12 miles N. of
Orebro.

NASCA, a fea-port of Peru, in the archbifhopric: of
Lima, and jurifdiétion of Iga, Pifeo, and Nafca ; the terri-
tory of which is fertile in wine and fugar, and the harbour
good ; but the town is in a {tate of decay ; 190 miles S.E.
of Lima. S. lat. 14° 48!. W. long. 75° 6!.—Alfo, a river
of Peru, which runs into the Pacific ocean, S. lat. 14° 42!.

NASCALE, a fort of peflary, made of wool, cotton,
or the like, and introduced into the vagina, after being im-
_ pregnated with proper ingredients.

NASCARO, in Geography, a river of Naples, which
runs into the gulf of Squillace, N. lat. 38° 58’. Ey long.
IPa5:

7 sSCIMENTO, a {mall ifland in the Indian fea, near
the S.W. coaft of Madagafcar. S. lat. 25° 15’. E. long.

226, ,

NASE, a town of Norway, in the province of Agger-
huus; 96 miles N. of Chriftiania.—Alfo, a river of North
America, which runs into the Miffifippi, N. Jat. 37° 20’.
W. long. 90°12!

NASEBERRY Tres, in Botany. See Curysornyy-

LUM. ;
NASEBY, or Navessy, in Geography, a village in the
hundred of Guilfborough, and county of Northampton,
England, ftands on an eminence which is fuppofed to be
the higheft ground in the kingdom. ‘Though f{mall, it is, on
many accounts, interefting to the traveller, and will ever be
con{picuous on the page of hiftory. Its geological features
naturally attract the attention of the philofopher ; and the
political importance conneéted with the military fcenes dif-
played in its vicinity, peculiarly entitle it to topographical
notice. Six f{prings rife within the parifh, the waters iffuing
from which are colleéted in refervoirs, and form valuable
ponds. ‘The leffler or upper Avon derives its fource from
one of thefe forings; the Nen from another; and the rife of
the Welland has been referred to Nafeby field. The parith
confiits moftly of open fields, and is nearly twenty miles
in circumference. Nafeby was formerly a market town, the
inhabitants having obtained a charter in the fifth year of king
John. The ‘‘mercate-crofs’’ is ftill ttanding. A confi-
derable manufaéture of worfted {tuffs, harrateens, and tam-
mies was carried on here; but has greatly declined through
the immenfe increafe of the cotton trade, and the prevalence
of muflius and calicoes. By the return to parliament under
the recent population aét of 1811, the number of houles is
ftated ta be 120, which are inhabited by 598 perfons.

Adjacent to this village, on Nafeby tield, occurred the
memorable battle between the royal and parliamentarian
forces, June 14, 1645, which proved fo fatal to the royal
caufe, and in which, according to lord Clarendon, both
king and kingdom were loft. ‘he armies were nearly equal
in number, and the royalitts had peculiar advantages, if they
had {kilfully employed them. But they imprudently made
a forced march of four miles, and attacked the enemy ina

NAS

lofty, commanding fituation, before their own cannon ar-
rived. After a confliét for three hours the royal army was
defeated, and about five thoufand were killed or taken. The
king’s cabinet of letters, containing the private ones, which
pafled between him and the queen, fell into the hands of the
conquerors, who purfuing the routed royalifts, cruelly maf-
facred above an hundred women, fome of whom were the
wives of officers of great quality. See Nichols’s Hiftory
and Antiquities of Leicefterfhire. Martin’s Hiftory of
Nafeby, 8vo. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. ix. and
vol. xi. by J. Britton.

NASEWITZ, a town of Pruffia, in the palatiuate of
Culm ; eight miles N.E. of Bifchoflwerder.

NASH, a country of Halifax diftri&, in North Carolina,
containing 6975 inhabitants; of whom 2596 are flaves. In
this country there is a large and valuable body of iron ore.

Nasu Point, a cape in the Britifh channel, on the S. coaft
of Wales, and county of Glamorgan. N. lat. 51° 23!. We
long. 4° 30’.

NASHAUN, or NewsHaun, one of the Elizabeth
ifles, at the mouth of Buzzard’s bay, and three miles from
the extremity of the peninfula of Barn{table county in Ame-
rica. ‘Dhis ifland fupports a confiderable number of fheep
and cattle; and is famous for its wool and cheefe.

NASHUA, a confiderable river of Worcefter county,
in ine Maflachufetts, which enters Merrimack river at Dun-

able.

NASHVILLE, 2 poft-town of Mero diftri@ in Ten-
neflee, pleafantly fituated in Davidfon county, on the S. bank
of Cumberland river, where it is 200 yards broad. It is re-
gularly laid out, and contains 345 inhabitants, a court-houfes
gaol, an academy liberaily endowed, a church for Prefby-
terians, and one for Methodilts. It is the feat of the courts
held every half-year for the diftriét of Mero, and of the
courts of pleas and quarter feffions for Davidfon county ; 185
miles W. of Knoxville. N. lat. 35° 45’. W. long. 87° 8’.

NASHWARTISH, a river of New Brunfwick, which
runs into the St. John, N. lat. 46° 4'. W-.long. 66° 46!.,

NASI Ossa, or Na/alia ofa, in Anatomy, the bones of
the nofe. See Cranium. >

Nast, or Narium confirifor, a mufcle of the nofe.
Nose.

Nasi Offa, Fradures of, in Surgery. See FRacturE.

NASILON, in Geography, a town of Lithuania, in the
palatinate of Wilna; 50 miles S.E. of Wilna.

NASIMA, a town of Japan, on the S.E. coaft of Ni-
phon. N. lat. 34° 26’. E. long. 134° 8'.—Alfo, a {mall
ifland of Japan, in the {trait between Niphon and Xicoco.

NASINO, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ; 70
miles N. of. Jedo.

NASITAS, aword ufed by fome authors to exprefs a
fpeaking through the nofe.

NASKEAG Porrt, in Geography, a cape of Hancock
county in the ftate of Maine, being the eaftern point of Pe-
nob{cot bay, inthe town of Sedgwick.

NASKOW, atown of Denmark, on the W. coaft of
the ifland of Laland, of which it is the capital; anciently
well fortified, but now only encompafied with a wall. The
townis of a middling fize, and handfomely built; the inha~
bitants are wealthy, and carry on a confiderable trade in the
produce of the country, which is fertile. The Jews are al-
lowed the exercife of their worfhip, and have a fynagogue.
In the town are an hofpital and a grammar-{chool, both well
endowed. The harbour is tolerably good. N. lat. 54° 51'.
E. long. 11° 5’.

NASO, a town of Sicily, in the valley of Demona; nine
miles W. of Patti.

See

NAs0e

NAS

Naso-falatini dufus, in Anatomy, the foramina incifiva of
the upper jaw-bornes. See Cranium.

NASOW, in Geography, a town of Pomerania; eight
miles N.E. of Corling.

NASRA. Sec Nazaretu.

NASSAFI, in Biography, a celebrated Muffulman
doétor, was born in the year ofthe Hegira 461, at the city
of Nekfcheb, which was in that part of the Perfian territo-
ries which lies beyond the river Gihon, anciently called the
Oxus. He was one of the moft eminent of the fe& of
Hanifites, or followers of Abou-Hanifah, who is venerated
as the principal Imam or chief of one of the four orthodox
{ets among the Mahometans. He obtained great celebrity,
and among other diftinguithing titles, that of ** Sovereign
doétor of Genii and Men.’’ He died at Samarcand in the
year 537 of the Hegira, deeply regretted by an immenfe
number of difciples, who refpeéted him equally on account
of his learning and piety. To him are attributed nearly an
hundred treatifes on the Muffulman law and traditions, in
which he is faid to have condenfed the excellencies of 550
preceding writers.

NAssAFI, another celebrated Muffulman doétor of the
fame country with the preceding, but who flourifhed at a
much later period. The foundnefs of his doétrine, and the
exemplarinefs of his piety, are highly commended ; and his
writings on law and religion are held in much efteem. He
died at Bagdat in the year 710 of the Hegira, and was
author of many books, among which is a ‘* Commentary”’
on the five books of the Muffulman law.

NASSARRE, Pasto pe ZaraGoga, an ecclefialtic
and organift of the royal convent in that city, author of
a treatife on mufic in Spanifh, entitled «* Fragmentos Mu-
ficos,’’ in four parts, or diftin& treatifes ; in which are con-
tained the general rules neceflary for canto fermo, characters
for time, in meafured mufic, counterpoint, and compolition.
Madrid, 4to. 1700.

_ The work is written in dialogue: the queflions are per-
tinent, and the anfwers fucciné and clear.

In the firft dialogue on canto fermo, examples are given,
in Gregorian notes, of all the eight modes of the church.

In the fecond dialogue, the clefs, charaCters for tinie,
and their proportions in canto figurato, or meafured mulic,
are éxplained ; in which the old time-table is united with the
new, from the maxima to the femi-quaver. A confiderable
part of this fection is now ufelefs in praétice, unlefs in deci-
phering very old mutfic.

In the third dialogue, the technical terms ufed in counter-
point are defined, and its rules explained. In this part of
the work the author’s knowledge of the hiftory of counter-
point appears to be very fuperficial. He quotes Bacchius
Senior in his definition. All his examples are written on
canto fermo on four lincs. But this fection advances ne
further in compofition than plain counterpoint, and the ufe
of concords.

In the fourth dialogue, however, the ufe of difcords,
pafling-notes, and ligatures, or binding-notes, is amply
treated, and numerous fhort examples of fugue on fimple
fubjeéts are given; but none of canon or double counter-
point. he paflages are all ecclefiaftical, and much more
ancient than the date of the book.

NASSAU, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
county of Naflau Dietz, feated on the Lahn, in which is a
church wed in common both by Lutherans and Calvinitts.
Oppofite to it, on the other fide of a river, on a high moun-
tain, formerly ftood Naflauberg, a very ancient haces the
original houfe of the Naflau family, now a fief of Treves ;

92 miles N.W. of Mentz. N. lat. 50° 17’. E. long. 7’ 55’.

NAS

Nassau, a principality of Germany, fituated in the
Wetterau, about 48 miles long, and 28 broad, generally
woody and mountainous, and yet containing fine arable and
meadow lands. The founder of the prefent princes of
Naffau was count Henry I., furnamed the Wealthy, who
bequeathed to his two fons, Walram and Otho I , the whole
county of Naffau, with all its lands. In the year 1255,
they agreed to hold the patrimonial houfe and prefeéturate
of Naffau in community; but to divide the other part of the
county. Weilburg, Wifbaden, and Idftcin, became Wal-
ram’s part; and Otho I. had Siegen, Dillenburg, Her-
born, Beilflein, Hadamar, and Ems. The prefent reign-
ing princes are Naflau Weilburg, Naffau Dillenburg, and
Naffau Saarbruck Ufingen. All the branches are named
from the principal towns in the feveral diftricts.

Nassau-Dietz, a county of Germany, fituated on the
Lahn, in the circle of the Upper Rhine according to
Bufching, but in the kingdom of Weftphalia according to
Berenger ; formerly a fief of Teves. It conftitutes a part
of the ftyle of the landgraves of Heffe, but what intereft
they will have in it is as yet undetermined. ‘The capital is
Dietz.

Nassau, a {mall town of America, in Dauphin county,
Pennfylvania; containing a German church, and about 35
houfes ; called alfo « Kempftown.’’—Alfo, a river on the
coaft of Eaft Florida, which runs into the fea, N. lat, 307
44’. W. long. 81° 42'—Alo, an ifland in the Eaft Indian
ocean, fituated W. of Sumatra; about 50 miles in circum-
ference. This ifland and “* Poggy’”’ are fometimes called
Naffau iflands, and fometimes Poggy iflands. ‘The inha-
bitants are all tattooed. S. lat. 3°. W. long. 100°.—Alfo,
a fea-port town of Providence, one of the Bahama iflands.
—Alfo, a town of Germany, in the county of Hohenloe ;
four miles N. of Wieckerfheim.—Alfo, a mountain of the
ifland of Jamaica; 50 mi'es W.N.W. of Kin glton—Alfo,
a {mall ifland at the mouth of Byram river, in Long ifland
Sound.—Alfo, a large bay, called ** Spirito Santo,’’ on
the coaft of Weft Florida, about 70 miles from N. to S., in
which are feveral iflands, the moft northerly of which is
Myrtle ifland. N. lat. 27° 45’ to 28 10’. W. long. 82°
35! to 83.—Alfo, a large and open bay on the S. coaft of
Terra del Fuego ifland; E. of Falfe Cape Horn, which
forms the weftern limit of the bay ; it is well fheitcred from
the tempefts of the ocean, and capable of holding a fleet of
fhips. S. lat. 55° 38'—Alfo, a cape on the coait of Suri-
nam, or N.E. of South America, N.N.W. of Effequibo
gulf, and the E. point of the entrance into the river Puma-
ron. N. lat. 7° go’. W. long. 59° 30'.—Alfo, a cape on
the N. fhore of Terra Firma, in South America.—Alfo, a
road on the coaft of Weft Florida, W. of Mobile bay, N.
of Ship ifland, and within the N. end of the Chandeleurs or
Myrtle iflands. This is one of the beft roads, moft eafy of
accefs, and the bet fheltered, for large veflels on the sie
coa{t of Florida. This road was firft difcovered by Dr.
Daniel Cox of New Jerfey, who called it by its name in
honour of the reigning prince, William IIT.

NASSAUVIA, in Botany, fo named by Commerfon, in
compliment to ‘* the Prince of Naflau,”’ who is faid to have
been the companion of his herborizing excurfions about the
ftraits of Magellan, The fpecific name given by him feems
defigned to combine the two ideas, of eminence in the perfon
commemorated, and of the corymbiferous habit of the plant.
Jufl. 175 Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 2396. Lamarck Did. v. 4.
432. Llluftr. t. 721. Clafs and order, Syngenefia Polygamia-
Jegregata. Nat. Ord. Compofite, Linn. Cinarocephale, Jull.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx of feveral oblong, pungent, hori-
zontal leaves, furrounding a cylindrical common receptacle,

and

NAS

and feparating the tufts of flowers ; perianth double ; the
outermoft of three linear-lanceolate leaves; inner of five
larger ones; all rather {pinous pointed. Cor. compound,
tubular; florets four or five, equal, perfe&l, uniform ; their
limb two-lippea ; the upper with three teeth, ereét ; lower
with two, reflexed. Stam. Filaments five, capillary ; an-
thers cohering, acute, about equal to the limb. Pi. Ger-
men oblong, fomewhat quadrangular, comprefled; ityle
thread-fhaped ; ftigmas linear, divaricated. Peric. none,
except the permanent calyx. Szed the figure of the germen;
down of four or five foft, white, deciduous briltles, fearcely
extending beyond the calyx. -Recept. final!, naked.

Eff. Ch. Flowers in an oblong head, with fharp fcales
interfperfed. Calyx four or five-flowered, double; the
outer of three leaves, inner of five. Florets tubular, two-
lipped. Down briitly, deciduous. Receptacle naked.

1. N. fuaveolens. Willd. (N. coryphea ; Commerfon
MSS.)—Native of the {traits of Magellan; communicated
by Juffieu and Thouin, from Commerfon’s herbarium. The
root appears to be perennial. Stems decumbent at the bafe,
then ere&t, a fpan high, leafy, with a few fhort lateral
branches. Leaves feffile, ovate, acute, ribbed, fmooth,
crowded, deeply toothed, or almoft pinnatifid, in their upper
part. Fowers terminating the main item, in a denfe, ob-
long, downy head, whofe outer fcales are broadeft, all of
them being entire and fingle-ribbed, in which characters,
and their downinefs, they differ from the foliage. The
whole plant has much of the afpe& of a Tu/ffilago, or Butter-
bur, in its flowers, but the foliage is totally diffimilar, both
in form, fize, and fituation, to every {pecies of that genus,
as is likewife the fru@ification.

This herb is faid to be delightfully fragrant ; but nothing
of that kind is perceptible in our dried {pecimens. We pre-
fer the fpecific name of Willdenow, alluding to this circum-
ftance, becaufe Commerfon’s, though older, was never
printed.

NASSTA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro-
vince of Smaland; 18 miles $.S.E. of Jonkioping.

NASSIRABAD, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; 25
miles N. of Munickpour.

NASSIR-EDDIN, in Biography, a very celebrated phi-
lofopher, aftronomer, and various writer among the Maho-
metans. He was born in the year 597 of the Hegira. He
cultivated literature and the fciences with great fuccefe, and
was charaéterifed as ‘¢ the doctor who ad acquired the
higheft reputation in all branches of knowledge.’’ He is
frequently called, by way of eminence, ‘‘ The Mafter.”” The
emperor of the Moguls, Holagou, placed him at the head
of all the philofophers and aftronomers whom he had given
directions for {paring amidft the wars of depredation which
he carried on againft the Mahometans; and he created him
dire&tor, or fuperintendant of the revenues of all the col-
leges in the cities of which he was matter. He afterwards
afligned him the city of Marayah, and commanded him to
prepare thofe aftronomical tables, which were entitled the
«¢ Imperial,”? and which have come down to our times.
Naflir-Eddin alfo publifhed the moit efteemed Mahometan
editions, with commentaries, of Euclid’s «¢ Elements,’’ and
the “ Spherics’” of Theodofius and Menelaus. He was
author of ‘A Treatife on Moral Subje&s,’’ and other
pieces.

NASSITZA, in Geography, a town of Sclavonia; 17
miles N. of Brod.

NASSOGNE, a town of France, in the department of
the Sambre and Meufe, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri&t of St. Hubert. The place contains 801, and the

Vor. XXIV.

NAS

canton 3375 inhabitants, ona territory of ro7% kiliometres,
In TT communes.

NASSUCK,.a town of Hindooftan, in Cuzerat; 95
miles 5.S.W. of Surat. N. lat..19° go'. E. long. 73° 49’.

NASSURABAD, a town of Hindoottan, in Allaba-
bad ; fix miles S. of Jionpoypr.

NAST, in Agriculture, a provincial term applied to any
fort of foulnef:, as weeds in land under fallow.

NASTADT, in Geography, a town of Weltphalia; 16
miles S. of Coblentz. S, lat. 50° ro! E. long. 7°48’.

NASTISTAK, an ifland of Ruffia, in the mouth of the
Lena, about 80 miles in length and 20 jn breadth. N, lat.
71° 44' to 72° so’. EE. long. 115° go’ to 119° 34’.

NASTOLA, a town of Sweden, in the province of Ta
vattland ; 47 miles E. of T’avafthus.

NASTURTIUM, in Botany, fo called, according to
Pliny, book 19, chap. 8, from na/is the nofe, becaufe of the
pungent and difagreeable fmell, with which it twingea or
torments that organ; the Cref, or Nofe-fmart. This ap-
pellation has been given to various plants, which range under
different genera of the Tetradynamia Siliculofa of Linnzus
Tournefort however retains a genus under this name, which
he diftinguifhes from Thlafpi, merely by having the leaves
divided into many fegments, a principle of generic defini-
tion not admiffible in modern botany, though there are cafes
in which fuch a differenee of habit wot tea us to expect
and to difcover effential charaéters in the frutification.

NASTUS, a name borrowed by Juffieu from the an-
cient Greeks, whofe xarzpos vaso: however, arundo farda
of the Latins, is defcribed as having a folid ftem, ufe-
ful for making arrows; whereas the plant of Juffieu is
no other than the bamboo, or Arundo Bambos of Lin-
nus, well known to have hollow ftems and branches,
on which its peculiar ufe, for many domeftic purpofes,
greatly depends. Hence Retzius, finding this valuable
plant a diftin&t genus from Arundo, called it Bambos,
altered by the claffical Schreber, though furely moft
unfortunately, into Bamsusa; fee that article. Gmelin
in his compiled Syltema, v. 2. 579, has Bambus, and in
the next page Naflns, with a ftrange mifconception of
chara¢ters, for the very fame thing. We are difpofed
to prefer Naflus to Bambufa, though the latter has been
adopted by Schreber, illdenow, and in Hort. Kew.
Bambos, uled by Retzius and Roxburgh, is perhaps pre-
ferable to either, and Mr. Dryander has given that name his
fanGtion in editing Dr. Roxburgh’s work, though he has
retained Bambu/a in Hort. Kew. The profeffed plan of the
fecond edition of this book was to follow Willdenow; and
our departed friend, when he did not publifh in his own
name, on that account, (as he bas often told us,) never
cared about any choice in nomenclature, which we have
often greatly lamented.—Jufl. 34. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 264.
(Bambos; Retz. Obf. fafe. 5. 24. Bambufa; Schreb. 236.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v, 2. 245. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 316.)—
Clafs and order, Hexandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Gra-
mina.

Gen.Ch: See Bampusa.

Eff. Ch, Calyx of feveral glumes. Spikelet of feverat
flowers. Corolla of two unequal valves. Stigmas two.
Seed one.

t. N. arundinaceus. Common Bamboo. (Bambos arun-
dinacea; Retz. Obf. fafc. 5. 24. Roxb. Coromand. v. 1.
55. t. 79. Arundo Bambos; Linn. Sp. Pl. 120. Ily;
Rheede Hor. Malab. v. 1. 25. t. 16.)—Flowers half-
whorled, in long {pikes. Corolla awnlefs. Style {mooth.
—Native of the Eaft Indies; deli hting, according to
Dr. Roxburgh, ina rich moi foil, Fach as the banks of

4A rivulets

NAS

rivulets and lakes, among the mougtains. The /fems are
arborefcent, from ten to a hundred from each perential root,
erect and ftraight to the height of ter or twenty feet, then
bending gently to one fide, with innumerable, alternate,
very compound, drooping, twilted dranches ; both /lem and
branches are round, very {mooth, green, tubular, with fre-
quent joints, at each of which is an internal tranfverfe par-
tition. Thorns two or three together at fome of the joints,
prominent, curved, the central one often extended into a
braneh. Leaves numerous, two-ranked, lirear-lanceolate,
acute, with fheathing imbricated /oos/a/ks, bearded at their
fummit.. Flowers generally appearing before the leaves, in
innumerable compound anicles, whofe long drooping
branches are {piked, the feffile flowers being dilpofed along
them, two or three, or more, together, in half whorls.
Each /pikelet is oblong, {mooth, varying greatly, from two
to twelve, in the number of florets. The outer glume of
the corella is pomted, not awned, and the ftyle is repre-
fented by Dr. Roxburgh as fmooth:—This, the moit com-
mon fort of Bamboo. is extremely ufeful in tropical cli-
mates for buildings, furniture, carriages, or any purpofe
where ftrength and lightnefs are wanted. Whether the idea
of the flender cluftered filletted columns, of Oriental and
Gothic buildings, was taken from huts of bamboo, we leave
to antiquaries to determine, or at leaft to conjecture. ‘The
large frefh joints of this plant minifter to one.elegant article
of luxury, ferving inftead of a tin box to convey nofegays
frefh, even for fome hundreds of miles in India. The Bam-
boo is kept in our ftoves for curiofity, as well as for its ele-
gance, but does not bloffom, The /eeds are faid to ferve as
food, inthe manner of rice. A fingvlar fub{tance is found
within the hollow joints of the old ftems, called Tabaxir,
or Tabafheer, by the Moors, Arabians, and Turks, and
termed falt or milk of the bamboo by the natives of India.
This is a hard concretion, pretended to poflefs great medical
virtues; but on being chemically examined by Mr. Macie
(now Smithfon) it proved pure flinty earth, affording an-
other proof, in addition to many, that vegetables, of the
grafs tribe efpecially, do aétually fecrete that fubitance.
See Phil. Tranf. for 1790 and 1791.
2. N. fridus. Straight Bamboo, (Bambos ftriéa;
Roxb. Caromand. v. 1. 58.t. 80. Arundarbor fpinofa ;
Rumph. Amboin. v. 4. 14. t.2?)—Flowers whorled, in
long fpikes. Corolla awned. Style downy.—Native of
the Eait Indies, but in drier fituations than the former.
According to Dr. Roxburgh, it is certainly a diftin@ f{pe-
cies; is not near fo large, has a much {maller cavity in the
Jflems, and is very ftraight. Its great ftrength, folidity
and ttraightnels render it much fitter for a variety of ufes
than the common fort; and it is particularly employed by
the natives to make shafts for their fpears.’’ The /eaves ap-
pear to be more ovate than in the laft, as well as fhorter.
A fpecimen in the Linnwan herbarium, anfwering in every
particular to Dr. Roxburgh’s account and plate, is very like
what we have pointed out in Rumphius, In this the /aves
are fhorter, and more ovate, than the firft fpecies, and have
many longitudinal ribs. ‘The margin is rough with fine
briltles, and {ome appearance of teeth, all direéted forwards,
or towards the point; in the former Dr. Roxburgh fays the
upper fide and margins of the caves are * backwardly
hifpid.”’ This would be a curious and effential diltin&tion,
but we dare not rely on it without feeing {pecimens ot both
his plants—Suflicient marks of difference will be found in
the fpecific characters above.
3. N. werticillata. Leleba Bamboo. (Bambufa verti-
cillata; Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 245. Arundo multiplex ;
Loureir. Cochinch. 58. A. arborea tenuis, Leleba dicta ;

NAT

Rumph. Amboin. y. 4. 1. t. 1.) —Flowers whorled, in fimpke
erect {fpikes. Spines none. Stigmas three feffile. — Native
of Amboina and Cochinchina. In the latter it ferves for
fences. The /fem is fhrubby, perennial, twelve feet high,
branched, with very long hollow joints, deftitute of thorns.
Leaves linear-lanceolate. Spikes few, terminal, ere&t, each
of feveral diflant whorls. Loureiro defcribes the calyx as
fingle-flowered, which Rumphius’s figure, though net very
perfect, feems to contradi&t.. We cannot anfwer for the
identity of their fpecies. The chara&ter of the three
feathery /ligmas, without any /lye, attributed by the former
to his plant, is a molt decifive difference with regard to the
two foregoing. —It is extremely probable that feveral {pecies
of this genus are included in the defcriptions of Rumphius,
but the attention of a good botanilt on the fpot would be
requifite to develope their diftinGions, and to fettle his fy-
nonyms.

4. N. paniculata. Panicled Bamboo. (N. fig. 1, 4, c, dz
Lamarck [Illuftr. t. 264.)—Flowers panicled. Glumes
ftrongly ribbed, with fhort blunt points.—Gathered by
Commerfon on mountains in the ifle of Bourbon. We
know not what to make of Lamarck’s fig. a, but our fpeci-
mens from Thouin anfwer exaétly to the figures we have
cited. The panicled fowers, and the large, trong, ribbed,
rigid-pointed glumes of their corolla, abundantly diftinguifh
this {pecies ; from which Juffieu took. his generic chara¢ter,
but which no author has till now defined.

NASUA, in Zoology, a {pecies of Viverra ; which fee.

NASUDDEN, in Geography, a {mali ifland on the W.
fide of the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 64° 4’. E. long. 20°
44.

NASUS, in Ichthyology, a {pecies of Salmo; which fee —
Alfo, a fpecies of Cyprinus ; which fee.

NATA, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Zante ;

feven miles N.W. of Zante.

Nata, or St. Jago de Nata de los Cavalleros, a town of
South America, in the province of Panama, founded A.D.
1517, by. Gafpard d’E{pinofa. It is inhabited by a mix-
ture of Spaniards and Indians. The town is fituated on the
bay of Panama. The bay of Nata, which is fpacious and
deep, lies on the S, coaft of the ifthmus of Darien, and on
the N. Pacific ocean, and extends to the ifland Iguenas.
The town is 50 miles S.W. of Panama. N. lat. 8° 35’.
W. long. 81° 6'.

Nata, or Natta; Naphtha, or Napta, in Surgery, a wen
with a narrow bafis.

NATACHOQUIN, in Geography, a river of Labrador,
in North America, which runs into the fea, in N. lat. 50°
po W. long. 60° 45’. The little Natachquin is W.S.W.
of this.

NATAL, a country of Africa, on the S.E. coaft of
Caffraria, fo called by the Portuguefe, who difcovered it on
Chriftmas day, A.D. 1498. Several capes or promento-
ries of this country are called ‘* Point Natal,”’ the principal
of which is fituated, S. lat. 32°. E. long. 27° 19.—Alo,
a river of Africa, forming the northern boundary of the
country of Natal, and running into the Indian fea, S-lat. 29°
go’. E. long. 29°.—Alfo, a fmall ifland in the Indian fea.
S. lat. 8° 30’. E. long. 47° 5'-—Alfo, a cape and town on
the S. fhore of the Rio Grande, on the N.E. coatt of
Brazil. On the point which forms the cape is the caftle
of the Three Kinys, or Fortalaza des tres Magos. The
town of Natal is three leagues from the caltle, before which
is ood anchorage for fhips in four to five fathoms’ water,
well fecured from winds.—Alfo, the name of an Englifh
fettlement in the country of Batta, in the ifland of Sumatra,
called alfo «* Natar.”? The Englith fettled here about the

4 year

NAT

year 1952, and formed connections in that part of the coun-
try. tis inhabited by perfons fettled there for the con-
venience of trade, from the neighbouring countriesof Acheen,
Rou, and Menangeabow, and by their concourfe and traffic
it is become populous and rich. A large quantity of gold.
is procured from the country, fome of the mines lying
within 10 miles of the factory, and a confiderable vent is
found for imported goods. Like other Malay towns, it is
governed by Dattoos, one of whom is {tyled Dattoo Buffar,
or chief magiftrate, and his {way is very great. Marfden’s
Sumatra.

NATALIS, Naratis dies, or NATALITIUM, properly
,fignifies a’ man’s birth-day. See Nariviry.

The word was firft ufed among the heathens, to fignify
the fealt held on the anniverfary of the birth-day of an em-
peror ; whence it came, in time, to fignify any fort of feat.
And accordingly, in the Fafti, we meet with natalis folis,
natalis invidli, &c.

The primitive Chriftians, finding the word thus efta-
blifhed, ufed it in the fame manner; and hence we meet in
the ancient martyrologifts with natalis calycis, for the feaft
of the fupper, or Maundy-Thurfday ; natalis cathedre, for
the pontificate of St. Peter; natalis or natalitium, of fuch a
church, for the feaft of the dedication. The word geneth-
lion is ufed by the Greeks in the fame fenfe as natalis, or
natalitium, among the Latins.

Narauitu, Ludi, Natal games, were games_ intro-
duced on the anniverfaries of the birth-days of great men.

Natatirius, Anusulus, Natal ring, was a ring only worn
en the birth-day.

NATANGEN, or Old Natangen, in Geography, a pro-
vince of Pruffia, bounded on the N. and E. by the Pregel,
on the S. by Ermeland, and on the W. by the Frifche Haff.
This country is well cultivated and populous, and confitts
partly of arable and partly of meadow land. Although
it is in fome parts very ftony, yet it produces better corn
than Samland, or Little Lithuania. . It abounds alfo with
wood, and yields variety of game, and plenty of fifh. The
capital is Brandenburg.

NATANT Lexar, in Botany. See Lear.

NATASKA, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the
palatinate of Kiev; 14 miles S. of Bialacerkiew.

. NATCHEZ, a powerful nation of Indians, who for-
merly inhabited the country on the E. fide of the Miffifippi.
Fort Rofalie, N. lat. 31° 40’, is in the country which they
poffeffed. Nothing now remains of this nation but the
name, by which the country is ftill denominated. The
Creeks, or Mufkokulges, rofe upon its ruins. The French
completed their deftruction in 1730. The tribe of the Nat-
chez, according to Dr. Robertfon, (Hift. of Amer. vol. ii.)
had advanced (as well as the people of Bogota) beyond the
other uncultivated nations of America in their ideas of reli-
gion, as well as in their political inftitutions. The fun was
the chief objeét of religious worfhip among the Natchez.
In their temples, which were con{truéted with fome magni-
ficence, and decorated with various ornaments, according tu
their mode of architeCture, they preferved a perpetual fire,
as the pureft emblem of their divinity. Minifters were ap-
pointed to watch and feed this facred flame. The firlt
funGtion of the great chief of the nation, every morning,
was an act of obedience to the fun; and feltivals returned
at ftated feafons, which were celebrated by the whole com-
munity with folemn but unbloody rites. On the deceafe of
their cazique or chief, a certain number of his wives, of his
favourites, and of his flaves, were put to death, and in-
terred together with him, that he might appear with the
fame dignity in his future ftation, and be waited upon by

NAT

the fame attendants. Many of the deceafed perfon’s re-'
tainers offered themfelves as voluntary viCtims, and courted
the privilege of accompanying their departed mafter, as an
high dilkingtion. Others, however, laboured to avoid their
doom, and feveral faved their lives by flying to the woods.
As the Indian Bramins give an intoxicating draught to the
women, who are to be burnt together with the bodies of
their hufbands, which renders them infenfible of their ap-
proaching fate, the Natchez obliged their vi€tims to {wal-
low feveral large pills of tobaceo, which produce a fimilar
effec.

Narcnez, the principal town of the Miffifippi territory,
on the E. fide of the Miffifippi; 300 miles N.‘of New Or-
leans by water, r50 by the lake road. It has a Roman Ca-
tholic church, and is defended by a fort. N. lat. 31° 32!.
As Natchez is likely to become a metropolis of the back fet-
tlements, a centre of adminiftration, of literature, and of
traffic, we fhall here fubjoin a brief account of its pro-
duétions. The ftaple commodity of the fettlement of Nat-
chez is cotton, which the country produces in great abun-
dance, and of good quality. The manufa@ture abana! and
the cultivation of tobacco, were carried on with fpirit fome
years ago, but they have both given way to the culture of
cotton. The country produces maize, or Indian corn, equal,
if not fuperior, to that inany part of the United States. The
time of planting is from the beginning of March until the
beginning of July. The cotton is generally planted in the
latter end of February, and the beginning of March. Rye,
which has been attempted, has fucceeded in fome places ;
but wheat has failed. Apples and cherries are fearce, but
peaches, plums, and figs, are very abundant. The vege-
tables of the Middle States generally fucceed here. The
fugar-cane has been tried, but its effets have not been afcer-
tained. From the great number of artificial mounds of earth
vifible through the whole fettlement of Natchez, it mutt, at
fome former period, have been well peopled; befides, in all
parts where new plantations are opened, broken Indian
earthen-ware is found; fome of the pieces being in tolerable
prefervation, and retaining diftin@ly the original ornaments,
but none of it appears to have ever been glazed.

NATCHIKIN, a town of Kamt{chatka, in the vicinity
of which isa mineral {pring ; 30 miles E. of Bolcheretfk.

NATCHING-TONG, a town of Corea; 18 miles
W.N.W. of Han.

NATCHITOCHES. See Nacurrocuss.

Natcuirocues, or Nachitoches, a name given to Red
river in Louifiana, which runs into the Miflifippi, N. lat.
31° 15’. W-. long. 91° 47.

NATCHUS, a town of the ftate of Georgia. N. lat. 33°
27'. W. long. 86° 40’.

NATECO, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Bam-
bouk ; 100 miles S.E. of Galam.

NATENS, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak; 60
miles N. of Ifpahan.

NATERNBACH, a town of Auftria; eight miles
W.N.W. of Efferding.

NATERNBERG, a town and caftle of Bavaria, near
the Danube ; nine miles N.N.W. of Ofterhofen.

NATES, in Anatomy, the buttocks, which are propor
tionally larger in man than in any animal, on account of the
great fize of the mufcles concerned in maintaining the body
ere&t. The convexities of the buttocks are formed prince
pally by the glutei magni mufcles, covered by a confiderable
ftratum of fat. In the cleft between them the opening ef
rs end of the inteftinal canal is found. See Giureus and

AN.

Nates Cerebri, are two circular protuhgrances of the

4Aez brain,

-

Nae

brain, fituate on the back-fide of the medulla oblongata, near
the cerebellum.

NATEW,, in Geography, a town of the county of Tyrol ;
fix miles W.S.W. of Infpruck.

NATHAN, Isaac, in Biography, a learned rabbi who flou-
rifhed in the fifteenth century, was the firft Jew who made
a Hebrew concordance to the bible, on which he was occu-
pied from the year 1438 to 1445, which, by his own ac-
knowledgment, was not original, but for the moft part
copied from Latin concordances, fo that the Jews them-
felves are indebted to Chriftians for their ufeful works of this
kind. His publication was entitled « Light to the Path.”
It was firft printed at Venice in 1524, and afterwards in a
more correct ftate, with a Talmudical index, at Bafil, in
1581, and at Rome in 1622, in four volumes folio. The
molt complete and valuable edition of it is that of Buxtorf
the elder, which was publifhed at Bafil in 1632, and whichis
faid by no means to have been fuperfeded by one printed in
the middle of the laf{t century by the Rev. W. Romaine, in
four volumes folio.

NaTHan, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in Irak; 60
miles N.N.E. of Ifpahan.

NATHE, a provincial term applied to the nave of a
wheel.

NATICK, in Geography, an ancient townfhip of Ame-
rica, in Middlefex county, Maffachufetts, fituated upon
Charles river; 18 miles S.W. of Bofton. The famous Mr.
Eliot formed a religious fociety here ; and at his motion the
General Court granted the land in this townfhip, containing
about 6ooo acres, to the Indians. In 1761 it was incorpo-
rated into an Englifh diftriێt, and in 1781 into a townfhip,
and it now contains 694 inhabitants.

NATION, acolleGive term, ufed for a confiderable peo-
ple, inhabiting a certain extent of ground, inclofed within
fixed limits, and under the fame government.

Each nation has its peculiar chara€ter; and it is pro-
verbially faid, Light as a Frenchman, Waggifb as an Italian,
Grave as a Spaniard, Serious as an Englifbman, Fierce as a
Scotchman, Drunken as a German, Idle as an Irifbman, De-
ceitful as a Greek, &c.

Nation is alfo ufed, in fome univerfities, for a diftinction
of the fcholars, and profeffors of colleges.

The faculty of Paris confifts of four nations; viz. that of
France, that of Normandy, that of Picardy, and that of
Germany ; which are again, excepting that of Normandy,
diftinguifhed into tribes; and each tribe has its deacon. The
German nation comprehends all foreign nations, Englifh,
Italian, &c.

When the procureur of the French nation {peaks in pub-
lic, his ftyle is, Honoranda Gallorum natio; he of Picardy
fays, Lideliffima Pacardorum natio ; he of Normandy, Vene-
randa Normannorum natio; he of the nation of Germany,
Conflantiffima Germanorum natio.

Nations, Law of. See Law.

NATIONAL Desr, is the debt due by the ftate to the
public, on account of monies borrowed and funded for de-
fraying the charges of government.

In order to trace the origin of this debt, it is proper to
be confidered, that after the Revolution, when our connec-
tions with Europe introduced a new fyftem of foreign po-
litics, the expences of the nation, not only in fettling the
new eftablifhment. but in maintaining long wars, as principals

on the continent, tor the fecurity of the Dutch barrier, re-
dacing the French monarchy, fettling the Spanifh fucceflion,
fupporting the houfe of Aultria, maintaining the liberties of
the Germanic body, a.d other purpofes, increafed to an

unufual degree ; infomuch that it was not thought advifeable

6

NAT

to raife all the expences of any one year by taxes to be levied
within that year, left the unaccuftomed weight of them
fhould create murmurs among the people. It was, there-
fore, the policy of the times to anticipate the revenues of
their pofterity, by borrowing immenfe fums for the current
fervice of the ftate, and to lay no more taxes upon the fub-
jeQ than would fuffice to pay the annual intereft of the fums
fo borrowed; by this means converting the principal debt
into a new {pecies of property, transferrable from one man
to another at any time, and in any quantity ; a fyftem which
feems to have had its origin in the ftate of Florence,
A.D. 1344, which government then owed about 60,coo/.
{terling ; and being unable to pay it, formed the principal
into an aggregate fum, called metaphorically a mount or
bank, the fhares whereof were transferrable like our ftocks,
with intereft at 5 per cent. the prices varying according to the
exigencies of the tate. This laid the foundation of what is
called the ‘national debt ;"’ for a few long annuities created
in the reign of Charles II. will hardly deferve that name.
For further particulars, fee the article Public Depts. See
alfo Funp and Revenue.

Nationat Synod. See Synop and Councit.

NATISTAGOET Harzour, in Geography, a harbour
onthe S. coaft of Labrador. N. lat. 50° 6’. W. long. 60°

!

NATIVE is applied to a perfon confidered as born in a
certain place, or deriving his origin from it.

The more accurate writers diftinguifh between a native of
a place and onebornthere. Born fignifies no more than the
having been there produced, or brought into the world,
whether that were the proper country or habitation of the
parents, or whether they were there only by accident, as
ftrangers, &c. Whereas native refers to the proper manfion
or refidence of the parents, and the family, and where the
perfon has his education.

» And hence a perfon may bea native of one place, and
born at another: thus Jefus Chrift is called a Nazarite, and ~
Galilean, asa native, though he was born at Bethlehem in
Judah.

Native, Nativus, in our Ancient Law Books, tignified a
perfon who was born a flave or villain.

By which he differed from one who had fold himfelf, or
became a flave by his own deed, who was called a dondman.
See VILLAIN.

Nativt Tenentes, are thofe freemen who hold native land;
i.e. land fubjeét to the fervices of natives. Spelm.

Nativi de Stirpite, were villains or bondmen by birth or
family. There were alfo nativi conventionarii, who were vil-
lains by contraét or covenant. ‘* Servi enim alii natura, alii
faéti, alii emptione, alii redemptione, alii fua vel alterius da-
tione.””? LL. Hen. I. cap. 76.

In Cornwall it was a cuftom, that if a freeman married
nativam (that is, a neife) and brought her ad liberum tene-
mentum, et liberum thorum, and had two daughters, one of
them was free, and the other a villain. Braét. lib. iv. c.21.
See NEIFE.

NATIVIDAD, in Geography, a mine-town of Brazil,
in the government of Goyas. 5S. lat. 13° 30’. W. long.
31° 20'.—Alfo, a {mall iflandin the Pacific ocean, near the
coalt of California; 14 miles $.S.E. from the ifland of
Cerros.—Alfo, a fea-port of Mexico, in New Galicia; 180
miles S.W. of Mechoacan, N. lat. 19° 20!. W. long.
106° 16/.

NATIVITY, Nariviras, or Natal day, the day of
one’s birth. The term is chiefly ufed in {peaking of faints,
&c. The Nativity of St. John Baptift, celebrated in the
Romifh church with great folemnity on the twenty-fourth of

June ;

DAT

June; the Nativity of the Holy Virgin, a feaft eftablifhed
by pope Sergius I. who was advanced to the fee of Rome
in 687, and obferved on the eighth of September, &c.
When we fay abfolutely the Nativity, it is underftood of that
of Jefus Chrift, or the feaft of Chriftmas. See Feast,
CHRISTMAS, &c.

Nativity, Nativitas, in Ancient Law Books, fignifies
bondage, or fervitude.

Nativity, in dfrology, the theme or figure of the hea-
vens, and particularly of the twelve houfes, at the moment
when a perfon was born; called alfo the horo/cope.

Cafting the nativity, or by calculation feeking to know
how long the queen fhould live, &c. was made felenys anno
23 Eliz. ce2:

NATIVO Hasenpo, in Law, a writ direfted to the
fheriff, for a lord who claimed inheritance in any villain, when
his villain was run away from him, for the apprehending and
reftoring him to the lord.

NATOLIA, Awarortia, or Anadoli, in Geography, a

rovince of Afiatic Turkey, bounded on the N. by the
lack fea, on the E. by Caramania, on the S. by the Medi-
terranean, and on the W. by the Archipelago and the fea of
Marmora ; about 400 miles in its greateft extent from E. to
W., and 350 from N. to S. Anatolia was anciently deno-
minated Afia fimply, or by way of peculiar excellence, as
being the belt {pot in this part of the world, and adorned
with many opulent cities, and confiderable ftates. After-
‘ wards it was diftinguifhed from the whole A fiatic region by
the epithet of Minor or Leffer, and accordingly denominated
Afia Minor ; it derived the name of Anatolia from its eaitern
fituation, with regard to Europe, and it is ftill called the Le-
vant. Anatolia, in its largeft fenfe, comprehends the an-
cient provinces of Galatia, Paphlagonia, Bithynia, Pontus,
Myfia, Phrygia, Lydia and Meonia, /olis, lonia, Caria,
Doris, Pamphylia, Pifidia, Cappadocia, Lycia, Lycaonia,
and Cilicia. Later geographers have divided it into four
parts, according to their fituation; viz. Anatolia, properly
fo called, on the weftern part ; Caramania, on the fouthern ;
Aladulia, on the eaftern, and Amafia, on the northern.
Anatolia, properly fo called, is divided into the following
diftri&s, viz. Bithynia, Myfia, /Eolis, Ionia, Caria, Doris,
Lydia, Phrygia, Galatia, and Paphlagonia ; which fee
re{pectively.

Anatolia, or Natolia, is now governed by a beglerbeg,
who refides at Kiutaja, under whom are feveral fangiacs.
The foil is, in general, fertile, producing corn, tobacco, and
fruits of various kinds; cotton and filk ; and notwithftanding
the indolence of the Turks, and the oppreflive nature of their
government, its commerce is confiderable, particularly in
carpets, leather, drugs, cotton, filk, and other articles of
produce and manufa¢ture. Moft of the inhabitants are Ma-
hometans; with a confiderable proportion of Chriltians, par-
ticularly of the Greek church, governed by patriarchs, arch-
bifhops, and bifhops, who are tolerated by the Porte. Here
are likewife many Armenians, and fome Roman Catholics.

NATOLICA, an ifland in the Mediterranean, near the
coaft of Greece. N. lat. 38° 39’. E. long. 21° 26’.

NATRA, a town of Sweden, in Angermanland; 35
miles N.N.E. of Hernofand.

NATRAPOLLAM, atown of Hindeoftan, in Myfore;
6 miles N. of Allumbaddy.

NATRIX, in Zoology, the name of the common or
water-{nake, called aifo torguata, from the ring about its
neck. See CoLuser Natrix.

NATROLITE, in Mineralogy, the name given by Kla-
proth (Mem. ‘cad. Scien. Berlin, 1803) to a foffil found
at Hogau in Suabia, on the borders of Switzerland. It is

NAT

depofited in the crevices, or clefts and cavities, of the fono-
rous porphyry (Klinginflein porphyry), from having a found,
nearly metallic, which form the mountains and rocks of Ho-
hentwial, Hohenkraken, and Miigdeberg. The colour of
this foffil is a dirty ochraceous yellow, approaching fome-
times to an ifabella yellow, or at other times to a yellowifh-
brown, interfe&ted with concentric white lines. It is com-
pact ; its internal furface has a filky luftre; it breaks into
wedge-like pieces, the edges of which poffefs little tranf-
parency ; it is not very hard, extremely brittle, and its {pe-
cific gravity is 2.200: 100 grains of this foffil, ignited in a
filver crucible, loft F grains; it fufes quickly before the
blowpipe into a tran{parent glafs, full of {mall air-bubbles,
and in a porcelain furnace melts into a brown glafs; and in
a charcoal crucible it afforded the fame product, with minute
globules of iron in the furface. From the analyfis of Kla-
proth, 100 parts of the natrolite yielded

Siliceous earth - 48 grains,
Alumine . - 24.25
Oxyd of iron - 1.75
Soda - . : 16.50
Water - - 9

99°52

NATRON, or Anatron, in Natural Hiffory, an earthy
alkaline falt, or mineral alkali, taken out of lakes of ftag-
nant water, in the defert of Nitria, in Egypt. See Car-
BONAT of Soda, and Sopa.

Natron is much of the nature of nitre ; whence it is by
many called Egyptian nitre, and is fuppofed to be the proper
nitre of the ancients. As our faltpetre was unknown to
them, they gave the name of nitre to this fubftance, de-
{cribed by the Arabs under the name of “ natroum,”’ of
which we have made natron. In confequence of a want of
duly examining the paflages of Theophraftus, Diofcorides,
Galen and Pliny, feveral moderns have confounded nitre and
natron, which are fub{tanees materially different. It is not
poffible to afcertain the extent of the lakes on which the
natron is formed, as it varies according to the feafons.
When the water is moft abundant, the two lakes are united
into one, which is much longer than it is broad, and occu-
pies a fpace of feveral leagues; at other times they are only
ponds of no great extent. If Pliny, when he afferted that
the Nile a&s on the falterns of Nitria as the fea does on
falt-water ponds, meant that the inundation of the river ex-
tended as far as the lakes, he was miftaken, as father

_Siccard has fhewn. But if he meant no more than that
there is a-fort of conformity between the Nile and the
lakes, he fuggelts a faét, obferved by the people of the
country, and by them erroneoufly attributed to a communi-
cation that cannot exift between the waters of the Nile and
the natron lakes. The rife of the latter is in an inverfe pro-
portion to the former; fo that when the Nile begins to
overflow, the lakes decreafe fo much as to appear only like
{mall ponds, at the time when the river is at its greateft
height. The waters, on the contrary, feem to return, when
thofe of the Nile decreafe, and inundate a long extent of
the valley, while thofe of the river are at the oweft. In
order to account for this faé, it fhould be confidered, that
the rife of the Nile, occafioned by the melted {now and rains
in Abyffinia, begins at the fummer folftice, that is, in the
hotteft and ‘ainelt feafon in Egypt: and that at the time
when the river has retired, or during the winter, the rains,
neverthelefs, fall very abundantly in the northern part of

that country ; and hence it will be obvious, that the feafon
when

NAT

when the Nile increafes muft alfo be that in which the waters
fpread over the fands, dry up, and dinsinifh ; and that, on
the other hand, the local rains, which can in no ref{pe& in-
fluence the overflow of the Nile, are fufficient to increafe
the fprings that fupply this body of water. When the two
lakes feparate, and their waters retire, the ground which
they have inundated, and now leave expofed to view, is
covered with a fediment that is cryftallized and hardened by
the fun; that is, the natron. The thicknefs of this layer
of falt varies according to the longer or fhorter continuance
of the waters on the ground. In thofe fpots which have
been moiftened only for a very fhort time, the natron exhibits
but a flight eflorefcence, refemblinz flakes of fnow. It alfo
appears, that at certain feafons the waters are covered with
this fubftance. It is procured principally in the month of
Augutt; but is found likewife, in fmaller quantity, during
the reft of the year. It is difengaged from the ground by
iron inftruments, and carried on the backs of camels as far as
« Terané,”’ where it is fhipped on the Nile to be conveyed
to Cairo, or to the ftorehoufes at Rofetta. The quantity
annually colle@ed amounts to near 25,000 quintals, and a
great deal more might be obtained: it is ufually fold at
from 15 to 18 medines the quintal, delivered in either of
thefe two towns.

Natron is feldom to be met with perfeGtly pure, inde-
pendently of the earthy fubftances with which it is almoft
conftantly mixed; it is not an alkali entirely unadulterated ;
it is generally blended with marine falt, with Glauber’s
falt, and in fome degree with vitriolic tartar. In the ftore-
houfes at Rofetta there are two forts, viz. the common
and the *« Sultanié,”” a word which correfponds to the epithet
royal. This latter is whiter, better cryftallized, and purer
than the common fort: it is confequently itronger, and
when ufed, a f{maller quantity is fufficient. ‘This mineral
alkali poffeffes the fame properties as vegetable alkali, or
«foda;” but it is faid to pwffefs them ina higher degree of
ftrength. Its principal ufe is the bleaching of cloth and
thread. The method purfued at Rofetta is as follows. The
fkeins of thread are arranged in a large copper, fet in mafon-
work; above them is put a layer of natron; and then a fuf-
ficient quantity of cold water is poured in to foak both the
thread and the natron. ‘The whole is left in this fituation for
three days, at the end of which the thread is taken out and
hung upon fticks placed over the copper. When it has
drained, a fire is lighted under the copper, and the water,
in which the thread was foaked, with the natron, is made to
boil, after having received an addition of fome lime. The
thread is fteeped and ftirred about in this hot lye, and
wafhed in it feveral times, without being left there. It is
immediately taken to the Nile, in which it is wafhed and
beaten ; it is then {pread out to dry. When the fkeins are
very dry, they are again wafhed in the whey which runs from
cheefes, and which, in Arabic, is called “ Mefch.”” ‘This
is a fort of ftiffening that improves the cloth, and when the
Egyptians handle a foft cloth, they fay that it wants “mefch.”’
To bleach 20olbs. of thread, it generally requires roolbs. of
natron, and from 60 to 8olbs. of lime; obferving, however,
that the “ Sultanié’’ natron, that is, the purer fort, being
ftronger than the common, a {maller quantity mult be ufed ;
without this precaution, the thread, or linen, would be
liable to be burnt. The natron trade, though pretty brifk
with Turkey, and even with the ftate of Venice, where this
alkali, mixed with fandy ftone, makes the beautiful blown
glafe of Murano, was abfolutely at an end, with regard to
France; though in the year 1777 it appeared likely to be
revived, It is not folely to the bleaching of cloths and
thread, that the ufe of natron is confined in the country

Jupernatural.

~

NA

where it is formed. It is alfo ufed in dyeing, in the pre-
paration of leather, in making glafs, in bleaching linen, in
dough inftead of leaven, for preferving meat and making it
tender, and laftly, to mix with f{nuff, and make it more

ungent. Natron is alfo found in another lake, lefs con-

fiderable than that called the lake of Terané, which is in_

the defert of Nitria, or of St. Macarius, viz. near Daman-
hour, and in other countries, befides. Egypt.
NAT of Soda. Sonnini’s Travels in Egypt.

NATRUDACOTTA, in Geography, a town of Hin-
dooftan, in Tinevelly ; 16 miles E. of 'Tinevelly.

NATT, a provincial term applied to the hornlefs breeds
of animals of the fheep and cattle kind. Thus we havé
the natt or Devonfhire breed of fheep. It is fometimes
written zof.

NATTA, Marcantonio, in Biography, a celebrated
Italian jurift, was born of a noble family, at Afti, and.
ftudied law at Pavia in the early part of the fixteenth cen-
tury, under Corti Maino and Decio. He was from a very
early age extremely fond of literature, which, as he in-
creafed in years, became his only paffion, and he made fo
great progrefs in it that he was admitted among the Jurif-
confulti before he had attained the age of twenty-three, and
was at the fame time advanced to be fenator at Cafal. His
fame was fo high that he received invitations from feveral
princes to fettle in their dominions, and exercife among
them various honourable offices. He publifhed legal con-
fultations, which were in high eftimation, likewife theologi-
cal pieces, and fome tra¢ts on philofophy. Among them,
the principal are «De Pulchro;” “ De Deo,” in fifteen
books; “De immortalitate Animi;” “ De Paffione Do«
mini.”? Moreri. :

NATTAL, in Geography. See NaTau.

NATTAM, a town and fortrefs of Hindooftan, in the
country of Madura; 18 miles N. of Madura. N. lat. 10?
10’. E. long 78° 18'.—Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in the
Carnatic ; 28 miles W.N.W. of Tritchinopoly.

NATTENAT, an Indian village in Nootka found, in
the vicinity of which to the northward is a remarkable cata-

rat. . N. lat. 48° 40’. “W. long. 124° 6!. .
NATTER-Jack, in Zoology, a {pecies of Rana, which
fee. See alfo Toan. ;

NATTORE, in Geography, a town of Bengal, capita
of the circar of Bettooriah ; 115 miles N.N.E. of Calcutta.
N. lat. 24° 25'. E. long. 89° 7'.

NATTROW, a town of the Birman empire ; ro miles
N.W. of Ava. i

NATUNA Iszianps, a clufter of {mall iflands in the
Chinefe fea; 60 miles W. from the coaft of Borneo. N.
lat. 4°. E. long. 108°.

NATUPA, a town on the W. coaft of the ifland of
Panay. N. lat 30!. E. long. 122°.

NATURAL, fomething that relates to nature; that
arifes from a principle of nature; or is conformable to the
ordinary courfe and order of nature.

When a ftone falls downwards, we vulgarly fay it does
it by a natural motion; but if it be thrown upwards, its
motion is faid to be violent.

Water fufpended in a fucking pump is faid to be out of
its natural place; cures wrought by medicines, are natural
operations ; but the miraculous ones wrought by Chrilts
See Miracie, &c.

Naturat Cayfe. See Cause.
Naturat Children, are thofe born out of lawful weds

lock. See BAsTaRp.
Narurar Day. See Day
Natural 2ear, See YEAR.

NATURAG

See Cargo- °

NAT

Nartorat FunGions, in the Animal Ezononiy. See Func-
TIONS.

Naturat Hiflory, a defcription of the natural products
of the earth, water, or air; v. gr. bealts, birds, fith, infects,
worms, plants, metals, minerals, and foffils; together with
fuch extraordinary phenomena as at any time appear in the
material world; as meteors, montfters, &c.. See Botany,

_Enromotocy, Grotocy, IcuruyoLocy, METEOROLOGY,
OrnitnoLocy, ZooLocy, &c. &c. together with the ar-
ticles above enumerated.

Befides general Natural Hiitpry, as thofe of Pliny, &c.
there are particular ones; and thofe of two kinds. The
firft, thofe which only confider’one kind of things; fuch as
the Hiltory of Shells, by Dr. Lifter; of Fifhes, by Wil-
lughby; that of Birds, by the fame; that of Plants, by
Ray; thole of Infeéts, by Swammerdam and Mouffet ;
that of Animals, by Gefner; that of Foffils, by Agricola,
Mercatus, &c.

The fecond, thofe which confider the feveral kinds of
natural things found in particular countries, or provinces:
as the Natural Hiftory of Dauphiné, by Chorier; the
Natural Hiftory of the Antilles, by F. Du Tertre, and M.
Lonvillers de Poincy ; thofe of Oxfordfhire, and Staf-
fordfhire, by Dr. Plott; that of Lancafhire, by Leigh ; of
Northamptenfhire, by Morton ; that of the Weltern Iflands,
by Martin, &c.

~ The natural hiftory only of one particular place, is a fub-
jest very extenfive in its materials, and not to be fet about
without great care and circumfpe@tion. Mr. Boyle has
favoured the world with a lift of the heads under which to ar-
range things, and what to enquire after on fuch an occafion.

The general heads under which he comprehends the arti-
cles of this hiftory are four; the things which regard the
heavens, the air, the waters, and the earth.

Of the firft clafs are the longitude and latitude of the
-place; the length of the longeft and fhorteft days and nights ;
the climates, parallels, &c. what fixed ftars are feen, and
what are not feen there.

- About the air may be obferved, its temperature, as to
the firft four qualities, and the meafure of them ; its weight,
clearnefs, refra&tive power; its fubtlety or coarfenefs; its
abounding with or wanting an efurine falt : its variations ac-
cording to the feafons of the year, and the times of the day:
what duration the feveral kinds of weather ufvally ‘have:
what meteors it is moft or leaft apt to produce; and in what
order they are generated, and how long they generally laft :
what winds it is molt fubje&t to; whether any of them are
{tated or ordinary : what difeafes are faid to be epidemical, or
depending on the ftate and condition of the air: what other
difeafe it 1s fubje€t to, wherein the air may be fuppofed to
have fome fhare: what is the ufual falubrity and infalubrity
of it, and what forts of conftitutions it agrees with, what
it does not.

About the waters, it may be proper to obferve the fea,
its depth, tides, currents, faltnefs, and other qualities: next
the rivers will come under confideration, their depth, length,
courfe, inundation, and the goodnefs or badnefs of their
waters, with their gravity, and other peculiar qualities.
After thefe, the lakes, fprings, ponds, &c. are to be con-
fidered, efpecially the mineral waters, their kinds, qualities,
and virtues, and the manner of trying them, The inha-
bitants of the waters may follow here; and the particular
kinds of fifh that are found there, whether of the fea or
rivers, are to be mentioned, with an account of their {tores,
bignefs, goodnefs, feafons of perfeétion, haunts, peculiari-
ties of any kind relating to them, and the manner of taking
them, efpecially when there is any thing fingular init.

NAT

The things relating to the earth are laft to be examined:
thefe are, firfl, the earth itfelf, then its inhabitants and its ©
various productions, whether external or internal. In the
earth itfelf may be obferved, its dimenfions, fituation ealt,
weft, north, and fouth: its figure; its plains and valiies,
their extent ; its hills and mountains, and the height of the
mott lofty, both in reference to the neighbouring vallies and
plains, and to the level of the fea; as alfo whether the
mountaits lie {cattered, or are difpofed in ridges; and if of
the latter kind, whether they run eaft, welt, north, or fouth.
What promontories alfo, and what fiery or {moking hills it
has, if any: whether the country be coherent, or much
broken into iflands ; what the magnetical declination is in
feveral places, and the variation of that declination in the
fame place ; and if thofe be confiderable, what may be con-
jectured as the occalions of them, whether the vicinity of
iron-mines, cf fubterraneous fires, or what elfe. What the
nature of the foil is, whether clayey, fandy, or of good
mould; and what vegetables, plants, and trees beft agree
with it and fucceed in it, what worft. By what particular
contrivances the inhabitants improve the advantages, or re-
medy the difadvantages of the foil; and what hidden qua-
lities the foil may have. The inhabitants of the earth are
then to be confidered, both natives, and ftrangers that have
been long fettled there ; and in particular, their ftature, co-
lour, features, ftrength, agility, or defects of thefe; and
their complexions, hair, beauty, and the like; their diet,
inclinations, and cuftoms, fo far as they are not owing to
education: the fruitfulnefs or barrennefs of the women;
their hard or eafy labours : the difeafes they are moft fubjeét
to, and any remarkable fymptoms attending them.

As to the external produétions of the earth, the enqui-
ries are to be thefe: what grafles, grains, and fruit it beft
produces: the herbs, flowers, and timber trees; and the
coppices, groves, forefts, and woods the country has, or
wants: what peculiarities are obfervable in any of them;
what foils they moit like or diflike, and with what culture
they thrive bett. Then what animals the country has or
wants ; both as to wild beafts and birds of prey, and as to
poultry and cattle of all forts; and particularly, if they
have any animals that are not common, or any thing parti-
cular in thofe they have. After thofe, the fubterranean
ftores are to be examined; what minerals the earth affords,
and what it wants: then what quarries of ftone, and in what
manner they lie: what clays and earths are found there; as
clays, marles, fullers’ earths, earths for tobacco-pipes, earth
for potters’ wares, medicinal earths: what other mineral
productions it yields, whether coals, falt mines, or falt
fprings, alum, vitriol, fulphur, &c. What metals the
country yields, with a defcription of the mines of them;
their ‘depths, numbers, fituations, figns, waters, damps,
quantities of ores, goodnefs of the ores, and the ways in
ufe for reducing them to metals.

To thefe general heads fhould be added, inquiries into
traditions in the country, of any thing relating to it, whe-
ther peculiar to it, or only more common there than elfe-
where ; and where thefe require learning or {kill in the
an{werer, the utmolt care is to be taken to put the people
in a way to give their accounts in a fatisfaétory manner; for
a falfe or bad account of any thing is always much. worfe
than no account at all. Phil. Tranf. N° rr.

The Linnzan fyftem of natural hiitory, which we chiefly
follow in the New Cyclopedia, is divided into five branches,
each {ubordinate to the other: thefe are

Clafs,
Order,
Genus,
Species,

NAT

Species, and

Varieties;
with their names and charaGters. Of the three grand divi-
fions, viz. the ANIMAL, VEGETABLE, and MINERAL king-
doms; the animal ranks higheft in comparative eitimation ;
the next is the vegetable, and the lowelt is the mineral king-
dom. See Borany, CLASsIFICATION, and MINERALOGY ;
with regard to the animal kingdom: it is divided into fix
claffes, formed from their internal ftructure.

. Claffes.
1. Mammalia jess with two nel Sala

and two ventricles ;
blood warm and red. } oviparous.

joes with one a voluntary.

2. Birds
3. Amphibia
and one ventricle ;

4. Fifhes blood cold and red.
5. Infects joo with one iat antennz.

and no ventricle; fa-

nies cold and white. tentacula.

6. Vermes

The above fix claffes are divided into orders, and the
orders into genera, and the genera into fpecies and varie-
ties.

Clafs I.

No. of genera
in the feveral

MamMatia.

No. of fpecies

u p =
Names of the in the feveral

orders. orders. orders,
Primates - - 4 - - ~ 88
Bruta - - 9 - - 30
Fere - - 10 - - 186
Glires - - 10 - - 129
Pecora - - 8 - = go
Bellue - - 4 - - 25
Cete rig tte 4 - - 14
4 562
Clafs II. Aves.
Accipitres - - 4 See 271
Pice - - 26 ° = 663
Anferes - - 13 - - 314
Gralle + - 20 - - 326
Galline - - 10 ay tia 129
Pafferes = - 17 = 2. 983
go 2686
Clafs III]. Awmpursia.
Reptilia - - 5 = - 154
Serpentes - - 2 = eC 219
7 373
Clafs IV. Pisces.
Apodes . G 12 3 S 40
Jugulares - - 6 - . 52
Thoracici - - 21 - - 452
Abdominales - 16 - - 202
Branchioftegi - 10 - - 81
Chondropterigi - 9 : - 65
72 892

ha F
Clafs V.

No. of genera
in the feveral

INSECT ZX.

No. of {pecies

Names of the in the feveral

eres. orders. orders.
Coleoptera - 55’ = - 4048
Hemiptera - 14 - - 1464.
Lepidoptera - 3 yj 2600
Neuroptera - 7 - - 174
Hymenoptera - 25 - - 1239
Diptera - - 12 - - 692
Aptera - - 15 - - 679
131 10896
Clafs VI. VeERMEs. /
Inteftina = - - 2I - - 384
Mollufca - - 31 - - 538
Teftacea - - 36 - - 25257
Zoophyta - - 15 - - 498
Infuforia = - - 15 - - IgI
118 4136

Such is the tabular view of the animal kingdom, accord-
ing to the Linnzan fyftem; it muft, however, neceffarily be
imperfect, inafmuch as new fpecies in the feveral genera are
continually difcovered, and not unfrequently new genera
likewife are added to the orders. See the feveral orders
and genera in the alphabetical arrangement of the diGtion-
ary.

Vor another mode of claffification, and remarks on this of
Linnzus, &c. we refer to the article CLASSIFICATION.

Natura Horizon, is the fenfible or phyfical horizon;
which fee.

Narurat ZJnclinations, are thofe tendencies or motions of
the mind, towards things feemingly good, which are com-
mon in a greater or lefs degree, to all mankind. See Ap-
PETITE.

Natural inclination, according to F. Malebranche, is the
fame thing, with regard to minds, that motion is with re-
gard to bodies: and asall the varieties in the material world
arife from the feveral motions of bodies; fo do all thofe of
che intelle@tual world from inclinations: and as all motions
are the refult of impreflions immediately communicated by
the finger cf the Creator ; fo all inclinations are certainly
nothing elfe but continual impreffions of the will of the
Creator on that of the creature; and mutt therefore, of
neceflity, be agreeable to his; and therefore can naturally
have no principal end but his glory ; nor any fecondary one
but their own prefervation, and that of others, both {till
with regard to his will, who gave them being.

Now as, properly {peaking, there is but one love in God;
viz. that of himfelf ; fo he only impreffes one love or defire
in us; which is of that good in the general. It is this
general love, or defire, is the principle of all our particular
ones; as, in effect, it is the will itfelf; the will being de-
fined to be a continual impreffion of the Author of nature,
which carries the mind of man to good in general.

But the impreffion towards good in the general doth not
only proceed from God; but alfo all our inclinations to par-
ticular goods ; as, v. gr. felf-prefervation, &c.

Natura Law. See Law of Nature.

Natura Liberty. See Liperty.

NaturaAL Magic is that which only makes ule of natural
caufes, See Maaic.

2 NATURAL

NAT

Natura Orders of Plants, in Botany, are {uch as are
founded on principles of natural affinity, bringing together,
under one point of view, fuch genera as have certain cha-
raéters in common, independent of all artificial modes of
claffification. Linneus firft pointed out the difference be-
tween a natural and an artificial method of arranging plants.
His fexual fyftem is an example of the latter, though many
of its claffes or orders happen to be likewife natural affem-
blages. It was very unfair in its early oppofers, who are
now with their criticifms gone off the ftage, to complain of
this fyftem, as interfering with the manifeft order of nature
in feveral inftances ; as its pretenfions are merely to be eafy
and commodious, not natural. It is equally unfair in thofe
who have given all their attention to natural orders, and who
by their joint labours have greatly advanced that intereft-
ing branch of knowledge, to contemn the imperfect at-
tempts of him who firft led the way to their acquirements,
or at lea{t firft pointed out the importance of their
purfuit.

The ideas of Linnzus, on the fubjeét before us, are belt
colle&ed from a pofthumous publication, compiled from his
private courfes of le€tures, by his diftinguifhed pupils Fa-
bricius and Gifeke, and given to the world by the latter, at
Hamburgh in 1792, under the title of Caroli a Linne Pre-
lediones in Ordines Naturales Plantarum. Linneus had -long
before publifhed what he modeitly termed fragments of
natural orders, and had given, at the end of his Genera
Plantarum, an enumeration of thofe orders, to the number
of 58, with an arrangement of the known genera under
them, but without any definition or charaéter whatever.
He was always perfuaded that no fuch could be given; at
leaft not until all the plants in the world were known, and
reduced to their refpettive orders. He alfo perceived that
moft of the orders which border upon each other, however
diftin& they may be on the whole, are frequently conneéted
by fome intermediate genus ; and that fuch intermediate
genera render the verbal definition of the orders nearly im-
poffible, as they commonly form the molt violent exceptions
in charaéter, to the orders to which they manifeftly belong.
Such is Eryngium, with its capitate flowers and thiftle-like
habit, among the moft natural order of umbelliferous plants,
with which its organs of fruétification, as well as its fenfible
qualities, and its properties, agree. We would remark
however that fome of thefe fuppofed intermediate genera,
ought rather to be confidered as conftituting intermediate or-
ders, but this might lead to an immenfe and difproportionate
multiplication of the latter, attended with more trouble
than ufe. Linnzus always confidered his orders as forming
a map, in which they were feverally approximated by va-
rious points of affinity, rather than a regular feries in which
they followed each other in gradual diftin@ion. He is care-
ful to tell us, in his Claffes Plantarum 487, that he has dif-
pofed his orders without any principle of natural conneétion
between them, merely ftudying to bring together under
each the genera that belonged to it. He difclaims, in this
arrangement, all rules taken @ priori, from one part of
fructification or another, being guided alone by the fimple
fymmetry of all the parts, which however is often indicated
by peculiar charaéters. For the ufe of thofe who may af-
pire to form a clue to his arrangement, he fuggefts that no
general charaéter is more to be relied on, than what depends
on the fituation of parts, with refpe&t to each other, efpeci-
ally of the feed, and particularly in the feed itfelf. It is
there to be obferved whether the vegetating: point, or em-
brya, perforates the feed longitudinally, being enclofed on
every fide ; or whether it is placed at one fide, externally or
internally with refpeét to the cotyledons; whether in the

Vor. XXIV.

NAT

bafe, near the bafe, at the fide, or at the top of the feed.
The bafe of the feed is the fear, by which it is attached
to the pericarp, or to its own proper receptacle. In the
work whence theie remarks are taken, Linneus has not
even given names to his orders; but in his own copy he
from time to time fupplied this defeé&t; and in the Genera
Plantarum each order appears with an appropriate, and ge-
nerally defcriptive appellation, of a fingle wo*d. He here
takes care to inculcate, that fuch orders are defigned to
teach the nature or mutual affinities of plants, the artifi-
cial fy{tem being intended to make them out by ; for which
purpofe the former, deftitute of a key or clue, are necef-
farily inadequate, and do not of themfelves conttitute a
fyftem. He adds, that thofe who arrange plants after
fuch imperfect fragments of a natural method, rejeéting the
artificial fyflem, feem to him like perfons overturning a
commodious and well-covered houfe, to build another ia
its place, whofe roof they are incompetent to complete.
Linnzus however advanced another {tep, fubfequently to
the publication of the laft edition of his Genera Plantarum,
and declared to Gifeke in a converfation, that if he were to
republifh that book, he fhould not only make many changes
in his natural orders, but alter their arrangement. He pro-
pofed to feparate the whole into three great fetions, .which
(as we may gather from his obfervations elfewhere ) he would
term clafles. Thefe are

1. Monocotyledones, comprehending orders ~ 1 to 11
2. Dicotyledones, (liaving two or more cotyledons), - 11— 4
3. Acotyledones, (having none at all), = - 65—58
the laft order ( fungi) being perhaps altogether excluded.

He hinted further, a {cheme of dividing the Dicotylecone:,

according to fome principle which feems to have been but in

embryo in his own mind. It was the only thing he co!
cealed from Gifeke in all his communications with hin
except that he would never allow him to copy the manu-

{cript alterations he had made in the arrangement of the

genera under his various orders ; doubtlefs becaufe he con-

fidered his own ideas as progreffive and unfixed.

In the conception of his orders Linnzus ever kept the
fruétification folely in view, though the names of fome few
of them allude to the habit. We fhall here enumerate
thefe orders. An explanation of them, with a detail of the
genera of each, and fome of the above-mentioned manufcript
alterations, will in general be found in their proper places,
in our feveral volumes.

- Palme. Palm-trees.

. Piperite.. Arum and its allies.

. Calamaria. Grafs-leaved plants as Carex.

- Gramina. 'True Graffes.

- Tripetaloidee. Juncus, &c.

. Enfate. Sword-leaved plants,

Orchidee. Orchis tribe.

. Scitaminee. Amomum, &c.

Spathacee. Narciffus, &c.

- Coronarie. Liliaceous plants,

. Sarmentacee. Convallaria. &c.

12. Holeracee. Chenopodium; and various anomalous genera,

13. Succulente. Succulent plants.

14. Gruinales. Geranium tribe.

15. Inundate. This order, which we have accidentally
omitted in its place, confifts of Zannichellia, Ruppio,
Potamogeton, Myriophyllum, Ceratophyllum, Proferpinace,
Llatine and Hippuris. ‘To thefe are added, in n
fcript, Chara, Naias, Aponogeton, Saururus, Serpicu
Callitriche, Lemna and Piflia—rather a vague allem

blage all together.

ODA An WD

4B If

NAT

16. Calyciflore. Ofyris, Trophis, Hippophae and Eleagnus ;
with a manuf{cript hint of their affinity to Order 12th.

17. Calycantheme. LEpilobium, Melafloma, &c.

Bicornes. Plants whofe pollen is difcharged by two
pores, or fometimes tubes, as Erica, Vaccinium, &c.

Hefperidee. Myrtle tribe.

20. Rotacee. Anagallis, &c.

21. Precie.” Primula, &c.

22. Caryophyllei. Pink, Campion, &c.

23. Trihilate. Maple, &c.

24. Corydales. Fumaria, &c.

25. Putaminee. Capparis, &c.
26. Multifilique. Helleborus, &c.
27. Rheadee. Poppy tribe.

28. Luride. Nightfhade tribe.

29. Campanacee. Convolvulus, Campanula, &c.

- Contorte. Afclepias, Apocynum, &c.

Veprecule. Daphne and its allies.

32. Papilionacee. Pea kind.

33. Lomentacee. Caffia, Mimofa, &c.

. Cucurbitacee. Gourd family.

35. Senticofe. Rofe, Bramble, &c.

. Pomacee. Apple, Plum, &c.

. Columnifere. Mallow tribe.

38. Tricocce. Euphorbia, &c. 4 ; ;

. Siliquofe. Cruciform plants. This order Linnzus in-
dicates as having no relationfhip to any other. It
conttitutes the 7¢tradynamia.

. Perfonate. Nearly equivalent to the Didynamia Angio-
Spermia. , ho # ;

1. Afperifolie. Myofotis, Borago, &c.

+ Poiehate. Aelve ible to the Didynamia Gymno-
Jpermia, with a few ringent Diandrous genera.

43. Dumofe. Rhamnus, Euonymus, Ulex, Viburnum, &e.,
an aflemblage with which Linnzus himfelf declares his
diffatisfaGtion.

. Sepiariz. The Jafmine tribe.

. Umiellate. Umbelliferous plants, properly fo called,
as Hemlock, Parfley, &c.

. Hederacee. vy and its allies, including Vitis. -

47. Stellate. Galium, Madder, &c.

. Aggregate. Compound flowers with feparate anthers,
as Scabiofa, Protea, with fome of their fuppofed
allies.

49. Compofite. The great family of compound. flowers
with combined anthers; divided into capitate, as the
Thiftle : /emiflofeulofe—Dandelion: difcoidee—Tanfy,
After, &c.: oppofitifolie—Sunflowers: and nucamen-
tacee —Wormwood, Parthenium, Xanthium, &c. Some
of this fe€tion have male flowers with diltin& anthers,
feparate from the female. Gnaphalium and Xeran-
themum are removed hither in the Linnzan manu-
{cripts.

go. Amentacee.

51. Conifera.

Coadunate.

53. Seabride.

Willow, Oak, &c.
Fir, Juniper, &c.

Magnolia, &c.
Nettle, Fig, &c.

54. Mifcellanee, a heterogeneous aflemblage, latterly much

diminifhed. See MisceLLANE.
55. Filices. Ferns.
56. Mufti. Moffes,
57. Alge. Sea-weeds, Lichens, &c.
58. Fungi. The Fungus tribe.

At the end is a large lift of genera, which Linneus found
himfelf unable to refer to’any of his orders, chiefly for want
of fufficient materials to judge by. Thefe are now, mott

NAT

of them, better underitood, and eafily reducible to fome one
or other of the foregoing tribes.

The Prelefiones, publifhed by Profeffor Gifeke as above
mentioned, are an ample commentary on the arrangement we
have juft difplayed, with much fupplementary matter from
the editor. The whole abounds with information, but is
not without many errors and mifconceptions, readily. de-
teGied in the prefent more advanced {tate of this branch of
the fcience, though very excufable when written. There is
moreover, in this department, much room for hypothefs
and fancy, {fo that various opinions are held by equally
eompetent judges, and each has its day, like theories in me-
dicine or chemiltry, the fcience of natural claffification being
as yet very much in its infancy.

The great facility of the artificial, or fexual, fyftem of
Linnzus, which has made fome of the beft botanifts the
world ever faw, feems to have taken off the attention of moft
of his pupils from the ftudy of natural orders. This has
been a misfortune, inafmuch as it has rendered them lefs
competent to judge of natural genera, a talent only to be
acquired by a critical obfervation of the principles of na-
tural arrangement. It might feem invidious to point out the
numerous examples of the defe& alluded to, but the writer
of this may be allowed to mention himfelf. He is well
aware that a previous attention to natural orders, would
greatly have leffened the labour and perplexity of ftudying
genera, and though it happens that thofe he has founded
have not been difputed, it is by the fyftem of Juffieu they
mutt be tried. Whatever f{cience may be imbibed in a prac-
tical familiarity with the artificial fyftem, and with the in-
imitable technical ftyle of its author, difplayed in his generic
and fpecific definitions, the ftudy of that fyftem alone could
hardly, at this time of day, lead to the eftablifhment of any
new genus with certainty, except in fome particular claffes
and orders.

The diffidence of Linnzus as to attempting definitions of
his natural orders, was by no means the charaéter of the
French fchool of botany, which arofe in oppolition to him..
The fyftem of the great and excellent Tournefort being
found little capable of fuftaining itfelf, againft the over-
whelming abundance of new acquifitions, and againft the
brilliant light, dawning from the north, which fhewed but
too clearly the imperfetions of this and all other fy{tems
that had been contrived, had no chance of being defended
in oppofition to its rival. Vaillant was never forgiven for
having even fuppofed it could be amended, and efpecially
for having, by his affertion of the fexual doétrine, contri-
buted to lay the foundation of a rival {chool.

Bernard de Juffieu indeed, the father of the French bo-
taniits in this department, poffeffed all the caution and dif-
fidence of a man, who knew too much to be ignorant of
the difficulties of his enterprize. He was, moreover, aware
of the merits of Linnxus, and difpofed to allow them.
Though he had for many years ftudied the fubjeét, and been
widely converfant with the vegetable kingdom, it was not
before the year 1759, when he was called upon, as Profeffor
of Botany, to arrange the royal garden at Trianon, that
he ventured to give any publicity to the natural fyftem he
had fo long been projecting. What this was may be. feen
by his learned nephew’s Genera Plantaram, {o often quoted
by us.

Y Adanfon meanwhile, a genius of a more excentric and in-
trepid kind, having, as he tells us, during his herborizations
at Senegal, found the infufficiency of the fy{tems of Tourne-
fort and Linnxus, gave himfelf to the ftudy of natural ars
rangement. Having conceived that Linneus flighted his
correfpondence, his ardent mind, {timulated by vanity and

ambition,

WA; =

ambition, affumed an air of petulant hoftility to that great
man. An inherent love of paradox and affe@ation, prompted
him, in the firft place, to exalt the artificial fyftem of
Tournefort as fuch, above that of Linnzus, whofe whole
plan of botanical ftudy and inftruction, whether with re-
gard to principles or execution, {cience or nomenclature,
he ftudioufly, and without any referve, contemns and vilifies.
Affertions colt him nothing. He fpeaks of Ray as a judi-
cious compiler, but no great botanift; and as if neither
Linnzus nor any one elfe had attempted any thing on the
fubject, this vivacious Frenchman brings forward his own
. natural fyftem, with an eafy grace, not as a modeft or im-
perfe& effay, but as an original and complete performance,
calculated “ to fuperfede all other fyftems, as comprehend-
ing the fum of all botanical knowledge.’’ It belongs not
to us to criticife his novel plan of orthography, which his
countrymen have pafled over in filent difdain; but we may
complain of the additional difficulty, which arifes from his
arbitrary plan of nomenclature, which defies all precedent
and authority, except what is inconvenient and abfurd.
Were it not for thefe contemptible airs and prejudices, the
learning, penetration, and ingenuity of Adanfon, would
long ago have procured him that diftinguifhed rank
amongft fyftematic botanifts, to which he is doubtlefs en-
titled. His book abounds with original and inftructive re-
marks, but his fy{tem, formed on technical charaéters, muft
neceflarily be fo far artificial, though it preferves abundance
of natural combinations. By a fingular but cafual coinci-
dence, it confilts, like the fragments of Linnzus, of 58
orders, or, as the author terms them, families. Thefe are
given as mere lines of feparation, fubdivided into 1615 fub-
ordinate or fecondary divifions, equivalent to genera, em-
bracing 18,000 known fpecies or varieties. The firft are
named in French, generally from the leading genus of each;
as Lilafees, Salikaires, or from the leading character, as
Labiées, Légumineufzs. They profefs to be difpofed in a
natural feries, and form a table where their diftin@tive cha-
racters range under the following heads.

Cotyledons wanting -
Stamens hypogyneus

Cotydelon one } perigynous = : e
epigynous - = =

Stamens epigynous - : =

Apetalous - perigynous - * :

hypogynous - : ss

Corolla hypogynous
perigynous

epigynous j
Stamens epigynous - 2 S

- hypogynous
- perigynous
Stamens feparate from the petals, infertion various, Z

Cotyledons two Monopetalous

Polypetalous

L

The orders, moftly named from fome leading genus, ftand
as follows.

CLAss I. 8. Typhe.
1. Fungi. 9- ee
2. Ale. 10. Gramineae.
e Met Crass 3.
5. Filices. rey 3 emis
rl 6. Natades. ‘9, Tie
CLASS 2. tq. ile
7. Arosdee. 15. Bromelie.

MW AD

1. Name of each family.

2. Leaves, their form and fituation; ftipules, tendrils,
ftalks, &c.

3. Sex of the flowers.

4. Flowers, their fituation with refpe& to the ovary,
(that is, whether above or below the germen.)

5. Corolla, its figure and fituation.

6. Stamens, their number, fituation, and difk, (or what
Linnzus terms the receptacle of the flower. )

7. Ovaries, (germens,) their number and difk.

§. Seeds, their number and fituation.

Let any unprejudiced obferver fee how much of this is
taken from even the artificial fyftem of Linnzus, and judge
whether the main difference, of the leading charatters being
derived from the herbage inftead of the fruétification, be an
advantage in favour of Adanfon or not. Thofe who with
for an idea of his nomenclature and orthography, may take
the firft fe€tion of his Gramens, which he calls alpiftes, and
make it out as they can.—Kornukopia, Nardus, Mibora,
Sabfab, Kapriola, Nazia, Falaris, Stelefuros, Abola, Vi ilfa,
Kalamagroftis, Apera, Valota, Stipa, Kielboul.

With far other aim and pretenfions, the learned Antony
de Juffieu ventured to publifh, in 1789, his late uncle’s
fyftem, in the form of a Genera Plantarum, Jecundum Ordines
Naturales difpofita. In this work the claffes, amounting te
15, embracing 100 orders, are very neatly diftinguifhed ;
firft by the number of Cotyledons (real or fuppofed) ; next
the number of'petals ; and finally the infertion of the ftamens
or corolla. This is either Aypogynous (below the germen) ;
perigynous, (into the calyx or corolla, which furrounds the
germen, being itfelf inferted beneath that part) ; or ¢ igy-
nous, (above the germen.) This agrees with the idea, ong
before publifhed, as we have mentioned, by Linnzus,. of
the great importance of in/értion, or the fituation of parts
with refpect to each other, in forming the outline of a
es fyftem. The clafles of Juffieu form the following
table.

\

eo

Clafs 1.

anthers combined
anthers feparate

2
3
As
5
6.
7
8.
9-
10
il
12
13
14
15

16, Afphodeli. Crass 6.
17. Narciffi. ; .
5 4- Lleagni.
18. Lrides. 25. Thymelee.
CLass 4. 26. Protee.
27. Lauri.
19. Mufa. 28. Polygonee.
20. Canne. oli Aepinlices
21. Orchidee. 4 =e
22. Hydrocharides. Cuass 7.
pass cy 30- Amaranthi.
nied 31. Plantagines.
23. Ariftelochie. 32. Ny@agine

7

4B2 33:

33- Plumbagines. 63. Cruciferae.
8 64. Capparides.
SER 65. Sapindi.
34. Lyfimachie. 66. Acera.
35- Pediculares. 67. Malpighie.
36. Acanthi. 68. Hyperica.
37. Jafminec. 69. Guttifere.
38. Vitices. 70. Aurantia.
39. Labiate. 71. Melia.
40. Scrophularia. 72. Vites.
41. Solanee. 73- Gerania.
42. Borraginee. 74. Malvacee.
43. Convolvuli. 75. Magnolie.”
44. Polemonia. 76. Anone.
45. Bignonia. 77. Menifperma.
46. Gentiane. 78. Berberides.
47. Apocinea. 79- Tiliacce.
48. Sapote. 80. Cifli.
81. Rutacee.
Cis a 82. Caryophylle.
49. Guaiacane. Cc
50. Rhododendra. beset
51. Erica. 83. Sempervive.
52. Campanulacee. 84. Saxifrage.
85. Caéii.
Crass ADe 86. Portulacee.
53. Cichoracee. 87. Ficoidee.
54. Cinarocephale. 88. Onagre.
55. Corymbifere. 89. Myrti. _
CLass 11. Geer Melaflame,
2 gt. Salicarie.
56. Dipfacee. 92. Rofacee.
57+ Rubiacee. 93- Leguminofe.
58. Caprifolia. 94. Terebintacea.
CLAss 12. 95- Rhamat.
59- Aralie. Crass 15.
60. Unmbellifere. 96. Euphorbia.
97- Cucurbitacee.
Crass 13. 98. Urtice.
61. Ranunculaceae. 99. Amentacee.-
62. Papaveracee. 100. Conifere.

One thoufand feven hundred and fifty-four genera are ar-
ranged under thefe orders. One hundred and thirty-feven
are fubjoined, under an artificial arrangement, by their
corolla, germen, {tyles, and number of itamens, as not being
reducible, as far asthe author was acquainted with them, to
any of his orders. Many of them are now fufficiertly known
to be referred to their proper places; others will long per-
haps remain uncertain at the end of any natural fy{tem, unlefs
all the plants in the world could be Jaid before us at one view.
Such a genius as Adanfon indeed, like Hill (fee our bio-
orhbhical article GARDEN), is troubled with no fuch un-
certainties, The want of an appendix of doubtful plants,
to any profeffedly natural fyftem, is a fufficient telt of the
prefumption of its author, and at once betrays the vanity of
his pretenfions.

In his fubordinate diftinftions, Jufficu recurs to the fitua-
tion and dire@tion of the embryo, as well as the abfence or
prefence, the fituation, form, and ftruéture of the various
parts of fruétification; adverting alfo to great well-marked
peculiarities*én the inflorefcence, foliage and habit. One of
his chief fingularities is his denying a corolla to his clafs of
Monocotyledones, calling the integuments of the flower, whe-
ther fimple, or (as they appear to us in many inftances)
double, by one name of calyx, which in the tribes of Lilacee,
Scitaminee, and Orchider, feems no lefs paradoxical than ar-

Te)

N AT

bitrary. His generic charaéters are of that fhort effential
kind, adopted by Linnzus in his Sy/lema Vegetabilium, and
by moft writers at prefent. They are founded folely on the
parts of fruétification, notices of the habit, foliage, inflo-
refcence, &c. being, very properly and commodioufly, fub-
joined in a different printed charaéter. Sometimes indeed
Juffieu and Linneus differ about what is inflorefcence, and
what a part of the flower: but thefe are occafional difagree-
ments, between two great minds, contemplating the fame
fubject under different points of view. The work of Juffieu
is an admirable companion to the writings of Linnzus, fup-
plying the defeéts inherent in his artificial fyftem, and throw-
ing a brilliant and diftiné light on his details ; but it is no
more calculated to fuperfede that fyftem, than a grammar
can fuperfede a di€tionary. Its excellent author has purfued
the fitbje& in many fubfequent effays, publifhed by the Na-
tional Inftitute of France, in which he has carried his en-
quiries, refpecting the ftructure of various feeds, to a greater
extent than before, and has thence reformed the charaéters,
or the places, of many genera. He has alfo fomewhat
changed the appellations of his orders, at leaft their mode
of termination, reducing them to the feminine gender, and
calling the Amaranthi, for inftance, dmaranthacee ; which
is perhaps a more correét and unexceptionable mode of ex-
preffion, and certainly preferable to the Lilee and Protece of
Mr. Salifbury.

This laft-named botanift was the firft in England who di-
rected his attention to the fyftem cf Juffieu, and to a deep
practical ftudy of Natural Orders. On this principle he has
arranged a catalogue, or Prodromus, of his own garden,
publifhed in 1796; except that he has taken his primary
divifions from the artificial fyitem of Linnzeus, which are
founded folely on the number of itamens. This writer has
prudently abitained, like Linnzus, trom all definitions, or
chara@ers, of his orders. If Juffien thought it incumbent
on him to do otherwife, he has but difplayed the difficulty
of the enterprize, and the fallibility of human fyitem when
meafured by the ftandard of nature. So many exceptions
encumber moft of his explanations, that they mean in fa&
little or nothing. They ferve however to fhew where nothing
is, or can be, knewn or fixed, and it would be urju to deny
that they contain all the general information that is perhaps
attainable,

Mr. Robert Brown in his Prodromus of the plants of New
Holland, vol. i. publifhed in 1810, has given frefh celebrity
to the fyftem of Juffieu, by whofe leading principles that
acute and learned work is arranged. In fo totally new a field
of obfervation, the principles of natural arranzement were
requifite, at every dtep, for the patient and fagacious enquirer,
and it is not to be wondered that he preferred them for the
claffification of his work. We hope, neverthelefs, that he
will hereafter, when his taf is complete, favour the world
with a Linnean clue to his performance, in order to render
the knowledge it contains generally acceflible, and thus to
unite, for the ufe of his countrymen, the talents of both
thofe great leaders.

In-the detail of kis work, as far as is hitherto publifhed,
Mr. Brown has, in almott every inftance, thrown more or
lefs light upon the natural orders of Juffieu that fall in his
way. We fhall have particular occafion to fhew this, when
we come to treat of Orcuipem and Sciraminem. He has,
in feveral inttances, fubdivided the orders of the French au-
thor, or introduced new intermediate ones of his own. The
definitions of his orders poffefs a clearnefs and precifion, in
our humble opinion, fuperior to what are found in any writer
on the fame fubjeét. The infpe&tion of the botany of a new
world, as it were, in New Holland, where every thing is fo

different

NAT

different from what was already familiar to this botanifl in
Europe, afforded him prodigiows advantages as to the en-
largement of his conceptions of natural affinities. Perhaps
in the detail of genera, we may fometimes think he has car-
tied his diftin€tions too far, and in the definitions of {pecies,
that he has been prodigal of diftinétive marks, inftead of
refting on a few clear and fufficient ones. Every writer has
a peculiar character and merits of his own, and the friend of
whom we are endeavouring to {peak without partiality or
prejudice, has abundant merits to compenfate any imperfec-
tions. He muft ever rank in the firlt line of claffical bo-
tanical authors, as a worthy pupil of Linnzus as well as of
Juffieu.

The fyftem of Juffieu has found numerous followers among
his countrymen; fome of whom, as Ventenat and Decan-
dolle, have the merit of orivinal authors, in the numerous
elucidations and corrections of their great model. It would
dead us too far to enlarge on this fubject. The world has long
been in expectation of anew edition of Juffieu’s Genera Plan-
tarum from himfelf, which, from the vaft additions and im-
provements that it could not fail to difplay, mutt prove al-
moft anew work, and be of the greatelt ufe to {cientific
botany. The f{cience is now fo generally cultivated, and by
fuch various hands, that it will require frequently to be
brought back to order and regularity, by fome competent
and duly conftituted authorities. S.

Natura Paflures, in Agriculture, fuch as are produced

by natural grafles, in contradiitin@ion to thofe formed by
the artificial grafles. See PASTURE.

Natura Philofophy, that {cience which confiders the
powers of nature, the properties of natural bodies, and their
mutual aétion on one another: this is otherwife called phy/ics.
See Purtosopuy.

Natura Woods, in Rural Economy, fuch as are raifed
in a natural manner, and not by planting. See Woops.

Narturat, in Heraldry, is uled where animals, fruits,
flowers, &c. are blazoned with the colours they naturally
have, thorgh different from the common colours of heraldry:
and this is to prevent the armory’s being accufed of falfity,
when blazoued withthe names of colours unknownin heraldry.

Natura. This word,-in Mufic, has many acceptations ;
as natural tones, of the human voice, in oppofition to the
artificial tones of inftruments. A melody or air is faid to
be natural, when it is {mooth, eafy, graceful, and fometimes
when it is common. Harmony is faid to be natural, when
not loaded with difcords, or deformed by extraneous modu-
lation; but confined to the harmony of the key. Mufic is
likewife faid to be natural, when it is clear and free from
confufion, neither of difficult intonation nor execution ;
neither too high nor too low; too quick or too flow ; nor
affetedly loaded with accidental flats and fharps. The
Italians always write recitative without flats or fharps at the
‘clef; fo that all the modulations are brought about by ac-
cidental flats and fharps.

Natura is alfo fometimes ufed for phyfical. In which
latter fenfe, natural mufic is that performed by natural
organs, é.e. vocal mafic ; in contradiltinGtion to artificial,
or inftrumental. See Music.

Natural mufic is more peculiarly ufed to denote a fong
that proceeds in the natural order of the notes, without flats
or fharps.

Natura Harmony is that produced by the natural and
effential chords of the mode. See Harmony.

Naturat Note is ufed in oppofition to flat and fharp

“notes, which cre called artificial notes. See Nore, ScaLe,
ke. ,
The natural note 4, is ufed to contradi@ thofe flats and

NAT

fharps that are fet at the beginning of a (taff; and, in fuch
cafe, you muft take the natural note as it is in the gammut.

Narurat is alfo ufed for fomething coming immediately
out of the hands of nature. In which fenfe it ftands op-
pofed to faétitious or artificial, which fignifies fomething
wrought by art.

Bifhop Wilkins obferves, that there appears a very great
difference between nacural and artificial things, when viewed
with microfcopes: the firfl ever appear adorned with all
imaginable elegance and beauty; the latter, though the
moit curious in their kind, infinitely rude and unhewn. The
fineft needle appears a rough bar of iron, and the molt ac-
curate engraving, or imboflment, as if done with a mattock,
or trowel.

NATURALIST, a perfon who has ftudied nature, and
is well verfed in natural bodies, efpecially in what relates to
metals, minerals, ftones, vegetables, and animals.

Ariftotle, AZlian, Pliny, Solinus, and Theophraftus, were
the greateft naturalifts among the ancients; but they fell
into abundance of errors, which have been correéted by the
happy indultry of the moderns. Aldrovandus is the moft
copious, but not the moft accurate, of the modern natu-
ralifts: his work is in thirteen volumes in folio. The cha-
raéters and works of Linnzus are well known,

NATURALIZATION, in Law, the aé& of natu-
ralizing an alien, or putting him into the condition of a
natural-born fubjeét, and intitling him to the rights and
privileges of fuch.

In France, before the revolution, naturalization was the
king’s prerogative : in England, it is only done by act of
parliament.

But none can be naturalized, unlefs they have received
the facrament within one month before the bringing in of
the bill, and taken the oaths of allegiance and fupremacy
in the prefence cf the parliament. A petfon who is natu-
ralized may have lands by defcent, as heir at law, as well as
obtain them by purchafe; but he is difabled from being a
member of the privy council, or parliament ; or from hold-
ing offices, grants, &c. as well as a denizen, (fee Den1zen,)
7 Jac. I. cap. 2. 12 Will. III. cap. 2, No bili for natu-
ralization can be received in either houfe of parliament with-
out fuch difabling claufe in it; nor without a claufe dif-
abling the perfon from obtaining any immunity in trade
thereby, in any foreign country, unlefs he fhail have re-
fided in Britain for feven years next after the commencement
of the feffion in which he is naturalized. (1 Geo. 1. cap. 4.
14 Geo. III. cap. 84.) All children born out of the king's
dominions, whofe fathers were or are fubjeéts of this king-
dom at.the time of their birth, are adjudged to be natu-
ral-born fubje&ts of this realm, except children of parents
attainted of treafon, or that are in the actual fervice of a
foreign prince-at enmity with us. (4 Geo. II. cap. 21.)
Every foreign feaman who, in time of war, ferves two
years on board an Englifh fhip, is, ip/o fado, naturalized,
under the like reftri€tions as in itatute 12 Will. III.
cap. 2.. (13 Geo. II. cap. 3.) And all foreign Proteftants
aud Jews, upon their refiding feven years in any of the
American colonies, without being abfent above two months
at a time, and all foreign Protettants ferving two years in
a military capacity there, or being three years employed in
the whale fifhery, without afterward abfenting themfelves
from the king’s dominions for more than one year, and
none of them falling within the incapacities declared by
ftatute 4 Geo. II. cap. 21, are, upon the taking the oaths of
allegiance and abjurazion, or, in fome cafes, an affirmation
to the fame effect, naturalized to all intents and purpofes,
as if they had been born in this kingdom ; except as to fit-

ting

N A T

ting in parliament or in the privy council, and holding offices
or grants of lands, &c. and therefore are admiflible to all
fuch privileges, and no other, as Proteftants or Jews born
in this kingdom are entitled to.

In France, Swifs, Savoyards, and Scots, need not any na-
turalization ; being reputed reznicoles, or natives.

NATURALS, res Narurates, in Medicine. In every
animal, however fick or difeafed, there is {till remaining
fome degree of life and ftrength ; and the caufes and effects
of each. Thefe are called naturals, natural things, or things
according to nature; and fometimes barely nature ; in con-
tradiftinGtion to non-naturals.

NATURE, Narura, isa term varioufly ufed. Ariftotle
has a whole chapter wrote exprefsly to enumerate the va-
rious acceptations of the Greek word @usic, rendered, in
Englifh, nature : and among Latin writers, the different ac-
ceptations are fo many, that a certain author reckons up
fourteen or fifteen. Mr. Boyle, in a precife treatife of the
valgarly received notion of nature, gives us eight principal
ones.

Nature, then, is fometimes ufed for the fyftem of the
world ; the machine of the univerfe ; or the aflemblage of
all created beings.

' In which fenfe we fay, the Author of nature: the fun is
called she eye of nature, becaufe he illuminates the univerle ;
and the father of nature, becaufe he warms the earth, and
makes it fruitful. And thus we fay of the phcenix, or a
chimera, that there is no fuch thing in nature. :

Inftead of the word nature in this fenfe, Mr. Boyle, to
avoid ambiguity, and abufe of the word, wifhes to have
world, or univerfe, fubitituted.

Nature, in a more confined fenfe, is applied to each of
the feveral kinds of beings, created and uncreated ; {piritual
and corporeal.

In which fenfe we fay, human nature, meaning all men
together who poffefs the fame fpiritual, reafonable foul;
angelical nature ; the divine nature, &c.

In this fenfe, the fchool-divines fay, nalura naturans, &
satura naturata, {peaking of God, who is the natura naturans,
as giving being and nature to ail others ; in oppofition to the
creatures, who are the natura naturata, as receiving their na-
ture from the hands of another.

Narurg, in a ftill more reftrained fenfe, is ufed for the
effence of a thing ; or that which fchoolmen call the quid-
dity thereof, that is, the attribute which makes it what
it is.

In which fenfe, the Cartefians fay, it is the nature of the
foul to think ; and that the nature of matter confifts in ex-
tenfion.

Aud here the word e/fénce Mr. Boyle would have obtain
in lien of nature.

NaroRre 1s more particularly ufed for the eftablifhed or-
der, and courfe of material things; the feries of fecond
caufes; or the laws which God has impofed on the motions
imprefled by him.

In which fenfe it is we fay, phyfics is the ftudy of na-
ture; nature makes the night fucceed the day; nature has
rendered refpiration neceflary to life, &c.

Thus St. Thomas defines nature a kind of divine art, com-
municated to beings, which carry them to the end they are
determined for. In which fenfe, nature is nothing elfe but
that concatenation of caufes and effeéts, or that order and
economy which God has eltablifhed in the parts of his
creation.

In this fenfe, too, we fay, miracles are effects above the
powers of nature; artis faid to force or furpafs nature, by

NAT

means of machines, in regard thefe produce effects which ex-
ceed what we fd in the common courfe of things.

Nature, again, is taken for an aggregate of powers be-
longing to any body, efpecially a living one.

In which fenfe, phyticians fay, nature is {trong, weak, or
fpent; or that, in {uch adifeafe, nature left to herfelf will
perform the cure.

Narore is {till more ftriGtly ufed for the a&tion of Provi-
dence, the principle of all things; or that fpiritual power,
er being, which is diffufed throughout the creation, and
moves and aéts in all bodies, and gives them certain proper-
ties, and produces certain effects.

In this, which Mr. Boyle confiders as the mott ufual fenfe,
nature is nothing elfe but God, aéting himfelf, and according
to certain laws he himfelf has fixed.

This feems pretty agreeable to the opinion of many of the
ancients, who made nature the god of the univerfe, To Izy,
who prefides over, and governs all things; though others
owned this as an imaginary being, and by nature meant no
more than the qualities, or virtues, which God has given his
creatures, and which their poets and oraters took occafion
of perfonifying.

F. Malebranche fays, that the nature fo much talked of
in the fchools is fit for nothing but to lead us back to ido-
latry ; the ancient heathens hereby underftanding fomething,
which, without being God, aéts continually throughout the
univerfe.

Thus the idol nature muft be an aétual principle, which,
in concurrence with God, is the next and immediate caufe
of all the changes which befal matter. Which feems to fall
in with the opinion of the anima mundi ; as if nature were
a fubftitute of God, or a collateral caufe with God, or
a middle being between God and created things. See
Prastic.

Ariftotle defines nature, principium & caufa motus JF ejus
in quo eft primo per fe, & non per accidens : a definition fo eb-
{cure, that none of his commentators, with all their gloffes,
have been able to render it intelligible.

This principle, which the Peripatetics call nature, they
fuppofed to act neceffarily ; and to be therefore dettitute of
knowledge, or liberty. See NEcEssiTy.

Thus, alfo, the Stoics conceived nature as a certain {pirit
or virtue diffufed throughout the univerfe, which gave every
thing its motion; fo that all mut be dragged away by
the invariable order of a blind nature, and an inevitable
neceflity. :

In fpeaking of the ation of nature no more is to be un-
derftood, but that bodies aé&t on one another, in a manner
agreeable to the general laws of motion which the Creator
has e{tablifhed. ,

In this lies the myftery of that great word, which is only
a compendious way of exprefling the aGtion of all bodies:
but the mechanifm of bodies would, perhaps, better exprefs
what is here meant by nature.

Some, Mr. Boyle obferves, will have the nature of a thing
to be only the law that it receives from the Creator, aed ac-
cording to which it aétson alloccafions, But this is an im-
proper and figurative expreflion.

The fame author propofes a notion of nature as more fit
than any yet given, to pafs from the principal one of na-
ture; with regard to which many axioms and expreffions
relating to that word may be conveniently underftood. In
order to this, he diftinguifhes between general and particular
nature.

General nature, he defines the aggregate of the bodies
which make up the world in its prefent ftate, confidered asa
principle by virtue whereof they aét and fuffer, according

2 to

<

NAT

to the laws of motion preferibed by the Author of all
things. ven

airaeilae nature, of any fubordinate, or individual, con-
fiftsin the general nature applied toa diftin@ portion of the
univerfe. Or, it is a convention of the mechanical proger-
ties (as magnitude, figure, order, fituation, and local motion)
of parts convenient and fufficient to conttitute, or intitle to
its particular {pecies or denomination, the particular bedy
they makeup; the concourfe of all thefe being confidered
as the principle of motion, reft, &c. :

Nature, Guardians by, in Law. See GUARDIAN.

Narure, Law of.” See Law.

Naruse, Laws of, are axioms, or general rules, of mo-
tion, and relt, obferved by natural bodies in their aétions on
one another; and in all the changes which befal them in
their natural ftate. ;

‘Lhe laws of nature, and of motion, are, in effe&, the
fame: cuftom, indeed, has made fome difference; and we
find authors call the particular cafes of motion, laws of mo-
tion: which fee under Morton. The more general, and
comprehenfive ones, ard thofe from which, as from axioms,
the others are deduced, they call laws of nature.

OF thefe, fir Ifaac Newton has eftablifhed three :

x. That every body perfeveres in the fame {tate, either of
reft, or uniform retilinear motion; except fo far as it is
forced to change that ftate by fome foreign force.

Thus projectiles perfevere in their motions, except fo far as
they are retarded by the refiftance of the air, and gravity :
and thus a top, whofe parts, by their cohefion, are continu-
ally drawing one another eut of their reétilinear motion,
only ceafes to run round becaufe refifted by the air, and the
fri€tion of the plane on which it moves. And thus the
larger bodies of the planets and comets preferve their pro-
greflive and circular motions a long time undiminifhed, in
regions void of all fenfible refiftance. As body is paflive in
receiving its motion, and the direétion of its motion, fo it re-
tains them or perfeveres in them, without any change, till it
be aéted upon by fomething external. See Vis Jnertie, RE-
SISTANCE, and Mepium. t

2. The change of motion is ever proportional to the moving
force whereby it is effected, and in the dire€tion of the right
line wherein that force is impreffed.

If a certain force produce a certain motion, a double
force will produce double the motion; a triple force triple
the motion; whether it be impreffed all at once, or fuc-
ceffively, and by degrees. And this motion (fince it is ever
direéted to the {ame point with the generating force), if the
body were in motion before, is either to be added to it, as
where the motions confpire; cr fubtraéted from it, as
where contrary ; or added obliquely, as where oblique: and
is compounded with it, according to the determinations of
each,

. Re-aétion is always contrary and equal to action; or
the aétions of two bodies upon one another are always mu-
tually equal, and directed contrary ways; and are to be
eftimated always in the fame right line.

Whatever preffes or pulls another, is equally preffed or
pulled thereby. Thus, if I prefs a ftone with my finger,
the finger is equally preffed by the ftone: if a horfe draw a
weight bya rope, the horfe is equally drawn back towards
the weight; for the rope being equally flretched each way,
will, with an equal endeavour to relax itfelf, drive the horfe
toward the ftone, and the flone toward the horfe ; and will
hinder the progrefs of the one, as much as it promotes that
of the other.

Again, if any body, by ftriking on another, do in any
manner change its motion, it will itfelf, by means of the

NAV

other, undergo alfo an equal change in its own motion, by
reafon of the equality of the preffure. ,
_ When two bodies meet, each endeavours to perfevere in
its ftate, and refift any change: and becaufe the change
which is produced in either may be equally meafured by the
action which it excites upon the other, or by the refiftance
which it meets with from it, it follows that the changes pro-
duced in the motions cf each are equal, but are made in con-
trary directions. ‘The one acquires no new force but what
the other lofes in the fame dire&tion; nor does this laft lofe
any force but what the other acquires: and hence, though
by their collifions, motion paffes from the one to the other,
yet the fum of their motions, eftimated in a given direétion,
is preferved the fame, and is unalterable by their mutual ac-
tions upon each other.

In thefe aétions the changes are equal; not thofe, we
mean, of the velocities, but thofe of the motions, the bodies
being fuppofed free from any other impediments. For the
changes of velocities, which are likewife made contrary
ways, inaf{much as the motions are equally changed, are re-
ciprocally proportional to the bodies.

This law alfo obtains in attraétions.
TION.

Nature, in Mythology, is ufed by the poets fometimes
for the mother, fometimes for the daughter, and at other
times for the companion of Jupiter. She is defcribed by the
fymbols of the Diana of Ephefus.

Nature, in Profody. A {yllable is faid to be long er
fhort by nature, to fignify that itis fo originaily, and inde-
pendently of any rule of grammar, which might render it fo
by pofition er otherwile.

NAVA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the depart-
ment of the Mela; 5 miles N. of Brefcia.

Nava, Za, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon;
22 miles S.W. of Valladolid.

NAVACE, La, a {mall ifland in the Weft Indies, be-
tween Jamaica and Hifpaniola. N. lat. 18° 23'. W. long.

aac /

See ATTRAC-

Ue)
NAVACOTTA, a town of Lamjungh; 150 miles N.
of Fyzabad. _N. lat. 28° 56’. E. long. 83° 36".
NAVAGERO, Awnprea, in Biography, an eminent
Italian poet and orator, was born at Venice, of a patrician
family, in 1483. He was educated under Antonio Sabel-
lico, and from an early age difplayed very extraordinary
powers of memory, and a decided turn for literary purfuits.
He repaired to Padua, where he itudied the Greek language
with great affiduity under Mufuro, and philofophy under
Pomponazzi. In that univerfity he formed conneétions with
the celebrated Bembo, Contarini, Fracaftorio, Torriano,
and other diftinguifhed charaéters, which continued un-
broken through life. After this he fpent fome time at Por-
danone, where the celebrated general Alviano had founded
a literary academy; and then returned to Venice, and be-
came a fupporter of the learned labours cf Aldo Manuzio,
whom he affifted in the colleétion and examination of manu-
fcripts, for the purpofe of giving correé editions of the an-
cient writers. He was, on account of his eloquence, feleGted
to recite the funeral orations of Alviano, the doge Lore-
dano, and Catharina Cornara, queen of Cyprus. He was
afterwards appointed keeper of the library of cardinal Bef-
farion, and hittoriograpber to the ftate. In the {pring of
1525, he was fent to Spain on an embafly, where he re-
mained about three years, when he fet out on his return.
Soon after his‘arrival at Venice, he was fent to France on
an embafly, for the purpofe of inviting Francis to return to
Italy, to balance the power of the emperor. He had
reached Blois, when he was attacked with a fever, which
carried

NAV

carried him off in May 1529, at the age of 46. He was
reckoned among the moft polifhed writers of his time; and
in Latin poetry he was diftinguifhed by elegance, grace, and
a kind of Grecian‘ fimplicity that denoted great purity of
tafte. His funeral orations are rather elegant and methodical
difcourfes, than ftriking pieces of eloquence. His letters
feom Spain to Ramufio exhibit him as a minute obferver of
every thing curious prefented by a foreign country, and as
an antiquary and geographer. Soon after his deceafe, his
funeral orations for Alviano and Loredano, and his Latin
poems, were publifhed, which were his only memorials till
the year 1718, when the brothers Velpi publifhed, at the
Cominian prefs in Padua. a quarto volume, containing, with
thofe pieces, all the works of Navagero that could be col-
leéted ; to which was prefixed a life of the author; by Gia-
nantino Volpi.

Navacexo, BERNARD, an eminent cardinal in the 16th
century, of the fame family as the preceding, was born at
Venice in 1507. He became diftinguifhed for his talents
as aman of bufinefs, and for great powers of eloquence,
and was employed in the fervice of the republic. He was
fent fyndic to Dalmatia, appointed baily at Conftantinople,
and afterwards nominated ambaflador to Rome, to France,
and to the covrt of the emperor. He was devoted to the
purfuits of literature, and {carcely quitted his ftudy but to
render fervices to his country. In #561, pope Pius V.
created him a member of the facred college, and promoted
him to the bifhopric of Verona. After this, the pope fent
him as his legate to che council of Trent. He died in 1565,
and was author of fome Harangues, and of ** The Life of
pope Paul IV.”’ Moreri.

NAVAGIUM, in our Old Writers, a duty incumbent
on tenants to carry their lord’s goods ina fhip. ‘ Liberi
fint ab omni carriagia, navagio, &c.”’

NAVAL, fomething relating to /hips, or navigation ;
which fee.

Navat Archite@ure. See SHIPBUILDING.

Navat Camp, in Antiquity, a fortification confifting of a
ditch and parapet on the land fide, or a wall conftruéted in
the form of a femicircle, and extended from one point of the
fea to another. It was fometimes defended with towers,
and beautified with gates, through which they iffued forth
to attack their enemies. Homer hath left us a remarkable
defeription of the Grecian fortifications of this fort, in the
Trojan war, beginning at v. 436. Iliad ».

“ Then, to fecure the camp and naval powers,
They rais’d embattled walls with lofty tow’rs :
From fpace to {pace were ample gates around,
For paffing chariots; and atrench profound,
Of large extent; and deep in earth below
Strong piles infix’d flood adverfe to the foe.”
Pope’s Tranfl.

Towards the fea, or within it, they fixed great pales of
wood, like thofe in their artificial harbours; before thefe
the veflels of burden were placed in fuch order, as that they
might be inftead of a wall, and give protection to thofe
within; in which manner Nicias is reported by Thucydides
to have encamped himfelf: but this feems only to have been
praétifed when the enemy was thought fuperior in ftrength,
and raifed great apprehenfions of danger in them. When
their fortifications were thought ftrong enough to defend
them from the affaults of enemies, it was frequent to drag
their fhips to fhore, which the Grecks called wwaxey, the
Romans fubducere. Around the thips the foldiers difpofed
their tents, as appears every where in Homer: but this
feems only to have been praétifed in winter, when their

NAV

enemy’s fleet was laid up, and could not affault them ; or in
long fieges, and when they lay in no danger from their
enemies by fea; as in the Trojan war, where the defenders
of Troy never once attempted to encounter the Grecians in
a fea-fight. .

The adjacent places were ufually filled with inns and ftews,
well ftocked with females, that proftituted themfelves to the
mariners, merchants, and artiticers of all forts, who flocked
thither in great numbers. This, however, appears to have
happened only in times of peace.

Nava Crown, Corona Navalis, among the ancient Ro-
mans, a crown adorned with figures of prows of fhips, con-
ferred on perfons who, in fea engagements, firlt boarded the
enemy’s veffel.

Though A. Gellius feems to fpeak in the general, where.
he fays the naval crown was adorned with prows of fhips,
Lipfius diftinguifhes two kinds of naval crowns; the ene he
calls fimple, the other roffrated.

The firft he fuppofes plain, and given to the common
foldiers, &c. The latter, much more glorious, adorned
with prows cf fhips, and only given to generals, or ad-
mirals, who had gained fome important victory at fea. See
Crown. ‘

Navat Engagement. See ENGAGEMENT.

Navat Stores, comprehend all thofe particulars made ufe
of, not only in the rceyal navy, but in-every other kind of
navigation: as timber and iron for fhipping, pitch, tar,
hemp, cordage, fail-cloth, gun-powder, ordnance, and fire-
arms of every fort, fhip-chandlery-wares, &c.

Perfons ftealing or embezzling any of the king’s naval
ftores to the value of 205. are guilty of felony, witheut
benefit of clergy. (31 Eliz. c. 4. 22 Car. II. c. 5.)
And the treafurer, comptroller, furveyor, clerk of the aés,
or any commiffioner of the navy, may act as juftices, in
caufing the offenders to be apprehended, committed, and
profecuted for the fame. (g Geo. III. c. 30.) And the
treafurer and commiffioners of the navy are empowered to
inquire of naval ftores embezzled, and appoint perfons to
fearch for them, &c. who may go cn board fhips, and feize
fuch ftores; and the commiflioners, &c. may imprifon the
offenders, and fine them double value, the ftores being under
the value of 20s. (1 Geo. I. c. 25.) None but the con-
traétors with the commiffioners of the navy fhall make any
ftores of war, naval ftores, &c. with the marks commonly
ufed to his majefty’s ftores, upon pain of forfeiting the fame
and 200/. And perfons in whofe cuftody fuch ftores fhall
be found concealed, are liable to the fame penalty. 9 &
ro Will. IIL. c. 41.

By 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 89, perfons, other than con-
tractors, receiving or having ftores of war in their poffeffion,
fhall, on conviétion, be tranfported for 14 years, unlefs
upon trial they fhall produce a certificate, under the hands
of three commiffioners of the navy, exprefling the number,
quantity, or weight of fuch flores, and the manner of the
fame coming into their poffeffion. Perfons convicted of of-
fences againlt the ftatute g & ro Will. III., befides for-
feiting fuch ftores and the {um of 200/., fhall be punifhed
by pillory, whipping, and imprifonment, &c. If any per-
fon fhall, either in this kingdom, or in any place belonging
to it, burn or deftroy naval, &c. ftores, or any place i
they are kept, he, and alfo his aiders and abettors, thall be
guilty of felony, without benefit of clergy. 12 Geo. III.
c. 24. See 4& of NAVIGATION.

Nava Tadics. See Tactics.

NAVALCARNERO, in Geography, a town of Spain,
in Old Caftile; 42 miles S. of Segovia,

NAVALIA,

NAV

NAVALIA, among the Romans, were docks or ports
where fhips ufed to be laid up after building.

Navatta likewife fignified the wharfs or keys at Rome,
where the fhips ufed to load and unload their goods, all
which were near the Sublician bridge.

NAVALPERA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Baglana; 45 miles E. of Baffeen.

NAVAMORQUENDA, a town of Spain, in Old
Caftile; 37 miles S. of Avila.

NAVAN, a pott-town of Ireland, in the county of
Meath, fituated on the river Boyne. Navan was an ancient
palatinate, and in former ages was high in repute. It is
beautifully fituated, but very ill built: it has, however, been
rapidly increafing in wealth and extent, and is much ferved
by the Boyne having been rendered navigable to it. Its
population was, many years ayo, eltimated at 4000, and
mutt have confiderably increafed: it is, according to Mr.
Wakefield, chiefly Roman Catholic. The manufa@ture of
facking employs near 300 looms; here are likewife very
extenfive flour, cotton, and paper mills, a brewery, a dif-
tillery, with other manufactures incident to the fituation and
trade of the place. A good cattle fair is held four times in
the year, and there is alfo a weekly market, which ftands
unrivalled in the county for live-ftock, bacon, hogs, butter,
and every variety of rural produce, befides coarfe linen,
friezes, and yarn. Mr. Wakefield fpeaks of the wheat in
this neighbourhood as excellent, but condemns the ex-
hautting fy{tem that is purfued. The commons of Navan are
very large, and very badly regulated, fo that they are a public
nuifance, by affording fupport to a number of unprincipled
vagabonds. Navan has another nuifance, now, however, in
a fair way of being removed by the legiflature; a {chool-
matter enjoying a large revenue, without making any return:
The lands of the endowed fchool of this place are faid to let
for near 1500/. a-year, which income was converted into a
finecure ; but the commiffioners appointed to inveftigate the
ftate of public fchools in Ireland, on the motion of fir John
Newport, bart., having expofed this and many fimilar
abufes, meafures have been taken to render the fchools ef-

‘fe&tive and ufeful. Navan is 24 miles N. by W. from
Dublin.

NAVAPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Canara; 15
miles S.E. of Barcelore.

NAVARDUN, a town of Spain, in Aragon; 27 miles
W. of Jaca.

NAVAREDONDA, a town of Spain, in the province
of Leon; 50 miles E.S.E. of Civdad Rodrigo.—Alfo, a
town of Spain, in Leon; 21 miles E. of Civdad Rodrigo.

NAVARETTA, a town of Spain, in Old Cattile,
feated on a mountain; 9 miles W. of Logrogno.

NAVARETTE, Fernanpez, in Biography, was a
miffionary of the order of St. Dominic, in Spain, who
flourifhed in the early part and middle of the 17th century.
When he had filled fome diftinguifhed ftations in his order,
he, in 1646, left Spain for the purpofe of promulgating the
Chriftian faith in China. He went by way of America,
where he was detained a confiderable time, and did not ar-
rive at the Philippine iflands till 1648. He was appointed
profeflor of theology at Manilla, and was bufily employed
in making profelytes in thofe iflands, and at Macaffar, and
at length reached China in 1659. He applied with fo much
affiduity to the language, that he was foon able to {peak
and write it with great facihty. In 1665 he was chief of
the miffion in the province of Che-kiang, when a perfecu-
tion was excited in confequence of the ** Ephemerides”’ of
father Adam, a Jefuit; and the miffionaries hid orders to
repair to Pekin, whence they were fent to Canton, with

Vor. XXIV.

NAV

permiffion to leave the empire. Navarette did not arrive at
Madrid till 1672. He, foon after this, went to Rome,
where he gave an account of the manner in which he had
accomplifhed the objeéts of his miffion. This did him fo
much credit, that he had the offer of returning thither with
the epifcopal dignity. This honour he declined, and in
1678 was confecrated archbifhop of St. Domingo; and in
the poffeffion of this fee he died in 1689. He wrote an ac-
count of his travels in three volumes, of which the firft ap-
peared at Madrid in 1676. It has been efteemed one of the
moft faithful and curious accounts of that country, and has
been given in our language in Churchill’s ‘ Colleétion.””
The fecond volume, while in the prefs, was fupprefled by
that curfe of man, the Jnguifition, which, to the joy of

every feeling and virtuous mind, has been within thefe few

weeks (February 1813) abolifhed in Spain, and we truft
eradicated for ever from the world. It is not known
what became of the manuf{cript of the third volume.
Moreri.

NAVARIN, in Geography, a fea-port town on the welt
coaft of the Morea, on the gulf of Zonchio: its harbour is
large, and is the moft frequented in the Morea. The town
is fortified and defended with a citadel; 88 miles S.W.
of Corinth. N. lat. 37° 5’. E. long. 21° 25/.

NAVARRE, Peter, in Biography, a celebrated war-
rior in the 16th century, was born in Bifcay. He was
brought up to the fea-fervice, but after a time engaged
himfelf as valet to the cardinal Aragon, and then ferved in
the army of the Florentines. He was next employed by
Gonfalvo de Cordova in the Neapolitan wars, as captain ;
and he contributed very much to the capture of Naples.
On account of his good conduét, the emperor gave him
large domains in Naples, from which he affumed the name
of Navarre. He afterwards failed againft the Moors in
Africa, and took poffeffion of Oran, Tripoli, and other
places. His campaigns in Italy after this were unfortunate,
and he was taken at the battle of Ravenna, 1512. Upon
his liberation, thinking himfelf-ill treated by the Spanifh
king, he determined to enter into the fervice of Francis I.
In his attempt to relieve Genoa, he was taken by the im-
perial troops; and for the {pace of three years languifhed in
the dungeons of CEuf, till the treaty of Madrid fet him free.
He was taken prifoner at the retreat of Averfa, and again
fent to the dungeon of CEuf. Here his life was {pared by
the duke of Orange, in compaffion for his misfortunes and
his valour. He died foon after, though it was afferted that
he was ftrangled in his bed.

NAVARRE, in Geography, a province of Spain, which
was anciently a kingdom, fituated in the north of Spain,
and fhut in between the Pyrenees, Aragon, Old Caitile, and
Bifcay. Its figure is an irregular quadrilateral; its mean
length from eaft to welt is 18 leagues, and its mean breadth
from north to fouth 14. On the eaft and fouth it is bounded
by Aragon, on the fouth-weft by Old Caftile, on the north-
weit by Bifcay, and on the north by French or Lower Na-
varre. ‘This country abounds in fteep mountains, intermixed
with vallies, and fome fmall plains, which are very tertile.
The mountains are part of the Pyrenees, forming the weftern
extremity of that grand chain; and the principal vallies are
thofe of Roncevaux, Lefcou, Baftan, and Roncal. Na-
varre is watered by the Ebro, and eight {mall rivers. It has
two bifhoprics, one at Pampeluna, the other at Tudela;
two cathedral chapters, five collegiate chapters, 753 pa-
rifhes, 70 religious houfes, 12 hofpitals, two afylums, a
grand military government under the adminiftration of a
viceroy, a particular military government, a royal council,
@ chamber of accounts, an univerfity, four colleges for the

4C education

NAV

education of youth, nine cities, 154 towns, and 638 villages.
Its capital is Pampeluna ; which fee. Navarre was formerly
yery populous, but towards the end of the 16th century
there was a confiderable emigration of its inhabitants, who
removed into the province of France, which took its name.
According to the enumeration of the years 1787 and 1788,
the number of inhabitants ought to be now 287,3823 in
which number are reckoned 753 parifh priefts, 1166 fecular
priefts, 1120 monks, 510 nuns, 13,054 nobles, 172 writers,
1163 ftudents, and gto fervants.. ‘The country is moun-
tainous and cold; the mountains are very lofty, and fre-
quently fteep, generally prefenting to the view bare rocks.
However, it has fome confiderable forefts, and excellent
paftures; and in fome diftriéts,. the air is milder and more
falubrious than in the neighbouring provinces of Spain.
The fertile foil, capable of culture, is reitri€ted to a certain
number of vallies, and fome hills and plains; and of courfe
its produétions are not fufficient for fupplying the wants of
its inhabitants. It yields wheat, rye, barley, maize, wine,
a {mall quantity of oil, fruits, and pulfe. The lands, that
are of the belt quality, are not rendered fo productive as
they might be made. The territory of Tudela is adapted
to all forts of tillage; \it produces wheat, olives, barley,
beans, excellent fruits, and hemp; but every thing is ne-
gleGted for the fake of the cultivation of the vine. Among
the wines of Navarre thofe that are moft diftinguifhed are
the wines of Tudela, refembling that of Burgundy, and
thofe of Peralta, which are rich, and made with the grape
called Berbes, and in colour like that of Sherry. Cyder
is made in fome of the vallies; the beit being fupplied by
that of Baftan. The lands in the diftri&t of Pampeluna are
well manured, and the crops are changed alternately for
four years in the following order, viz. wheat, beans, wheat,
maize; fo that the ground never lies fallow. ‘The manu-
faGtures of Navarre have never been confiderable. Of
brandy there are fome diftilleries at Eftella, Fuente de la
Reyna, and Sanguefa. Cloth manufactories are not fo un-
frequently met with at Tudela as in other towns. At ‘Tu-
dela there are fix foap manufatories, and others of tiles,
bricks, and pottery. Eftella has fome looms of coarfe
woollens. One league from Eguy there is a manufaétory
of ca{t-iron, bombs, and balls, on the king’s account ; and
the town of Corella, containing about 4000 inhabitants, has
a manufaéture of liquorice juice, which is extra¢ted from the
wood of this tree, of which they make a fub/tance: this is
exported in great quantities to the north of Europe, and is
called with us Spanifh liquorice. The commerce of Navarre
is entirely confined to imports. Of late the roads, which
were formerly impediments to trade, have been improved ;
and the rivers Ebro and Bidazao afford an eafy communica-
tion, of which the inhabitants might avail themfelves as an
incentive to induftry and aétivity. Iron mines in this pro-
vince are rather abundant. Near Pampeluna there is a cop-
per mine, which was worked about the middle of the 18th
century. On the ground near Valtierra is a mine of white
rock falt, which is very*abundant, in layers of gypfum:
the interior of this mine refembles an ancient church in the
Gothic ftyle. The mountains fupply plenty of game, hares,
rocbacks, foxes, wolves, wild boars, &c. ‘This: province
has various mineral waters. The arts and fciences have been
but little cultivated in Navarre; and it has furnifhed few
writers of any note. As tothe difpofition and character of
the inhabitants, they are generally ferious, referved, proud,
and brave; nimble in running, excellent leapers, and expert
players at tennis. ‘They are reproached with being obfti-
nate, opinionated, indocile, imperious, quarrelfome, and
iolent; but, on the ether hand, they are allowed to be
11

NAV

Witty, acute, ingenious, and laborious. ‘They feem to have
readily adopted the French manners ; and their drefs or cof-
tume is nearly the fame with that of the Caftilians, The
language of Navarre is the Caftilian, altered by a mixture of
Bifcayan, Catalan, and French. 4:

As to the hiftory of Navarre, we obferve that in the
fifth century, this province was free fromthe yoke which
the Alani, Suevi, and Vandals had impofed upon the two
Cattiles, Galicia, Afturias, and Andalufa. Ia the year
470 or 472, Euric or Evaric, a Gothic king, who is faid
to have firlt given written laws to the Goths of Spain, took
poffeffion of Pampeluna and the furrounding country, the
inhabitants of which were Roman Catholics: At firft the
Goths manifetted a fpirit of toleration ; but they afterwards
exercifed unwarrantable defpotifm ; till at length the people
of Navarre and the neighbouring countries refolved to de-
fend the faith to which they were attached, and caufed an
infurretion in 581 againit Leudivigilde, the Gothic king ;
but they were fubdued by this barbarous prince, and many
of them, called Wafcones, paffed over the Pyrenees, and
fettled in the territory which from thefe new occupiers was
denominated Gafcony. Navarre was afterwards poffeffed
by the Moors until the year $06, when they were expelled
by Louis, king of Aquitania, the fon of Charlemagne;
and from that period this country put itfelf under the pro-
te€tion of the French empire. In 832 Aznar, having been
ill treated by Pepin, king of Aquitania, formed a party
and took pofleffion of Navarre, caufing himfelf to be de-
clared count. After his death, a count of Bigorre be-
came the founder of a monarchy, which continued in his
houfe for soo'years. In 1512 the kingdom of Navarre
was difmembered. Its legitimate fovereigrs were then con-
fined to that part fituated on the French fide of the Py-
renées, and called Lower Navarre, and which was united to
the crown of France by Henry IV. That part which has
been fubjeét to the kings of Spain, has {till preferved
the ancient form of its government and conftitution. It is
governed by a viceroy. The courts, in their form, powers,
and legal proceedings, differ entirely from thofe of Spain.
It is not only governed by its ancient laws, civil and cri-
minal, but has preferved its own ftates, compofed of the
three orders, the clergy, the nobility, and the deputations
of towns. The ancient money has alfo been preferved,
viz. le cornado~ (half a maravedis), l’ocharo (two mara-
vedis), andle gros (fix maravedis), which are. fra€tions of
pence ; la tarja or eight maravedis; and 4? tarjas, equal one
real of vellon, or 2d. Navarre alfo maintains the ‘pri-
vilege of receiving the greater part of foreign merchandize
without fearch or duty; nor is it fubjeét to the cuftoms,
except when they leave Navarre for Old Caftile; the firft
cuftom-houfe is at Agreda. ;

Louis, king of Aquitania, divided Navarre into five coun-
ties, which divifions (till exilt under the name of “ Merin-
dades ;’? of which the chief places are Pampeluna, the ca-
pital, Eftella, Tudela, Sanguefa, and Olita. Laborde’s
View of Spain, vol. ii.

Navarre, Lower, a province of France, which now
forms the department of the Lower Pyrenées.

Navarre, Necv, a province of New Mexico, on the
N.E. fide of the gulf of California, which feparates it from
the peninfula of California on the S.W. It is bounded on
the N. by a country unknown, on the E. by New Mexico
Proper and New Bifeay, on thé S, by Culiacan, and on the
W. by the gulf of California, The chief Spanifh town is St.
Juan Cinaloa.

NAVARREINS, a town of France, in the department
of the Lower Pyrenées; and chief place of a canton, in

4 the

NAU
the diftri& of Orthés; 10 miles N.W. ef Oleron. The

place contains 1300, and the canton 11,044 inhabitants, on
a territory of 155 kiliometres, in 27 communes.

NAVARU, a town of Hindoottan, in Vifiapour; 16
‘miles E.N.E. of Vifiapour.

NAVAS del Marques, Las, a town of Spain, in New
Cattile ; 15 miles W. of Efcurial.

NAVASIA, a {mall iffand in the Windward paflage,
or {trait between Cuba and Hifpaniola, whither the inhabit.
ants of Jamaica refort to kill guaras, a kind of lizard,
whofe flefh is firm and white, and faid by feamen to make
good broth. ite ;

NAVASQUE, a town of Spain, iy Navarre; 22 miles
S.E. of Pampeluna.

NAVATIR, a town of Arabia Petrea;
E.S.£. of Adjerud.

NAVAZZA. See La Navace.

NAUCELLE, a town of France, in the department of
the Aveyron, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of
Rodés; two miles S.E. of Sauveterre.
867, and the canton 6533 inhabitants, ona territory of 2074
kiliometres, in 20 communes.

NAUCLEA, in Botany, probably from savz, a /bip or
bark, and xAssw, to enclofe or /hut up, becaufe the feed, or
more properly the half capfule, is fhaped like the hull of a
veffel, and contains the kernels in its cavity. Linneus, the
author. of the name, has not given its derivation, nor has
Profeffor Martyn attempted any explanation. Linn. Gen. go.
Schreb. 119. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 928. Mart. Mill.
Di&. v. 3. Jufl. 209. Lamarck Hluftr. t. 153. Gaertn.
t. 30. (Uncaria; Schreb. 125. 822. Ourouparia; Aubl.
Guian. v. 1..177. t. 68.)—Clafs and order, Pentandria
Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Aggregate, Linn. Rubiacee, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx none.» Common Receptacle glo-
bofe, fomewhat villous, entirely covered with flowers. Pe-
rianth of one leaf, oblong, incrufting, or rather crowning,
the germen, contra¢ted and entire at the mouth. Cor. to
each flower, of one petal, funnel-fhaped, inferted into the
mouth of the calyx; tube thread-fhaped, elongated; limb
fhorter than the tube, in five deep, ovate, obtufe, fpreading
fegments. Stam. Filaments five, very fhort, inthe throat of the
_ corolla; anthers ovate, as long as the tube. Pift. Germen
in the bottom of the calyx, or more properly inferior, ob-
long ; ftyle capillary, erect, longer than the corolla; ftigma
large, of various fhapes. Peric. Captule coated, turbinate,
obtufe, tapering below, feparating into two cells, eack
finally fufpended by a thread at its fummit. Steds feveral,
fmall, ovate, rather compreffed, bordered with a membrane,
tapering down into a briftle-fhaped appendage, attached to
the future.

Eff. Ch.
two disjoined cells, with many feeds.
globofe, hairy.

SeGtion 1. Heads of flowers terminal.

t- N. orientalis. _Broad-fharp-leaved Nauclea. Linn.
Sp. Pi. 243. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v.14. 366. Willd.
n. 3. (Katou Tsjaca; Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 1. 29.
t. 33.)—Leaves elliptic-oblong, acute. Thorns none.
Flower-ftalk terminal, equal. Stamens the length of the
corolla. Stigma pyramidal.—Native of the Eait Indies;
communicated by lord vifcount Valentia. A tall ¢ree, with
a thick trunk, hard wood, and copious branches. Leaves
oppofite, ftalked, elliptic-oblong, acute at each end, entire,
varying in length from two to four inches, fmooth, with
one rib, and numerous, ftrong, tran{verfe, curved veins;
fhining above; paler and rather opaque beneath. Stipulas
lanceolate, deciduous, F/ower-/talks terminal, fmooth, of

18 miles

Corolla funnel-fhaped. Capfule inferior, of

Common receptacle

The place contains

N-ACU

an equal thicknefs throughout, about an inch long. Head
of flowers two inches in diameter, yellowifh, inodorous.
Stigma oblong, angular, rather acute.

2. N. purpurea. Purple Nauclea. Roxb. Coromand.
ve I. 41. t. 54. Willd. n. 2.—Leaves oblong, tapering at
each end. Thorns none. Flower-{talk terminal, {wel ing
upwards. Stigma globofe.—Native of moilt vallies, amon
the Circar mountains of Coromandel, flowering: in ‘April
the beginning of the hot feafon. Roxb. A {mall tree, with
more oblong and tapering /eaves than the foregoing, and
dull purplifh fowers, whofe fligma is globofe, with many
furrows.

Bancalus of Rumph. Amb. vy. 3. 84. t. 55, quoted by
Linnzus with doubt for the former, and by Willdenow
without any hefitation for this, feems to agree beft with that
in the fhape of its leaves.

3- N. parvifolia. Small-round-leaved Nauclea. Roxb.
Coromand. v. 1. 40. t. 52. Willd. n. 3.—Leaves ellip-
tical, rounded, bluntifh. Thorns none. Flower-ftalk ter-
minal, equal. Stigma obtufe, hooded at the bafe. Calyx
downy.—Native of almoft every part of the coaft of Coro-
mandel, but chiefly among the mountains, flowering in the
cold feafon. We have {pecimens from Koenig and Rox-
burgh. This is a large tree, whofe wood is of a light
ee colour, firm and clofe-grained, but rotting if ex-
pofed to wet. The branches appear to vary in ftoutnefs,
and the /eaves in fize ; but their rounded, fomewhat obovate,
bluntifh form is very unlike the two preceding. The flowers
are of a dirty white, in fmaller heads than the firft fpecies.
Their figma is yery peculiar, obovate, concave and bor-
dered at the bafe, as if hooded, and hung upon the ftyle.

4. N. africana. Seflile-flowered Nauclea. Willd. n. 4.
(Uncaria inermis ; Willd. in Utter. Dele&. v. 2. 199. t. 3-)
—Leaves oblong-ovate, pointed. Thornsnone. Heads of
flowers feffile, terminal. Stamens longer than the tube of
the corolla, reflexed. Stigma oblong. Gathered by Ifert
in Guinea. Segments of the calyx more rounded than in
the laft, and aves pointed. Stigma oblong, with twa fur-
rows. Willd.

5- N. Jatifolia. Broad-leaved African Nauclea.—Leaves
roundifh, {mooth. Thorns none. Heads of flowers ter-
minal, on fhort ftalks. Stigma oblong, furrowed. _Stipulas
triangular, deeply divided—Gathered by the late Mr.
Smeathman at Sierra Leone. The Jeaves in our fpecimen
are very much damaged, but enough remains to prove them
{everal inches in length and breadth, though we cannot judge
of their termination. The fiipulas are {mall, broad, flightly
downy, very deeply cloven, their two fegments cohering into
a.triangular figure. #/owers apparently orange-coloured ;
the fegments of the corolla rounded. Stamens enclofed in
thetube. Stigma long, acute ; its lower part cylindrical aud
even; upper furrowed, Scales of the receptacle club-fhaped,
and elegantly fringed, nearly equal to the flowers.

6. N. coadunata. Combined Nauclea.. Roxb. MSS.—
Leaves heart-fhaped, obtufe, fomewhat downy. Thorns
none. Heads of flowers terminal. Stigma pyramidal.
Stipulas rounded, reticulated, combined at the bafe.—Com-
municated by Dr. Roxburgh from Calcutta, under the above
name, ‘The /eaves are not unlike thofe of Ficus bengalenfis
in fhape and fize, but lefs coriaceous. Stipulas large, near
an inch long, almott orbicular, apparently coloured, downy
with copious reticulated veins ; combined at the bafe, fo
that they remain encircling the branch after they break off
from their point of infertion. Flowers fomewhat orange-
coloured. —_Anthers nearly equal to the limb. Stigma tumid
and {mooth at the bafe ; furrowed and pyramidal above.

Section 2, Heads of flowers axillary.

4C 2 » N

NAUCLEA.

4. N. Gambir. Gambeer Nauclea. Hunter Tr. of Linn.
Soc. v. 9. 218. t. 22. (Funis uncatus ; Daun Gatta Gambir
anguftifolia; Rumph. Amboin. v. 5. 63. t. 34. f. 2.)—
Leaves ovate, pointed, {mooth. Stemclimbing. Branches
round. Stipulas undivided. . Flower-ftalks axillary, be-
coming hooked fpines.—Native of Amboyna, in thickets,
efpecially near the coatt. Rumph. It is cultivated accord-
ing to Mr. Hunter, fecretary to the Afiatic Society, for
the fake of the drug called Gambeer. which is an infpiffated
extraG from its leaves. Inthe Prince of Wales’s ifland,
where this gentleman made his obfervations, a Chinefe pre-
pared the Gambeer under his infpeétion. This article had
previoufly been fuppofed the produce of the Mimofa Catechu.
The plant however is cultivated for this purpofe in Sumatra,
along the Malay coaft, and other places. A red rich foil
is preferred, on the fide of a hill, as the fhrubs do not
thrive in inundated fituations, though a rainy feafon is fa-
vourable to the crop. They are propagated from feed, and
are tranfplanted when nine inches high. Nine pounds of
leaves yield above ten ounces of Gambeer. The qualities
of this drug are aftringent and tonic. Its firft tafte is bit-
ter andauftere, but a permanent fweetnefs remains. A pu-
rified white fort is preferred for chewing with the leaves of
Betel, its moft frequent ufe. The coarfer kind ferves for
tanning and dyeing, in China and Java. The /fem of this
fhrub climbs to a great height, when it meets with fupport,
and has a rough brown bark. The branches are crowded,
round, {mooth, the young ones oppofite, widely {preading.
Leaves oppofite, on fhort ftalks, ovate, pointed, undulated,
entire, above three inches long, and near an inch and a half
wide, fmooth and fhining on both fides, paler beneath, with
fome axillary hairinefs where the veins branch from the mid-
rib. Stipulas ovate, or fomewhat quadrangular, fimple and
undivided, f{preading, deciduous. Flower-flalks axillary,
folitary, ftraight and horizontal, not half the length of the
leaf, round, flightly thickened at the bafe, furnifhed with a
braGteated joint towards the extremity, which finally fepa-
rates, after the feeds are ripe, the lower part of the ftalk
being permanent, and becoming a recurved hooked fpine.
The flowers compofe a globe, about an inch in diameter,
and are defcribed by Rumphius as purplifh, and inodorous.
The flender capfules, almoft an inch long, are elevated on
ftalks, nearly their own length. Seeds numerous, imbricated,
minute, with an oblong, jagged, membranous appendage at
each end. The branches which have attained the thicknefs
of.two fingers, are faid by Rumphius to difcharge, when
wounded, a copious limpid fluid, which is a wholefome and
pleafant drink.

8. N. acida. Acid-leaved Nauclea. Hunter Tr. of
Linn. Soc. v, 9. 223. (Funis uncatus; Daun Gatta Gam-
bir latifolia; Rumph. Amboin. v. 5. 63. t. 34. f. 1.)—
Leaves ovate, pointed, {mooth. Stem climbing. Branches
quadrangular. Stipulas deeply divided. Flower-ftalks ax-
ilary, becoming hooked comprefled fpines.—Sent by Mr.
Hunter from Soongey Clooan in the Prince of Wales’s
ifland. Ir differs from the laft, very effentially, in the deep
divifions of its broad permanent flipulas. The flower-/lalks
are fhorter, and when they become fpines much broader
and compreffed, fo much incurved as frequently to complete
acircle. The /eaves have an acid talte. If we are right in
the citation of Rumphius, which there feems no reaton to
doubt, this {pecies is very common in Amboina. He fays
the flowers appear in February, and are of a dirty white,
but much admired for their grateful and permanent fcent,
like oil of cinnamon, or like jafmine, which laft is called
Gambir. ‘The leaves are chewed like Betel, and this author
feems to have heard of the Gutta Gambir being prepared

from this plant, though he was informed, from another quarter,
of its being the produce of a totally different one ; meaning
perhaps Mimofa Catechu.

g- N. feandens. Climbing Hairy Nauclea. Buchan.
MSS. (Funis uncatus lanofus ; Rumph. Amboin. v. 5. 65.
t. 34. f. 3.)—Leaves ovate, pointed, hairy, as well as the
branches. Stemclimbing. Stipulas in two deep linear feg-
ments. Flower-ftalks axillary, becoming hooked hairy
{pines.— Native of various parts of the Eaft Indies ; com-
municated by Dr. F. Buchanan. Diftinguifhed from the
two laft by the rufty hairinefs of its fquare branches, the
narrownefs of the deeply divided fipulas, and the roughnefs
of the upper fide of its aves, whofe under fide is paler and
more foftly downy. Rumphius fays the branches yield a
limpid and pleafant fluid, which by keeping turns flightly
bitter and aftringent; and that the foqwers are white, witha
mixture of yellow, without any peculiar {mell.

10. N.aculeata. Guiana Nauclea. Willd. n.5. (Ou-
rouparia guianenfis; Aubl. Guian. v. 1.177. t. 68.)—
Leaves ovate, pointed, {mooth. Stemclimbing. Branches
quadrangular. Stipulas triangular, undivided. Flower-
{talks axillary, becoming hooked compreffed {pines.—Ga-
thered by Aublet on the banks of creeks and rivers in Guiana,
flowering in May and June. This has a great affinity to the
three laft, as the editors of Aublet have noticed. It moft
refembles N. acida, in its fquare branches, f{mooth leavess
and compreffed, greatly recurved, /pines, but differs effen-
tially in having undivided ffipulas. Aublet fays, it climbs to
the tops of the loftieft trees, crowning them with fowers,
which are extremely variable in colour, being either yellow,
white, or of a more or lefs deep red, with a very {weet fmell.
The fruit is faid to be foft and blue, the fize of a red goofe-
berry, but of two cells, feparated by amembrane, to which
are attached numerous hard, coriaceous, black feeds. This
founds very difcordantly with the other fpecies, and yet the
fruit in quettion appears to be only a pulageedatied capfule,
between which, and that of the other f{pecies, there may per-
haps be lefs difference, than between the various /figmas of
thofe that compofe the firft feGtion.

11. N.felerophylla. Rigid-leaved Nauclea. Hunter Tr.
of Linn. Soc. v. 9. 223.—Leaves elliptical, fearcely pointed,
fhining, rigid: reticulated and rough beneath. Stem climb-
ing. Branches quadrangular, downy. Stipulas lunate,
divided. Flower-ftalks axillary, compreffed, downy, be-
coming hooked fpines—Communicated by Mr: Hunter,
from the top of the hill at Soongey Clooan, Prince of Wales’s
ifland. This is truly a magnificent f{pecies, remarkable for
the great fize of allits parts. The branches and flalks are
all clothed with an extremely fine, clofe, ferruginous down.
Leaves five inches long, and three broad, flightly heart-
fhaped at the bafe, wavy but hardly crenate, with a very
flight blunt point; their fubftance rigid and coriaceous ;
their upper fide fmooth as if varnifhed; the under pale,
opaque, with innumerable, repeatedly fubdivided, reticu-
lated, parallel, prominent, minutely rough veins, between
which the whole leaf is exquifitely dotted. Fvoqwer-flalks
two inches long, ftout, rigid, rufty, compreffed ; finally re-
curved and pointed. Head of flowers above two inches in
diameter, with fix lanceolate, whorled, deciduous bra@eas
under it, at the joint of the ftalk. Ca/yx coriaceous ;_briftly
within; downy and ruily, hke the germen and /ialks, ex-
ternally. Corolla clothed with long, prominent, fhining,
tawny briltles. We have no account or fpecimen of the
fruit.

12. N. cordifolia, Heart-leaved Nauclea. Roxb. Coro-
mand. v. 1. 40. t. 53. Willd. n. 6.—Leaves heart-fhaped,
pointed, downy. Stemereét. Stipulas obovate, undivided.

Flower-

NALD

Flower-ftalks axillary, downy, ufually in pairs.—Commu-
- nicated by Dr. Roxburgh, from the mountainous parts of
' the coaft of Coromandel, where it flowers inthe wet feafon,

the feeds ripening about April. The natives call it Daduga.
This isa large and valuable timber-tree, very different in
habit from all we have hitherto deferibed in this feétion.
The wood is yellow, exceedingly beautiful, like box, but
lighter, and at the fame time very clofe-grained. It is ex-
cellent for furniture, but not lafting when expofed to wet.
The branches form a very large fhady head, and are roundith,
fomewhat compreffed, tortuous, downy when young. Leaves
on downy ftalks, which are about two inches long, of a
roundifh heart-fhaped figure, thin and pliant, five or fix
inches long when full-grown, and nearly as broad, entire,
wavy, bright green; roughifh above; paler and downy be-
neath ; with one rib, and numerous forked veins, whofe
ultimate ramifications are finely reticulated. Stipulas large,
obovate, obtufe, undivided, downy, deciduous. Flower-
fealks axillary, in pairs, combined at their bafe, flender,
downy, near two inches long, with a joint towards the fum-
mit. Braéeas at the joint, optufe, fimple or cloven, com-
bined at the bottom, deciduous. Head of fowers about an
inch in diameter, yellowifh. Dr. Roxburgh fays the num-
ber of flower-flalks varies from one to four. The cap/ules are
flender, wedge-fhaped, and abrupt. Sveds not imbricated,
about fix in each cell, inferted into its lower part, each tipped
with a clover membrane.

13. N. Adina. Myrtle-leaved Nauclea. Adina globi-
flora; Salif. Parad. 116. t. 115.)—Leaves elliptic-lanceo-
late, pointed, {mooth. Stem erect. Stipulas deeply di-
vided, acute. Flower-ftalks axillary, downy, folitary.—
Native of China. It is faid to have come up in the earth of
fome plants, fent from Canton to the late Rt. Hon. Charles
Greville, with whom it flowered in July and Auguft. The

fremis thrubby, round, with numerous, oppofite, fpreading,

flender branches, minutely downy when young. Leaves on
fhert ftalks, elliptic-lanceolate, two inches long, entire, thin,
fmooth, moderately veiny, tapering at the bafe, terminating
in ablunt point. Svipulas deeply divided into two lanceolate,
acute, fpreading fegments. Fower-/falks axillary, folitary,
fhorter than the leaves, flender like thofe of the laft fpecies,
and, like that, remaining ere&t, not (as far as we have ma-
terials to judge by) becoming recurved or {pinous. The
head of flowers is {maller than in the laft, yellowifh. Cap-

Jule with four furrows, tapering at the bafe. Seeds two or

three in each cell, fringed at the top with a jagged mem-

brane. We cannot find grounds to feparate this plant from

Nauclea as the genus at prefent ftands, the divided valves of

the capfule, and efpecially the cloven /fipulas, being by no

means fufficient even to indicate a probable generic dif-
tin@ion. The afpeé of the plant is indeed confiderably un-
like any of the foregoing {pecies, which, moreover, differ

greatly among themfelves ; and we cannot but fufpeé that a

more complete acquaintance with them might authorize fome

divifion of the genus, though Willdenow hints that Nauclea
is not really diftiné& from Cephalanthus.

It isa curious circumftance, that Linneus has preferved
in his herbarium a fpecimen of the laft-defcribed {pecies, for
the true NV. orientalis, which he defcribed from Hermann’s
colle&ion, it not being in his own. We cannot poffibly fay
which of the two he intended as his Cephalanthus orientalis,
Sp. Pl. ed. 1. 95, of which he had a f{pecimen then before
him ; but there is no pofitive evidence of its having been this
N. Adina. His fon came nearer the truth, in taking W. par-
vifolia of Roxburgh for the orientalis, which however are
certainly diftin&. S.

NAUCRARI, Navxewgo, among the Athenians, a de-

NAU

fignation given to the chief magiftrates of the yuo, bom
roughs or townfhips, which were likewife called vavxg-ory
becaufe each of them were obliged, befides two horfemen,
to furnifh out one fhip for the public fervice,

NAUDE, Gasriet, in Biography, was born at Paris
in the year 1600. Shewing at an early age an attachment
to letters, his parents fent him to a religious community, as
well to learn the rudiments of grammar as the firlt princi-
ples of the Chriftian religion. Hence he was removed to
the univerlity, where he applied himfelf with great ardour
to the purfuit of claflical learning, and was created malter
of arts while very young. As foon as he had finifhed his
courfe in philofophy, he remained undetermined what pro-
feffion to choofe. His friends advifed him to affume the
theological habit, but he preferred phyfic, and after a
while fixed upon that faculty. This election, on his part,
did not prevent him from indulging his genius in other
branches of learning. The plan of his ftudies was exten-
five, and fuited to his comprehenfive talents and indefa-
tigable induftry, and he foon fo much diltinguifhed himfelf,
that Henry de Mefmes, hearing his character, made him
keeper of his library, and took him into his family.
Nande was delighted with his new fituation, becaufe it fur-
nifhed him with the means and leifure to improve himfelf
as he could with. In 1626 he went to Padua, but on the
death of his father, which happened foon after, he was
obliged to return to Paris. In 1631 cardinal Bagni ap-
pointed him his librarian and Latin fecretary, and took him
to Rome in the {pring of that year. Naude continued in
his fervice till the death of the cardinal, which happened in
1641, and in the mean time made an excurfion to Padua
to take his doétor’s degree in phyfic, in order to fupport the
charaéter of phyfician to Lewis XIII. On the death of
his patron he engaged in the fervice of cardinal Barberini,
but as foon as Richelieu fent for him to be his librarian,
he immediately returned to Paris; he was not however long
in the fervice of that prime minifter, who died in a few
months after the arrival of his librarian, but he fucceeded
to the like poft under Mazarine, for whom he formed a
magnificent library, which, in the courfe of feven years, he
railed from the firft volume to 40,co0. He next accepted
an invitation from Chriltina to become her library-keeper,
but he foon grew out of humour with his refidence in
Sweden, and quitted it loaded with prefents from the queen
and from other perfons of -diftin@tion. The fatigue of his
journey threw him into a fever, which obliged him to {top
at Abbeville, where he died in July 1653. He wrote a
great number of books, a catalogue of which may be found
in Niceron’s Memoirs; but of them all, the « Apologie
des grands Hommes accufés de Magie” is faidto be the
only one that continues to be read.

Navupe, Purciy, a celebrated profeffor of mathematics
at Berlin, was born at Metz, in Lorrain, in 1654. At
the age of twelve he was taken into the fervice of the
court of Eifenach, in the capacity of page, and attendant
on the young princes. He remained in this fituation about
four years, after which we hear no more of him for feveral
years, except that, during this interval, he made confider-
able proficiency in different branches of learning, particu-
larly in the mathematical fciences. When the edi& of
Nantes was revoked, he left France, with his wife and in-
fant child, and went to Hanau, where he refided two years.
From this place he removed to Berlin, and opened a mathe-
matical fchool. In 1687 he was appointed to teach arith-
metic and the elements of the mathematics at the college of
Joachim. On the death of Langerfield he fucceeded to
the vacant pofts of mathematician to the court, and tutor

te

NAV

to the pages, and at the fame tive obtained a profefforfhip
in the Academy of Sciences. He obtained other confider-
able employments before his deceafe, which happened in
1729, when he had attained to the-age of 75. He was author
of * Elements of Geometry,”
man language, and printed at Berlin, and of fome fmaller
pieces, which appeared at different pericds in the <* Mifcel-
lanea Berolinenfia.”” He was author of a great number of
theological pieces, which had a high reputation at the time
in which our author flourifhed.

NAUDERS, in Geography, a town of the Tyrolefe;
eight miles N. of Glurentz.

NAUDOWESIES, or Nawpowesstgs, an Indian na-
tion inhabiting lands between lakes Michigan and Superior.
The number‘of warriors is 500.

NAVE, atownof Africa, in Bondou.
W. long. 10° go’.

“Nave, in <Archite&ure, Navis Ecclefie, denotes the
body of achurch ; or the place where the people are feated ;
reaching from the rail or baluiter of the choir, to the chief
door.

Balus derives the word from the Greek, »x0:, temple ;
which Salmafius brings farther from »xu-, /hip; by reafon
the vault or roof of a church bears refemblance to a fhip.
The ancient Greeks called the nave pronaos ; the Latins fre-
quently call it cella.

The nave of the church belongs to the parifhioners: it
belongs to them to repair it, &c. ;

Nave of a whee/, is that fhort thick piece in the centre
of a wheel, which receives the end of the axle-tree, and in
which the ends of the {pokes are fixed; it is bound at each
end with hoops of iron, called the nave-bands: it has like-
wife in each end of the hole, through which the end of the
axle-tree goes, a ring of iron called the wi/her, which faves
the hole ef the nave from wearing.

Nave-Line, in Sea Language, is a fort of {mall tackle,
depending from the head of the main-matt and fore-matt, and
faftened to the middle of the parrel, immediately behind the
ma{t, and communicating with the gears. Itis ufedto keep
the parrel directly oppofite to the yard, and particularly
whilft hoifting or lowering, as it would otherwife hang
under the yard, and prevent it from being fufficiently
braced.

NAVEL, a part in the middle of the belly, by anato-
mifts called umbilicus,

NAVEL-String by anatomifts is called funiculus umbili-
calis. See Funis, and Lazour.

Navet-Hoods, in Ship-Building, large pieces of ftuff fitted
into the hawfe-holes, to keep the cables from wearing them.

Navet-Wort, in Botany. See CoryLepon and Cyno-
GLOSSUM.

The greater navel-wort, with hooded leaves, fharply in-
dented, and growing alternate, and a branching ftalk, with
ereét flowers, which has been ufedin medicine, grows uponold
walls and buildings in many parts of England, particularly
in Shropfhire and Somerfetfhire, and was reckoned gently
cooling and moiftening, refrigerating and aftringent; ufeful
in hot diltempers of the liver: and thought to provoke
urine, and to take off the heat and fharpnefs of it. The
juice of it outwardly applied, was efteemed ferviceable in
relieving the fhingles, St. Anthony’s fire, the pain and
inflammation of the piles, and to be ufeful again{t kibes
and chilblains; it is an ingredient in the unguentum po-
puleon.

Navet-Wort, Baflard. See Crassuta.

Navet-Mort, Venus's, the name of a genus of plants,
called by authors emphalodes ; which fee.

N..Jat. 14° 20.

in 4to. written in the Ger-»

NAV ;

Navet-Wort, Water, aname fometimes given to the hy-
drocotyle of botanifts. See Hyprocory Le.

NAVESINK Harzour, in Geography, a port on the
‘coat of New Jerfey ; five miles N.W. of Shrewfbury.

NAVETTE, in Botany, the mame by which moft of
the European nations call the napus, or bunias fylucftris of
Lobel, the plant from the feeds of which the oil, which
we call rape oil, and the French and others navette oil, is
exprefled. The plant is cultivated in many parts of Eng-
land, and in other countries, for the fake of the feed ; the oil
drawn from this is ufed by many artificers, and is of a fine
yellow colour, and the {mell is not offenfive. The cake re-
maining after the expreffion of the oil, retains, like that of
muftard, the acrimony of the feeds.

NAVEW, See Napus. :

NAUGAMUNGLUM, in Geography, a town of Hin-
dooftan, in Myfore ; 28 miles N. of Seringapatam.

NAUGARDTEN, or Neucarten, a town of Hinder
Pomerania; 50 miles W. of New Stettin. N. lat. 53-42".
W. long. 15° 5’.

NAUHEIM, a town of Germany, in the county of
Hanau Munzenberg, which has falt-works; taken by the
French in 1792; 13 miles N. of Hanau.

NAVIA, a town of Spain, in the province of Afturias,
fituated upon the river called after it, the Navias, which
waters a beautiful and fertile plain. Navia has a confider-
able harbour, which carries on fome trade ; and the inhabit-
ants are perfuaded, that it was founded by Ham, one of
the fons of Noah, who gave to the town, as well as the
river, the name of his wife Navia; 36 miles N.W. of
Oviedo.

Navia de Suanna, a town of Spain, in Galicia; 20 miles
S.S.E. of Mondonedo.

NAVICULA, in Conchology, a name given by a late
French author to the clafs of thells called by us the nautili.
See NaurTizus. f

NAVICULARE Os, in Anatomy, a bone of the tarfus:
See ExTREMITIES. ,

NAVIDAD, in Geography, a town of Mechoacan, in
Mexico, with a harbour on the North Pacific ocean; 156
miles W. of the city of Mexico. N. lat. 18° 51’.
long. 111° 1o!.

NAVIER, Perer Foussaint, in Biography, a diftin-
guifhed phyfician and chemit, was born at St. Dizier early
in the eighteenth century, and fettled in the practice of his
profeffion at Chalons-fur-Marne. He was univerlally ef-
teemed for the good qualities both of his head and heart,
but particularly for his humane and active attendance on
the poor of his vicinity, to whom he performed great fer-
vices during feveral epidemics. He died in 1779. He
diftinguifhed himfelf by various chemical refearches, efpe-
cially by his difcovery of nitrous ether, and by fome curious
obfervations relative to the compofition of the animal fluids,
which were publifhed in his effay, entitled ** Obfervations
fur l’Amollifiement des Os,” in 1755, fuggetted by the re-
markable cafe of Supiot. He was likewile the author of
fome anatomical and pra¢tical differtations, particularly one
on epidemic difeafes, entitled “ Diflertation fur plufieurs
Maladies populaires, qui ont regne depuis quelque tems
a Chalons-fur-Marne,” 1753, Eloy Di&. Hitt. Gen,

Biog.

NAVIGABLE Rivers. See River.

NAVIGATION, the art or act of failing, or of con-
ducting a veflel from one place to another, in the fafett,
fhortett, and molt commodious way.

This art, in the full latitude of the word, comprehends
three parts: 1. The art of conftru€ting and building fhips.

(See

~ NAVIGATION.

(See Suip-purepinc.) 2. The loading of fhips. And,
3- The conduting and guiding fhips through the fea ;
which is in a peculiar fenfe called navigation or failing ;
which fee. j

In this reflrained fenfe of the word, navigation is either
common or proper. .

Navication, Common, ufually called coaffing, (which
fee,) is where the ports are on the fame, or very neigh-
bouring coaits ; and where the veffel is feldom out of fight
of land, or out of. reach of founding. ;

In this, little elfe is required but an acquaintance with
- the lands, the compafs, and founding line; each of which
fee in its place, Compass, and SounpiNe.

NAvication, Proper, is where the voyage is long, and
purfved through the main ocean.

In this, befides the requilites in the former, are likewife
required the ufe of Mercator’s chart, azimuth, and ampli-
tude compaffes, log-line, and other inftruments for celettial
obfervations ; as quadrants, forettaffs, &c.
ftrument, &c. in its place.

Navigation turns principally on four things; two of which

being known, the reit are eafily found from them by the:

table, fcales, and charts.

Thefe four things are, the difference of latitude, differ-
ence of longitude, the reckoning or diftance run, and the
courfe or rhumb failed on. 2 q

The latitudes are eafily found, and that with fufficient
accuracy. See Latirupe.

The courfe and diltance are had by the log-line, or dead
reckoning, and the compafs. See Loc, Compass, Course,
- and Distance.

Nor is there any thing wanting to the perfeétion of navi-
gation, but to determine the longitude. The mathemati-
cians of many ages have applied themfelves, with the ut-
moft affiduity, to fupply this grand defideratum, and in late
times with a confiderable degree of fuccefs.

For the various methods that now occafionally obtain at
fea, for this purpofe, and an account of the difcoveries that
have been made, fee LonciTupE.

The poets refer the invention of the art of navigation to
Neptune, fome of the ancients to Bacchus, others to Her-
cules, others to Jafon, others to Janus,-who is faid to
have made the firft fhip. Hiftorians afcribe it to the Agi-
netes, the Phoenicians, Tyrians, and the ancient inhabit-
ants of Britain. Some will have it, the firft hint was
taken from the flight of the kite; others, as Oppian, de
Pifcibus, lib. i. from the fifh called nautilus: others afcribe
it to accident.

Scripture refers the origin of fo ufeful an invention to
God himfelf, who gave the firft fpecimen thereof in the ark
built by Noah. For the raillery the good man underwent
on account of his enterprife, fhews evidently enough, the
world was then ignorant of any thing lke navigation:
and that they even thought it imppffible.

However, hiltory reprefents the Pheenicians, efpecialiy
thofe of their capital, Tyre, as the firlt navigators ; being

urged to feck a foreign commerce by the narrownefs and_

poverty of a flip of ground they poffeffed along the coatts ;
as well as by the conveniency of two or three good ports ;
and by their natural genius for traffic.

Accordingly Lebanon, and the other neighbouring moun-
tains, furmfhing them with excellent wood for fhip-building,
in a fhort time they were malters of a numerous fleet ; with
which, conftantly hazarding new navigations, and {fertling
new trades, they foon arrived at an incredible’ pitch of opu-
lency and populoufnefs ; having rendered themfelves matters

See each in--

of feveral commodious harbours toward the bottom of the
Arabian gulf, and, after the example of the Egyptians,
eftablifhed a regular intercourfe with Arabia and the con-
tinent of India on the one hand, and with the eaftern coaft
of Africa on the other: fo that they were in a condition
to fend out colonies, the principal of which was that of
Carthage, which, keeping up their Pheenician fpirit of com-
merce, in time not only equalled Tyre itfelf, but vaftly fur-
paffed it ; purfuing the courfe which the Pheenicians had
opened, and fending its merchant-fleets through Hereules’s
Pillars, new the Straits.of Gibraltar, along the weftern
coaft of Africa, to the fouth, almoft to the tropic of
Cancer, having difcovered the Fortunate [flands, now known
by the name of the Canaries, which were the utmoft bound-
ary of ancient navigation in the weftern ocean; and to the
north along the coatt of Europe, vifiting particularly Spain,
Gaul, and Britain: and even, if we believe fome authors,
to America itfelf; the difcovery of which, fo many ages
afterwards, has been fo glorious to the Spaniards.

The progrefs of the Phenicians and Carthaginians was
not owing merely to the defire of extending their trade from
one country to another: voyages were undertaken, the fole
objeét of which was to difcover new countries, and to explore
unknown feas. Such, during the profperous ages of: the
Carthaginian republic, were the famous navigations of Hanno
and Himilco. Both their fleets were equipped by authority
of the fenate, and at the public expence. Hanno was
directed to fteer towards the fouth, along the coait ef Africa,
and he feems to have advanced much nearer the equino€tial line
than any former navigator. Himilco had it in charge to
proceed towards the north, and to examine the weftern coaits
of the European continent. Of the fame nature was the
extraordinary navigation of the Phoenicians round Africa.
A.Pheenician fleet, we are told (Herod. lib. iv. cap, 42.),
fitted out by Necho, king of Egypt, took its departure,
about 604 years before the Chriftian era, froma port in the
Red fea, doubled the fouthern promontory of Africa, and,
after a voyage of three years, returned’ by the ftraits of
Gades, to the mouth of the Nile. Eudoxus of Cyzicus is
faid (Plin. Nat. Hilt. lib. ii. cap. 67.) to have held the fame
courfe, and to have accomplifhed the fame arduous under-
taking. However, long after this navigation of the Pheeni-
cians and of Eudoxus round Africa, Polybius, the moft in-
telligent and belt informed hiftorian of antiquity, affirms, that
it was not known, in his time, whether Africa was a conti-
nued continent, itretching to the fouth, or whether it was
encompafled, by the fea. (Polyb. Hitt. lib. mi.) And it
appears from the- teftimony of Pliny (Hift. Nat. lib. ii.
cap. 68.),° Strabo (lib. ii. p. 155. lib. xvii. p. 1180.),
Ptolemy (Geogr. lib. iv. cap. g.), that the accounts of thofe
voyages were not fully credited. Robertfon’s Hilt. Ame-
rica, vol. i. p. 13. Pp» 554, ed. Svo,

Tyre, whofe immenfe riches and power are reprefented
in fuch lofty terms, both in facred and profane authors,
being deftroyed by Alexander the Great, its navigation and
commerée were transferred by the conqueror to Alexandria,
a new city, admirably fituated for thofe purpofes, propofed
for the capital of the empire of Alia, which Alexander then
meditated. And thus arofe the navigation of the Egyptians,
whith was afterwards fo cultivated by the Ptolemies, that
Tyre and Carthage (which latt, after having a long time
difputed empire with the Romans, was at length fubdued)
were quite forgot.

Egypt being reduced into a Roman province after the
battle of AGtium, its trade and navigation fell into the
hands of Auguftus; in whofe time Alexandria was only

inferior

NAVIGATION.

inferior to Rome: and the magazines of the capital of the
world were wholly fupplied with merchandifes from the
capital of Egypt.

At length, Alexandria itfelf underwent the fate of Tyre
and Carthage, being furprifed by the Saracens; who, in
{pite of the emperor Heraclius, overfpread the northern coatts

of Africa, &c. whence the merchants heing driven, Alex- _

andria has ever fince been in a languifhing ftate, though fill
it enjoys a confiderable part of the commerce of the Chrif-
tian merchants trading to the Levant.

The fall of Rome, and its empire, drew along with it not
only that of learning, and the polite arts, but that of navi-

ation ; the Barbarians, into whofe hands it feli, contented
themfelves with the fpoils of the induftry of their pre-
deceffors.

However, one circumftance prevented commercial inter-
courfe with diftant nations from ceafing altogether. Con-
{tantinople, though often threatened by the fierce invaders,
who fpread defolation over the reft of Europe, was fo for-
tunate as to efcape their deftruGtive rage. In this city, the
knowledge of ancient arts and difcoveries was preferved ;
and commerce continued to flourifh there, with the tafte for
elegance, and the luxuries of foreign countries, when it was
almoft extin& in every other part of Europe. The citizens
of Conttantinople did not confine their trade to the iflands
of the Archipelago, or to the adjacent coafts of Afia: they
took a wider range, and, following the courfe which the
ancients had marked out, imported the commodities of the
Eaft Indies from Alexandria. When Egypt was torn
from the Roman empire by the Arabians, the induftry of
the Greeks difcovered a new channel, by which the produc-
tions of India might be conveyed to Conftantinople. They
were carried up the Indus, as far as that great river is navi-
gable; there they were tranfported by land to the banks of
the river Oxus, and proceeded down its ftream to the Cafpian
fea. There they entered the Volga, and failing up it, were
carried by land to the Tanais, which conduéted them into
the Euxine fea, where veffels from Conttantinople waited
their arrival.

But no fooner were the more brave among thofe nations
well fettled in their new provinces ; fome in Gaul, as the
Franks ; others in Spain, asthe Goths ; and others in Italy,
as the Lombards; than they began to learn the advantages of
navigation and commerce, and the proper methods of manag-
ing them, from the people they fubdued ; and this with fo
much fuccefs, that in a little time fome of them became
able to give new leffons, and fet on foot new inftitutions, for
its advantage.

Thus it is to the Lombards we ufually afcribe the inven-
tion and ufe of banks, book-keeping, exchanges, re-changes,
&c.

It does not appear which of the European people, after
the fettlement of their new matters, firft betook themfelves
to navigation and commerce. Some think it began with the
French; though the Italians feem to have the jutteft title
to it, and are accordingly ordinarily looked on as the re-
ftorers of this {cience, as well as of the polite arts, which
had been banifhed together, from the time the empire was
torn afunder.

The people of Italy, then, and particularly thofe of Venice
and Genoa, have the glory of this reftoration; and it is
to their advantageous fituation for navigation, they in a great
meafure owe their glory.

In the bottom of the Adriatic were a great number of
marthy iflands, only feparated by narrow channels, but thofe
well freon rd and almoft inacceffible, the refidence of fome

9

fifhermen, who here fupported themfelves by a little
trade of fifh and falt, which they found in fome of thefe
iflands. hither, then, the Veneti, a people inhabiting that
part of Italy along the coalts of the gulf, retired, when
Alatic, king of the Goths, and afterwards Attila, king of
the Huns, ravaged Italy.

Thefe new iflanders, little imagining that this was to be
their fixed refidence, did not think of compofing any body
politic ; but each of the feventy-two iflands of this little
Archipelago continued a long time under its feparate diftin&
matter, and each made a diftin@ commonwealth. When
their commerce was become confiderable enough to give
jealoufy to their neighbours, they began to think of uniting
inte a body ; and it was this union, firft begun in the’ fixth
century, but not completed till the eighth, that laid the
fure foundation of the future grandeur of ‘the ftate of
Venice.

From the time of this union, their fleets of merchantmen
were fent to all the ports of the Mediterranean; and at
laft to thofe of Egypt, particularly Cairo ; a new city, built
by the Saracen princes on the eaftern bank of the Nile,
where they traded for their fpices, and other produ&ts of
the Indies.

Thus they flourifhed, increafed their commerce, their na-
vigation, and their conquefts on the terra firma, till the fa-
mous league of Cambray, in 1508, when a number of jealous
princes confpired to their ruin ; which was the more eafily
effeGted, by the diminution of their Eaft India commerce,
of which the Portuguefe had gained one part, and the French
another.

Genoa, which had applied itfelf to navigation at the fame
time with Venice, and that, with equal fuccefs, was a long
time its dangerous rival, difputed with it the empire of the
fea, and fhared with it the trade of Egypt, and other parts
both of the Eaft and Weft. f

Jealoufy foon began to break out ; and the two republics
engaging in a conteft, it was three centuries almoft continual
war, before the fuperiority was afcertained; when, towards
the end of the fourteenth century, the fatal battle of Chioza
ended the noble ftrife ; the Genoefe, who till then had ufuall
theadvantage, having now loft all; and the Venetians, al-
moft become defperate, at one happy blow, beyond all ex-
pectation, fecured to themfelves the empire of the fea, and
{uperiority in commerce.

The crufades (fee CrorsapEs) contributed in a great
meafure to the revival, or at leatt to the more rapid progrefs, -
of commerce and navigation; for the Genoefe, the Pifans,
and Venetians, furnifhed the tranfports, which carried thofe
va{t armies, compofed of all the nat-ons in Europe, into Afia
upon this wild enterprize ; and likewife fupplied them with
provifions and military ftores.

Other travellers, befides thofe whom religious zeal fent
forth to vifit Alia, ventured into remote countries, from the
profpeét of commercial advantage, or from motives of mere
curiofity. The firft and moft eminent of thefe was Marco
Polo, a Venetian of a noble family, about the year 1269 ; he
was fucceeded about half a century after by fir John Mande-
ville, an Englifhman. But the prefent art of navigation
owed its rife to the invention of the mariner’s compafs, in
the beginning of the fourteenth century ; and made confider-
able progrefs during the voyages that were begun in the year
1418, by Henry, duke of Vifeo. This learned prince,
brother to Edward, king of Portugal, was particularly
{killed in cofmography, and employed a perfon from the
ifland of Majorca to teach navivation, and to make inftru-
ments and charts for the fea. Thefe voyages, being hh

extende

NAVIGATION.

extended after the difcovery of Porto Santo and Madeira,
the art was improved under the fucceeding monarchs of that
nation: infomuch that Roderic and Jofeph, phyficians to
king John LI., together with one Martin de Bohemia, a Por-
tuguefe native of the ifland of Fayal, {cholar to Regiomon-
tanus, about the year 1485, calculated, for the ufe of the
failors, tables for the fun’s declination, and recommended
the aftrolabe for taking obfervations at fea. About this
time, Columbus, a native of Genoa, having thoroughly ac-
quainted himfelf with the difcoveries and obfervations of the
Portuguefe, and having alfo acquired confiderable experi-
ence in the art of navigation, made a propofal to king
John II. of exploring a paflage to India, by failing direétly
towards the weit, acrofs the Atlantic ocean. John rejected
this propofal in a very difhonourable manner; and Colum-
bus inftantly quitted the kingdom, and landing in Spain to-
wards the clofe of the year 1484, he refolved to propofe
his plan to Ferdinand and [fabella, with whom, after re-
peated application and long delay, he ultimately fucceeded.
In Augutt, 1492, Columbus, furnifhed with a {mall arma-
ment of three fhips, fet fail, and fteered dire@tly for the
Canary Iflands: from thence, holding his courfe due welt,
he {tretched away into unfrequented and unknown feas.
After many difficulties, he at length arrived at Guanahani,
one of the large clufter of iflands called the Lucaya, or Ba-
hama Ifles. He alfo difcovered Cuba, Hifpaniola, and fe-
veral other {mall iflands, and having left a {mall colony in a
fort at Hifpaniola, returned to Spain in March 1493. In
September following he fet out on his fecond voyage, and
failed by the Leeward Iflands to Hifpaniola: ina third voy-
age, undertaken in the year 1498, he difcovered the conti-
nent of America. Inthe fame year, Vafco de Gama re-
turned to Lifbon, from a voyage to the Eaft Indies by
the Cape of Good Hope. Columbus, it is faid, before he
attempted the difcovery of America, confulted Martin de
Bohemia, as well as others, and during the courfe of his
voyage inftruéted the Spaniards in navigation : for the im-
provement of which art, the emperor Charles V. afterwards
founded a le¢ture at Seville. This art was confiderably im-
proved by the difcovery of the variation of the compafs, and
by the ufe of the crofs-itaff. At length there were pub-
lifhed, in Spanifh, two treatifes, containing a fyftem of the
art, which were in great efteem: the firlt by Pedro de Me-
dina, at Valladolid in 1545, called «« Arte de Navegar ;”’ the
other at Seville, in 1556, by Martin Cortes, under the title
of « Breve Compendio de la Sphera, y de la Arte de Nave-
gar, con neuos Inftrumentos y Reglas.’’ This is faid to
have been compofed at Cadiz in 1545; and a tranflation
of it was publifhed in London in 1651, which pafled through
feveral impreffions. Befides the improvement which the art
of navigation received from the propofals of Werner, and
Gemma Frifius, for finding the longitude, it was much pro-
moted by Pedro Nunez, or Nonius, who compofed a trea-
tife on this fubjeét, fo early as 1537, in the Portuguefe
language, which thirty years after was printed at Bafil in
Latin, with additions, under the title of «« De Arte et Ra-
tione Navigandi.’’ In this work, the errors of the plane
chart are expofed, and the problem of determining the la-
titude, from two obfervations of the fun’s altitude, and the
intermediate azimuth, is refolved. In 1577, Mr. William
Bourne publifhed his treatife, intitled «A Regiment for
the Sea,’’ and intended as a fupplement to that of Cortes.
See Loc,

The miftakes of Medina were well expofed by Michael
Coignet, a native of Antwerp, who, in 1581, publifhed a
fmall treatife, intitled ‘ Tnteudion Nouvelle des Points
plus excellens & neceffaires touchant l’Arte de Naviger.”

Vox. XXIV.

In the fame year Mr. Robert Norman publifhed his difco-

very of the dipping-needle, in a pamphlet called the “(New

Attractive ;”? to which is always fubjoined Mr. William Bur-

rough’s ‘* Difcourfe of the Variation of the Compafs,”’

In 1594, captain John Davis publifhed a {mall treatife, in-

titled * The Seaman’s Secrets,”’? which was much efteemed

in its time. The writers of this period complained much of

the errors of the plane chart, which continued {till in ufe,

though they were unable to difeover a proper remedy :

till Gerrard Mereator contrived his univerfal map (fee Mer-

cator’s CHART), which he publifhed in 1569, without clearly

underftanding the principles of its conftruction : thefe were

firft difcovered by Mr. Edward Wright, who fent an ac-

count of the true method of dividing the meridian from

Cambridge, where he was a fellow, to Mr. Blundeville,

with a fhort table for that purpofe, and a fpecimen of a

chart fo divided. Thefe were publifhed by Blundeville in
1594, among his Exercifes ; to the later editions of which

was added his ‘ Difcourfe of Univerfal Maps,’’ firlt printed

in 1589. However, in 1599, Mr. Wright printed his

* Correction of certain Errors in Navigation,’ in which

work he fhews the reafon of this divifion, the manner of

conitructing his table, and its ufes in navigation. A fecond

edition of this treatife, with farther improvements, was

printed in 1610, and a third edition by Mr. Moxon, in

1657. The method of approximation, by what is called

the middle latitude, now ufed by our failors, occurs in

Gunter’s works, firft printed in 1623. About this time

logarithms began to be introduced, which were applied to

navigation in a variety of ways by Mr. Edmund Gunter;

though the firft author who applied the logarithmic tables to

the cafes of failing, was Mr. Thomas Addifon, in his “ Arith-

metical Navigation,’’ printed in 1625. In 1635, Mr. Henry
Gellibrand printed «« A Difcourfe Mathematical on the Va-

riation of the Magnetical Needle,” containing his difcovery

of the changes to which the variation is fubje&. In 1631

Mr. Richard Norwood publifhed an excellent ‘* Treatife of

Trigonometry,”’ adapted to the invention of logarithms, par-

ticularly in applying Neper’s general canons; and for the

farther improvement of navigation, he undertook the labori-

ous work of meafuring a degree of the meridian, for exa-

mining the divifions of the log-line. Of this affair he has

a a full and clear account in his ** Seaman's Praétice,’’
rft publifhed in 1637 ; where he alfo defcribes his own ex-

cellent method of fetting down and perfeQing a fea-reckon-
ing, &c. This treatife, and that of trigonometry, were
continually reprinted, as the principal books for learning
{cientifically the art of navigation. What he had delivered,
efpecially in the latter of them, concerning this fubje&t, was
contracted as a manual for failors in a very {mall piece, called
his “* Epitome,’’ which has gone through innumerable edi-
tions. About the year 1645, Mr. Bond publifhed, in Nor-
wood’s Epitome, a very great improvement in Wright's
method, by a property in his meridian line, whereby its di-
vifions are more {cientifically affigned than the author him-
felf was able to effe& ; which he deduced from this. theo-
rem, that thefe divifions are analogous to the excefles of
the logarithmic tangents of half the refpeétive latitudes aug-
mented by forty-five degrees above the logarithm of the
radius ; this he afterwards explained more fully in the third
edition of Gunter’s works, printed in 1653 ; and the demon-
{tration of the general theorem was fupplied by Mr. James
Gregory of Aberdeen, in his «« Exercitationes Geometricz,’*
printed at London in 1668, and afterwards by Dr. Halley,
in Phil. Tranf. N° 219, and by Mr. Cotes, Phil. Tranf.
N° 388. In1700, Mr. Bond, who imagined that he had
difcovered the longitude, by having found out the true theory
4D of

NAVIGATION.

ef the magnetic variation, publifhed a general map, on which
were delineated curve lines, exprefling the paths where the
magnetic needle had the fame variation. The pofitions of
thefe curves will indeed continually fuffer alterations; but
they fhould be correéted from time to time, as they have al-
ready been for the years 1744 and 1756, by Mr. William
Mountaine, and Mr. James Dodfon. The allowances proper
to be made for lee-way are very particularly fet down by
Mr. John Buckler, and publifhed m a {mall tract firft printed
in 1702, inritled ** A New Compendium of the whole Art
of Navigation’’ written by Mr. William Jones.

As it is now generally agreed that the earth is a {pheroid,
whofe diameter at the poles is fhorter than the other, Dr.
Murdoch publifhed a tra in 1741, in which he accommo-
dated Wright’s failing to fucha figure ; and Mr. Maclaurin
in the fame year gave a rule, in the Phil. Tranf. N° 461. for
determining the meridional parts of a fpheroid, which fpe-
eulation he has farther profecuted in his Fluxions, printed at
Edinburgh in 1742.

The principal foreign writers on navigation are Bartolo-
mew Crefcenti, of Rome, in 1607 ; father George Four-
nier, at Paris, in 1633 ; John Baptift Riccioli, at Bologna,
in 16613; father Millet Dechales, in 1674 and 1677; the
fieur Blondel St. Aubin, in 1671 and 1673 ; M. Daffier, in
1683; M. Sauveur, in 1692; Mr. John Bouguer, in 1698 ;
father Pezenas in 1733 and 1741; and M. Peter Bouguer,
who, in 1753, publifhed a very elaborate treatife on this fub-
ject, entitled ** Nouveau Traite de Navigation ;” in which
he gives a variation compafs of his own invention, and at-
tempts to reform the log, ashe had done in the Memoirs of
the Academy of Sciences for 1747. Heis alfo very parti-
cular in determining the lunations more accurately than by
the common methods,.and in defcribing the correétions of
the dead reckonings. ‘I’his book was abridged and improved
by M. de la Caille in 1760: to thefe we may add Don George
Juan of Spain, in 1757. For an account of the feveral
fteps that have been purfued for the difcovery of the longi-
tude, fee Loncrrupr: For an account of Hadley’s qua-
drant, and its ufe in nautical obfervations, fee QUADRANT.
For the method of making artificial magnets, and their ufe,
fee Macnet, Compass, and NEEDLE.

Thofe who are defirous of perufing a fuller account of
the progrefs of navigation, may confult Dr. James Wil-
fon’s preface to Dr. Robertfon’s “« Elements of Naviga-
tion,’ in two volumes, o¢tayo, 1772 : a work defervedly
held in the higheft eftimation.

But to return to the hiltory of navigation in its connection
with commerce. About the fame time that navigation was
retrieved in the fouthern parts of Europe, a new fociety of
merchants was formed in the north; which not only car-
ried commerce to the greatett perfection it was capable of,
till the difcovery of the Eaft and Weft Indies, but alfo
formed a new {cheme of laws for the regulation of it,
which {till obtain, under the name of ** Ufes and cuftoms
of the fea.”

This. fociety is that famous league of the Hans-towns,
commonly fuppofed to have begun about the year 1164.
For the modern ftate of navigation in England, Holland,
France, Spain, Portugal, &e¢. fee Commercr, Company,
&e.

We fhall only add, that in examining the reafon of com-
merce’s pafling fucceflively from the Venetians, Genoefe,
and Hans-towns, to the Portuzuefe and Spaniards, and
from thefe again to the Englifh and Dutch, it may be efta-
blifhed asa maxim, that the relation between commerce and
navigation, or, if we may be allowed to fay it, their union,
iv fo intimate, that the fall of the one inevitably draws after

it the other : and that they will always either flourifh or de-
cline together.

Hence fo many laws, ordinances, ftatutes, &c. for its
regulation ; and hence, particularly, that celebrated a& of
navigation, which an eminent foreign author calls the Palla-
dium, or tutelar deity, of the commerce of England ;
which is too important not to be here mentioned ; as it is the
ftanding rule, not only of the Englifh among themfelves, but
alfo of other nations with whom they traffic. 6

Navication és are thofe ftatutes which have been
paffed at different times by the legiflature of this country,
for the protection and extenfion of navigation.

But by #he Navigation A&, particularly and emphatieally
fo called, is meant the ftatute 12 Charles II. c. 18. entitled
‘An act for the encouraging and increafing of fhipping and
navigation :”’ all fubfequent laws on this fubjeét are but
comments on this, modifying or explaining its different re-
gulations, but leaving untouched its general and fundamen-
tal principles.

Before we proceed to examine the foundnefs of the prin-
ciples on which the navigation a€t3 are grounded ; the ne-
ceffity or expediency of their firft enaétment; the imme-
diate confequences which refulted from them; the perma-
nent benefits which they are faid to have beftowed on this
country ; and the policy of their continuance on the ftatute-
book,—it may be proper to give a brief and rapid fketch of
their hiitory.

The firtt a&@, which had avowedly and exclufively for
its object the augmentation of the navy of England, was -
paffed in the reign of Richard II.; by the ftatute
5 Richard II. c. 3. it was enaéted that none but the king’s
hege people fhould fhip any merchandize out of, or into, the
realm, and only in fhips of the king’s ligeance, on pain of forfei-
ture. This tlatute was paffed at a time when the navy was
greatly diminifhed; but its effe€ts do not appear to have an-
{wered the expectations of the legiflature; for by ftatute
6 Richard II. c. 8. the former ftatute was greatly modified,
the merchants being obiiged to give Englifh thips the prefer-
rence, only in cafe they were able and {ufficient.

In 1440, the decline of the Englith navy was again com-
plained of ; and the Commons propofed the ena¢tment of a
jaw, of fimilar import and force with that of 5 Richard Il.
c. 3, but it was rejeGted by Henry VI. In the reign of
Henry VII., however, two atts were pafled for the en-
couragement and protection of Englith fhipping, viz
1 Henry VII. c. 8. (1485‘, and 4 Henry VII. c. to.
(1489.) Henry VIII. allo paffed a law for'the fame purpofe
in 1541, 32 Henry VIII. c. 14.

In Elizabeth’s reign (1562), the carriage by fea of
corn, wine, and other articles, and the taking, curing, and
carrying by fea, of filh, were regulated with a view ‘to
the maintenance and increafe of the navy.” And in 15935
the fame fovereign granted particular privileges in cafes
where goods were carried in Englifh veflels.

it appears from Rymer’s Foedera (xvii. 424.) that
James I., in the Commiffion of Enquiry which he iffued,
exprefsly directed the attention of the commiflioners to the
fame fubject.

Vhefe laws, however, were either evaded or relaxed,
Charles I. found it neceflary to revife and confirm them.

We are now arrived at that {tatute, which is juftly regarded
as the foundation of the Navigation A@ of Charles II.
This fkatute was paffed by the Ufurpation Parliament on the
oth of October, 1651. In the year preceding, indeed, the
fame parliament had fetched a faint and rude outline of the
Navigation Act; the fugar iflands {till adhering to
Charles¢IL., the ftatute of 1650 prohibited all fhips of fo-

5 reign

for

NAVIGATION ACT,

reiga nations from trading with any Englifh . plantations
without licence from the council of ftate, The ftatute of
1651 arofe partly from the fame caufe, and partly from the
circumftance that the Englifh merchants ufed to freight
Dutch fhips to bring home merchandize from America and
the Weft Indies, as they could be had at a lower rate of
_ freight than native fhips, ‘Till this a& paffed, it appears,
that notwithftanding the exiltence of former unrepealed acts
for the proteétion and increafe of Englifh fhipping, all na-
tions in amity with England aétually did import into Eng-
land what commodities they pleafed, and in what fhips they
pleafed ; and asthe Dutch, at that period, were the princi-
pal carriers of Europe, moft of the merchandize imported
into this country was imported by them,

The law of 1651 enaéted that no commodities (colonial
or of any other defcription) fhould be imported into Eng-
land, unlefs in veflels folely owned, and commanded, and
principally manned, by Englifh fubje&s; and where the
commodities were foreign, unlefs they were entirely con-
veyed in fuch veffels from the place where the commodities

w, or to which they were ufually, in the firft inftance,
tranfported by fea. There were fome peculiar exceptions,
and one grand and general one, viz, goods originally pro-
duced, or firft tranfported by fea from an European ftate,
might be imported thence, into England, in veflels owned by
the fubjeéts of that ftate.

The title of this a& was fuited to the defign which it had
in view ; it-was “ Goods from foreign parts, by whom to
be imported"’ (Scobell’s AG@s, 1651, c. 22. p. 132.) 3; and
the confequence was, that the Dutch were cut off from the
carrying trade with our colonies, and their importation of
fifh into this country was laid under great reftritions and
heavy burdens.

Before the pafling of this law, great jealoufy exilted
and frequent difputes had taken place, between this country
and Holland; thefe were greatly increafed and embittered
by it; ating in conformity with it, our fhips of war infifted
on their right to fearch Dutch veffels, and in feveral inftances
made prizes of them, where they found that they contravened
the a&. The war which broke out in the fubfequent year,
and which was carried on with great rancour and obftinacy,
arofe, partly at leaft, from the Navigation Act of 1651.

The Reftoration Parliament were fo clearly and ftrongly
convinced of the neceffity and benefit of the Navigation
AG, that they fanétioned it, firft in 1660, and afterwards
in 1662; the f®t of thefe ftatutes, 12 Charles II. c. 18.
(as has been already obferved), is that which is emphatically
called the Navigation Act. °

The principal difpofitions of the Navigation A& are thus
fummed up by Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations, ii, 192.

Firft, all fhips, of which the owners, matters, and three-
fourths of the mariners are not Britifh fubjects, are prohi-
bited, under pain of forfeiting fhip and cargo, from trading
to the Britifh fettlements and plantations, or from being em-
ployed in the coatting trade of Great Britain,

Secondly, a great variety of the moft bulky articles of
importation can be brought into Great Britain only, either
in fuch fhips as are above defcribed, or in fhips of the coun-
try where thofe goods are produced, and of which the
owners, matters, aud three-fourths of the mariners, are of
that particular country ; and when imported even in fhips
of this latter kind, they are fubjeét to double alien’s duty.
If imported in fhips of any other country, the penalty is
forfeiture of fhips and goods.

Thirdly, a great yariety of the moft bulky articles of
importation are prohibited from being imported, even in

Britith fhips, from any country but that in which they are
produced, under pain of forfeiting fhip and cargo.

Fourthly, falt fith of all kinds, whale-fins, whale-bone,
oil and blubber, not caught by and cured on board Britifh
veffels, when imported into Great Britain, are fubje€t to
double alien’s duty,

This a& differed from that of 1651, in its fecond enaGting
elaufe, which did not permit any but Englith fubjeéts to be
factors or agents in Englith colonies. Before this time the
Dutch were the principal factors or agents in our colonies ;
and the third enacting claufe fecured the Eaft India, Gui-
nea, and Levant companies, from foreign fhipping.

The a& 14 Charles II. c. rr. alfo differed in fome re-
{pects from the a& 12 Charles II. c. 18; by the latter it
was fufficient, with refpe& to the veflel, if the was cither
owned or built at home; while, by the former of thefe aéts,
both thefe cireumftances were declared indifpenfable.

In commercial writers, the phrafes “numerated and non-
enumerated commodities” frequently occur; thefe expref-
fions took their rife from the Navigation AG. Thofe are
“enumerated commodities,’ which, by.this a&, cannot be
carried from the colonies to any foreign parts, without
being firft unladen in Great Britain. Subfequent aéts of
parliament have enlarged or contraéted the number of enu-
merated commodities, according to circumftances ; and one
general exception has been introduced in this branch of the
Navigation AG ; as fome of the enumerated articles are per-
mitted to be carried, by a dire& courfe, in fhips of the em-
pire, to places fouth of cape Finifterre.

The principal obje&s which the Navigation A@,
12 Charles UL. c. 18. had in view, will be beft explained by
its preamble, which declares it to be paffed, «not only for
the fake of employing and increafing Englith thipping and
feamen, and fecuring a vent for woollen and other manufac-
tures ; but alfo to make this kingdom a ftaple of the com-
modities of thofe plantations, as well as of the commodities
of other countries, for the fupplying them (it being the
ufage of other nations to keep their plantation trade to
themfelves) ; and farther, if colonial commodities fhould
be taken from any part but the plantations, that the trade of
them would cherebs in a great meafure be deferted from hence,
and carried elfewhere ; his majelty’s cuftoms and other reve-
nues much leffened ; the fair trader prejudiced ; and this
kingdom not continue a ftaple of plantation commodities,
nor that vent, forthe future, of the viétual, and other na-
tive commodities of this kingdom.”’

Britifh built fhips are declared to be fuch as have been
built in Great Britain, Ireland, Jerfey, Guernfey, or the
Ifle of Man, or in fome colony at the time belonging to
Great Britain; any fhip whatever, taken and condemned
as lawful prize, is to be regarded as a Britifh built fhip,
Ever fince the Navigation A& paffed, ** Surveyors of the
Act of Navigation” have been appointed at the Cuftom-
houfe, whofe duty it is to keep a regifter of all Britifh built
fhips,

Britifh feamen are declared to be fuch as are natural born
fubjects of the empire 5 or naturalized by aé of parliament ;
or made denizens; or become fubjeéts by conqueft, And
by 33 George III. c. 68, foreign feamen, who fhall ferve
three years in the Britifh navy, during the time of war, if
they have not taken the oath ue allegiance to a foreign ftate,
may be employed, and fhall be confidered as Britifh feamen,
The fame ftatute alfo introduced the principal modification
which has taken place in the Navigation A@, by enacting,
that fromthe conclufion of the war, no goods fhall be ex-
ported in Britifh yeffels, unlefs the mafter, and three-fourths

4Dz of

NAVIGATION ACT,

of the crew were Britifh ; the Navigation AG not interfering
with the exportation of goods from Britifh ports.

Such is a brief hiftory, and general view, of thofe a&ts
which have been paffed for encouraging and increafing fhip-
ping and navigation ; before we proceed to the other divifion
of this article, it may be proper to mention that they are
commonly very much relaxed, and in fome particular cafes
entirely done away, in time of war; and only rigidly and
uniformly enforced in time of peace. _

1. The principle upon which the Navigation A& proceeds
is this, that it is politic and advantageous to burden foreign,
in order to encourage domeftic induftry: this principle has
been very ftrongly and generally obje&ted to by the moft
acute and intelligent writers on political economy ; and yet,
befides the cafe in queftion, there would appear to be other
cafes of a more extended nature, in which a deviation from
this principle might prove beneficial to the interefts of the
community at large.

There can be no doubt that it is unwife and difadvantageous
to burden foreign induftry, merely for the fake of encou-
raging domeftic induftry, when, by this means, the latter is
thus diverted froma channel, in which it is exerted with
great profit, into one in which the profit, if it were not thus
protected by monopoly, bounty, or duty, would not be near
fo great: but there are undoubtedly cafes, efpecially in the
ruder and lefs enlightened {tages of commercial a¢tivity and
intelligence, in which induftry might either be dire&ted to a
more profitable employment, or in which it might be ex-
tended to objeéts hitherto untouched, and fuppofed without
its reach; and yet, unlefs government ftept forth and laid a
burden on foreign induitry, domeftic induftry might not be
thus direéted or extended. But wherever, notwithftanding
the application of a proper degree of induftry, capital, and
fkill, home produce is inferior in quality, or higher in price,
than foreign produce of the fame defcription, the latter
fhould be preferred, and no obftacle fhould be thrown in the
way of its free importation and general ufe.

Befides this more general exception to the principle of po-
litical economy, which we have been confidering, the cafe of
the navigation laws feems to be one of a more peculiar na-
ture, and more confined charaéter. This exception proceeds
on the idea, that in fueh a country as Great Britain, its de-
fence depends very much upon its failors and fhipping ; and
that defence is of much more importance than mere opulence 5
and ought therefore to be allowed to fuperfede the operation
of all general principles, The only quettion is, whether this
encouragement to failors and fhipping might not have been
given as effectually and permanently by fome other means,
than by impofing a burden on foreign induftry ; it may be
fuppofed that Great Britain, at the period when the Naviga-
tion A& was pafled, ftood as fair a chance as Holland of being
the carriers of the produce, at leaft of its own induftry ; and
that as the latter country had obtained and preferved a navy
without navigation laws, Great Britain might have done the
fame. But we are to recolleé that Holland flood ina pecu-
liar fituation ; haying no manufactures or trade of her own,
fhe was thus enabled to turn nearly her whole attention to the
carrying trade, and to embark nearly her whole capital in it ;
and a nation, like an individual, the attention, fkill, induitry,
and capital of which are direéted folely to one undertaking,
will carry on that better, and at a cheaper rate, than any
other nation cando. Great Britain, therefore, had only two
modes of preferving herfelf from the encroachments of the
Dutch on her carrying trade; either by turning her attention
and capital principally, or entirely to that branch, or by ex-
cluding the Dutch from it; the latter, in every point of
view, was preferable ; and though it injured the commerce

of Great Britain in fome degree, by raifing the rate of
freights, it did much lefs harm than a total change in the
direction of her induftry and capital would have done, while
it equally well fecured the main objeét, the encouragement
of failors and fhipping. :

2. The neceflity of the firft ena@ment of the Navigation
A& flows from the obfervations which have been alread
made; Holland, at that time, was the moft formidable rival
of Great Britain by fea; and it was therefore wife to adopt
fuch meafures as fhould enable the latter to increafe her navy,
and cope with, if not overcome, her powerful rival.

3. With refpe& to the confequences which immediately
refulted from the Navigation AG, there are different ftate-
ments: at firft there were loud complai.ts that we had not
fhipping enough to import from all parts, and yet were
prohibited from getting goods and fhipping from foreigners ;
while, immediately before the pafling of the Navigation A&,
the complaint had been that our fhipping were rotting, and
our mariners had-gone into the Dutch fervice. Sir Jofhua
Child, who publifhed his treatife on trade in 1668, is fo
decidedly and warmly of opinion that the Navigation AG was
highly beneficial to the nation, that he thinks it ought to be
called Charta Maritima ; and in another place he obferves,
‘that without this act we had not now been owners of one-
half of the fhipping or trade, nor fhould have employed one-
half of the feamen we do at prefent ;’’ while fir Roger Coke,
in-his “‘ Difcourfe of Trade,”’ publifhed 1670, afierts, ‘that
in two years after the Navigation Ac of the Rump Parlia-
ment in 1651, the building of fhips in England became one-
third dearer than before, and that feamen’s wages became fo
exceflive dear that we have wholly loft the Mufcovy and
Greenland trade, whereby we gave the Dutch and other
nations the power of Griving the trade of the world.”

Thefe opinions and ftatements, however, may be recon-
ciled ; there can be no doubt that the firit refult of the Na-
vigation AG would be'to increafe the demand for Britifh fea-
men and fhipping, and of courfe to raife the price of fhip-
building, feamen’s wages, and the rate of freight: this in-
creafed demand would, in time, create an increafed fupply ;
and though the rate of freight probably did not come down
fo low, as it had been when the Dutch were allowed to be
our carriers, yet the immediate very great rife would ne-
ceffarily be temporary. Itmay be remarked, however, that
one of the evils complained of by fir Roger Coke, and which
{till exifts, would not have been produced had the Reftoration
Parliament followed exaétly the Navigation AG of the Long
Parliament ; by the latter, liberty was allowwed to purchafe
fhips where they could be procured cheapeit ; fhip-building
of courfe would not have been fo much raifed as fir Roger
Coke complains ; while the great object of the aét, the in-
creafe of feamen, would have been more completely and ef
feétually fecured ; fince, if fhips had been bought where
they could be procured cheapelt, freights would have become
more reafonable, and failors increafed in confequence.

4. There can be as little doubt that the Navigation A& has
been beneficial to Great Britain, confidered as a nation de-
pendent for her fafety and well-being on her maritime power,
as that it has been prejudicial to her, confidered as a nation
purely commercial: the manner in which it operates then, in
two fuch different ways, has already been pointed out,
«That nation (as Adam Smith well ebferves) will be molt
likely to buy cheap, when, by the moft perfe& freedom of
trade, it encourages all nations to bring to it the goods
which it has occation to purchafe ; and for the fame reafon
it will be molt likely to fell dear, when its markets are thus
filled with the greateft number of buyers.’” Now, the Navi-
gation Act directly and exprefsly difcourages or prevents

foreign

NAV

foreign nations from bringing goods into Great Britain; and
as the fame author retells, «if foreigners are hindered from
coming to fell, they cannot always aiford to come to buy,
Becubie coming without a cargo, they muft lofe the freight
from their own country to Great Britain. By diminifhing
the number of fellers, therefore, we neceflarily diminifh that
of buyers, and are thus likely not only to buy foreign goods
dearer, but to fell our own cheaper, than if there was a more
erfe&t freedom of trade.””

Laftly, there can beas little doubt that under the circum-
ftances in which Great Britain is at prefent placed, it would
be highly impolitic and unfafe to alter effentially the navi-
gation laws; fhe ftands now more in need of maritime defence
than fhe ever did; and the means of that maritime defence
require more than ever to be preferved untouched by the en-
croachments of foreign nations ; fince, if the Navigation AG
was abrogated, the operation of our taxes is fuch, that fo-
reign fhips, in almolt every cafe, would be able to carry
goods at a much lower rate of freight than our own fhip-
owners could do. But, on the otber hand, it may well be
queftioned, whether, at prefent, the regulation of the Long
Parliament fhould not be adopted, and full liberty given to
purchafe fhips wherever they could be found cheapeft: as
has been already remarked, freight would thus become more
reafonable, and confequently the great object of the naviga-
tion laws would be more completely an{wered, while our
merchants would have lefs reafon to complain: if this alte-
ration were made, the lofs of the merchants would be entirely
for the benefit of the nation ; now it is only partly for the
benefit of the nation, while by benefiting at the fame time the
fhip-builders, that benefit is effentially leffened.

NAviGATion, Sub-marine, or the art of failing under
water, is mentioned by Mr. Boyle as the defideratum of the
art of navigation. his was attempted, and fuccefsfully,
according to him, by Cornelius Drebbel; feveral perfons
who were in the boat breathing freely all the time. See
Divine-lell.

Navication, Jnland. See Canat.

NAVIGATOR, in the Sea Language, ufually denotes a
perfon capable of condu€ting or guiding a fhip to any place
defired.

NAviGATors is an appellation ufed for the labourers who
work at canal-dieging.

Navicators’ J/lands, in Geography, a group of iflands
in the South Pacific ocean. This group, according to La
Peroufe (Voyage, vol. it. p. 191.) confifts of ten iflands,
viz. Opoun, the molt ealterly, Leoné, Fanfoué, Maouna,
Oyolava, Calinaffé, Pola, Shika, Offamo and Oucra. This
celebrated navigator faw the feven firft of thefe iflands, but
the pofition of the three laft was unknown; though in the
fequel of his voyage, he had reafon for concluding that two
of the three might be Cocoa and Traitor iflands, named by
Capt. Walks Bofcawen and Keppel. (See Boscawen’s

Ifland.) - Thefe two iflands are feparated by a channel about -

three miles wide, interfected by an iflet at the north-eafterly
point of Traitors’ ifland, which is low and flat, and has only
a high hill towards the middle ; it is divided into two parts
by a channel. 150 toifes wide at the mouth. Thefe three
iflands form, according to La Peroufe, part of the ten that
compole the Navigators’ archipelago. ‘The difcovery of this
group of iflands has by feveral geographers been attributed
to Roggewein in 17213; two of thefe iflands lying in S. lat.
15°. W. long. 170°, he called Baumen’s or Beatman’s
iflands ; and athirdifland, denominated Single iflaud, lies in
S. lat. 13° 41'. W. long. 171° 30’. Thefe three iflands are
faid to be thofe’ which Bougainville calls the ifles of Navi-
gators. But La Peroufe is of opinion that neither the hitto-

NAV

rical particulars relating to their inhabitants, nor the geo-
graphical pofition afligned to thefe iflands by the hiftorian of
Roggewein's voyage, corroborates the notion that Beauman’s
iflands are the fame with thofe to which Bougainville has given
the name of Navigators’ iflands.

Thefe iflands form one of the fineft archipelagoes of
the South fea, and are as interefting on account of their
arts, production, and population, as thofe of the Society
or Friendly iflands, well defcribed by-the Englifh navi-
gators. As to the morality of the people, La Peroufe
does not hefitate to affirm, that it would be inefle€tual
to endeavour to excite by kindnefs the gratitude of their
ferocious fouls, which are only to be kept in awe by
fear. They are tall and well formed, their ufual height
being five feet nine, ten, or eleven inches ; but their ftature is
lefs furprifing than the coloffal proportions of the different
parts of their bodies. Their countenances exprefled a fenti-
ment of difdain, which was not eafily fubdued. The bodies
of the men are painted or tattooed to fuch a degree, that
they feemed to be clothed, although they were almott naked,
as they had only a girdle of fea-weeds round their loins,
hanging down to their knees. Their hair is very long, which
they twift many times round the head, and thus add to the
ferocioufnefs of their countenances, alway expreffive either
of furprife or anger. The leaft difpute among them is fol-
lowed by blows of fticks, clubs, or paddles, which often
coft the combatants their lives; as a confequence of their
quarrels, they are covered with fears. The fize of the women
correfponds to that of the men; and the grofs effrontery of
the greater number of them, the indecency of their motions,
and the difgutting offers they made of their favours, rendered
them very proper for the mothers or wives of the male inha-
bitants. Thefe people have certain arts, which they cultivate
with fuccefs; to their huts they give an elegant form by
means of tools made of very fine clofe kind of bafaltes, in
the form of an adze; and poffefled of thefe they difdained
the iron inftruments that were tendered tothem. Fora few
beads, they fold three-footed wooden difhes, cut out of the
folid piece, and fo polifhed as to have the appearance of being
coated by the fineit varnifh. Their fubfiftence depends on
the fruit trees and nutritious roots that grow around them,
and alfo on their pigs, dogs, and fowls. They manufacture
extremely fine mats and paper ftuffs. They have cloth, com-
pofed of real thread procured from fome filamentous plants,
fuch as the nettle or flax ; which cloth ferves alfo for the fails
of their canoes: Their dialect was fimilar to that of the peo-
ple of the Society and Friendly iflands ; and La Peroufe is
of opinion that the inhabitants of the different iflands of the
South fea take their rife from Malay colonies. "The detcend-
ants of the Malays, in thefe iflands, have acquired a vigour,
ftrength, ftature, and proportion which they do not derive
from their forefathers, but which is owing to the abundance
of food, mildnefs of climate, and influence of phyfical
caufes, which has been producing effe& during a long feries
of generations. The feudal government is preferved here,
and ferves to cherifh and maintain that ferocioufnels and perfi-
diaufnefs of difpofition and manners, which charaéterife the
inhabitants.

M. Bougainville has denominated thefe iflands “ Naviga-
tors’? with fufficient reafon: as all their voyages are made
in cances, and as they never walk, even from one village to
another. Their villages are all fituated in creeks on the fea-
fide, and have no paths befides thofe that ferve for penetrat-
ing into the interior of the country. The iflands vifited by
La Peroufe and his companions were clothed up to the very
fummit with trees laden with fruit, on which weed-
pigeons and turtle-doves of various colours repofec. here

were

NAU

were alfo fome beautiful parroquets, or f{pecies of black
birds, and corn partridges. Thefe iflanders amufe their
Jeifure hours by taming birds: their houfes were full
af wood-pigeons, which they bartered by hundreds, and
they likewife fold 300 gallinules of the moft beautiful
plumage. Their canoes have outriggers, are very {mall, and
hold no more, in general, than five or fix perfons. Thefe
Indians are fuch expert {wimmers, that their canoes feem
only to ferve them as refting-places. Their fails are of mat
or matted cloth. Their only modes of fifhing are with
hook and line, and a fweep-net: their baits are curioufly
wrought of mother-of-pearl and white fhell. Thefe iflands,
fays La Peroufe, appear to be volcanic: the ftones on the
bank being oniy pieces of lava, round bafaltes, or coral,
by which che whole ifland is furrounded. Their villages are
very agreeably fituated: the houfes are built under fruit
trees, which keep them delightfully cool. They are feated
on the fides of brooks running down from the mountains ;
and they are furrounded by lattices, which they open to the
windward and fhut on the funny fide, in order to prote&
them from the heat.

Thefe iflands abound in pigs, dogs, fowls, birds, and
fifth, and are covered with cocoa, goyava, and banana trees,
and another tree bearing a large almond which is eaten
roafted, much refembling the cbhefnut in flavour, Sugar-
canes grow fpontaneoufly on the banks of therivers. The
population of thefe iflands is very confiderable. The eaftern
ones, viz. Opoun, Léoné, and Fanfoué, are {mall; the two
laft are only about five miles in circumference; but Maouna,
Oyolava, and Pola, muft be reckoned among the largeft
and moft beautiful iflands of the South fea. 5. lat. 14° 20'.
W. long. 169°. See Maouna.

NAVIS, Argo Navis, or the fhip Argo, in Afronomy,
a conttellation of the fouthern hemifphere. See ARGo.

NAUL, in Geography, a {mall town of the county of
Dublin, Ireland, on the confines of the county of Meath,
near which isaromantic glen, overhung with rocks, through
which the little ftream runs which is the boundary of the
two counties, and over this glen the old caftle of Naul is
boldly fituated. Naul is in Fingal, and is 14 miles N. of
Dublin. _Carlifle.

NAULIUM, in Antiquity, a mufical inftrument, other-
wife called Nablum ; which fee.

NAULUM, among the Romans, properly fignified
freight, whence it is ufed to denote a piece of money put into
the mouth of a perfon deceafed, to pay Charon the ferry-
man for his paflage: this piece was to be of the current
coin of the emperor then reigning; fo that from it the time
of the perfon’s death may be known,

NAUMACHIA, Navumacny, from »v2u:, hip, and
paxn, fight, a{pectacle, or fhow, among the ancient Romans,
reprefenting a fea-fight,

Naumacuta isallo ufed, by fome, for a circus encom-
paffed with feats and porticos; the pit of which, ferving as
an arena, was filled with water, by means of pipes, for the
exhibiting of fea-fghts.

There were feveral of thefe naumachias at Rome: three
built by Augufus, one by Claudius, and another by
Domitian. Nero’s naumachia ferved for the reverfe of his
medals,

NAUMANN, Jouann AmApeEus, in Biography, prin-
cipal mae(tro di cappella to the elector of Saxony, born near
Drefden in 1745. ‘This compofer had no originality ; he had
formed himfelf on the flimfy ftyle of Italy in the middle
of the lalt century, before its coalition with the German
{chool had been of fervice to both. He died at Drefden
in 1801

NAU

* NAUMBERG, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the circle of the Lower Rhine, feated on the Eider; 14
miles W.S.W. of Caffel, N. lat. 51° 15'. E.long 9° 7.

NAUMBURG, a city of Saxony, and capital of a
bifhopric, founded by the emperor Otho I, in 968 at Neitz,
the cathedral church of which was removed to Naumburg in
1029. This town lies ina pleafant and fertile vale, not far
from the river Saale, It confilts of the town itfelf, fubje&
to the jurifdi¢tion of its council, a citadel, three churches,
and a town-fchool; 80 miles W, of Drefden. N, lat, 51°
8'. E. long: 11° 54'.

NaumBurc am Bober, a town of Silefia, in the principa-
lity of Sagan, on the Bober; 12 miles N. of Sagan. N.
lat. gx? rr, E. Jong, 15°. 27!

NaumBurG am Quei/s, a town. of Silefia, in the princi-
pality of Jauer, at the conflux of the Ivenitz and Queifs ;
34miles W, of Jauer, N.lat.g1r° 32’, E. long, rg° 26’.

NAUMS, a lake of Norway, in the province of Dron~
theim ; 114.miles N.N.E. of Drontheim. i

NAUNA, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 1g miles S.W.
of Spiritu Santo,

NAUNTON, Sir Rosert, in Biography, a ftatefman
and hiftorian in the feventeenth century, was educated at
Cambridge, and became proétor and public orator of that
univerfity. He attraéted the notice of James J., and was
brought into his employment, He rofe to the offices of
fecretary of ftate, and mafter of the court of guardians,
which he filled with reputation and honour. In 1620 he
loft his place as fecretary, through the difpleafure of the ~
duke of Buckingham, ard no further account is given of
him. He wrote a work, entitled «* Fragmenta Regalia,”
or the true chara¢ter of queen Elizabeth and her favourites,
firft publifhed in 1641, and re-publifhed ix fir Francis Wal.
fingham's “* Arcana Aulica.” It is efteemed a faithful and
judicious performance.

NAVOLOK, in Geography, a cape on the N.W. coaft
of Nova Zembla. N. lat. 76° 20!. E. long. 54° 14'.

NAVOOK, atown of Perfia, in the province of Mecran ;
70 miles W.N.W. of Kelveh,

NAUPACTES, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece,
fituated on the gulf of Corinth, in the country of the Locri-
Qzoli. The Athenians drove the Locrians from this city,
and they furrendered it to the Meffenians, who were them-
felves expelled by the Lacedemonians, and thefe again were
forced to abandon it to thofe by whom they were expelled,
Diana, furnamed /Etolian, had a temple in this city, in
which was her ftatue of white marble, in the attitude of a
female who draws her bow. Here was alfo a grotto confee
crated to Venus, to which thafe who wifhed to ma
repaired to make their vows, Lf{culapius had alfo a temple
in this city ; but it was in ruins in the time of Paufanias,
1. x. Phoc. c. 38.

NAUPBARA,, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Cicacole; five miles N.E. of Tickely,

NAUPENT, atown of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Guntoor ; eight miles S. of Innaconda,

NAUPLIA, in Ancient Geography, Napoli'di Romani, a
town of the Argolides on the Bratt gulf, S.E, of Teme.
nicum. This, according to Strabo, was the port of the
Argians, and in the time of Paufanias the docks into which
veflels retired were vifible, It had a temple of Neptune,
and a fountain called Canathe, in which Juno is faid to have
bathed every year, in order to recover her virginity, al-
lufion being made to one of the mytteries of this god.
defs, Here was confecrated the head of an als, which was
fculptured on a {tone ; in honour of this animal, who by
breaking off the under branches of a vine, which thus be-

came

NAU

came more fruitful, taught the neceflity of trimming the
vine.

NAUPLIUS, in Natural Hiflory, a name by which
fome authors have called the nautilus, as well the papyra-
ceous as the chambered kind,

NAURZIM, in Geography, a lake of Ruffiay about 48
miles in circumference. N, lat. 51° so’, E. long. 64°

'

MNAUS, atown of the county of Tyrol; 16 miles W. of
Bolzano. J

NAUSA, atown of South America, in the audience of
Quito ; 30 miles N.N.E. of Guayaquil.

NAUSARY, atown of Hindooftan, about ten leagues
from Surat, which is of {mall extent, but contains a very
confiderable cotton manufactory. It hasa fort which belongs
tothe Mahrattas, and is {urrounded with pagodas, gardens,
and beautiful flower-plats. In the neighbourhood of this
town the only animal ufed for the faddle is the ox.

NAUSEA, in Medicine, fignifies that flighter degree of
ficknefs at the {tomach, which does not aétually give rife to
a difcharge of its contents ;—a propenfity to vomit, which
may occur with or without a¢tual puking. The word is
ufually derived from yaus, navis, a fbip, and was probably
originally applied to the ficknefs excited by failing.

Naufea is produced by various caufes ; fometimes by thofe
circumftances which act direStly upon the ftomach itfelf ;
fometimes by thofe which influence the {tomach indireétly,
through the medium of other organs of the body, with
which it is conneéted by fympathy ; and fometimes through
the medium of the mind.

The naufea which originates from affeGtions of the ftomach
itfelf, occurs under under various circumftances. Itis not
unfrequently one of the fymptoms of dyfpepfia, or indigef-
tion, and arifes either from the irritation of the ordmary
food, when that is taken in greater quantity than the enfeebled
condition of the ftomach is capable of digetting ; or from
the ufe of articles of diet which are difficult of folution,
which tend to generate acidity or other acrimonious hu-
mours, or which offend by fome acrid or deleterious quality
of their own ;—or, laltly, from the morbid {tate of the fecreted
fluids in the ftomach, which irritate its nervous coat,
like the offenfive fubftances that are taken in. See Inp1-
GESTION.

But the fympathetic fources of naufea are perhaps ftill
more numerous. The brain is feldom materially affected
by any ferious irritation or derangement, without derangirg
the ftomach by fympathy : thus, ficknefs at the ftomach isa
common fymptom of every degree of local injury of the head,
in which preffure or concuffion of the brain is occafioned; it
accompanies inflammation of the brain and its membranes,
‘the preflure of water in the ventricles, or of other morbid
effufion or growth within the cranium ; as well as the op-
pofite ftate or inanition of the veflels of the brain, as in fyn-
cope, or after great loffes of blood. The other organs,
with which the ftomach is often fympathetieally deranged,
and fickened, are chiefly the kidnies and the uterus. hus
naufea is a common concomitant of inflammation in the kid-
nies, or of the irritation of gravel or of a ttone lodged in
thefe organs, and becomes one of the diagnoftic marks, by
which difeafe in the kidnies is diftinguifhed from other pain-
ful affections of the loins. Sympathetic naufea is alfo a fre-
quent concomitant of uterine irritation or diforder; thus it
is one of the moft frequent fymptoms of the beginning dif-
tention of the uterus in pregnancy, and accompanies inflam-
mation and other painful conditions of that organ.

The influence of the mind alone is likewife capable of ex-
citing naufea and even its ultimate degree, vomiting. The

NAU

fight, or even the defcription or imagination, of loathfome
and offenfive objeéts and ations, 15 a Be this effe& on
the ftomach of many individuals of refined habits, or who
are unaccultomed to fuch objects.

It is not eafy to account for that variety of ficknefs,
which is produced by certain kinds of motion of the bady,
fuch as {winging, whirling, and the undulating motion of
a fhipat fea. It feems, however, to be referrible principally
to the fympathetic conne€tion between the ftomach and
brain ; 7. ¢. to the vertigo or dizzinefs produced in the lat-
tér, through the medium of the organs of vifion, by thefe
unufual motions. Sicknefs and vertigo are mutually produc-
tive of each other, like fome ether affe@tions of the head
and ftomach. When the ftomach is rendered fick by wine,
or naufeous drugs, a giddinefs is perceived, even with clofed
eyes, and vice verfa. Dr. Darwin mentions a ftriking fad,
illuftrative of the effect of this dizzine%, produced through
the organs of fight, in bringing on and preventing fea-
ficknefs. ,“* Inan open boat pafling from Leith to Kinghorn
in Scotland, a fudden change of wind fhéok the undiftendad
fail, and {topt our boat; from this unufual movement the paf-
fengers all vomited except myfelf. I obferved, that the
undulation of the fhip, and the inftability of all vilible ob-
jets, inclined me ftrongly to be fick ; and this continued or
increafed, when I clofed my eyes, but as often as I bent
my attention with energy on the management and mechanifm
of the ropes and fails, the ficknefs ceafed ; and recurred
again as often as I relaxed this attention.”’ (Zoonomia, vol. i.
feé&t. xx. 5.) Similar naufea, though lefs in degree, is coms
monly an attendant on the vertigo produced by looking from
a high tower, or attempting to crofs a narrow path, unfup-
ported, over a deep chafm.

With refpe@& to the cure of naufea, then, it is obvious,
that it will be as various as the caufes which induce it ;- and
that it is only in the cafes, where it refults primarily from
derangement of the ftomach, that any material fuccefs can
be obtained by remedies direéted to that organ. In thefe
cafes, the nature of the caufe muft determine the kind of
remedy to be adminiftered. When there is obvioufly a pro-
duétion of acidity, it will be relieved by the abforbent earths,
fuch as chalk and magnefia, and by the alkalis, as prepared
foda, foda-water, or potafh. The mixture of an alkali
with lemon-juice, taken in the aét of effervefcence, affords
one of the molt effeCtual means of relief in fome cafes of
ficknefs, when there is confiderable weaknefs and irritability
of the ftomach. And in thofe cafes, in which there is alfo
pain in the ftomach, efpecially after taking food, opiates
may be given, in combination with aromatics, with great ad-
vantage. In all fuch cafes, however, it is clear that much
muit be done by the regulation of diet, both in refpect to
quantity and quality,—by taking only light and digeftible
food, in moderate portions,—and by ufing regular and mo-
derate exercife. Let it be obferved, too, that the practice
of reforting co emetics on all occafions of naufea, is inju-
dicious ; and probably aggravates the evil tenfold, by aug-
menting the irritability and feeblenefy of the ftomach, and
thus laying the foundation for permanent imbecility in that
important organ.

NAUSSA, in Geography, a fea-port town fituated on the
N.E. coait of the ifland of Paros, fortified by the Ruffians
when they were in poffeflion of the Archipelago.

NAUSTATHMUS, in Ancient Geography, a port of
Sicily. Plin. l. iii. c. 8—Alfo, a port of Africa in the Pen-
tapolis, according to Ptolemy, placed by Mela in the Cyre-
naica.—Alfo, a port at the mouth of the river Indus.—Alfo,
a port of Afia, inthe environs of the Troade, according to

Strabo.
NAUST-

NAU
NAUSTEDAL, in Geography, a town of Norway, in

the province of Bergen; 70 miles N. of Bergen.

NAUTACA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Sogdiana. Arrian. |. ni. ; the inhabitants of which were called
« Nautace.”’

NAUTAN, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Oude ; 30 miles E. of Gooracpour.

NAUTAPOOL, a town of Bengal; feven miles S. of
Burwah.

NAUTICAL PianispHere, a defcription of the ter-
reftrial globe upon a plane, for the ufe of mariners. See
PLANISPHERE, and Sea-CHanr.

Nautica Chart. See Sea-Cuarr.

Nauticat Compafs. See Compass.

NAUTICUS, in Anatomy, amufcle, called alfo tibialis

ofticus.

NAUTILUS, in Natural Hiffory, a genus of the clafs
and order Vermes Teftacea. The animal isa kind of fepia:
the fhell is univalve, divided into feveral compartments, com-
municating with each other by an aperture. This genus,
which is fometimes confounded with the argonauta, or paper
nautilus, on account of the fimilarity of their names, includes
thirty-one f{pecies, which are feparated into three divifions ;
viz. A, of which the fhells are fpiral, rounded, with con-
tiguous whorls, comprifing fifteen fpecies, of which nine are
common to our coatts, and found chiefly on the Sandwich
fhore, oron Sheppy ifland. In the divifion B, the thells are
fpiral, rounded, with feparate whorls : the number of fpecies
is three; thefe are all foreign. In Cthe fhells are all
elongated and ftraightifh. There are thirteen {pecies in this
divifion.

A. Spiral, rounded, with contiguous Whorls.
Species.

Pomprinius. Aperture of the fhell heart-fhaped, with
obtufe and fmooth whorls. This fpecies is found in the
Indian and African oceans; it is fometimes very large, and
finely variegated with brown flexuous ftreaks, fpots, and
marks under the oxter covering, which is white. Within
it is of a moft beautiful pearly glofs. Of this fhell the inha-
bitants of the Eaft make their drinking cups.

*Catcar. Aperture of the fhell linear; the whorls
have elevated joints. It is found on Sheppy ifland ; is mi-
nute, white, and opaque.

* Crispus. Aperture of the fhell femicordate ; joints of
the whorls crenate. This is an inhabitant of the Mediter-
ranean and of Sheppy ifland, and is very minute. Inde-
pendently of the fpecific chara&ter juft given, the fhell is
opaque, white, umbilicate on each fide, granulate and marked
with flexuous {trie ; the back is carinate ; the fyphon central,
and the chambers a little inflected in the middle.

* Beccanit. Aperture of the fhell obovate, the whorls
twilted with deep joints, There is a variety, of which the
fhell is compreffed, with a linear aperture and contiguous
whorls marked with the elevated ftrie ; many-rayed. This
is found on the fhores of many countries. The fhell is de-
preffed, minute; of a fine pellucid crimfon while the fith is
alive, but of a dull white when dead.

* Levicatucus. Shell {piral, with fmooth joints. This
fpecies is found at Sandwich, and is very minute, The hell
is femipellucid, white, and gloffy.

* Depressucus. The fhell of this fpecies is fpiral,
flightly umbilicated on each fide, with many deprefled joints.
Found at Reculver, is minute and very rare, ‘The fhell is
opaque ard white.

* Umeiticatutus. Shell {piral, umbilicate, with fpiral
joints. Itis found at Sandwich, is white, opaque, and minute.

3

NAU

* Crassutus. Shell fpiral, thick, umbilicate on each
fide, with fine joints. It is found at Reculver, is very rare,
white, opaque, and minute.

* Loparutus. Shell fpiral, lobate, the fpires rounded
on one fide and depreffed on the other. Itis found at Whit-
ftable, is minute, White, and opaque.

* CarinatuLus. Shell oblong, carinate, witha narrow
oval aperture. Itis found at Sandwich, and is rare, minute,
white, and opaque. ;

* SugarcuatuLus. The fhell of this fpecies is a little
bending, with raifed joints. It is found at Sheppy ; minute,
opaque, and brown. i

Ba.ruicus. Shell white, convex, with a linear aperture ;
firft whorl far exceeding the others in fize. It inhabits the
Baltic, adhering to the roots of fuci; it refembles the
M. beccarii; the fhell is fometimes polifhed and opaque ;
frequently pellucid.

Heticirgs. In this the whorls of the fhells are con-
cealed. Itis found, in a foffile ftate, on St. Peter’s moun-
tain at Maeftricht, and is very {mall ; the fhell is fometimes
convex, fometimes depreffed, fmooth, or ftriate.

Rueosus. Apertures of the fhell linear ; whorls com-
preffed, with thickened margins. It inhabits the Southern
ocean ; is very {mall, white, fomewhat depreffed ; the inter-
nal divifions a little prominent outwardly, and appearing like
tranfverfe wrinkles.

Umainicatus. Aperture of the fhell compreffed and
linear ; the whorls are comprefled ; the umbilicus concave.
It is found in Croatia;, is minute, obliquely jointed, with
tranfverfe grooves, an{wering to the divifions within, particu-
larly at the keel.

B. Spiral, rounded, with feparated Whorls.

Spicuta. - Aperture of the fhell orbicular, whorl cylin-
drical. It inhabits the American and Indian ocean, is
about an inch in diameter ; is whitifh and fhining within,
like mother-of-pearl ; it is orbicular, the whorls gradually
decreafing inwards, the firft a little ftraight ; the fyphon is
contiguous to the walls of the fhells.

SpencLeri. Shell fmooth, with four conic tubercles.”
It inhabits India, and is very minute.

Uneuicutatus. The fheli of this {pecies is diaphanous,
the middle partitions protuberant outwards; the furface has
fix conical tubercles. It inhabits India; is very minute ;
thin, white, polifhed, and flightly ribbed.

C. Elongated and flraightifb.

Semitituus. The fhell is incurved, fpiral at the tip ; the
whorls are contigudus. It inhabits Croatia; is minute and
convex ; the partitions appearing outwardly, fometimes um-
bilicate.

Lirvus.
ing gradually lefs ; the tip is incurved and fpiral.
in the Red fea, frequently in a foffile ftate.

Ostiquus. Shell ftraight, with a flight curvature: the
divifions are obliquely ftriate, It inhabits the Mediterranean
and Adriatic.

Rarnanistrum. Shell fub-cylindrical, with thick divi-
fions marked with twelve elevated {triz ; the fyphon is cen-
tral and regular,

Rapuanus. Shell jointed, the divifions thick, with fe.
venteen elevated ftrix ; fyphon fub-lateral and oblique. It
is found in the Mediterranean and Adriatic, and is very
minute,

Granum. Shell ovate-oblong, with thick divifions
marked with eight interrupted elevated ttrie; fyphon ob-
lique. Itis foundin the Mudivertandeti and aiftnguited

rom

Shell fubconic, with globular divifions grow-
Tt is found

NAV

from the laft in having ftrie at the point of the divifions a
little contra¢ted.

Rapicuza. Shell oblong-ovate, with thick glabrous
divifions. It inhabits the Adriatic.

Fascia. Shell with ftriate divifions and {mooth elevated
joints. Found in the Adriatic. ,

Inequatts. Shell cylindrical, with eight divifions ; the
fecond and third very fhort ; the aperture margined.

Sipnuncuus. Shell {mooth, with cylindrical remote di-
vifions ; the joints tapering and cylindrical. Inhabits the feas
about Sicily, and is found adhering to coral rocks.

Lecumen. Shell compreffled, jointed, and margined at
one end ; the fyphonis lateral. It inhabits the Adriatic.

~OrtHocerA. Whorls of the fhell with carinate ftrie.
It inhabits the ocean, and is frequently found foffile.

Beremnita; Thunder-ftone. The fhell is equal, fmooth,
conic, and acute. It is foundin a foffile ftate in moft parts of
Europe, and has derived its Englifh name from a notion
thatic is a thunder-bolt, and never found but after a ftorm.
The fheil varies in fize from half an inch to eight inches ; it
is conical, a little tranfparent, and when burnt or rubbed it
{mells like rafped horn. Several fine fpecimens of the nau-
tilus have been dug out of the hill at Highgate. See the
article ConcHoLoey. :

NAUTPOUR, in Geography, a town of Bengal, on the
Coofah ; 36 miles N.N.W. of Purneah. N. lat. 26° 18’.
E. long. 87° 14’.

NAVUK, atown of Perfia, in the province of Mecran ;
80 miles S. of Arokhage.

NAVY, the fleet or fhipping of a prince or ftate.
FLEET.

The royal navy of England hath ever been its’greateft de-
fence and ornament ; it 1s its ancient and natural ftrength ;
the floating bulwark and ** wooden walls’’ of the ifland ;
an army from which, however {trong and powerful, no danger
can ever be apprehended to liberty ; and accordingly it hath
been affiduoufly cultivated, even from the earlielt ages.
(See Laws of OtEron.) And yet, fo valtly inferior were
our anceftors in this refpec&t to the prefent age, that even in
the maritime reign of queen Elizabeth, fir Edward Coke,
(3 Inft. 50.) thinks it matter of boaft, that the royal navy
of England then confilted of thirty-three fhips. The prefent
condition of our marine is in great meafure owing to the
falutary provifions of the ftatutes called the navigation a&ts,
by which the conftant increafe of Britifh fhipping and fea-
men was not only encouraged, but rendered abfolutely ne-
ceflary. See Navication dds.

Several articles and orders for the government of the
navy are eltablifhed by 13 Car. II. c.9, and 22 Geo. II.
c.22.and amended by 19 Geo. III. c. 17. which are as
follow :

1. Officers are to caufe public worfhip, according to the
liturgy of the church of England, to be folemnly per-
formed in their fhips, and take care that prayers and preach-
ing by the chaplains be performed diligently, and that the
Lord’s day be obferved. 2. Perfons guilty of profane
oaths, curfing, drunkennefs, uncleannefs, &c. to be punifhed
as a court martial fhall think fit. 3. If any perfon fhall

ive or-hold intelligence to or with an enemy without ave, he
fhall fuffer death. 4. If any letter or meffage from an ene-
my be conveyed to any inthe fleet, and he fhall not intwelve
Aours acquaint his fuperior officer withit, or if the {uperior
officer, being acquainted therewith, fhall not reveal it to the
commander-in-chief, the offender fhall fuffer death, or fuch
punifhment as a court martial fhall impofe. 5. Spies and
perfons endeavouring to corrupt any one in the flect, hall fuffer

Vou. XXIV.

See

Naasy¥

death, or {uch punifhment as a court martial fhall impofe
6. No perfon fhall relieve an enemy with money, victuals,
or ammunition, on like penalty. 7. All papers taken on
board a prize fhall be fent to the court of admiralty, &c. on
penalty of forfeiting the fhare of the prize, and fuch punifh-
ment as a court martial fhall impofe. 8. No perfon fhail
take out of any prize any money or goods, unlefs for better
fecuring the fame, or for the neceflary ufe of any of his ma-
jetty’s fhips, before the prize fhall be condemned ; upon pe-
nalty of forfeiting his fhare, and fuch punifhment as fhall be
impofed by a court martial. g. No perfon on board a prize
fhall be Srripped of his clothes, pillaged, beaten, or ill-treated,
upon pain of fuch punifhment as a court martial fhall impofe.
10. Every commander, who, upon fignal or order of fight,

or fight of any fhip which it may be his duty to engage, or
who, upon likelihood of engagement, fhall not make neceffary
preparations for fight, and‘encourage the inferior officers and men
to fight, thall fuffer death, or fuch punifhment as a court
martial fhall deem him to deferve. And if any perfon {hall
treacheroufly or cowardly yield or cry for quarter, he fhall
fuffer death. 11. Every perfon who fhall not obey the orders
of his fuperior officer, in time of aGion, to the beft of his
power, {hall fuffer death, or {uch punifhment as a court mare
tial fhall deem him to deferve. 12. Every perfon, who, in
time of action, fhall withdracw or keep back, or not come into
the fight, or do his utmott to take or deftroy any fhip which it
fhall be his duty to engage, and to affift every fhip of his
majelty or his allies, whichit fhall be his duty to aft, fhall
fuffer death. 13. Every perfon, who through cowardice,
&c. fhall forbear to purfue the chace of an enemy, &c. or
fhall not affift or relieve a known friend in view, to the ut-
mott of his power, fhall fuffer death, 14. If any perfon
fhall delay or difcourage any aGtion or fervice commanded,
upon pretence of arrears of wages, or otherwife, he fhall
fuffer death, or fuch punifhment as a court martial fhall
deem him to deferve. 15. Every perfon who fhall de/ert to
the enemy, or run away with any fbip, ordnance, &c. to the
weakening of the fervice, or yield up the fame cowardly or
treacheroufly to the enemy, fhall fuffer death. 16. Every per-
fon who fhall defert, or entice others fo to do, fhall fuffer death,
or fuch punifhment as a court martial fhall think fit. If any
commanding officer fhall receive a deferter, after difcovering
him to be fuch, and fhall not with {peed give notice to the cap-
tain of the fhip to which he belongs, or if the fhip is at a con-
fiderable diftance, to the fecretary of the admiralty, or
commander-in-chief, he fhall be cafhiered. 17. Officers and
feamen of fhips, appointed for convoy of merchant fhips, or
of any other, fhall diligently attend upon that charge ac-
cording to their initructions ; and whofoever fhall not faith.
fully perform their duty, and defend the fhips in their con-
voy, or refufe to fight in their defence, or run away cow-
ardly, and fubmit the fhips in their convey to hazard, or
exact any reward for convoying any fhip, or mifufe the
maiter or mariners, fhall make reparation of damages, as
the court of admiralty fhall adjudge, and be punifhed crimi-
nally by death, or other punifhment, as fhall be adjudged
by a court martial. 18. If any officer fhall receive or per-
mit to be received on board any goods or merchandife, ether
than for the fole ufe of the fhip, except gold, filver, or
jewels, and except goods belonging to any fhip which may
be fhipwrecked, or in danger thereof, in order to the pre-
ferving them for the owners, and except goods ordered to be
reeeived by the lord high admiral, &c. he fhall be cathier-

ed, and rendered incapable of farther fervice. 19. An
perfon making or endeavouring to make any mutinous af-
fembly, thall fuffer death. Any perfon uttering words of
4£ fedition

NAVY.

fedition or mutiny fhall fuffer death, or fuch punifhment.

as a court martial fhall deem him to deferve. If any
officer, mariner, oz foldier, in or belonging to.the fleet fhall
behave himfelf with contempt to his fuperior officer, being
in the execution of his office, he fhall be punifhed according to
the nature of his offence by the judgment of a court mar-
tial. 20. Any perfon concealing any traiterous or mutinous
praétice or defign, fhall fuffer death, or fuch punifhment as
a court martial fhall think fit. Any perfon concealing any
traiterous or mutinous words, or any words, practice, or de-
fign, tending to the hindrance of the fervicc, and not forth-
with revealing the fame to the commanding officer; or
being prefent at any mutiny or fedition, fhall not ufe his ut-
moft endeavours to fupprefs the fame, fhall be punifhed as
a court martial fhall think he deferves. 21. Any perfon
finding caufe of complaint of the unwholefomenefs of vic-
tuals, or upon other juft ground, fhall quietly make the
fame known to his fuperior, who, as far as he 1s able, fhall
caufe the fame to be prefently remedied; and no perfon
upon any fuch or other pretence fhall attempt to ftir up any
difturbance, upon pain of fuch punifhment as a court martial
fhall think fit to infli&. 22. Any perfon ftriking any his
fuperior officer, or drawing or offering to draw or lift up
any weapon againft him, being in the execution of his offices
fhall fuffer death. And any perfon prefuming to quarrel
with any his fuperior officer, being in the execution of his office,
or difobeying any lawful command of any his fuperior of-
ficer, fhall fuffer death, or fuch other punifhment as fhall be
infiGed upon him by a court martial. 23. Any perfon
quarrelling or fighting with any other perfon in the fleet, or
ufing reproachful or provoking fpeeches or geftures, fhall
fuffer fuch punifhment as a court martial fhall impofe.
24. There fhall be no wafteful expence or embezzlement
of any powder, fhot, &c. upon penalty of fuch punifhment
as by a court martial fhall be found juit. 25. Every per-
fon burning or fetting fire to any magazine, or ftore of pow-
der, fhip, &c. or furniture thereunto belonging, not then
appertaining to an enemy, fhall fuffer death. 26. Care is to
be taken that through wilfulnefs or negligence no fhip be
ftranded, run upon rocks or fands, or {plit or hazarded ;
upon pain of death, or {uch punifhment as a court martial
fhall deem the offence to deferve. 27. No perfon fhall fleep
upon his watch, or negligently perform his duty, or forfake
his ftation, upon pain of death, or fuch punifhment as, &c.
28. Murder ; 29. And buggery or fodomy fhall be punifhed
with death. 30. Robbery fhall be punifhed with death, or
otherwife, as a court martial fhall find meet. 31. Every
perfon knowingly making or figning, or commanding, coun-
felling, or procuring the making or figning any falfe muf-
ter, fhall be cafhiered, and rendered incapable of farther
employment, 32. Provolt martial refufing to apprehend
or receive any criminal, or fuffering him to efcape, fhall
fuffer fuch punifhment as a court martial fhall deem him
to deferve. And all others fhall do their endeavours to
dete&t and, apprehend all offenders, upon pain of being
punifhed by a court martial. 33. If any flag-officer, cap-
tain, commander, or lieutenant, fhall behave in a fcandalous,
infamous, cruel, oppreflive, or fraudulent manner, unbecoming
his charader, he thall be difmiffed. 34. Every perfon in
aétual fervice and full pay, guilty of mutiny, defertion, or
difobedience, in any part of his majefty’s dominions on fhore,
when in aétual fervice, relative to the fleet, fhall be liable to
be tried by a court martial, and fuffer the like punifhment
ai if the offence had been committed at fea. 35. Every
perfon in aiual fervice and full pay, committing upon fhore,
in any place out of his majefty’s dominions, any crime punifh-

able by thefe articles, fhall be liable to be tried and punifhed
as if the erime had been committed at fea. 36. All other
crimes not capital, not mentioned in this act, fhall be punifhed
according to the laws and cuftoms ufed at fea. No perfon
to be imprifoned for longer than two years. Court martial
not to try any offence (except the 5th, 34th, and 35th ar-
ticles) not committed upon the main fea, or in great rivers
beneath the bridges, or in any haven, &c. within the jurif-
dition of the admiralty, or by perfons in a€tual fervice and
full pay, except fuch perfons and offences, as in the sth ar-
ticle ; nor to try a land-officer or foldier on board a tranf-
port fhip. The lord high admiral, &c. may grant commif-
fions to any officer commanding in chief any fleet, &c. to
call courts martial, confilting of commanders and captains.
And if the commander-in-chief fhall die or be removed, the
officer next in command may call courts martial. Nocom-
mander-in-chief of a fleet, &c. of more than five fhips,
fhall prefide at any court martial in foreign parts, but the
officer next in command fhall prefide. If a commander-in-
chief fhall detach any part of his fleet, &c. he may impower
the chief commander of the detachment to hold courts mar-
tial during the feparate fervice. If five or more fhips fhall
meet in foreign parts, the fenior officer may hold courts
martial and prefide thereat. Where it is improper for the
officer next to the commander-in-chief to hold or prefide at
a court martial, the third officer in command may~be em-
powered to prefide at or hold a court martial. No court
martial fhall confift of more than thirteen, or lefs than five
perfons. Where there fhall not be lefs thanthree, and yet
not fo many as five of the degree of a poft captain, or fupe-
rior rank, the officer who is to prefide may call to his affift-
ance as many commanders under the degree of a poft cap-
tain, as, together with the poft captains, fhall make up the
number five, to hold the court martial. After trial begun,
no member of a court martial fhall go on fhore, until fen-
tence, except in cafe of ficknef:, upon pain of being cafhiered.
Proceedings fhall not be delayed, if a fufficient number re-
main to compofe the court, which fhall fit from day to day
(except Sunday), till fentence be given. The judge advo-
cate, and all officers conftituting a court martial, /hall be
upon oath, Perfons refufing to give evidence may be ime
prifoned. Sentence of death within the Narrow Seas (ex-
cept in cafe of mutiny) fhall not be put in execution till
a report be made to the lord high admiral, &c. Sentence
of death beyond the Narrow Seas, fhall not be put in exe-
cution but by order of the commander-in-chief of the fleet,
&c. Sentence of death in any fquadron, detached from the
fleet, fhall not be put in execution (except in cafe of mu-
tiny), but by order of the commander of the fleet, or lord
high admiral, &c. And fentence of death paffed in a court
martial, held by the fenior officer of five or more fhips
met in foreign parts (except in cafe of mutiny) fhall
not be put in execution but by order of the lord high
admiral, &c.

The powers given by the faid articles fhall remain in force
with refpeé to crews of fhips wrecked, loft, or deftroyed
until they be difcharged or removed into another fhip, or a
court martial fhall be held to inquire of the caufes of the
lofs of the fhip. And if upon inquiry it fhall appear, that
all or any of the officers and feamen did their utmolt to fave
the fhip, and behaved obediently to their fuperior officers,
their pay fhall go on: as alfo fhall the pay of officers and
feamen taken by the enemy, having done their bett to defend
the fhip, and behaved obediently. If any officer fhall receive
any goods on board contrary to the 18th articke, he fhall far-
ther forfeit the value of fuch goods, or 500/, at the election

2 of

NAV

of the informer ; one moiety to the informer, the other to

Greenwich hofpital. For other regulations relating to the

navy, fee MARINERS.

Seay the method of fupplying the navy, fee MANNING the
cet.

‘The royal navy of Great Britain is conducted, under the
direGtion of the lords of the admiralty, by feven commiffioners,
and the following principal officers, who compofe the board
for managing the bufinefs of the navy-oflice, viz. comp-
troller of the navy, who attends and comptrels the payment
of all wages, is to know the rates of ttores, &c. There
is alfo a deputy comptroller. Surveyor of the navy, who
is to know the itate of all ftores, to f{upply what is wanting,
to eftimate repairs, charge boat{wains, &c. with the ftores
they receive, &c. There have been generally two joint-
furveyors. Clerk of the aéts, whofe bufinefs is to record
all orders, contraéts, bills, warrants, &c. Comptroller of
the treafurer’s accounts. Comptroller of the vitualling
accounts. Comptroller of the ftore-keeper’s accounts. In
time of war, or great naval exertion, there are other addi-
tional extra-commiffioners. ‘There are alfo commiffioners for
Deptford and Woolwich, and alfo others for the out-ports,
refiding at Chatham, Sheerne({s, Portfmouth, and Plymouth;
and in time of war commiflioners are appointed to refide at
fome of the principal yar¢és abroad, as Gibraltar, Halifax
in Nova Scotia, Malta, Antigua, Jamaica, Cape of Good
Hope, Madras, Bombay, &c. The treafurer of the navy
is an officer, whofe bufinefs is to receive money out of the
exchequer, and to pay all the charges of the navy, by war-
rant from the principal officers. Each of thefe commif-
fioners and officers has a number of fubordinate clerks, with
various falaries.

The navy was anciently vi€tualled by contract ; but the
vitualling 1s now under commiffioners who keep their office
in Somerlet-houfe. See VictuaLaInc-Office

For the feveral yards belonging to his majefty’s navy, fee
Dock-Yards.

Navy and alfo Vi@ualling Lills, are bills or orders for the
payment of money, iflued by the commiffioners of the navy
and viCtualling offices, on the treafurer of the navy, &c. for
flores and provifions purchafed for the fervice of the navy.

That the contra&tors may not be lofers by receiving thefe
bills in payment, the current difcount, at the time of making
them out, is added to the amount of the goods delivered.
The inconveniences arifing from too great a number of thefe
bills remaining ‘undifcharged at any time, have induced go-
vernment, at different periods, to allow the proprietors to
exchange them for a certain proportion of redeemable
ftock ; and thus they become poffefled of at leaft an equal
fecurity, with the advantage, that any part of it can be dif-
pofed of, as occafion may require, inftead of being limited
in this refpeét by the amount of the bills, which is generally
confiderable ; the intereft alfo becomes, by this mode of
management, payable at certain periods ; whereas the time
of payment of the intereft on the unfunded bills, previoufly
to the regulation which took place in 1794, was always un-
certain; no payment being made till the principal and the
intereit due upon it were difcharged together. In 1794, all
navy and victualling bills were made payable on a certain
day, to be expreffed in each particular bill, which day was

“not to exceed 15 months from the date of the bill, but the
bills now ifiued from the navy and victualling offices are at
go days date, bearing intereft at 3d. per cent. per diem, com-
mencing from the date of the bill, and payable with it; and
thefe bills being negociated as bills of exchange, of courfe
cannot be bought and fold at\a difcount. In negociating
thefe bills, the whole property+tax on the go days’ intereft 1s

NAX

dedudted, and the intereft for the time they have to run it
taken on the nett fum.

The Navy-office is the place where the chief bufinefs of the
navy is tranfa¢ted by the officers and commiflioners.

Navy denotes alfo the colle€tive body of officers em-
ployed in his majefty’s fervice.

Navy, in Geography, a townfhip of America, in Orleans
county, ftate of Vermont.

Navy-Hall, afettlement of Upper Canada, on the S. fide
of lake Ontario, at the head and W. fide of Niagara river,
which laft feparates it from Fort Niagara on the E. fide, in
the ftate of New York; 20 miles N. by W. of Fort Ente.

Navy //land, an ifland in the middle of Niagara river,
which feparates it from Fort Slufher, on the E, bank of the
river, and alfo from Grand ifland on the S. and S.E. ; it is
about one mile long, and of the fame breadth, and 13 miles
N. by E. from Navy-hall.

NAXIA, formerly Maxos, the largeft of the Cyclades,
and now the moft agreeable, and the moft tranquil ifland of
the Grecian archipelago. Its fertility, more than its extent,
being about 48 miles in circuit, has given occafion for its
being called the “« Queen.”” The ancients called it ‘* Stron-
gyle,” and it is faid to have been firlt peopled by Thracians,
who being in want of women ftole them from Theflaly, and
among others Iphidemia and her daughter Pancratis. Al-
veus fent his fons Otus and Ophialtes to recover their mother
Iphidemia; thefe brothers vanquifhed the Thracians; made
themfelves matters of the ifland, and called it “ Dia.’ The
Carians eftablifhed themfelves in this ifland, and gave it the
name of Naxos,their king. Naxos, like the other iflands of the
archipelago, has experienced all the viciflitudes of fortune. It
was formerly a powerful republic, but unable to maintain
its independence ; it was fucceffively in alliance with the
Athenians, conquered and ravaged by the Perfians, tributary
to the Romans, ceded by Marc Antony, after the battle of
Philippi, to the Rhodians, afterwards fubjeét to the em-
perors of the Eaft, a long time governed by Venetian
princes, and at length united to the Ottoman empire, under
the reign of Selim IT. The Naxians have retained a fingular
privilege of being governed by their own laws and cuftoms ;
they have a municipal adminiftration and judges of ther own
eleétion. The inconfiderable importance of this ifland,
andits remotenefs from the coaft of Afia, have not induced the
Turks to eftablifh themfelves there. The Porte is content
to fend thither a waiwode to exercife the police, te gather
the taxes, and to remit them to Conftantinople. This ifland,
more free and more independent than * Scio,” is, neverthe-
lefs, far from having attained the fame degree of profperity.
Trade is not fufficiently brifk, the culture of the lands is too
much negleéted, and the inhabitants poffefs little or no in-
duftry. Poor and haughty, and proud of their ancient
nobility, they difdain commerce and agriculture; and thus
thefe noble perfons, boafting of their defcent from the firft
Italian families, can bear to fee their manfions pafs into the
hands of Plebeians, and their lands almoft deftitute of cul-
ture. The population of this ifland is faid to exceed 10,000
perfons; The capital contains nearly 2000; and the reft are
{cattered through 41 villages. The taxes which it pays for
the lands, the karatch, and the cuftoms, amount to about
1666/. fterling ; exclufively of fome other occafional dif-
burfements. Although the number of Catholics is dimirifh-
ing, fo that they have fearcely 600 fettled in the town, they
have an archbifhop, a coadjutor, fix canons, a reétor, and
feveral curates. They have alfo a houfe of Lazarifts for
the education of youth, a convent of Capuchins, another of
Cordeliers, and another of cloiftered nuns. The number of
the Greeks, on the contrary, is increafing, and their clergy

4E 2 are

NA xX

are much lefs numerous, and more rich than thofe of the
Latins. The priefts of thefe two forms of religion govern
this country with a rod of iron, and, without intending it,
render the inhabitants more malicious than devout, more liti-
gious and quarrelfome, than juft or humane.

Such is Olivier’s account ; but Sonnini’s is very different.
He fays, that the principal inhabitants have preferved the
urbanity, and noble and generous manners of their origin,
and that they are diftinguifhed by their affability and polite-
nefs, the fruits of a careful education. ‘The women are no
lefs amiable on account of their perfonal charms, than their
other qualities.

This ifland is covered with high mountains, whofe bafe
is fchiftofe or granitical. White marble, and hard calca-
“ reous ftone, lie every where on the fchiltus, and give rife to
a great number of fprings, which water and fertilize the
plains. The highelt of thefe mountains is that of Jupiter,
which the inhabitauts call * Dia” or ‘ Zia.?? In this
mountain is a grotto of beautiful white marble, which has
beer: much vifited. ‘The inhabitants regard it as a facred
fpot, whither the Bacchants of the country came to cele-
brate their feltivals and their myfteries. It prefents now
nothing very ramarkable. Tournefort has defcribed it in
the “ Voyage au Levant,’? vol. i. The fummit of the
mountains affords an extenfive and interefting profpe@t. On
the back of the mountains are fome flocks of the little fheep
of Italy and Provence, with fhort and coarfe wool, and of a
{mall {pecies of gat, the flefh of which is eaten by the poor.
The fhenherds are peculiarly wild, and the women unfocia-
ble. The females of Naxia, like thofe of Scio, take plea-
fure in holding in their mouths and chewing an inodorous
f{ubftance, which is furnifhed by a plant known to botaniits
under the name of *atraétylis gumnifera.”” The root of
the plant affords an aliment equally wholefome and nutri-
tious. The hills and rifing grounds of this ifland are
covered with myrtles, arbutufes, lentifks, hypericums, fa-
vorys, thorny brooms, leguminous fhrubs, and feveral {pe-
cies of rock rofes, particularly that which furnifhes the
labdanum. The rivulets are bordered by oleanders, agnus-
caftufes, and plane-trees. In the eaft part of the ifland is
a mine of emery. The inhabitants of Naxos praétife the
caprification of the fig, and they cultivate the vine. Their
wine has been generally commended. Atheneus, {peaking
of it in ancient times, conipares it to the neétar of the gods.
Olivier fays, that it is generally of an indifferent quality,
becaufe they know neither how to make nor how to preferve
it. The ifland furnifhes wheat, kidney-beans, garden-beans,
and a few other legumes for the home confumption. Barley,
which is much more abundant, is annually exported. ‘The
oil is of an indifferent quality. Oranges, lemons, and ber-
gamot-citrons, are lefs plentiful than they might be, as there
1s no town fufficiently near that furnifhes a great confump-
tion. ‘The peaches, apricots, pomegranates, pines, plums,
walnuts, almonds, and figs, are confumed in the ifland.
Naxos has fheep and goats for the wants of the inhabit-
ants, a few fmall-fized oxen for hufbandry, together with
mules and affes for draught. The wool is of bad quality,
and wholly confumed in the country. Cheefe is an article
of exportation. Cotton is but little cultivated, which is
alfo the cafe with filk and flax. The honey and wax are
confirmed in the laid. To the fouth of the town is a {mall
faltern, whence the capital is fupplied with falt.

Although Noxia has no ports for the reception of veffels
of a certain fize, its coafts, neverthelefs, afford toler ably
good places of fhelter again{t contrary winds ; and the {mall
craft of the archipelago are continually pafling into feveral
of its coves. On the other hand, the principal town called

NAY
Naxia, and off which veffels may caft anchor in a road-
ftead, is at a very fmall diftance from *he much frequented
harbours of the eaftern fide of the ifland of Paros, and in
particular of the capital road of Nauffa. N. lat. 37° 6.
E_ long. 25° 32'.

NaxtA, the capital of the above ifland, and one of the
moft beautiful towns in the Grecian archipelago. The
town ftands on-an eminence by the fea-fide, on the W. coaft
of the ifland, oppofite to Paros. It was defended, under

“the Venetian princes, by a citadel,and by walls, which the

Turks have ina great meafure deftroyed. The Latins, who
were formerly matters of the country, are all lodged within
their enclofure. The Greeks occupy that part which ex-
tends to the eaftward of the caftle, known by the name of
the « New Town,” Neo-Kopio. The ancient city extended
to the north, towards the fountain which bears the name of
Ariadne. There are alfo, below the caftle, fome remains of _
a fubterranean aqueduét, that probably brought to the
town the waters of a copious fpring, which is feen four or
five miles to the E., and which at this day ferves to water
part of the plain of Naxia. Bacchus had formerly a temple
ac Naxos. The gate and the foundation of it are ftill vifible
ou a fmall rocky ifland, in the vicinity of Ariadne’s foun-
tain. A bridge built on a chain of rocks, itis faid, joined
this ifland to the large one, and conduéted an aqueduG for
conveying water for the priefts who inhabited the enclofure
of the temple. On the N. fide of the ifland is found aco-
Joffal ftatue of Apollo, which is an imperfe& piece of fculp-
ture. ‘The harbour, facing the ifland of Paros, was formerly
capable of containing 30 gallies, was clofed by a jetty, now
to be diflinétly perceived when the fea is fmooth. It is at
prefent feveral feet under water, and yet the {mall craft of
the country lie fafely there in all feafons. Ships of burden
may anchor, in fummer, off the harbour, under fhelter of
the rock, on which are the remains of the temple of Bac-
chus. N. lat. 37° 7!. E. long. 25° 26’. Sonnini. Olivier.

NAXOS, or Naxus, in Ancient Geography, an ancient
town of Sicily, on the eaft fide of the ifland, ona fmall
promontory to the fouth of ‘ Apollinis Archageta ara,’
and to the eaft of * Veneris Fanum.’? It was near the
mouth of the fmall river “ Arfines.’? Upon the deftruc-
tion of this town, its inhabitants were removed to mount
Taurus, on which they built the town of “ Taurominium,”
called «* Naxos-Taurominium.’’—Alfo, a town of the ifland
of Crete.-—Alfo, a town of Acarnania.

NAXUANA, atown of the Greater Armenia.

NAY, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lower Pyrenées, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftriét of Pau; g miles S.S.E. of Pau. The place
contains 2358, and the canton 10,036 inhabitants, on a
territory of 145 kiliometres, in 10 communes.—Alfo, a
town of Africa, in the kingdom of Galam; 25 miles S.
of Galam.

NAYE, or Nayemou, a town of Africa, in Bondou ;
12 miles S.W. of Fatteconda.

NAYLAND, or NeyLanp, amarket-town in the hun-
dred of Babergh, and county of Suffolk, England, is
fituated in a valley on the north bank of the river Stour.
This place was formerly remarkable for its woollen manu-
factures, but this branch of trade is now reduced toa very
low ebb, only a {mall portion of yarn being made to fupply the
crape and bombazeen manufactories of Norwich. Some
white and brown foap, of a very fuperior quality, is made
here ; as is alfo a confiderable quantity of meal, which is
fent to London. The church of Nayland, the principal or-
nament of the town, flands almoft in its centre, and is fur-

mounted by a lofty fpire. The porch is a very handfome
piece

NAY

piece of architeSture, faid to have been ereéted by one Abel,
aclothier, whofe monument appears in the wall. Various
other monuments in memory of clothiers are difperfed
throughout the interior of this edifice, but they are no
otherwife worthy of regard,.except as tokens of the early
manufacturing opulence of the place. The market day is
on Friday, and there is a fair annually on the fecond of Oc-
tober. According to the parliamentary returns of 1811,
the houfes in Nayland amounted to 184. in number, and the
inhabitants to 933.

The manor here was one of thofe given by Henry III. to
Hubert de Banglo, his julticiary, when he created him earl
of Kent. It afterwards came into the poffeffion of fir Ri-
chard Wetton, who, in Charles I.’s reign, was elevated to
the dignity of lord Wetton of Neyland, for his fignal fer-
vices as ambaflador to feveral of the courts of Germany.
This nobleman was fubfequently made earl of Portland, and
a knight of the Garter. Adjoining to Neyland is the parifh
called Stoke-Neyland, which is diftinguifhed by a very noble
church and fteeple. This place was the {cite of a monaltery
of great note previous to the conqueft, but it feems to have
foon fallen to decay after that event. Gufford’s-hall, the
feat of the Monnocks, who have been proprietors of it
fince the time of Henry VI., is a confpicuous example of
the fine old manfions. ‘The fhape of this houfe is quadran-
gular, with an open court in the middle, and the chief en-
trance under a tower gateway, faid to have been built in the
reign of Henry VIII. by Peter Gifford, efg. a diltant re-
lation of queen Anne Bullen. The whole is conftruéted of
brick, and the mouldings of the doors and windows are of the
fame material. Oppofite ro the gateway are the remains of
an old chapel. A print of the gateway may be feenin Brit-
ton’s Archite&tural Antiquities, vol. i. gto. See alfo Kir-
by’s Suffolk Traveller, 8vo. Magna Britannia; Suffolk.

NAYLER, James, in Biography, an Englifh quaker of
the feventeenth century, who difgraced that harmlefs, and,
in general, exemplary fect, by the extravagance and fanati-
cifm of his conduét, was born at Ardfley, near Waketield,
in Yorkfhire, about the year 1616. He received the ele-
ments of a very common education, and was refiding at
Wakefield when the civil wars broke out in 1641. He then
entered into the parliamentary army, and ferved as a foldier
in the ranks feveral years ; at firft under lord Fairfax, and
afterwards as quarter-mafter in major-general Lambert’s
troop in Scotland, till he returned home, about the year
1649. At this period he was member of the Independent
party, and continued fo till the year 1651, when the preach-
ingof George Fox, at Wakefield, made him a convert to
the communion of Quakers, or, as they are more properly
called, of Friends, among whom he foon commenced
preacher, with much acceptability. In the beginning of
1652, he fancied he heard a voice calling upon him to re-
nounce his kindred and father’s houle, and to go into the
weft of England, promifing that God would be with him.
He was obedient to what, in the fervour of enthufiafm, he
believed was a heavenly monition, and went about preaching
from place to place, making profelytes in abundance. In
1654-5, he came te the metropolis, where he found a meeting
of Friends, which had been eltablifhed by Edward Bur-
rough, and Francis Howgill, among whom he greatly dif-
tinguifhed himfelf by his preaching, and fo high did he rank
in popularity, that he drew the people from the fervices of
the other preachers, who were fuppofed to be lefs yifted ia
{piritual things. He became intoxicated by the notice taken
of him, and going again into the wett, he was, in 1656,
committed to the prifon of Exeter for propagating his opi-
nions. Here, as is very natural, his friends fhewed him

NAY

every mark of refpect and attachment, and fome zealots in
his caufe addreffed him in terms that were frightful to con
template, calling him the “ everlafting fon of righteouf-
nefs ;”,—* the prince of peace ;’’—‘ the only begotten fon
of God,” &c. He received the horsage with the compo-
{ure of one who thought he deferved it ; but Fox, and the
other leading nen among the Friends, difowned him, after
they had attempted, in vair, to reclaim him to the rational
principles of religion. When Nayler was releafed from im-
prifonment he intended to return to London, and taking
Briftolin his way, his deluded adherents in Glaftonbury,
Wells, and other places, ftrewed their garments before him,
and formed a proceffion, in imitation of our Saviour's en-
trance into Jerufalem, and in this way he made his entrance
into Briftol. Such conduét was not likely to be overlooked
by the exifting government, and a committee was appointed
by parliament to examine witneffes again{t Nayler, upon a
charge of blafphemy, for admitting religious worlhip to be
paid him, and for affuming the names and incommunicable
titles and attributes of Chrift. When charged in this way,
he admitted the truth of the allegations, but contended,
that the honours which he received were not paid to
him, but to Chrift, who dwelt in him. He was, howeyer,
found guilty, as it fhould feem, not legally, by a jury of
his country, but, contrary to law, by a committee of par-
liament, who refolved that ‘ James Nayler is guilty of hor-
rid blafphemy, and that heis a grand impoftor, and a great
feducer of the people.’’? To receive his fentence he was
brought to the bar of the houfe; and as the punifhment
of this madman was as cruel as could well be inflifted
by the malice of man, it is neceflary to obferve that the
houfe was not unanimous in its decifions: it occupied the
debates of the commons for more than a week: many of
the members of that affembly were for putting him to
death, and fome few totally difapproved of the feverity
which was ufed againft him, At length, on the feventeenth
of December, it was carried by a majority, that ‘ James
Nayler be fet in the pillory in the Palace-yard, Weftmin-
fter, during the fpace of two hours, on Thurfday next, and
be whipt by the hangman through the ftreets, from Welt-
min{ter to the Old Exchange, and there likewife be fet on
the pillory for two hours, on Saturday next, in each place
wearing a paper containing an infcription of his crimes.
And that at the Old Exchange his tongue be bored through
with a hot iron, and that he be there {tigmatized in the fore-
head with the letter B. That he be afterwards fent to
Briftol, and be conveyed into and through the faid city on
horfeback, with his face backwards, and there alfo to be
publicly whipt; and that from thence he be committed to
the prifon.in Bridewell, London, and there reftrained from
the fociety of all people. and there to labour hard till he be
releafed by parliament ; and during that time he be debarred
the ufe of pen, ink, and paper; and fhall have no. relief,
but what he earns by his daily labour."? Such a fentence,
which was executed without mercy, defervedly hands down
to infamy all thofe whotook a part in it: the parliament,
who pronounced this fentence ; the protector, who could have
prevented it ; and the pious divines, as they are fometimes
called, Caryl, Manton, Nye, Griffith and Reynolds, who were
fent to reclaim him, but who, when they were unable to effe&
their purpofe, were the cruel abettors of his fufferings. Here-
after let no Chriltian look into the works of thefe men, nor
think of their names, without connecting with them their
brutal condué towards a deluded madman, whe was an ob-
je& of pity, not of indignation, and who ought to have
been affigned to the care of a phyfician for the cure of his

phrenfy, and not to the iron fcourge of Cromwell's hang-
man,

NAZ

man. After the Prote€tor’s death, Nayler was releafed
from prifon, and he took the earlieft opportunity of going
to Briftol, which had been the principal fcene of his mad-
nefs, and of making a confeflion of his offences, which he
uttered with fo much feeling, and real forrow, as to draw
tears from all who heard it. Nayler did not long furvive his
enlargement; he died as he was on his journey into York-
fhire, to receive there the welcome gratulations of his wife
and children. When he was within two hours of his death,
he exclaimed, in a {pirit of piety which probably none of his
perfecutors ever felt, ‘¢ there is a f{pirit which I feel, that de-
lights to do noevil, nor to revenge any wrong, but delights
to endure ali things, in the hope to enjoy its own in the
end. Its hope is to outlive all wrath and contention, and to
weary out all exaltation and cruelty, or whatever is of ana-
ture contrary to itfelf.’” After his death, his ‘¢ Recanta-
tion’ of thofe errors which had brought him into fuffering,
and his other pieces, were publifhed in an oétavo volume.
Biog. Brit. Toulmin’s Edit. of Neal’s Hift. of Puritans,
vol. iv. p. 152—7.

NAYO, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian
fea, near the north coaft of Celebes. N. lat. 1° 24'. E. long.
124° 24!.

NAYRES, or Narres. See Caticut.

NAYRET, a town of Syria, in the pachalic of Aleppo ;
6 miles E. of Aleppo. *

NAZAGUNGE, a town of Bengal; 45- miles S.S.E.
of Nattore.

NAZAREATE, or NazariteEsurP, the flate and con-
dition of a Nazarite or Nazarean among the Jews. See
NaZzarivE.

The Nazareate wasa ftate of feparation from the reft of
mankind; particularly in three things. 1. In that the
perfon devoted to it drank no wine. 2. In that they
did not fhave their heads, but let the hair grow. 3. In
avoiding the touch of dead people, which they held a de-
filement.

The Nazareate was of two kinds ; the one temporary, or
for acertain number of days; the other for life. The rab-
bins inquire what the term of the temporary Nazareate was,
and determine it by the Cabbala; for fince in Scripture,
Numbers, vi. 5. where it is faid Domino fandus erit, the He-
brew verb 749"), erit, confifts of four letters; the firft and
third of which, taken as numeral letters, do each make 10,
and the refteach 5, altogether 30: the term of the Naza-
reate, fay they, was 30 days.

NAZARETH, in Ancient Geography, atown of Palef-
tine, in the tribe of Zebulun, feated on the declivity of a
mountain, at fome diftance W. from mount Tabor. Here
our L-efled Saviour [pent the firft thirty-three years of his
life. Among the antiquities of Paleftine, travellers mention
a ftately church, under ground, built, as it is reported, in
the cave where the Virgin Mary received the Angel’s hail,
and where, jult at the fe€tion of the crofs, are erected two
pillars of granite, each fomewhat above two feet in diameter,
ang about three feet diftant from each other. Thefe are fup-
pofed to ftand where the angel and the Virgin were f{tationed
at the time of the annunciation. Near this are feen fome no-
ble remains of a much larger church, fuppofed, from its
architeéture, to have been built by the emprefs Helena, or
about her time.

Nazaretn, in Geography, now called Na/ra, formerly fo
much celebrated, is at pretent an inconfiderable village of
Syria, in the pachalic of Saide, or of Acre, inhabited by
one-third of Mahometans, and two-thirds Greek Catholics.
The fathers of the Holy Land, who are dependent on the
freat convent of Ferstadecy have an hofpitium and a church

NAZ
here. They are ufually the farmers of the country. Inthe
time of Daher, they were obliged to make a prefent to every

wife he married, and he took care to marry almolt every,

week. Nazareth formerly held the third rank among me-
tropolitan cities, dependent on the patriarch of Jerulalem.
The Hebrews continued to iahabit it in the time of the Ro-
mans, until the reign of Conitantine ; and after that period, it
paffed alternately trom the Chriftians to the Saracens. At
prefent it is, as we have ftated, a {mall village. J

NAZARETH, a town of France, in the department of the
Scheldt, and chief place of a canton, in the diitnct of
Gand. The place contains 4574, and the canton 12,742 in-
habitants, on a territory of 1024 kiliometres, in feven
communes.

NAZARETH, a beautiful poft-town of America, in North-
ampton county, Pennfylvania, inhabited by Moraviars or
United Brethren; 63 miles N. by W. of Philadelphia. It
is fituated on the central part of a traét of land, containing
about 5000 acres, bought by the brethren, near a {mall
creek, which lofes itfelf in the ground, about one mile and
a half eaft of the town; and confilts of two principal ftreets
that form afquare. The principal build.ng, called Naza-
reth-hall, contains a place of worfhip, anda fchool: and
near this is another elegant edifice, inhabited by the fingle
fifters. Another building is appropriated to the fingle
brethren. The ordinary dwelling-houfes are generally con-
ftruéted of lime-itone, and inhabited by tradefmen and me-
chamics, chiefly of German extraétion. ‘The town 1s fup-
plied with water by pipes from an excellent {pring in its
vicinity. The fituation of the town, and the falubrity of
the climate, render this an agreeable place. ‘The number of
inhabitants in the town and neighbourhood, conftituting one
congrezation and meeting for religious worfhip at Nazareth-
hall, was, in the year 1788, 450. ;

NAZARETH, a river of Africa, which runs into the
Atlantic, near Cape Lopez Gonfalvo.

NAZARITE, or Nazarene, in the Old Teffament, is
ufed for a perfon diftinguifhed and feparated from the reft,
by fomething extraordinary, either his fanétity, dignity, or
vows. =

The word comes from the Hebrew 49}°, nazir, to diftin-
guifb, feparate ; in which it differs from Nazarean, an inhabit-
ant of the country call Nazareth, which comes from >y},
natzar, or netzer, to fave, prejerve.

The firlt perfon to whom the title \9+3, zazir, is applied,
is Jofeph. .(Gen. xlix. 26. See alfo Deut. xxxili. 16.)
He was fo called, either becaufe he was feparated from the
fociety of his brethren by their malice towards him, or from
their evil practices by the grace of God, or becaufe he was
advanced by providence fo highly above them in dignity and
honour. But whatever was the reafon of Jofeph’s being
called ™355 nazir, the term was afterwards ufed to denote
a particular fort of feparation or devotednefs to God, and
on that account was applied to the Nazarites. According-
ly thefe were of two forts, viz. fuch as were by their parents
devoted to God in their infancy, or even fometimes before
they were born; and fuch as devoted themfelves. The
former are called “* Nazarwi nativi,’’ and were Nazarites for
life ; and the latter «* Nazarwi votivi,”” who ordinarily bound
themfelves to obferve the laws of the Nazarites only fora
limited time. In the number of perpetual Nazarites, were
Sampfon, Samuel, and John the Baptift: (Judg. xii. 5.
1 Sam. i. 11. Luke, i. 15.) Thele, or the « Nazarai na-
tivi,’” were not bound to the fame {tri¢inefs as the © votivi,”’
who mult not touch any dead carcafe, nor fo much as enter
the doors of a houfe where a deceafed perfon was. As for
the * Nazarei votivi,’? who bound themfelves by a vow to

obferve

——————

" c. 15-)

NAZARITE.

obferve the law of the Nazarites for a certain time, their laws
are contained in Numb. chap. vi. The inftitution of Naza-
ritifm was, without doubt, partly religious, and partly civil
and prudential. That it was partly religious, is concluded
from the book of Amos, chap. ii. 11. Moreoyer, the fo-
briety and temperance which the Nazarites were hound to
obferve very much conduced to health ; and thus the infti-
tution had its civil and prudential ufe. (See Lam. iv. 7.)
That the law of the Nazarites was obferved among the
~ Jews at the time of the evangelical hiftory, is evident from
what Jofephus {ays of Bernice, A.D. 66. (De Bell. lib. ii.
A difficulty has been raifed with refpe& to St.
Paul’s vow at Cenchrea (Aéts, xviii. 18.) ; becaufe the
Jewifh writers fay, that a Nazarite ought not to be out of
the land of Ifrael ; and in the law of Mofes it is faid
(Numb. vi. 18.) “the Nazarite fhall fhave the head of his fe-
paration at the door of the tabernacle of the congregation.”
Dr. Lardner, in refolving this difficulty, inclines to think,
that notwithftanding all the zeal of the Jews, they did at
this time difpenfe with the exaétnefs of many things required
in the law of Mofes. This feems to have been the necef-
fary confequence of tlieir living, as numbers of them now
did, ata great diftance from Jerufalem. Befides, it feems
to have been a rule in the Jewifh books, “ that they who
make the vow of the Nazarite out of the land of Ifrael,
fhall go into it to complete the vow.’? The learned writer
now cited fuggeits, that it will much contribute to the folu-
tion of this difficulty, if it be allowed, that this was the
reafon of St. Paul’s great concern to * keep the next feaft at
Jerufalem.”” See Acts, xvii. g—22.

In the fecond fenfe of the term Nazarite, derived from
“\W)> natzar, whence Nazareth, our Saviour himfelf was
called a Nazarene, or Nazarite (Matt. i. 23-) ; for this
name, or title, as applied to Chrift, is fometimes written
Nafaenvos (Mark, xiv. 67. xvi. 6. Luke, iv. 34), fometimes
Noafzeoso:, (Matt. xxvi. 71. John, xviii. 7, 8. Ads, ii, 22.)
which words feem to be ufed by the Evangelilts precifely
in the fame fenfe ; accordingly, the Syriac verfion renders
both by the word ‘ Notzrio.””

The evangelift Matthew’s afligning as the reafon for our
Saviour’s being called Nzfweoio:, that he came and dwelt in
the city of Nazareth (Matt. ii, 23.), and referring to fome
prophecy, which, at leaft in exprefs words, is no where to
be found in the whole Old Teitament, hath given critics and
commentators no littictrouble >“ that it might be fulfilled,”’
faith he, “* which was fpoken by the prophets, he fhall be
called a Nazarene.”? Among the different folutions that
have been given of this difficulty, the moft probable are,
either that the paflage here referred to is loft, as Chryfoftom
fuggefts, or that the two firft chapters of St. Matthew's
goflpel are not genuine (fee MarrHew), or, as St. Jerom
intimates, that the evangelilt does not here refer to any one
particular paffage, but to what feveral of the prophets
have in effec faid. As he ufes the word prophets in the
plural number, it is evident, faid that father, that he did not
take the words fromthe {eripture, but the fenfe only. (See
Whitby on Matt. ii. 23.) Being called a Nazarene is the
fame thing as being one, the Hebrews exprefling word and
thing by the fame term. The meaning then of Chrift’s
being called Nzfxeszos may be, that he fhall be defpifed and

, reproached, according te a variety of predictions (Pf. xxii. 6.

Ixix. 9. If. liti. 3—5. Zech. xi. 12, 13.), which were ac-
complithed, in ofie inftance at leaft, by his being called a
Nazarite, from his having dwelt at Nazareth, that being a
town of fuch ill repute, that it was commonly ‘thought no

good thing could come out of it (John, i. 66.); and our.

Saviour’s being fuppofed to come out of it being one occa-
§ *Upp g

fion of his being defpifed and rejeéted by the Jews. (John,
vii. 52.) Neverthelefs, the appellation Ne%xeasos, of Na-
zareth, being added to Jefus, in order to diftinguifh him from
all others oF the fame name, is fometimes applied te him
when no reproach was intended, as by St. Peter (Adts, ii. 22.
iii. 6. iv. 10.), and by an angel (Mark, xvi.6.) It is,
however, generally ufed by the Jews as a term of reproach,
not only in refpe& to our Saviour himfelf, but to his difci-
ples after his afcenfion. They ftyled them of the feé of
the Nazarenes. (Aéts, xxiv. 5.) Neverthelefs, the difci-
ples of Chrift, after they had generally taken the name of
Chriftians, retorted upon the Jews, giving this title of re-
proach (as- fome have fuppofed) to the judaizing Chrift-
Jans, as we learn from Epiphanius. See the next article.

Nazarites, Nazarenes, or Nazareans, were likewife a
kind of feétaries in the church, in the firft ages of Chrifti-
anity ; or, as others defcribe them, the firit believers in
Chriftianity, profelyted from the Jews, and therefore called
Jewifh believers.

St. Epiphanius tells us, the Nazareans were the fame with
the Jews in eyery thing relating to the do@rine and ceremo-
nies of the Old Teftament ; and only differed from them in
this, that they added Chriftianity to thofe ; profeffing to
believe, that Jefus Chrift was the Meffiah.

There were two kinds of Nazareans; the one pure, who
kept the law of Mofes and Chriftianity together, and who
were not placed by the ancient Chriftians in the regifter of
heretics, but firft ranked in this clafs by Epiphanius, in
the fourth century; the other, real Exionures; fee this
article.

Ecclefiaftical writers tell us, that St. Matthew preached
the Gofpel to the Jews at Jerufalem, and the reft of Pa-
leftine, in their own language: and that accordingly they
had his Gofpel written in the Hebrew of that time. And
St. Epiphanius adds, that this Gofpel was preferved entire
among the Nazareans; only he doubts whether they might
not have retrenched the genealogy of Jefus Chrift, which
was not in the copy of the Ebionites. St. Jerom, who
tranflated it out of Hebrew into Greek and Latin, fays, a
great many people took the Hebrew Gofpel, ufed by the
Nazareans and Ebionites, to be the original of St. Matthew.
See St. MaTTHEW.

Hence Baronius, in his Annals, fays, if the Vulgate La-
tin verfion were to be reformed, it fhouid rather be done by
the Hebrew original, than by the Greek, which is but a
copy. Cafaubon treats this opinion of Baronius as highly
impious ; as not being able to conceive how the authority of
the Greek verfion fhould depend on a text quite loft. He
adds, that it was never ufed by any but the Nazareans,
Ebionites, and fome other heretics; and that it wg full
of fables, as having been altered and corrupted by thofe
heretics. ‘

The reader will find an accurate and fatisfaGtory account
of this Gofpel in Mr. Jones’s Method of fettling the ca-
nonical Authority of the New Teftament.

Mofheim obferves, that the term Nazarenes was not ori-
ginally the name of a fe&, but that which diftinguifhed the
difciples of Jefus in general. Neverthelefs, thofe who,
after their feparatton from their brethren, retained the
title of Nazarenes, differed much from the true difciples of
Chrift, to whom that name had been originally given.’
They held that Chrift was born of a virgin, and was alfo in
a certain manner united to the divine nature; they refufed
to abandon the ceremonies prefcribed by the law of Mofes,
but. were far from attempting to impofe the obfervance of
thefe ceremonies upon the Gentile Chriflians; they rejeGed
alfo thofe additions that were made to the Mofaic inftitu-

tions

NAZ

tions by the Pharifees, and the doctors of the law; and
from hence we fee the reafon why the greateft part of the
Chriltians treated the Nazarenes with a more than ordinary
degree of gentlenefs and forbearance.

This writer fays, that after the deftruGion of Jerufalem,
under the emperor Adrian, the zealots for the Jewith rites
deferted the ordinary affemblies of Chriftians, and eftablifhed
feparate meetings among themfelves; and were then num-
bered with thofe fe&s which had departed from the pure doc-
trine of Chrift. Hence, he fays, arofe the names of Na-
zarenes and Ebionites, by which the judaizing Chriftians
were diftinguifhed from thofe who looked upon the Mofaic
worthip and ceremonies as entirely abolifhed by the appear-
ance of Chrift upon earth. Hence he concludes, that
though the Nazarenes and Ebionites are generally placed
among the fects of the apoftolic age, they really belong to
the fecond century, which was the earlieft period of their
exiftence as a fet. At the beginning of Chriftianity, fays
Beaufobre, (Hilt. Manich. t. ti.) there arofe two oppofite
errors concerning the perfon of our Saviour. The firft ob-
tained amorg the Chriftians who came out of Judaifm.
Many perfuaded themfelves that the Chrift was but a mere
man, diftinguifhed from others by the abundance of divine
gifts conferred upon him, and by his incomparable virtues.
In the time. of the apoftles, according to Athanafius, the
Jews were in this error, and drew the Gentiles into it; that
the Chrilt is only a mere man, that he is not God, and that
the Word was not made flefh. Thefe Jews were not the un-
believing Jews, but fuch as made profeffion of Chriftianity.
But though they agreed fo far, they were not. all of the
fame mind cencerning the nativity of our Saviour. Some
believed that he was the fon of Jofephand Mary. Others
acknowledged, that he was born of a virgin, and conceived
by the fole operation of the Holy Spirit.” Neither the one
nor the other refufed him the title of the Son of God; but
- they imagined that ‘it was given him on account of the emi-
nence of his office, the excellency of his gifts, his glorious
refurreétion, the fovereign authority and dominion to which
he was advanced by the Father; to all which, they laft added
his miraculous nativity. Thefe kept the name of Naza-
renes, which had been given to the firit believers ; the others
were called Ebionites. Thefe two, fays this author, were
the moft ancient herefies of Chriftianity. Origen and Eufe-
bius {peak of two forts of Ebionites, including in thefe, as
we may fuppofe, fuch as are fometimes called Nazarenes,
and who were the defcendants of the Jewifh believers at
Jerufalem. Thefe latter believed Jefus to be born of a
virgin by an efpecial interpofition of the power of God, or
by the Holy Ghoft. They alfo received the apoftle Paul
and all the other apeftles of Chrift. Whil!t, with the other
clafs of Ebionites, they adhered to the injunétions of the
law of Mofes, after they had received the gofpel of Chrift,
they did not, like them, impofe legal obfervances upon all
men as neceffary to falvation. They were evidently of the
» fame opinion with the believers in the church of Jerufalem.
oa Aéts, ch. xx) Whilft on their own part they ob-
erved them as defcendants of [fracl and Abraham, they
did not impofe the ordinances of the law upon others. Of
thefe Nazarenes, Eufebius fays, that though they believed
Jefus to be born of a virgin by the Holy Ghoft, they did
not acknowledge his pre-exiftence as God the word ; but
Dr. Lardner prefumes, that they believed Jefus Chrift to
be the word, and wifdom, and power of God; but they
did not believe the pre-exiltence of the word as a diftiné
perfon and feparate from God the father. St. Jerom fays,
that in his time there were many all over the Ealt called Na-
zarenes, upon whom the Jews pronounced their curfes as

NEA

heretics. For further particulars refpeCting thefe Naza-
reans, fee Esionires, Gospet, and St. MaTTHEW.

NAZE, in Geography, a cape in the county of Effex,
S. of Harwich; near which has been ereGted a tower for a
light-houfe, eighty feet high. N. lat. 51°57’. E. long.
1°14! me

NAZIANZES, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in Cappadocia, towards the S.W., near mount Athan. It
was the fee of Gregory, the father of St Gregory, known
to the world by his writings. ‘

NAZIMOVA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Tobolfk, on the Enifei; 68 miles N. of
Enifeifk.

NAZIN, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Oby,
N. lat. 60° 20’. _E. long. 68° 20’.

NAZZARETO, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Irak; 130 miles S.S.W. of Hamadan.

NEA, ariver of Norway, which runs into the Seelbo
lake, in the province of Drontheim.

NEA, in Ancient Geography. See Neaporis.—Alfo, a

town of the Troade, according to Pliny, but placed by
Steph. Byz. in Myfia.—Alfo, an ifland of the Aégean fea,
placed by Pliny between Lemnos and the Hellefpont, and
confecrated to Minerva.
_ Nea Paphos, a town of the ifland of Cyprus, 60 ftadia
from Pale Paphos, according to Strabo. It was fituated
in the S.W. part of the ifland, in a gulf formed by the pro-
montory of Zephyrium.

NE ADMITTAS, in Law, a writ dire&ted to the
bifhop, in behalf of the plaintiff, or defendant, in a caufe
where a quare impedit, or aflize of darrein prefentment, is
depending ; when either party fears, that the bifhop will ad-
mit the other’s clerk during the {uit between them.

This writ fhould be brought within fix months after the
church becomes void, before the bifhop may prefent by
lapfe ; and upon granting it, another writ is iflued to the
chief juftice of the common pleas, to certify the king in
chancery, whether there be any plea before him and the
other juitices, between the parties, &c.

NEAGH, Loveu, in Geography, a lake of Ireland of
confiderable extent, lying between the counties of Armagh,
Tyrone, Londonderry, and Antrim. According to Dr.
Beaufort, it is 15 miles long, feven broad, and covers
58,200 Irifh acres, equal to 93,502 Englifh ones. It was
formerly ftated to cover a plain of roo,000 acres, but Mr.
Lendrick’s Survey corrected this error, The river called
the Lower Bann, flowing from fouth to north, is the only
outlet for feven rivers and innumerable ftreams that pour
their tributary waters into this great inland fea, yet inunda-
tions feldom occur; ‘ perhaps a great overflow,” fays fir
Charles Coote, « will not occur above once in fifteen years.’
There are, however, traéts of very low marfhy ground,
efpecially on the fouth of it, which are ufually flooded,
and are confidered incapable of being reclaimed. Lough
Neagh is the large(t of the Lrifh lakes, but much inferior
to many of them in point of beauty. Its fhores are moftly
formed either by the marfhy grounds already mentioned, or
by an inanimate flrand. They are of courfe deficient in
thofe varied banks and bold promontories, without which
fuch extenlive fheets of water cannot have a piéturefque
effe&t, unlefs when the uniformity is broken by frequent
iflands of different fize and character. There are but two
in this lake, a very {mall one near the mouth of the Black-
water, and Ram ifland, within a fhort diftance of the Antrim
fhore, remarkable only for an ancient round ‘tower. The
views are more pleafing in lough Beg, into which thefe
waters again expand, after the courfe of abouta mile through

a very

NEA

a very contracted channel. (See Lough Bec.) The waters
of lough Neagi have been celebrated for different qualities.
Some have attributed to them a healing quality, and repre-
fented them as ufeful in ferophulous diforders. Barton en-
Jarges on this property, and fir Charles Coote, in his Statif-
tical Survey of Armagh, fays it has been indubitably proved.
Sie Charles mentions a bay on the Armagh fide of the
longh, where this virtue is faid to exift principally, and in
Mblyieauk’s appendix to Boate’s Natural Hiltory of Ireland
is a letter from Francis Neville, efq. to the bifhop of
Clogher, relating a remarkable cure of the king’s evil, in
this place, in eight days. The benefits, however, have
been attributed by many to the cold bathing, and not to any
particular property of this water. The petrifying quality
of this lough was long difputed, and even ridiculed; but
it has been now eitablifhed beyond a doubt, that fuch a
quality does exilt, either in the waters cf the lake, or, what
is more probable, in the foil of the acjacent fhores on the
Antrim fide. Large pieces of wood are fourid, fome en-
tirely in a petrified ftate, and others partly fo. Near the
fhores cf lough Neagh are alfo {trata of what is called
black wood or wood coal, two of them 25 feet thick and 80
yards deep. On the ftrand of lough Neagh are found
fome tran{parent pebbles, which take a beautiful polifh, and
are little inferior to cornelian, which they refemble. Thefe
are called gems and lough Neagh pebbles, .and are fold to
lapidaries in Dublin. The lake abounds with falmon, pike,
trout, eels, and other kinds of fifh, The lough Neagh
whiting, which is alfo found in other Irifh lakes, is now
fuppofed to be the charr of Pennant. Coote’s Armagh
Survey. Beaufort’s Memoir. Barton, &c.

NEAL, Davier, in eel ee a learned Englifh Pro-
teftant diffenting divine, who fiourifhed in the eighteenth
century, was born in London in the year 1678. Having
loft his parents when very young, the care of his education
devolved on his maternal uncle, who fent him to Merchant
Taylors’ {chool to be inftruéted in grammar and claffical
learning. On this public foundation he continued till he
became the head {cholar, but, from an unwillingnefs to fub-
fcribe to the articles, he declined an offer made him of an
exhibition to St. John’s college, Oxford. About the year
£696, he entered himfelf as {tudent in a difenting academy
under the direction of Mr. Rowe, an eminent tutor. After
fpending three years in this femirary he went for farther im-
provement to Holland, where he profecuted his {tudies
during two years at the univerfity of Utrecht, under the cele-
brated profeffors d’Uries, Grevius, and Burmann, and then
he removed to Leipfic, where he remained another year.
in 1703 he returned to his native country, in company with
Mr. Martin Tomkins, and Mr., afterwards Dr., Nathaniel
Lardner, and foon began to officiate as a preacher. In
£704 he was chofen afliftant to Dr. Singleton, miniiter of
an independent congregation in Alderfgate treet, upon
whofe death, in 1706, he was eleéted to the paftoral office
among them. In this connection he continued thirty-lix
years, difcharging the duties of his office with the greatett
affiduity and zeal. The {mall portion of time which he al-
lowed himfelf from his official fervices, as a preacher and
paftor, he devoted to the ftudy of hiftory, and in 1720 he
publithed his firft work under the title of ** The Hittory of
New England, being an impartial Account of the civil and
ecclefiaftical Affairs of the Country, &c.’’ his work,
which confilted of two volumes o¢tayo, contains an enter-
taining and inftrudtive narrative of the firlt planting of the
gofpel in a foreign heathen land, and of the rife of an infant
commonwealth, {truggling with a thoufand difficulties, but
teiumphing over them all, together with biographical me-

VoL. XXIV.

NEA

moirs of the principal perfons in church and itate. In
1722 Mr. Neal publifhed «* A Letter to Dr. Francis Hare,
Dean of Worcefter, occafioned by his Refleétions on the
Diffenters, &c.”’ and in the fame year he gave the public
“ A Narrative of the Method and Succefs of inoculating
the Small-pox in New England, by Mr. Benjamin Colman,
&c.”” On the appearance of this piece her royal highnefs
Caroline, princefs of Wales, fent for Mr. Neal to obtain
from him fome farther account of the aétual praétice of
inoculation. rom this period he publifhed only fome fingle
fermons till the year 1732, when he fent into the world the
firlt volume of his great work, ‘‘ The Hiltory of the Puritans,
or Proteftant Non-conformilts, from the Reformation to the
Death of Queen Elizabeth, with an Account of their Princi-
ples, &c.’”? The circumftances that gave rife to this publi-
cation were as follow: Some years before, Dr. Edmund
Calamy, in his Abridgment of the Life of Baxter,” had
laid before the public a view of the itate of non-conformity,
and of the charaéters and fufferings of its principal ad-
herents during the period immediately fucceeding the Aét
of Uniformity in 1662. This work fuggefted to Dr. John
Evans the defign of writing “ A Hi ory of Non-con-
formity,” from the reformation to the commencement of the
civil wars in England in 1640. Mr. Neal was requetted to
take up the hiftory from that period, and to carry it on to
the A@ of Uniformity. Dr. Evans had not by any means
accomplifhed his work at the time of his death in 1730, but
before this Mr. Neal had finifhed his intended labour, and
had rendered his MS., in every refpe&, ready for the prefs.
The deceafe of Dr. Evans obliged him to take up the hif-
tory from the reformation to the year 1640, in order to
render his own work complete and more generally interett-
ing. Mr. Neal had not long publifhed his firft volume when
he faw he had abundant encouragement to proceed with the
undertaking, and in the year 1733 he publifhed a fecond
volume. It was not till the year 1736 that he gave the
public his third volume, but during the interval, he engaged
with other minifters in certain leGtures preached in Loudon,
juitifying and recommending the principal topics of the
Chriftian religion; and expofing the erroneous tenets of
the church of Rome. In 1738 Mr. Neal publithed his
fourth volume, which brought down the hidory of non-con-
formity to the Act of Toleration in 1689. By this work he
has fecured to himfelf a permanent and unfading reputation:
it is thus deferibed by Dr. Jennings. ‘The ityle is moft
eafy and perfpicuous; and the judicious remarks which he
leads his readers to make upon faéts as they go along, make
his-hiftory to be not only more entertaining, but to be more
inftcu€tive and ufeful than moft books ef that kind.” Ina
controverfy which he had with Dr. Maddox, Mr. Neal pub-
lifhed «« A Review of the principal Facts objected to in the
firit Volume of the Hittory of the Puritans,’? which was

‘confidered to be written with great judgment, and to efta-

blifh the author’s chara&er as an accurate and diligent hif-
torian. His health now began to decline, or he would, pros
bably, have vindicated the other volumes from the animad-
verfions of Dr. Zachary Grey. This tafk has been very
judicioufly performed by Dr. Toulmin, in notes to a new
edition of Mr. Neal’s Hiftory. Mr. Neal, after a long feries
of illnefs, died at Bath in 1743. ‘ He had,’’ fays his bio-
grapher, “filled the relations of domeitic life with integrity
and honour, and his lofs occafioned a deep regret in the
hearts of his family. In his public connections, he was a
prudent counfellor, and a faithful {teady friend.” He was
probably a Calvinift in his religious faith, but neither his
charity ror his friendfhips were confined to men of his own
opinions. The Bible alone was his ftandard for religious

4F truth,

NEA

truth, and he was willing and defirous that others fhould
have the fame liberty of judging of its contents as he
claimed for himfelf. He had married a fifter of the cele-
brated Lardner, by whom he left a fon and two daughters.
His fon, Mr. Nathaniel Neal, an eminent attorney, was
author of «* A free and ferious Remonttrance to Proteftant
Diffenting Minifters on occafion of the Decay of Religion; ’
which was republifhed by Mr. Job Orton in the year 1775.
One of the daughters married the fcn of Dr. David Jen-
nings, and the other the Rev. Mr. Liiter, of Ware, in
Hertfordfhire, whofe fons are the eminent Dr. William
Lifter, of London, and- Mr. Daniel Lifter, to whom Dr.
Toulmin has dedicated his edition of ** The Hiftory of the
Puritans,” to which we refer our readers for more information
on the fubje& of this article.

NEALED, at Sea, is ufed when the founding is deep
water clofe to the fhore: it is then faid to be nealed to;
as alfo when the fhore is fandy, clayey, oofy, or foul and
rocky.

NEALING, or ANNEALING, in the arts, confifts ia
making metals red-hot, which have become hard and brittle
by working, in order to reftore their former malleability
and traétability. All metals have the property of becoming
more or lefs hard and unmalleable, after undergoing the
operation of the hammer. Metals thus affected are more
elaftic than they were before, but, at the fame time, they
become more brittle. They are the more fenfibly affected
in this manner in proportion as the metals are naturally
harder.» Copper is fo much affeéted, and even gold and
filver, by hammering and compreffion, that they foon ceafe
to be malleable, and inftead of being extended under the
hammer they crack and fplit. Hence the neceffity of an-
nealing the common coins of the country, to which we have
referred under the article Mint. In all cafes the labour of
hammering, when it is to be long continued, muft oceafion-
ally be interrupted to foften and reftore malleability to me-
tals; this is effe€ted by making them red-hot, and fuffering
them to cool gradually. Thus heat produces the fame
effeé&t on metals, in the ftate defcribed, as ic does upon
tempered ftecl, for, if the hardef tempered fteel be made
red-hot and cooled flowly, it becomes as tra€table and duc-
tile as the fofteft iron. Articles of glafs are alfo nealed be-
fore they are fit for ufe, by placing them in a furnace, and
after they have been raifed to a due degree of temperature,
they are fuffered to cool gradually. Without this operation
glafs veflels would be entirely ufelefs, as they would not
admit of the leaft change of temperature from cold to heat,
nor would they bear the flighteft blow. 5ee Grass.

NeA.ine of Gla/s is the baking of glafs, to dry, harden,
and give it the due confiftence, after it has been blown, and
fafhioned into the proper works.

This is ufually performed in a kind of tower, called the
leer, built over the melting furnace. See Grass.

Neatine of Gla/s is alfo ufed for the art of ftaining of
glafs with metalline colours.

One fine ufe of filver, fays Mr. Boyle, was only dif-
covered fince the art of annealing upon glafs came to be
practifed. For prepared filver, or even the crude metal,
being burnt on a glafs plate, will tinge it of a fine yellow,
or golden colour. And there are feveral mineral earths,
and other coarfe matters, of ufe in this art, which by means
of fire impart tranfparent colours to glafs, and fometimes
very different ones from thofe of the bodies themfelves.

NeauinG of Steel, is the heating it in the fire to a blood-
red heat ; and then taking it out, and letting it cool gently
of itfelf.

This io done to make it fofter, in order to engrave or

+ Sce22

NEA

punch upon it. See TeMperinc, and ENGRAVING.
alfo STEEL. \

Neatine is alfo ufed for the art or aé& of burning or
baking earthen or other ware in an oven,

The miners at Mendip, when they meet with a rock they
cannot cut through, anneal it, by laying on wood and coal,
and contriving the fire fo that they quit the mine before the
operation begins, it being dangerous to enter it again before
it be quite cleared of the fmoke. Phil. Tranf. N° 39.

. 769.
; Noe of Tile is ufed in ancient ftatutes for the burn-
ing of tile.

The word is
light, burn.

NEANDER, Micnaezt, in Biograpky, a German phy-
fician, who was more celebrated, however, for his mathemati-
cal knowledge, was born in the year 1529, at Joachimfthal,
a town of Mifnia, on the borders of Bohemia. After the
ufgal ftudies, he received the degree of mafter of arts at the
univerfity of Wittemberg, in 1550. He afterwards fettled
at Jena, as a teacher of Greek and mathematics, and ful-
filled thefe cuties for the fpace of feven years, during which
he alfo applied himfelf to the fludy ef medicine: and in
1558 he was admittted to the degree of M.D. Two years
after this he was appointed profeffor of medicine in the fame
univerfity, of which he alfo twice filled the office of rector.
He died in 1581, at the age of fifty-two, leaving behind
him feveral learned publications. The titles of thefe are,
“© Synopfis Menfurarum et Ponderum, &c.’’ 4to., Bafle,
15553 ‘ Methodorum in omni genere Artium brevis et fuc-
cinéta v2nyncix,” 1556; “ Phyfice, feu Sylloge Phyfica
Rerum Eruditarum ,ad omnem Vitam utilium, Partibus
Duabus ex preleGtionibus Michaelis Neandri,’”” 1585 and
1591; ‘“Spherica Elementa, cum Computo Eccletiaftico,
Gen. Biog.

NEANDRIA, or Neanprium, in Ancient Geography,
a town of the Troade, upon the Hellefpont, according to
Strabo. The inhabitants of this town were transferred to
Alexandria.

NEAP, or Neep-Zides, are thofe tides which happer
when the moon is in the middle of the fecond and fourth
quarters.

The neap-tides are low tides, in refpeét to their oppofites,
the fpring-tides. As the highelt of the fpring tides is
three days after the fuil or change, fo the lowelt of the neap
is four days before the full or change. On which occafion the
feamen fay, that it is deep neap. See Tipe.

NEAPED, when a fhip wants water, fo that fhe cannot
get out of the harbour, off the ground, or out of the dock;
the feamen fay, /be is neaped, or beneaped.

NEAPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, Naples, a town of
Italy, in Campania, upon a gulf to which it has given its
name. This town was built by the Cumzans, who called it
Nexmoass Kuposwy, or the new Cumcs. This city became
municipal, and obtained the privilege of a borough by the
Julian law. Strabo fays, that in his time many Romans
reforted hither to pafs a voluptuous life after the manner of
the Greeks, whofe language they adopted. Alaric, after
having facked Rome, A.D. 409, paffed before Nuples
without damaging it, and the fame conduct was purfued by
Genferic. Hither the young Augultulus retired, when he
was dethroned by Odoacer. ‘he town was taken by this
prince, and afterwards by Theedoric, who gave it the name
of a comté. See Napiges.—Alfo, a town mentioned in
the A&s of the Apofles, (chap. xvi. v. 11.) . This was a
town of Macedonia, where St, Paul arrived from the ifland
of Samothrace.x—Alfo, a tewn in the interior of the Taurie

“9 Cherfo-

See

formed of the Saxon omelan, accendere, to

° NEA

Cherfonefus, according to Strabo; but its fituation is not
afcertained.—Alfo, a town of Caria, placed by Ptolemy
between Nariandus and Caryanda.—Alfo, a town of Afia
Minor, in Ionia, according to Strabo. It was fituated
N.E. of the ifle of Samos, N. of mount Mycale, and S.S.E.
of Ephefus. This town belonged to the Samians, who had
received it in exchange of the inhabitants of Ephefus.—Alfo,
a town of Afia, in Ifauria, according to Suidas, probably
the fame which Ptolemy places in Pifidia.n—Alfo, a town
of Egypt, in the Thebaid, called alfo Nea, and placed by
Herodotus in the vicinity of Chemnis.—Alfo, a town of
Africa, now Nadal, fituated five leagues S.W. of Curobis.
It was near the fea-coaft, and feems to have been a confider-
able place.—Alfo, a name given to one of the ports of
Alexandria.—Alfo, a town on the weftern coalt of the
ifland of Sardinia.—Alfo, a town of the Colchide, placed

by Ptolemy between Siganeum and Acapolis.—Alfo, a>

town of Cyrenaica, placed by Ptolemy between Charecla
and Artamis.

NEAPOLITAN Disease, a name given by many au-
thors to the venereal difeafe (fee Lugs Venerea) ; and
from hence came the name of the Neapolitan ointment,
which is a mixture of quickfilver, and other things, into
an ointment intended as a cure for it.

NEAR, or No Near, at Sea, a word of command from
him that conds the fhip, to the man at the helm, requiring
him to let her fall to leeward. See No zearer.

NEARCHUS, in Biography, one of Alexander's cap-
tains, was employed by that conqueror in condudting his
fleet of India, by the ocean to the Perfian gulf. This ex-
pedition proved fo tedious and fatiguing, that the leader, on
his return, was not recognized by his friends until he had
made himfelf known. His fervice was fo much efteemed,
that he was crowned with a garland by Alexander at Sufa,
and wherever he went through the camp flowers were
thrown upon him. He is reckoned among the hiftorians of
Alexander, and is referred to as fuch by Strabe, Suidas,
and Arrian, the latter of whom has copied much from him
in his Indica. The relation of his voyage is extant, and is
a very curious and valuable piece. It is publifhed among
Hudfon’s **Geographi Minores.’’ Gen. Biog.

NEARDA, Nenarpa, or Naarda, in Ancient Geography,
a town of Afia, on the right bank of the Euphrates, S.E.
of Anatho. This, according to Jofephus, was one of the
moft celebrated of the Jewifh {chools.

NEAT, or Net-weight, the weight of a commodity
alone, clear of the cafk, bag, cafe, and even filth. See
Net, and WEIGHT.

Near-Cattle, in Agriculture, a term applied to all forts of
cattle of the cow kind.

NEATH, in Geography, in the hundred of Neath, and
county of Glamorgan, South Wales, is a market town,
feated in a valley on the eaftern bank of a river which gave
name to the place, and which is navigable for {mall veffels.
Here was formerly a Roman ftation, called Nidum. In the
reign of king Henry I. a caftle was built here by Richard
de Granavilla, or Granville, whe was lord of Neath, and
who is faid to have come to this part of the country to co-
operate with Robert Fitzhammon and others againit Rhys-
ap-Tudor. Having fubdued this prince, Richard de Gran-
ville feems to have fettled here; and from him have fprung
the prefent noble family of Granville«

Neath is a borough by prefcription. The corporation
confilts of a portreeve, twelve aldermen, a recorder, and an
indefinite number of burgeffes. The portreeve, and the
conftable of the caltle, hold a court of pleas once every month,

NEA

and a court leet twice a year. Here are likewife held the
petty feffions for the hundred, and there is a court of quarter
{effions once in twelve months. This is one of the contri-
butary boroughs with Cardiff, which fend one member to
parliament. ‘The market days are Wednefday and Thurfday
in each week, A legacy has been lately left for the endow-
ment of a free fchool, but it is not yet eftablifhed. This
parifh, according to the parliamentary returns of 1811, con-
tained 583 houfes, and 2740 inhabitants.

No manufaGtures of any confequence are carried on
within the limits of the borough of Neath, but its vicinity
is crowded with iron works, fan of which are conduéted
upon a very extenfive fcale. Here are likewife feveral cop-
per works, a large chemical work, and a very produétive
colliery. The produce of thefe feveral eftablifhments is con-
veyed to Neath and Swanfea by means of canals, and from
thence {hipped to different parts of the kingdom. Much of
the copper from Paris mountain in Anglefey is {melted in
this neighbourhood; where, enveloped in the cloud of fmoke
which iffues from the numerous furnaces, ftand the ruins of
Neath abbey, built by Richard de Granville, in the reign of
Henry I. It was dedicated to the Holy Trinity, and filled
with monks of the order of St. Savigny, in France. In
this monaftery the unfortunate Edward IT. fheltered himfelf,
when driven back from Ireland by contrary winds, till he
was taken by one of his barons, and confined in the cattle of
Kenilworth. The remains yet ftanding are very confiderable,
and form the north fide of a quadrangle. In front of the
gates are the arms of England, and of John of Gaunt. At
a fhort diftance north from Neath, on the fummit of a hill,
is the Knoll, a curious caftellated feat of the Mackworths.
The views from this manfion are peculiarly fine, and the
pleafure grounds around are laid out in perfe& conformity
to the nature of the country in which it is fituated.
Adjoining to thefe on the north, at a hamlet called Cwyn-
y-Brynn, is a vatt ftone of feventy tons weight, which is de-
nominated Arthur’s-ftone, but how it became to be fo de-
fignated is uncertain, At Llychwir, eight miles diftant
from Neath, are the remains of a ftrong caitle deftroyed by
Rhys-ap-Gry ffydd, in the year 1215 ; and about half way on
the road to Bridgend is Margam-park, celebrated for its
orangery. Here are alfo fome ruins of an ancient abbey
founded by Robert, earl of Gloucefter, in the year 1147.
This abbey, according to the accounts of thofe whe vifited
it in the laft century, muft have been, in the time of its
profperity, a very large and magnificent building, and we
cannot help deploring the want of tafte, not to fay the worfe
of it, that could deftroy this ancient fabric for the fake of
ufing its materials in the conftruétion of “ the newly ere@ted
mantion of Penrice.’’ In the village of Margam ftands a
very curious ancient crofs, and in the adjoining field are fe-
veral infcribed and monumental ftones. The following is
one of the infcriptions, ‘ Senatus populufque veromanus
divo Tito, divi Vefpafiani, F. Vefpafiano Augufte.” On
the north-weit fide of a hill, on the left of the village, 1s
a Roman encampment of great extent, and contiguous to
this feveral fmaller entrenchments. The fummit of the
hill is diftinguifhed by a fingle ftone monument called
Y-Maen-Llythyrog, and {uppofed to be one of the re-
moteit relics of antiquity in Great Britain. It is a maflive
paralellopiped, fourteen feet in height, and bears an infcrip-
tion which has been differently read. Near it is an ‘ag-

er,” or heap of ftones, fuppofed to cover the grave of
ome ancient chief. Cambrian Traveller’s Guide, 8vo. Car-
lifle’s Topographical Digtionary of Wales, 4to. Malkin’s
Scenery, Antiquities, &c. of South Wales, a vols. 8yo.

1807.
4F 2 NEATI.

NEB

NEATIMERI, a town of Hindooftan, in Travancore;
15 miles E. of Anjenga. i

NEB, ariver of the Ifle of Man, which runs into the fea
rat Peel town.

Neg, or Nebo, in Ancient Geography, a town of Paleftine,
in the tribe of Benjamin.

NEBBIO, or Nesto, in Geography, a town of the ifland
of Corfica, and the fee of a bifhop, in ruins; nine miles
S.W. of Battia.

NEBDANSKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the province of
Ufting, on the Sola; 24 miles S. of Ult Sifolf.

NEBBL, or Nevet, in the Jewi/h Antiquities, a kind
of mufical inftrument. See Nasium.

NEBERYBIS, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the
palatinate of Kiev; 60 miles S. of Bialacerkiew.

NEBIO, a town of European Turkey, in the Morea;
20 miles W. of Mifitra.

NEBITAU, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Piifen;
22 miles W.N.W. of Pilfen.

NEBO, or Naszo, in Ancient Geography, a mountain
fituated N. of the torrent of Arnon, between the country
of the Amorites, and that of the Moabites. The Hraclites,
in the goth year of their Exodus, encamped at the foot of
this mountain; and Mofes, having executed the commiffion
with which he was entrulted, and having pronounced his
bleffing on the 12 tribes affembled to receive his laft charge,
afcended this mountain, from the fummit of which, called
Pifgah, he had a view of the promifed land, into which he
was not permitted to enter, On this mountain he foon
afterwards died. Nebo forms a part of the chain of moun-
tains called Abarim.

NEBOUSAN, in Geography, a province of France be-
fore the revolution, of which St. Gaudens was the capital ;
now the department of the Upper Garonne. :

NEBRA, a town of Saxony, in Thuringia; 12 miles
N.W. of Naumburg. N. lat..51° 18'. E. long. 11° 45'.

NEBRISSA, in Ancient Geography, Libriva, a town of
Spain, in Beetica, towards the north in afcending the river
Beetis.

NEBRITES, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by the
ancients to a {tone held facred to Bacchus. It was of the
brownifh-yellow colour of the fkin of the young fawn, with
fome variegations, and was femi-pellucid; it feems to have
been the fame with fome of our agates, with a yellow
ground; the ancients, however, do not appear to have been
very determinate in the accounts of it; for Pliny mentions
another kind of it, which was black.

NEBRUS, a name given by the ancients to the Ainnuleus,
a deer of one year old. In the next year it is called pattalia ;
in the third, dicrota ; and in the fourth, cladii ; the word cerafle
was ufed as the name of this animal when of a greater age
than this.

NEBSTICH, in Geography, a town of Moravia; nine
miles N.E. of Brunn.

NEBULA, derived from vegerr, a cloud, fignifies, in
Surgery, a flight opacity of the cornea of the eye.

NEBULA, in Afronomy, aterm applied to thofe fixed
ftars, which exhibit a dim, hazy light, being lefs than thofe
of the fixth magnitude ; and, eatin, fcarcely, or not at all
vifible to the naked eye, to which, if feen at all, they appear
like dufky fpecks or clouds through telefcopes : thefe nebulous
{tars plainly appear to be congeries or clulters of feveral {mall
or diftant flare. By the fkill and affiduity of Dr. Herfchel,
and by means of thofe inftruments of great fpace-pene-
trating power which he has employed, our knowledge of
thefe nebula has been very much extended. Of his account
of their nature and formation, and of their different variety,

NEB

we have already given a fomewhat detailed account, under
the articles Dousie Stars, Gataxy, and Heavens. It
was our intention to have enlarged under this head, and to
have tranfcribed the catalogue of Nebulz, with which he
has furnifhed the altronomer; but finding that we fhould
thus exceed our prefcribed limits, we mutt content ourfelves
with referring for further particulars to his own account, in
the Philofophical TranfaG@tions for 1800, 1802, and 1804,
as well as to the article Srars, beftdes thofe articles that
are above cited. We fhall here, however, fubjoin the fol-
lowing obfervations in reference to this fubjeét. Nebulz,
which on account of their great diftance can be feen only by
inftruments fuch as we have above defcribed, may probably
be all refolved, fays Dr. Herfchel, into clultering {tars, fuch
as are profufely fcattered over the galaxy, groups of itars
or colleétious of clofely, and almoft equally compreffed ftars,

‘of any figure or outline, and clutters of ttars which differ

from thofe laft mentioned, in their beautiful and artificial
arrangement. Cluttering collections of flars may eafily be
fuppofed fufficiently removed to prefent us with the ap-
pearance of a nebula of any fhape, which, like the real
object of which it isa miniature, will feem to be gradually
brighter in the middle. Groups of itars alfo may, by
diltance, aflume the femblance of nebulous patches ; and
real cluiters of fturs, for the fame reafon, when this compofi-
tion is beyond the reach of our mott powerful initruments to
refelve them, will appear hke round nebule that are gra-
dually much brighter in the middle. With inftruments of
high {pace-penetrating powers, fuch as Herfchel’s 4o-feet
telefcope, nebule are the objeéts that may be perceived at
the greateit diftance. Clultering colleétions of {tars may
ealily contain 50,000 of them. See HEAVENS.
NEBULOSA Luyea, in Heraldry. See Line and
Nesuty. :
NEBULOSITY, Minky, a phenomenon of a very in-
terefting nature, noticed by Dr. Herfchel. (See HEAveENs.)
This, he fays, 1s probably of two different kinds, one de-
ceptive, or fuch as arifes from widely extended regions of
clofely conne¢ted cluttering {tars, contiguous to each other,
like the colleétions that con{truét our milky way; and the
other, on the contrary, real, and poflibly at no great dif-
tance from us. ‘The changes (fays Dr. Herichel,) T
have obferved in the great milky nebulofity of Orion, 23
years ago, and which have alfo been noticed by other aftro-
nomers, cannot permit us to look upon this phenomenon as
arifing from immenfely diftant regions of fixed ftars. Even
Huygens, the difcoverer of it, was already of opinion, that
in viewing it, we faw, as it were, through an opening into a
region of light. (Sy{tema Saturnium, p. 8, 9.) Much
more would he be convinced now, when changes in its fhape
and luftre have been feen, that its light is not, like that of
the milky way, compofed of ftars. To attempt even vat a
uefs at what this light may be would be prefumptuous.
If it fhould be furmifed, for inftance, rhat this nebulofity
is of the nature of the zodiacal light, we fhould then be
obliged to admit the exiftence of an effect without its caufe.
An idea of its phofphorical condition is not more philofo-
phical, unlefs we could fhew from what fource of phofpho-
rical matter fuch immeafarable tracts of luminous phenomena
could draw their exiltence, and permanency; for though mi-
nute changes have been obferved, yet a general refemblance,
allowing tor the difference of telefcopes, is {till to be per-
ceived in the great nebulofity of Orion, evcr tince the time
of its firft difcovery.”” ‘ihe nature of nebulous ftars is,
according to Dr. Herfchel, involved in much obfcurity.
That ftars fhould have vifible atmofpheres of great extent is
furely furprifing, unlefs we attribute to fuch oe
the

NEC
the quality of felf-luminous milky nebulofity. Of the {tarry
nature of the central point we can have no doubt ; for its
appearance does not differ in any refpect from that of a ftar
of an equal magnitude ; but when the great diftance of fuch
{tars is taken into confideration, the real extent of the fur-
rounding nebulofity is truly wonderful. The planetary ne-
bule (fee Heavens) feem to be allied, in Dr. Herfchel’s
-opinion, to nebulous {tars ; and the planetary nebule with
centres feem to be of the fame kind.

NEBULY, Nesurée, in Heraldry, when a coat is
charged with feveral little figures, in torm of clouds, run-
ning within one another; or when the outline of a bordure,
ordinary, &c. Is indented or waved. See Ling, in He-
raldry.

NEBUSCHEL, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in
the circle of Boleflau; fix miles N.E. of Melnik.

NECAU, a towa of Africa, in the country of Biledul-
gerid ;_ 150 miles S.E. of Beni-Mezzah.
~ NECAUS, a town of Africa, in Algiers; 100 miles
S.W. of Conftantinople-

NECESSARIANS denote thafe,
the dotrine of philofophical neceflity.

NECESSARIO, ia the Italian Mufic. The word is
prefixed to certain parts in mulic, as a doi violini neceffario,
j.¢. that mult be played by two violins; canto neceffario is
ufed to fignify much the fame as concertante.

Every mode has certain chords, which may be called its
neceflary; or effential chords.

NECESSARY, in a philofophical fenfe,
cannot but be, or cannot be otherwife.

The fchoolmen make a great many kinds or divifions
hereof: as, neceffary in caufing s when there is a caufe from
which an effect mutt neceffarily follow: neceffary in predicat-
ing ;_neceffary in being, &c-

There 1s alfo a logical ueceflary ; phyfical neceflary ; and
there are metaphyfical and moral neceflaries : all which it is
fufficient 1o mention.

NECESSITY, what is produced by a neceflary caufe,
or a power that is irrefiftible.

In this fenfe necefity itands onpofed to likerty.

Neceffity is ufually confeunded with conftraint ; yet, in
effe&, neceflity, according to Rochefoucault, differs from
conitraint in this, that the former is joined with the plea-
fure and inclination ef the will, to which conttraint is con-
trary-

exh pkeiux; after Plato and Epictetus, diftinguifhes two
kinds of neceflity ; the one wiolent or coaéive, which is op-
pofite to liberty; the other /pontaneous or voluntary; very
confiftent with it: this latter, adds he, is that, which ne-
ceffitates all things confiftent with their nature, as Seas
connatural to them; fince cvzoxinsoy, a thing that is felf-
moved, mutt of neceffity be moved according to its own na-
ture, i. ¢. fpontaneoufly. This diitinGion is admitted by
many of the divines, particularly by St. Auguftine, who
urges it againft the a as is fhewn by Janfenius.

The {chools difinguith a phyfcal neceffity, and a moral
neceflity ; and a fimple ab/olute neceffity, and a relative one.

Necessity, Phyjfical, is the want of a principle, or of a
patural means neceflary to a&t ; which is otherwife called a
phyfical or natural impotence.

Necessity, Moral, is only a great difficulty ; fuch as
that arifing from a long habit, a ftrong inclination, or vio-
lent paffion. ;

Necessity, Simple, or Abfolute, is that which has no de-
pendence cn any tate or conjunéture, or any particular
fituation of things, but is found every where, and in all the
circumftances in which the agent ean be fuppofed.

who are advocates for

that which

NEC

Such is, in a blind man, the neceffity he is under’of not
diftineuifhing colours.

Necessity, Relative, is that which places a man ina
real incapacity of acting or not acting in thofe circum-
ftances, and that fituation he is found in; though in other
circumftances, and another ftate of things, he might aét, or
not act.

Such, in the opinion of the Janfenifts, is the neceffity
of doing evilin aman, who, with a violent paffion, has only
a feeble grace to refift it; or the neceflity of doing well in
a man, who, having grace of feven or eight degrees of
ftrength, has only concupifcence of two or three degrees
to with{tand.

All thefe kinds of neceffity are oppofite to liberty ; fince,
even in the laft, it is as impoffible for a man to act, or not
aét, as if he were ina ftate of ab/olute, Simple, and phyfical
neceflity- j

The fchoolmen admit other fpecies of neceffity ; ante-
cedent, concomitant, confequent, &c.: antecedent, is that arifing
from an antecedent caufe, neceflarily operating; fuch is
the neceffity of the fun’s rifing to-morrow mormiag : conco-
mitant arifes from an antecedent and neceffary caufe, but
depends on the circumttances of the effeét ; the effec all the
while being free. ‘Thus it is neceffary Peter fit, ‘fuppofing
he is fitting.

Necessity, Metaphyfical or Philofophical, is aterm that
has been much ufed by modern writers; and which fome
have defined to be, that by which a thing cannot but be, or
whereby it cannot be otherwife. But a much approved
author on this fubjec objects again{t this definition, and ob-
ferves, that philofophical neceflity is really nothing elfe, than
the full and fixed conneétion between the things tignified by
the fubje& and predicate of a propofition, which affirms
fomething to be true; fo that it is in no refpec different
from their certainty. When there is fuch a connection,
then the thing affirmed in the propofition is neceffary in a
philofophical fenfe; whether any oppofition’ or contrary
effort be fuppofed or fuppofable in the cafe, or not. When
the fubjeét and predicate of the propofition, which affirms
the exiltence of any thing, either fub{tance, quality, a¢t,
or circumftance, have a full and certain conneétion, then
the exiftence of that thing is faid to be neceflary in a meta-
phyfical fenfe.

Thofe that are commonly called Neceffariatis, allow no
other liberty to man, that is not reftrained by this kind of
neceflity : and when they confider intelligent beings as the
fubje&ts of it, fome of them diftinguith it into moral and
natural neceflity. Moral rieceffity is uled in a’ variety of
fenfes: fometimes for a neceflity of mora! obligation ; and
often for great obligation in point of interett: fometimes»
by moral neceflity is meant that apparent conneGion of
things, which is the ground of moral evidence; and’ fo it
is diltinguifhed from ad/alute neceffity, or that fure connec-
tion of things, that is a foundation for infallible certainty :
and fometimes, by moral neceflity is meant that neceflity of
conne@tion and confequence, which arifes from {uch moral
caufes' as the ftrength of inclination or motives, and the
conneétion, fubfifting in many cafes, between thefe and
certain volitions and aGtions. By natural neceffity, as ap-
plied to men, they underftand {uch neceffity as men are
under, through the force of natural caufes ; in contradiftine-
tion to thofe that are called moral caufes, fuch as habits and
difpofitions of the heart, and moral inducements and mo-
tives. .

The advocates for the dotrine of neceffity maintain,
that the will is never determined’ without a motive, and
that motives alwaysin Auence the will in a definite and in-

4 variable

variable manner, fo that it is impoffible to choofe the ac-
tion A, and its contrary a; the motives or previous cir-
cumftances remaining the fame. Neceflity is effentially dif-
ferent from compulfion, which is external force operating
in oppolition to judgment or inclination ; whereas neceffity
excludes all foreign controul, and allows no influence be-
fides that of motive, as including the bias of the mind as
well as the end in view.

The fa& contended for by the Neceflarians is, that the
fame volitions certainly and invariably follow the fame mo-
tives or previous circumftances, and that there can be no
change in the volition, but in confequence of a correfpondent
change in the previous circumftances, that is, in the views or
ftate of the mind. If, they fay, definite volitions be the
invariable refult of definite previous circumftances, there
muft be fome reafon for, fome caufe of this conftant con-
function of motive and volition: this cau/e, known or un-
known, is called neceflity: and therefore, the word necef-
fity, like the words gravitation, ele¢tricity, magnetifm, and
many others, is a term invented to exprefs the undefined
caufe of a known efle&. It is alfo faid, that the dofrine
of neceffity, afferting fimply the conftant invariable con-
junGtion of motive with volition, might with equal propriety
have been denominated by the lefs invidious name of cer-
tainty. See CausE and Motive.

Mr. Hobbes, who is faid to have been the firft who un-
derftood and maintained the proper doGtrine of philofophical
neceflity, gives the following account of it, in his Leviathan,
p- 108. Liberty and neceflity are confiftent: as in the
water, that hath not the liberty but a neceflity of defcending
in the channel ; fo likewife in the aG@ions, which men volun-
tarily do, which, becaufe they proceed from their will, pro-
ceed from liberty ; and yet, becaufe every act of man’s will,
and every defire and inclination, proceedeth from fome caufe,
and that from another caufe, in a continual chain (whofe
firft link is in the hand of Ged, the firft of all caufes), pro-
ceed from neceffity: fo that to him, who could fee the con-
netions of thofe caufes, the neceffity of all men’s voluntary
aétions would appear manifeft: and, therefore, God, that
feeth and difpofeth all things, feeth alfo, that the liberty of
man, in doing what he will, is accompanied with the ne-
ceflity of doing that which God will, and no more or lefs ;
for though men may do many things, which God does not
eommand, nor is, therefore, the author of them, yet they
can have no paffion, will, or appetite to any thing, of which
appetite God's will is not the caufe: and did not his will
affure the neceffity of man’s will, and confequently, of all
that on man’s will dependeth, the liberty of men would be
a contradiGtion and impediment to the omnipotence and li-
berty of God, .

Mr. Collins, one of the moft admired writers on the fub-
je&t of neceflity, has ftated the queftion concerning human
liberty in the following manner: man, he fays, is a neceflary
agent, if all his a¢tions are fo determined by the caufes pre-
ceding each aétion, that not one patt action could poffibly
not have come to pafs, or have been otherwife than it
hath been; nor one future ation can poffibly not come to
pafs, or be otherwife than it fhall be. But he is a free
agent, if he is able, at any time, under the circumftances
and caufes he then is, to do different things ; or, in other
words, if he is not unavoidably determined, in every point
of time, by the circumflances he is in, and caufes he is
under, to do that one thing he does, and not poffibly to
do any other. According to this ftate of the queftion, he
undertakes to prove, that man is a neceflary agent; and
that there neither is, nor can be fuch thing as liberty.
3. He appeals to experience; alleging, that though the

NECESSITY.

vulgar urge this in proof of liberty, it is not a proof
of it: that many celebrated philofophers and theologers,
both ancient and modern, have given definitions of liberty,
that are confiftent with fate or neceflity: that fome great
patrons of liberty do, by their conceffions in this matter,
deftroy all arguments from experience ; that all the aétions
of men may be ranked under the four heads ef perception,
judging, willing, and doing as we will; and that experi-
ence does not prove any of thefe’to be free; and that expe-
rience not only does not prove liberty, but, on the con-
trary, men may fee, by experience, that they are neceffary
agents. It is, fays he, matter of experience, that man is
ever determined in his willing; we experience perfect ne-
ceflity ; and they, who think liberty a matter of experi-
ence, yet allow, that the will follows the judgment of the
underftanding, and that when two objects are prefented to
a man’s choice, one whereof appears better than the other,
he cannot choofe the wortt.

This argument from experience or confcioufnefs, which
the Libertarians urge in favour of their fcheme with pecu-
liar force, fuppofes that we never do nor can form a voli-
tion, er perform a voluntary motion without an aflignable
motive ; that the vigour of the aGtion is uniformly propor-
tioned to the vigour of the motive: and that as motives
approach to equality, the choice becomes more difficult ;
whence it is thought reafonable to conclude, that if the mo-
tives were perfeétly equal no choice could be made. _ In this
connection it is proper to remark, that all the appeals te
confcioufnefs in favour of the doétrine of neceffity apply
to voluntary operations of the mind, to fufpending the
choice, comparing, deliberating, and fuch like, as well as
to external a€tions. See Liserty and Morive.

2. Man isa neceflary agent, becaufe all his a€tions have
a beginning ; for whatever has a beginning mutt have a caufe,
and every caufe is a neceflary caufe ; and if any ation what.
foever can be done without a caufe, then efle4is and caufes
have no neceffary relation ; and, confequently, we fhould not
be neceflarily determined in any cafe at all. Much ftrefs has
been laid by the Neceflarians on the argument deduced from
the relation of caufe and effect. An ingenious and ardent
defender of the do&rine of neceffity illuftrates this argu-
ment by the following obfervations. | Certain confequences
are found in fact invariably to follow certain antecedents.
The antecedent circumitances are faid to be the caufe, and
the confequents the effet. Philofophers, it is faid, who
fludy with attention the phenomena of nature, are better
acquainted with antecedent circumftances than ignorant per-
fons, and form a different and more correct judgment of the
caufes of thofe phenomena; and the circumftances really
previous to the effe&t, whether known or unknown, are con-
fidered as the proper caufes of the effet. (See Cause.)
The invariable connection between antecedents and confe-
quents gradually produces an affociation of ideas fo fixed,
as to excite a firm, unhefitating expectation of the confe-
quents wherever the antecedents are obferved to occur. From
the uniform conjunétion of antecedents and confequents, we
always infer that there muft be fome fufficient reafon for
this conjunction ; or, in other words, that conitant conjunc-
tion implies neceflary conne@tion, whether we perceive it or
not. If the effect produced is different from what we have
been ufed to expe, we immediately conclude that there is
fome change in the previous circumitances. Definite voli-
tions are Found by experience to follow definite ftates of
mind, as invariably as natural phenomena follow their known
antecedents, The obferyation of this fact generates the
fame unhefitating expectations of definite actions in definite
circumftances, as in the cafe of natural phenomena. Hence

wt

NECESSITY.

it follows, that upon principles precifely the fame with thofe
upon which we reafon and judge in the cafe of natural phe-
nomena, ‘ {tates of mind and motives,'’ may be called
“© caufes,’? and * volitions,’’ ‘ effeéts;"’ ‘ neceflary con-
nection” may be argued from ‘ conftant conjunction,’’
and a variation in the volition, when the previous circum-
ftances remain precifely the fame, is either a ‘ miracle,"’ or
an *impoffibility.” From this kind of reafoning it has
been inferred, that liberty of ation is impoffible, becaufe
it implies ‘an effect without a caufe.”’ On the other
hand, it has been replied, that a free a¢tion is an effect pro-
duced by a being who had power and will to produce it;
and therefore it is not an effe& without a caufe. If, in-
deed, we allow, with the author above cited, and other Ne-
ceffarian writers, that a ‘ caufe’’ is juftly defined to be
“¢fuch previous circumftances as are conttantly followed by
‘a certain effect,’ it would follow, that an event not pre-
ceded by circumftances that determined it to be what it
was, would be, as Dr. Reid fays, not an efe@ without a
caufe, which is a contradi@tion in terms, but an event with-
out a caufe, which he holds to be impoffible. It is necef-
fary, therefore, to inquire, whether that above ftated be
the only definition that can be given of a caufe.’? For the
refult of this inquiry, fee the article Causr. ~

3. Liberty, fays Mr. Collins, would not be a perfection,
but an imperfe€tion ; whereas, on the contrary, neceffity is
an advantage and a perfection. It is allowed, however, by
an acute and zealous advocate for the dotrine of neceflity,
to whofe ftatement of the controverfy on this fubjeG& we
often refer, that philofophical liberty, liberty of jn ditenedies
or the power of choofing where objeéts or motives are equal,
is a perfe@tion; and that it may exilt in the Supreme
Being, and that he has in fome cafes already exercifed this
liberty. Without it, in certain fuppofable cafes, the Deity
could not aé at all, or mutt neceffarily choofe the inferior
object when the fuperior was equally in his view, for want
of power to make a choice amongft equals. But this li-
berty of indifference, it is faid, though a perfe¢tion, is only
a natural attribute, and not a moral excellence. There can
be no merit, though there may be great advantage, in a
power of choofing out of equal things. Admitting that
this kind of liberty is an attribute of God, it muft obvioufly
follow, that every argument adduced to prove it to be a
contradition, or to imply the exiitence of an effeét with-
eut a caufe, is fallacious; and that there appears to be no
reafonable ground for denying the poffibility of its being
communicated to the intelligent creatures of God. Never-
thelefs, the Neceffarians contend, that this poflibility, if
eonceded, will by no means prove that fuch a power has ac-
tually been communicated to any ; much lefs that the pof-
feffion of it is effential to moral agency and refpontfibility.
On the other hand, it may be {trongly and not improperly
urged, that, if philofophical liberty be a ‘* communicable
perfection,’’ this view of it affords a prefumption that the
Creator has a€tually communicated it to his intelligent, mo-
ral, and accountable offspring; more efpecially if it can
be evinced from other confiderations that fo far from being
inconfiftent with the fecurity and improvement of virtue, it
contributes to promote them.

Whether philofophical neceffity be a perfection and be-
nefit or not, is a quettion which has been very differently
determined by Libertarians and Neceffarians: the former
contending that it degrades the dignity of man, that it
is inconfiltent with proper agency, that it annihilates vir-
tue and vice, merit and demerit, that it is inconfiftent with
moral difcipline, and with the juftice of reward and pu-
nifhment, that it confounds natural and moral qualities,

both being upon this hypothefis conftitutional and una-
voidable, that it is an encouragement to. vice, by tran.
quillizing the guilty mind and fuperfeding all motives
to repentance, that it difcourages all attempts for the re-
formation of others, and that it involves predeftination and
fatalifm, checks virtuous exertion and aétivity, makes
God the author of fin, and is inconfiftent with his veracity in
the declarations and promifes, the invitations and threaten-
ings, of the Scriptures. Such are the confequences charged
on the doétrine of neceflity by the Libertarians, whence
they conclude, that it is neither an excellence nor a benefit.
Whereas the Neceffarians contend, that philofophical liberty
confounds the diltinGtion between virtue and vice, that it
is dangerous to virtue, by encouraging inexperienced aud
thoughtlefs perfons, confiding in a fel -determining power,
to venture into circumitances of temptation, that it is incon-
fiftent with moral difcipline, confounds all moral diftine-
tions, and fubverts the foundation of approbation and dif-
approbation, of praife and blame, of reward and punifhment,
that it leads to atheifm, by fapping the foundation of the
principal argument for proving the exiltence of God, viz. the
connection between cafe and effeét, and that it is inconfiftent
with the moral perfection of any being, and particularly
with the neceflary rectitude of God. On the other hand,
philofophical neceflity, as its advocates maintain, is the only
theory which is reconcileable to the exiftence of virtue and
of moral obligation, in conneétion with the theory of affo-
ciation, of which it is an effential part; it accounts fatis-
factorily for the phenomena of habit in general, and, in
particular, of moral habits, it lays the only proper founda-
tion for moral difcipline, and gives meaning and propriety
to the judgments which men form, and the language by which
they exprefs the, merit or demerit of aétion and charaéter ;
and, in fhort, that it is attended with many beneficial practi-
cal confequences,

Mr. Edwards, an acute writer on this fubjeét, has en-
deavoured to prove, that liberty of indifference is not only
not neceffary to virtue, but utterly inconfiftent with. it ; and
that all habits and inclinations, whether virtuous or vicious,
are inconfiftent with the Arminian notions of liberty and
moral agency. And Dr. Prieftley obferves, that the fenfe
of flf-reproach and fhame is-excited by our finding that
we have a difpofition of mind leading to vice, and on which
motives to virtue, in particular cafes, have had no influence.
If we afk, whence proceeds that difpofition, and how it
comes to pafs, that motives to virtue had not a greater in-
fluence, we muft ultimately afcribe the inefficacy of the one,
and the evil tendency of the other, to God, who made us
what we are, and placed us in the fituation which we oc-
cupy. Dr. Prieitley evercomes this difficulty by alleging,
that the diitinétion between things natural and moral en-
tirely ceafes in the fcheme of neeeflity; that the vices of
men come under the’ elafs of common evils, producing mi-
fery for a time, but like all other evils, in the fame great
fyitem, ultimately fubfervient to greater good. In this
light, he fays, every thing without diitin@ion may be af-
cribed toGod. And hence it has been corcluded, that the
doGtrine of philofophical neceffity is infeparably connected
with that of optimifm. It teaches us to fee God in every
thing, and every thing in God. However, Dr. Prieftley ac-
knowledges, that this is a view of moral evil, which, though
innocent and even ufeful in fpeculation, no wife man can or
would choofe to aét upon himfelf, becaufe our underftand-
ings are tco limited for the application of fuch a means of
good ; though a being of infinite knowledge may introdnce
it with the greateft advantage. If there be any foundation
for the dotirine of neceflity, i.e. if all events arife from

preceding

NECESSITY.

preceding fituations, and the original tuations of all things,
together wth the laws by which all changes of fituation
take place, were fixed by the Divine Being, there can be
no, difference whatever, with refpeét to his caufation of one
thing more than another, and even. whatever takes place in
confequence of his withholding his {pecial and extraordi-
nary influence, is as much agreeable to his wiil as what
comes to pafs in confequence of the general laws of nature.
But our fuppofing that God is the author of fin (as by the
fcheme of neceffity he mult in fact be the author of all
things), by no means implies, that he is a finful being ; for
it is the difpofition of mind, and the defign, which con-
ftitute the finfulnefs of an a@tion. If, therefore, his dif-
pofition and defign be good, what he does is morally good.
To the fame purpofe he obferves, that the proper founda-
tion, or rather the ultimate object of virtue 1s general uti-
lity ;. fince it confifts of fuch conduét as tends to make in-
telligent creatures the mo{t truly happy in the whole of
their exiftence; though, with refpeét to the agent, no
aétion is denominated virtuous, that is not voluntary, or that
does not proceed from fome good motive. And this-reafon-
ing he applies to the Deity, who purfues the happinefs
of his creatures by fuch means as are beft calculated to
fecure that end, and which are fan@tified by it. And he
’ farther adds, that the Deity may adopt fome things, which he
would not have chofen on their own account, but for the fake
of other things, with which they were neceflarily conne<ted.
With refpeét to the practical influence of the different
{peculative opinions that have been maintained on this fub-
je&t, Dr. Reid has introduced into the difcuffion of the con-
troverfy the following appropriate remarks. In the prefent
ftate, we fee fome who zealoufly maintain the doérine of
neceflity ; others who as zealoufly maimtain that of liberty.
One would be apt to think, that a praCtical belief of thefe
contrary fyftems fhouid produce very different conduct in
them that hold them; yet we fee no fuch difference in the
affairs of common life. The fatalift deliberates, and re-
folves, and flights his faith. He lays downa plan of con-
duG, and proiecutes it with vigour and indultry. He ex-
horts and commands, and holds thofe to be aniwerable for
their condué& to whom he hath committed any charge. He
blames thofe that are falfe or unfaithful to him, as other
men do. He perceives dignity and worth in fome charaGers
and a¢tions, and in others demerit and turpitude. He re-
fents injuries, and is grateful for good offices. If any maa
fhould plead the doétrine of neceffity to exculpate murder,
theft, or robbery, or even wilful negligence in the difcharge
of his duty, his judge, though a fatalift, if he had common
fenfe, would laugh at fuch a plea, and would not allow it
even to alleviate the crime. In all fuch cafes, he fees that
it would be abfurd not to a& and judge as thofe ought to
do who believe themfelves and other men to be free agents ;
jut as the fceptic, to avoid abfurdity, mult, when he goes
into the world, act and judge like other men who are not
{ceptics. “If the fatalift be as little influenced by the opinion
of neceflity in his moral and religious concerns, and in his
expetations concerning another world, as he is in the com-
mon affairs of life, his {peculative opinion will probably do
him little hurt. But if he truft fo far to the doétrine of ne-
ceflity, as to indulge floth and inaétiviry in his duty, and
hope to exculpate himfelf to his maker by that doétrine, let
him confider whether he fuitaing this excufe from his fer-
vants and dependents, when they are negligent or unfaithful
in what is committed to their charge. ;
Upon ‘the opinion of neceffity confidered as influencing
tec 7 we refer to an excellent chapter in the ‘ Ana-
ogy’’ of bifhop Butler.

4. Liberty is inconfiftent with the divine prefcience ; for
if God foreknows the exiltence of any thing, as it depends
on its own caufes, that exiftence is no lefs neceffary than if
it were the effeét of his decree: for it no lefs implies a con-
tradiétion, that caufes fhould not produce their effeéts,
than that an event fhould not come to pals that is decreed —
by God.

A contingent event, fays Mr. Belfham, to whom we haye
already referred, depending upon the choice of an agent,
whofe volitions are formed by a felf-determining power, in-
dependent of motive, having no certain or necellary connec-
tion with previous circumftances, mui{t confequently be un-
certain till the previous volition, which ordains its exiltence,
aCtually takes place. Till that inftant it either may, or may
not, come to pafs. Therefore certainly to foreknow a con-
tingent event, which is, in other words, to know that a fu-
ture contingent event will certainly take place, would be the
fame as to know that an evert, which is in its own nature
uncertain, is at the fame time certain, that is, to know a
thing to be what it is not ; which is a contradi¢tion in terms,
The prefcience of God, fays the fame author, excludes the
liberty of indifference from all his rational creatures, as well
as from mankind: for under the government of God no
event can be contingent. And thus liberty of choice, in the
only cafe in which liberty is a perfeétion, is left with the
Supreme Being, who is the Caufe of all canfes, and the
only proper agent in the univerfe.

This argument for neceflity has been urged by a variety
of writers; and the advocates for liberty have felt its force,
and endeavoured to obviate it. Some have a¢tually given
up the divine prefcience, as far as it refpects contingent
events; fome have allowed the feeming contradiction, im-
plied in the foreknowledge of a contingent event, and have
acknowledged themfelves incapable of removing it ; others
have endeavoured to reconcile the foreknowledge of God
and the liberty of man, by alleging, that there is a great
difference between God’s foreknowledge and his decrees,
with regard to the neceffity of future events 5 for God’s pre-
{cience has no influence at all en our actions: his infallible
judgment, concerning contingent truths, does not more alter
the nature of the things, and caufe them to be neceflary,
than our judging right, at any time, concerning a con-
tingent truth, makes it ceafe to be contingent; or, than
our fenfe ofa prefent truth is any caufe of its being true or
prefent. I

In the argument, fays Dr. Clarke, drawn againit liberty
from the divine prefcience, it muft not firft be fuppofed that
things are in their own nature neceffary ; but from the divine
prefcience or power of judging infallibly, (which power is
as much more extenfive and infallible than in many as the
divine nature and underftanding are fuperior to ours,) con-
cerning free events, it muit be proved, that things otherwife
fuppofed free, will, therefore, unavoidably become neceflary,
which can no more be proved, than it can be proved that an
action, fuppofed at this prefent time to be free, is yet (con-
trary to the fuppofition) at the fame time neceflary; be-
caufe, in all paft time, whether foreknown or not fore-
known, it could not, upon that very fuppofition of its being
now freely done, but be future.

In another place ke acknowledges, that, though it is im-
poffible for us to explain diftin@ly the manner how God can
forefee future events, without a chain of neceflary caufes,
yet we may form fome general notion of it. For, a3 a man,
who has no influence over another perfon’s actions, and yet
often perceives before-hand what the other will do; and a
wifer and more experienced man will {till, with greater pro-
bability, forefee what another, whofe difpofition he . a

ectly

NECESSITY.

fe&tly acquainted with, will in certain circumftances do;
and an angel, with ftill much lefs degree of error, may have
a farther pro{pe&t into men’s future actions: fo it is very
reafonable to apprehend, that God, without influencing
men’s wills by his power, yet by his forefight cannot but
have as much more certain a knowledge of fut#.e free events
than either men or angels can poffibly have, as the perfection
of his nature is greater than that of theirs. The certainty
of foreknowledge, fays this excellent writer, does not caufe
the certainty of things, but is itfelf founded on the reality
of their exiftence; nor does it imply any other certainty
than fuch as would be equally in things, though there was
no foreknowledge ; nor again does this certainty of event, in
any fort, imply neceflity. To the fame purpofe, Origen
has long ago obferved, that prefcience is not the caufe of
things A but their being future is the caufe of God’s
prefcience that they will be.
_ Dr. Reid, in difcuffing the argument deduced from the
prefcience of God in favour of neceffity, obferves that the
neceflity of the event, forefeen by the Deity, may be
thought to be a juit confequence, either barely from its
being certainly future, or barely from its being forefeen, or
from the impoflibility of its being forefeen, if it was not
neceflary. The firft mode of reprefenting this argument is
proved by the authority of Ariftotle, who held the doétrine
of liberty, but believing, at the fame time, that whatever is
_certainly future muft be neceffary, in order to defend the
liberty of human aétions, maintained, that certain great
events have no certain futurity; an opinion which is not
maintained by any modern advocate for liberty. It does
not follow by any rule of reafoning, that becaufe an event
fhall certainly be, therefore its produ€tion mutt be neceffary.
The manner of its production, whether free or neceflary,
cannot be concluded from the time of its production, whether
it be paft, prefent, or future. That it fhall be, no more
implies that it fhall be neceffarily, than that it fhall be freely
produced ; for neither prefent, paft, nor future, have any
more connection with neceffity than they have with freedom.
Although it be granted, that from events being forefeen,
we may jultly conclude that they are certainly future, it
does not follow from their being certainly future, that they
are neceflary. 1f by the argument above ftated it be meant,
that an event muft be neceflary, merely becaufe it is fore-
feen, this is not a juft confequence: for it has often been
obferved, that prefcience and knowledge of every kind,
being an immanent aét, has no effe& upon the thing known.
Its mode of exiftence, whether it be free or neceflary, is not
in the leaft affeGted by its being known to be future, any
more than by its being known to be paft or prefent. The
Deity forefees his own future free ations, but neither his
forefight nor his purpofe makes them neceflary. If the ar-
gument be thus underftood, it is impoffible that an event
which is not neceffary fhould be forefeen, and therefore
every event that is certainly forefeen muft be neceflary, it
will be requifite before we draw the conclufion to prove,
that no free action can be certainly forefeen, With regard
to this Dr. Reid obferves, 1. That every man, who believes
the Deity to be a free agent, mutt believe that this propofi-
tion, fo far from being capable of proof, is certainly falfe.
z. That every man, who believes that it is an abfurdity or
contradiction that any free ation fhall be certainly forefeen,
mutt believe, if he would be confiftent, either that the Deity
is not a free agent, or that he does not forefee his own ac-
tions; nor can we forefee that he will do what is right, and
will fulfil his promifes. Dr. Prieflley has taken great pains
to prove this ae and indeed the neceflarian fyftem
very materially depends upon it. As certainly, fays this
Vor. XXIV.

learned writer, as nothing can be known to exift but what
does exift ; fo certainly can nothing be known to arife from
what does exift, but what does arife from it, or depend
upon it. But, according to the definition of the terms, a
contingent event does not depend upon any previous known
circumttances, fince fome other event might have arifen in
the fame circumftances. Here the thing to be proved, fays
Dr. Reid, is not that a contingent event cannot be known
to arife neceffarily from what exifts, but that a contingent
future event cannot be the objeét of knowledge. To draw
the argument to this conclufion, it muft be put thus: No-
thing can be known to arife from what does exift, but what
arifes neceflarily from it; but a contingent event does not
neceffarily arife from what does exift ; therefore a contingent
event cannot be known to arife from what does exift. In
this legitimate conclufion, the firft propofition aflumes the
thing to be proved; and, therefore, the argument is what
logicians call ‘ petitio principii."" After pointing out fome
other defeéts in Dr. Prieftley's argument, Dr. Reid fuggefts
the following refleGtions, with a view of fhewing that it is
not impoffible that the future free a&ions of men may be
certainly foreknown. He begins with obferving, that as
man does not poffefs this kind of knowledge, we find it dif-
ficult to. conceive how it can belong to any other being.
The prefcience of the Deity muft be different, not only in
degree, but in kind, from any knowledge we can attain of
futurity. But though we can have no conception how the
future free ations of men may be known by the Deity, this
is not a fufficient reafon for concluding that they cannot be
known. Of the knowledge and operations of the Deity, in
other refpeéts, we mutt be content to confefs our ignorance.
Can we conceive how we ourfelves have certain knowled
by thofe faculties with which God has endowed us? The
aualogy that fubfifts between the prefcience of future con-
tingents and the memory of paft contingents deferves atten-
tion. The laft we poffefs in fome degree, and therefore do
not hefitate to acknowledge that it may be perfe@ in the
Deity ; but the firft we have in no degree, and therefore we
are apt to think itimpoffible. In both, the obje& of know-
ledge is neither what prefently exifts, nor has any neceflary
conneétion with what prefently exifts. Every argument,
brought to prove the impoffibility of prefcience, proves, with
equal force, the impoffibility of memory. If it be true
that nothing can be known to arife from what does exift,
but what neceflarily arifes from it, it muft be equally true,
that nothing can be known to have gone before what does
exift, but what muft neceffarily have gone before it. If it
be true that nothing future can be known, unlefs its necef-
fary caufe exift at prefent, it muft be equally true that no-
thing paft can be known, unlefs fomething confequent, with
which it is neceffarily conneéted, exift at prefent. If the
fatalift fhould fay, that paft events are indeed receflarily
conneGted with the prefent, he will not furely venture to
fay, that it is by tracing this neceflary connection that we
remember the paft. Why then fhould we think prefcience
impoffible in the Almighty, when he has given us a faculty
which bears a ftrong analogy to it, and which is no lefs un-
accountable to the human underftanding than prefcience is.
It is more reafonable, as well as more agreeable to the facred
writings, to conclude with a pious father of the church:
“ Quo circa nullo modo cogimur, aut retenta prefcientia
Dei tollere voluntatis arbitrium, aut retento voluntatis ar-
bitrio, Deum, quod nefas eft, negare prefcium futurorum ;
fed utrumque ampleétimur, utrumque fideliter et veraciter
confitemur; illud ut bene credamus; hoc ut bene viva-
mus.””
It cannot reafonably be difputed, that there is an effen-
4G tial

NECESSITY.

tial difference between the foreknowledge and permiffion of
events, and the preordination and produ€tion of them; and
the fcheme of neceflity feems dire@ly to charge God with
being the efficient caufe or author of thofe vices and evils,
which arife from, circumftances and connections of his pre-
vious and abfolute appointment. Indeed, many of the ad-
vocates of this {cheme will not admit the confequence that
feems to be fairly deducible from their opinion: however,
Dr. Prieftley very candidly allows it. It certainly (fays
he) founds harfh to vulgar ears to fay, that in all thofe
crimes that men charge themfelves with, and reproach them-
felves for, God is the agent: and that, in fuch cafes, they
are in reality no more agents than a {word is an agent
when employed to commit a murder, It does require ftrength
of mind not to ftartle at fuch a conclufion; but then it re-
quires nothing but ftrength of mind; i.e. fuch a view of
things as fhall carry us beyond falfe and fallacious appear-
ances. When the Libertarians have pleaded, that if the
doétrine of neceffity be true, they are under a perpetual and
unavoidable delufion, inconfiftent with the moral perfeétions
of God, becaufe all men believe, and cannot but believe,
that they poffefs liberty of choice; it is anfwered, that the
ideas of men in general extend no farther than to practical
liberty, or the power of doing what they pleafe ; and that
men are led to believe that they could have a¢ted differently
in the fame circumftances merely by fuperficial views of hu-
man nature. The Neceffarians, however, as we have had oc-
cafion to notice in the preceding part of this article, al-
lege, that the do@rine of philofophical neceffity does not
make God the “approver” of evil, nor reprefent him as
choofing it for its own fake; though the libertarian finds it
difficult to conceive how the Supreme Being fhould not ap-
prove what he ordains, and that evil, natural and moral, of
which he is the author. They indeed fuppofe, that a cer-
tain quantity of evilof both kinds was unavoidable in a fyf-
tem upon the whole moft worthy of the Supreme Being,
and eventually produGtive of the greatelt good. Whereas
the libertarian cannot reconcile with his ideas of the wifdom,
reGtitude, benevolence, and power of the Creator of the
world, the eltablifhment of a fyftem, out of which fin and
fuffering neceffarily arife. he advocates for neceffity have al-
leged, and urged with feeming confidence and triumph over the
Libertarians, that all thefe confequences follow from the divine
prefcience which was thought moft alarming in the fcheme of
neceffity : and particularly God’s being the caufe of moral
evil. For, as they fay, to fuppofe God to forefee and
permit what it was in his power ‘to have prevented is the
very fame thing, as to fuppofe him to will, and dire&tly to
caufe it. He diftin€&ly forefees all the aétions of a man’s
life, and all the confequences of them: if, therefore, he did
not think any particular maa and his conduc proper for his
plan of creation and providence, he certainly would not have
introduced him into being at all. In this reafoning, fays
Dr. Reid, we may obferve, that a fuppofition is made which
feems to contradiét itfelf. ‘That all the aétions of a particular
man fhould be diftin€ily forefeen, and, at the fame time,
that that man fhould never be brough: into exiflence, feems
to be a contradiétion ; and there is the fame contradi¢tion
in fuppofing any aftion to be diftinétly forefeen and yet
prevented. For if it be forefeen, it fhall happen; aid if it
be prevented, it fhall not happen, and therefore could not

be fore feen, The know le dge here fuppofe d 18 neithe: pref-
cience nor {cience, but fomething very different from both ;
and called by fome metaphytical divines ‘ {cientia media,”’
in order to diltinguifh it from prefcience. (See ScrentTra

Media.) However, waving all difputes about * {cientia
media,"’ it is acknowledged that nothing can happen under

5

the adminiftration of the Deity, which he does not fee fit
to permit. ‘The permiffion of natural and moral evil is a
phenomenon which cannot be difputed. To account for this
phenomenon uuder the government of a Being of infinite
goodnefs, juftice, wifdom, and power, has, in all ages, been
confidered as difficult to human reafon, whether we em-
brace the fy{tem of liberty, or that of neceffity. But, if
the difficulty of accounting for this phenomenon upon the
fyftem of neceffity be as great as it is upon the fyftem of
liberty, it can have no weight when ufed as an argument
againit liberty. ‘The manner in which the defenders of ne-
ceffity reconcile their fcheme to the principles of theifm,
has been already ftated. Virtue is acceptable to God, and
vice difpleafing, as the firft tends to produce happinefs, and
the laft mifery. He is the proper caufe and agent of all
moral evil as well as good ; but it is fora good end, or in
order to produce the greater happinefs to his creatures. He
does evil that good may come, and this end fanétifies the.
worft aétions that contribute to it. All the wickednefs
of men being the work of God, he muft, when he furveys
it, pronounce it, as well as his other works, to be very
ood. ‘¢ This view of the divine nature, the only one con-
fiftent with the fcheme of neceflity, appears to me,’’ fays
Dr. Reid, ‘much more fhocking than the permiffion of
evil upon the fcheme of liberty. It is faid, that it requires
only “ ftrength of mind”? to embrace it: to me it feems to
require much ftrength of countenance to profefs it.” If
other moral evils, fays this author, may be attributed to the
Deity, as the means of promoting general good, why may
not falfe declarations and falfe promifes? And then what
ground have we left to believe the truth of what he reveals,
or to rely upon what he promifes? The defenders of the
do€trine of neceffity are charged by our author with adopt-
ing two hypothefes, the one limiting the moral charater of
the Deity, and the other limiting his power; and he ob-
ferves, that if fome advecates of liberty, by limiting too
rafhly the divine prefcience, in order to defend that fyftem,
have raifed high indignation in their opponents, they have
equal ground of indignation againft thofe, who, to defend
neceffity, limit the moral perfection of the Deity, and his
almighty power. Let us fuppofe, however, that amidft
the variety of beings, to whom God has given exiltence
in different gradations of rank and of faculties, man fhould
occupy acertain ftation, and be endued with that liberty,
which the Neceffarians allow to be a communicable excel-
lence; and then confider, what confequences may be fairly
drawn from God's permitting the abuie of liberty in thofe
agents on whom he has beltowed it. If it be afked, Why
does God permit fo much fin in his creation? This is a
queftion which no finite imperfe& being can prefume to
anfwer, nor can any mortal fay to him, Why doeft thou
thus? The ingenious and inquifitive may frame hypothefes
for folving this difficulty ; but whilft we have fatisfactory
reafons for believing, that the Judge of the earth doeth
what is right, it becomes us to acknowledge that the rea-
fons and ends of his univerfal government are beyond our
knowledge, and perhaps beyond the gomprehenfion of hu-
man ujderftanding. ‘This kind of diffidence is not inconfift-
ent with the charaGer either of a divine or a philofopher,
After this general conceffion, fuitable both to our nature
and ftate, we may proceed in our attempts to reconcile the
permiffion of evil with the perfections of the Sovereign of
the univerfe. 'To permit, it is faid, hath two meanings. It
fignifies not to forbid: and alfo not to hinder by fuperior
power. In the firft fenfe God never permits fin. His law
forbids every moral evil. By his laws and by his govern-
ment he gives every encouragement to good conduct, and
every

NECESSITY.

every difcouragement to bad. But he does not always, by
his fuperior power, hinder it from being committed. This
is the ground of the accufation, on the part of the Neceffa-
rians: and this, as they fay, is the very fame thing as di-
-re@tly to will and to caufe it. The only moral attributes
that can be fuppofed inconfiftent with the permiffion of fin
are either goodnefs or juftice. The defenders of neceffity
mutt, it is faid, agreeably to their own principles, maincain,
that to will and directly to caufe fin, much more not to hinder
it, is inconfiftent with perfe& goodnefs ; nay, that goodnefs
is a fufficient motive to juftify the willing and direétly
caufing of it, With them, therefore, the attempt to re-
concile the permiflion of fin with the goodnefs of God is
altogether usneceflary. If the caufing of moral evil, and
being the real author of it, be confillent with perfec good-
nefs, there can be no pretence for faying, that not to hinder
it is inconfiftent with perfe& goodnefs. Moreover, what
pretence can there be to fay, that the permiffion of fin is
perfeGtly confiftent with goodnefs in the Deity, but incon-
fiftent with juftice? Is it not as eafy to conceive, that he
fhould permit fin, thongh virtue be his delight, as that he in-
fli€ts mifery, when his fole delight is to beftow happinefs?
Should it appear incredible, that the permiffion of fin may
tend to promote virtue, to them who believe that the in-
fliction of mifery is neceffary to promote happinefs ? OF the
juitice, as well as the goodnefs of God’s moral government
- of mankind, we have ample evidence in his laws, in his pro-
mifes, and in all his difpenfations. On this part of the fub-
je it is needlefs now to enlarge.

5. Another argument in favour of neceflity is the follow-
ing : if a man was not a neceflary agent, determined by plea-
fure and pain, there would be no foundation of rewards and
punifhments, which are the effential fupports of fociety.
Thefe would be ufelefs, becaufe if inen were free or indif-
ferent to pleafure and pain, they could be no motives to a
man to do or forbear any action.

6. Another argument of this fame kind is deduced from
the nature of morality: for if a man was not a neceflary
agent, determined by pleafure and pain, he would have no
notion of morality, or motive to practife it; and if he were
indifferent to pleafure and pain, he would have no rule to go
by, and might never judge, will, and praGtife right. Every
a@ of the will, it is faid, is excited by fome motive, which
motive is the caufe of that a&: andif volitions are properly
the effect of motives, then they are neceffarily connected
with their motives: whence it is inferred, that volition is
neceflary, and doth not proceed from any felf-determining
power in the will. This argument has been illuitrated and
urged in all its force by many modern writers, from M.
Leibnitz to Dr. Prieitley, the laft and moft zealous advocate
for neceflity: and it has often been anfwered by Dr. Clarke
and others, who have ftrenuoufly maintained, that liberty is
perfectly confiftent with men’s ating from a regard to mo-
tives. See Morivez. See alfo the preceding part of this
article.

7. The doétrine of neceffity has fewer difficulties and
fuch as are more eafy of folution than thofe which are pe-
culiar to liberty. It fuperfedes remorfe, fo far as it is
founded on’ the belief that it was poffible in the fame pre-
vious circumitances to have aéted otherwife. This doétrine
countenances the expeétation of the ultimate reftoration of
all the rational creatures of God to virtue and to happi-
nefs, an expeCtation dear to every virtuous and benevolent
mind, and uncontradicted, by either the phenomena of na-
ture, or the declarations of revelation. But this conclufion
is not a deduction from the doétrine of neceflity exclufively
of that of liberty. This theory of neceflity, it is faid, feems

alfo to conneé the complex ideas of praife and blame, re-
ward and punifhment, and the fuppofition of intrinfic merit
or demerit of actions independent of their confequences.
It is moreover afferted, that the objeétions again{t the hypo-
thelis of philofophical liberty are much more difficult of fo-
lution than thofe againft the do&rine of neceffity : and that
founded on the prefcience of God, already confidered, has
been feleGed as an inftance.

8. The doétrine of neceflity is a direét inference from that
of materialifm : fo that if the power of thinking be the re-
fult of a certain modification of matter, and a certain con-
figuration of brain make a foul, man muft be a mechanical
being, and fubject to the law of neceffity. But this argu-
ment can have no weight with thofe who do not fee reafon
to embrace the fyftem of materialifm; and even with thofe
who do. Dr. Reid conceives it to be a mere fophifm.

The fcriptures, according to Dr. Prieftley, are favour-
able to the doétrine of neceffity ; though he does not think
that the facred writers were, ftriétly fpeaking, Neceflarians,
for they were not philofophers: but their habitual devotion
led them to refer all things to God, without refle&ting on the
rigorous meaning of their language ; and very probably, had
they been interrogated on the fubje€&t, they would have ap-
peared not to be apprized of the proper extent of the Necef-
farian {cheme, and would have anfwered in a manner unfa-
vourable toit. It has been faid by fome, that the doGtrine
of philofophical neceffity, if true, ought to be concealed, be-
caufe it is difficult of comprehenfion, and liable to abufe.
This, however, is not the language of a liberal and found
philofophy.. Perhaps, in modern times, a greater ftrefs has
been laid upon this metaphyfical fpeculation than it deferves ;
and that it has, in fome few cafes, and when not duly under-
{tood, been perverted to licentious purpofes. Some indeed
have faid, that its tendency is licentious, whilft its advocates,
as we have feen in this article, reprefent it as peculiarly fa-
vourable to piety and virtue. If thofe who adopted it are
held up to view as perfons of diftinguifhed penetration, and
as conitituting a clafs of philofophers, who occupy a fu-
perior rank to the vulgar, and who manifeft difcriminating
powers, and a freedom from prejudice peculiar to themfelves,
there may be fome danger left weak minds fhould be mifled
by fuch reprefentations, and that they may ferve to excite
and cherifh conceit and pride. But we are of opinion, that
whether the doétrine be true or falfe, the inveftigation of it,
with thofe difpofitions which ought ever to accompany a be-
coming ftudy of every kind of fubje€&t, and more efpecially
of fuch fubjects as are immediately connected with our duty
and happinefs, can do no injury. We are ready to allow
with one of its moft zealous advocates, that Neceflarians,
whatever may be the fuppofed tendency of their opinions,
are not lefs virtuous, nor worfe members of fociety, nor
“lefs attentive to difcharge the duties of life, than the loude&t
declaimers for natural liberty.”’

The reader who is defirous of being farther acquainted
with the reafoning of different writers on this fubject, may
confult the Colleétion of Papers bet ween Leibnitz and Clarke,
1717- Collins’s Philofophical Inquiry concerning human
Liberty, 1735, 3d ed. with Clarke’s Anfwer. Hobbes on
Neceflity. Edwards on the Freedom of the Will, 8vo.
1775, 4th ed. Prieftley’s Doétrine of Philofophical Ne-
ceflity, 8vo. 1777. Correfpondence between Dr. Price and
Dr. Prieftley, 8vo. 1778. Hartley’s Obfervations on Man,
8vo. 1749. Palmer’s Remarks on Prieftley, and Prieltley’s
Reply. Reid’s Effays on the AGtive Powers of Man, eff. iv.
Gregory’s Effay on the Difference between the Relation of
Motive and Aétion, and Caufe and Effet. Crombie’s
Effay on Philofophical Neceffity. Belfham’s Elements of

4G2 ; the

NEC

the Philofophy of the Mind, &c. 8vo.' chap. ix.
nitzian Philofophy, and Liperty.

Necessity Fort, in Geography, an American fort fituated
in the Great Meadow, Virginia, within four miles of the W.
branch of Maryland, and on the N. fide of the head-water
of Red-ftone creek, which difcharges itfelf from the E.
into the Monongahela, in N. lat. 39° 43'; above 16 miles
from the {pot where this fort, was erected; 238 miles W. by
N. from Alexandria, and 258 N.W. of Frederickfburg.
This {pot deferves notice as it was the firft fcene on which
general Wafhington difplayed his abilities as a commander.
In 1753 this gallant officer, in the 22d year of his age, being
then a colonel, having the command of 300 men, defeated
the French, and when M. de Villiere fent a force, amounting
to goo men befides Indians, Wafhington, in this unfinifhed

See Lers-

fort, with his fmall body of troops, defended himfelf fo:

well as to conitrain the French officer to grant him honourable
terms of capitulation.

Necessity, in Law, is one of the caufes that occafions a
defeG& of will. See Wixt.

Necessity, Homicide by. See Homicipe.

NECHANETZ, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in
the circle of Konigingratz; eight miles W. of Konigin-

ratz.

NECK, the part or point of@n animal to which the head
is attached. In the horfe it fhould be neat, thin, and have
but little flefh upon it. To be well fhaped it fhould, at its
growing from the withers, rife with a flope upwards, dimi-
nifhing by degrees toward the head. In mares, it is fup-
pofed by fome a good quality to have their necks fomewhat
grofs, and charged with flefh, as they are generally too fine
and flender. "4

The neck contributes much to the making a horfe light
or heavy on the hand, according as itis fine and well-fhaped
or coarfe. And in horfes as well as cattle it is of much con-
fequence to have the neck falling well into the fhoulder.

Neck. The parts compofing this divifion of the body
are defcribed in various articles of the Cyclopedia. The
principal bulk of the neck is made up of the cervical ver-
tebre, covered by numerous mufcles concerned in moving
thefe bones, in the motions of the head and of the fhoulder.
The pharynx and cefophagus lie in contaé with the front of
the vertebral column, and the larynx and trachea in front of
thefe. The anterior part of the thyroid cartilage makes that
remarkable prominence in the neck of the male, called the
pomum Adami. The large blood-veflels of the head pafs
through the neck on the front of the fpine, and fome im-
portant nerves take nearly the fame courfe. ‘The organs jut
enumerated, connected rather loofely to each other by cel-
lular fubftance, and furrounded by the integuments, tompofe
the neck. See Spine, Larynx, Poarynx, GEsopmacus,
&e.

Neck, Derby. See Broncnocece.

Neck,’ Deformity of. See WryNeck.

Neck, Diflocation of. See Luxation.

Neck, Wounds of. See Wounps.

Necks, the, of quadrupeds, Dr. Derham obferves, are al-
ways equal to the fetch of their legs: this is contrived by
nature, to enable them to reach the ground for their food
without fooping the body.

Indeed the elephant is an exception from the rule; its neck
is very fhort ; but then it has a peculiar provifion by a pro-
bofcis or trunk.

Another thing remarkable in the necks of graminivorous
quadrupeds is a {trong, tendinous, and infenfible aponeurofis,
or ligament, braced from the head to the middle of the back ;
by means of which they are enabled conttantly to hold down

3

NEC
the head, though very heavy, to gather their food without

pain or labour.

Necks, the, of birds, are longer than thofe of any other
animal ; and longer in fuch as have long legs than in thofe
that have fhort, either for gathering up their meat from the
ground, or ftriking their prey in the water, except in web-
footed fowl, which are, by reverfing their bodies, deftined
to fearch for food, at the bottom of waters: birds, and
efpecially thofe that have long necks, have the power of re-
tracting, bending, or ftretching them out in order to change
their centre of gravity, from their legs to their wings. See
Anatomy of Birns.

Neck Verfe, the Latin fentence, Miferere mei Deus, was
thus called, becaufe the reading of it was made a’ telt, by.
which to diftinguifh thofe who, in prefumption of law, were
qualified in point of learning, and admiflible to benefit of
clergy : but this ground of diftinétion was fet afide by 5 Ann.
cap. 6. See CLerey. ;

Neck, inthe Afanege. See CARRYING.

Neck of the ca/cabel, in Artillery, is that part betwixt the
breech mouldings and the cafcabel.

NEcK of a gun is that part between the muzzle mouldings
and the cornice-ring. :

NECKAR, in Geography, a river of Germany, whic
rifes inthe Black Forett, and joins the Rhine at Manheim.

NECKER, James, in Biography, a ftatefman and
financier, who acted a very diftinguifhed part during the early
part of the French revolution, was born at Geneva, in the
year 1732, where his father was profeffor of the civil law in
the college. He received a good education, and when he
was in his fifteenth year he was fent to Paris, where he was
employed, firft in the banking-houfe of Vernet, and then
in that of Thellufon. Such were the ability and affiduity
which he difplayed in this ftation, that he rofe rather haftily
to the poft of firlt cafhier, and afterwards to be a partner in
the houfe. His {peculations turned out highly advantageous
for the concern, and he accumulated a fortune in a very fhort
time. Upon the death of Thellufon he eftablifhed a bank of
his own, in partnerfhip with Girardot and Halier, the fon
of the great Haller. His reputation for financial knowledge
caufed him, in 1776, when the French finances were in a
difordered ftate, to be appointed director, and foon after
comptroller-general of that department of ftate. He had,
in the preceding reign, been fele¢ted as the propereft perfon
to adjuft fome differences fubfifting between the Ealt India
company and the crown, and had difcharged his truft with
fuch rare difcretion as to challenge the approbation of both
parties. At the period we are now {peaking of he was pof-
feffed of the moft diltinguifhed and acknowledged pfobity,
fo that his appointment would have excited no furprize, had
it not been the conftant policy of the court of France care-
fully to exclude aliens from the country, and eftablifhed faith,
from the controul of their revenue. ‘This, therefore, was an
inftance of enlargement of mind and liberality of fentiment,
that has been frequently held up to mark the prominent fea-
tures of the reign of Lewis XVI. Necker was in faé& the
firit Proteftant, fince the revocation of the ediét of Nantes,
who had held any important place in the French adminiftra-
tion. Economy and regularity were the leading points of
this gentleman’s financial government. He fuppreffed many
ufelefs offices, eftablifhed provincial affemblies, and rettored
public credit, though his enemies afferted that his reforms, or
rather pretended reforms, were made at the expence of im-
provident loans, which left a great additional burden on the
ftate, Whether his meafures were really wife agd folid, or
merely {pecious, may perhaps be matter of difpute, but it
cannot be denied that his intentions were pure, and his con-

du&

NECKER.

du& difinterefted. He refufed all emolument for his fervices,
and advanced a large fum to government from his private
property, which he never drew from the public funds. His
adminiftration was generally popular, but in proportion to
the regard and attachment of the people, his enemies at
court increafed, and after having filled the office of minifter
of finance for five years, he refigned. Previoufly to this he
had publifhed his «‘ Compte Rendu,” which was a ftatement
of what he had done in the financial department, and what
were his views of this important branch of public policy.
Tt was written to intereft the feelings, and had a confiderable
effect upon the public mind. This was followed by a work
entitled “* De l’Adminiftration des Finances,’’ which treated
the fubjet more at large, and which was read and circulated
with great avidity, and it had, unquettionably, 2 powerful
influence in exciting the popular attention to matters of go-
vernment. When M. Calonne was appointed to the office
which Necker refigned, he made an attack, before the af-
fembly of Notables, upon the veracity of Necker’s ftate-
ments. The latter drew up a reply, which he tranfmitted
to the king, who intimated that if he would forbear making
it public, he fhould fhortly be reftored to his place. This
he refufed, and appealed to the nation by publifhing his de-
fence, which was fo difpleafing to the court, that-he was
exiled to his country feat at St. Quen, at the diftance of
1zo miles from the capital. During his retreat from the bufy
world he wrote his work entitled “* De Importance des
Opinions Réligieufes,” in which he {peaks of religion like
one who felt its power operating on his own mind, and who
was fully convinced of its importance both to individuals and
fociety. When the boafted exertions of Calonne had only
augmented the deficiencies of the revenue, and the inca-
pacity of another miniiler, Brienne, had become notorious,
nothing was left to the court but to recal Necker, whofe dif-
miffion and banifhment had rendered him more popular, and
whole virtues had confirmed the confidence which his talents
had infpired. It was in Auguft 1788 that this gentleman
was rein{tated in his former poft, to the apparent fatisfac-
tion of the court, as well as to the real joy of the people.
If the talents of this great man had been feverely exercifed
amidit a war which agitated almoft the whole of Europe,
when he occupied the poft of comptroiler-zeneral, his fitua-
tion was not lefs delicate and arduous, when on the eve of
civil commotions he was again called to direct the finances
of France. At this time the nation groaned under a debt
of more than two hundred millions fterling, which even
twenty-five years ago was thought fufficient to overwhelm
any nation, though now we, in this country, can contemplate
a debt of thrice its magnitude without alarm or apprehenfion.
The acclamations which welcomed monfieur Necker to the
capital ceuld not banifh from his mind the difficulties with
which he had to ftruggle. He was aware that de Calonne
and the archbifhop of Sens had both funk under the public
diftrefs, and the impra@ticability of raifing the neceffary fup-
plies; and he well knew that the evil was not diminifhed, and
unlefs fome expedient could be hit on to re-eftablifh public
credit, he forefaw his own fate muft be fimilar to that of his
predeceflors. His firft intentions were to recal the banifhed
members, of the parliament of Paris, and to reftore that body
to its functions; to replenifh the treafury, which he found
almoit empty ; and to relieve the fearcity of corn under
which the kingdom, and the capital in particular, then
laboured. His next plan was the convocation of the States-
General, which had been already promifed by the king, and
which, in fast, proved the immediate fore-runner of the re-
volution. Necker was particularly blamed by his adverfaries,
who were watching for an opportunity of reproaching his

condu@, for having confented that the number of membérs
of the Tiers Erat fhould be equal to that of the nobles and
clergy united. It was foon forefeen by thofe who confidered
with attention the fituation of the two parties, that the no-
bility and clergy would, to preferve their influence, urge
their claim to vote by orders, while the reprefentatives of
the great mafs of the people would be equally ftrenuous that
every queftion fhould be decided by a pluality of voices.
At the opening of the States, Necker delivered an ela-
borate {peech, in which it was his misfortune to be defirous
of pleafing both parties, and of confequence he obtained the
permanent confidence of neither ; the acclamations of the
multitude ftill attended him, but feveral of the deputies of
the Tiérs Etdt, as the reprefentatives of the people were de-
nominated, regarded already with fufpicion the minifter who
reprefented the meeting of the States General, merely as the
effect of royal grace, inftead of a conftitutional right. They
were ftill lefs Beisfied with the fyftem to which he inclined,
viz. to decide every queftion by a majority of orders, inftead
of voices, while the clergy and nobles recolle&ted with in-
dignation, that his counfels had already fhaken their former
fuperiority, and had {welled the commons to an equality, in
number, with the other two ftates. After this he pro-
pofed a royal fitting, and drew up a plan of government to
be recommended by the king in a fpeech, which underwent
fo many alterations as to difguft the minifter who wrote it,
and who accordingly fignified his difapprobation by his ab-
fence when it was delivered. In the courfe of events, the
king was perfuaded to refift the increafing claims of the po- _
pular party, and he determined upon the affembling of
troops round the cities of Paris and Verfailles ; this was the
fignal for the difmiffion of Necker, who had raifed his voice
in the moft refolute tone againit thefe meafures. On the
eleventh of July 1789, a fudden order was brought him,
while fitting at table with company, that-he fhould quit the
kingdom within twenty-four hours. ‘The manner in which
he fubmitted to this decree fully acquits him of any wifh to
raife acommotion on hisownaccount. Pretending a fudden
indifpofition, he retired from company after dinner, took a
poft-chaife, and with his wife drove firft to his country feat,
and from thence to Bruffels, with all poffible expedition. As
foon as his difmiffion was known, the whole city was in a
flame. The deitruétion of that fortrefs of defpotifm, the
Baftile, foon followed, and fuch fymptoms of popular fury
appeared that the king was glad to fend an exprefs urging
his return, with even greater celerity than he had caufed his
banifhment. This overtook him at Bafil, where he had been
firft apprized of the revolutionary events at Pans. He de-
termined upon compliance with the invitation, and his return
was a fcene of triumph, fimilar, it was faid, to that of Ci-
cero from his banifhment. On his approach to the capital
he was hailed by the eathufiaftic fhouts of the people, and
his entrance into Paris was regarded as a day of public re-
joicing. An immenfe concourfe of people preffed to meet
him, a numerous guard conduGted him with military honours
through the city; the air refounded with acclamations of
* Long live the Nation! Long live Necker.” Every houfe
was illuminated, but it was faid that thofe perfons were moft
diftingniined by their demon‘trations of joy who had moft
largely profited by the loans of the mimiter. The plaudits
of the multitude are never of very Jong duration, and the
popularity of Necker had reached its fummit, and it was
doomed now to decline. As minifter of finance he was
obliged co propole expedients which of neceffity were galling
to the people, and his feaciments with re{peét to the. prin-
ciples of goverment were far behind thole which now began
to be avowed by the popular leaders, and he foon became,
t

NEC

the eyes of the revolutionifts, an ariftocrat, and, as violence
predominated, his perfonal fafety was endangered. Mor-
tified, and perhaps alarmed, at the lofs of his influence, and
at the fymptoms of difcontent which began to manifeft them-
felves ftrongly againft almoft all his meafures, he defired to
refign, offering to leave, as pledges for his integrity, the
money which he had advanced to government, wiz. about
80,000/. fterling, and his houfe and furniture. His refigna-
tion was accepted with much /ang-froid, and he left Paris
with the poignant reflexions of a man, certainly unequal to
the duties which he had undertaken, and who had feen that
popularity fade away which had fupported him in his former
trials. Inthis retreat he was more than once infulted by the
very people who, but a few months before, had hailed him
as their faviour. He might well exclaim “ My happinels
has been of very fhort duration.” Gibbon, who paffed four
days with him at this period, fays, ‘I could have wifhed to
have exhibited him as a warning to any afpiring youth pof-
feffed with the demon of ambition. With all the means of
private happinefs in his power,’he is the moft-miferable of
human beings; the paft, the prefent, and the future, are
equally odicus to him. When I fuggefted fome domeitic
amufements, he anfwered, with a deep tone of defpair, ¢ in
the ftate in which I am, I can feei nothing but the blatt which
has overthrown me.”? Shortly after this, his mind was
diverted from public difappointment by the more poignant
grief of domettic calamity ; his wife died, after a long illnefs,
in whick he had attended her with the moft affeétionate affi-
duity. He now recalled the native energies of his mind, and
had recourfe to his favourite occupation of writing, and
feveral works of different kinds were the produé of his foli-
tary hours. His principal pieces are entitled “ Sur l’Ad-
miniftration de M. Necker, par lui-méme ;’? “ RéfleGions,
&c.”’ which were intended to benefit the king during his
captivity and trial: « Du Pouvoir Exécutif,” being an eflay
that contained his own ideas on the executive part of govern-
ment: ‘ Derniéres Vués de Politiques, et de Finance,” of
which the chief objet was to difeufs what was the beft form
of government France was capable of receiving. Befides
thefe, he publifhed a ‘* Courfe of Religious Morality,’’ and
a novel, written at the fuggeftion of his daughter, entitled
“ The Fatal Confequences of a Single Fault.” ‘Though
deprived of three-fourths of his fortune, he had fufficient
for all his wants, and alfe to indulge his benevolent difpofi-
tion. He had been placed on the lift of emigrants, but the
direttory unanimoufly erafed his name, and when the French
army entered Swifferland, he was treated by the generals
with every mark of refpeét. His talents and conduct have
been alike the fubjeét of difpute ; but it may be affirmed
that thouzh unfit for the {tormy fcenes of a revolution, he
would have been eminently Preat in common times. Though,
for atime, overwhelmed with the fhock that hurled him
from the pinnacle of greatnefs, he fpent the latter years of
his life, in the rational purfuits of a philofopher and man of
found judgment and true talte. His only daughter, who
married the baron de Stael, embaflador from Sweden to
France, has®made herfelf known to the literary world by
feveral publications, particularly by ‘* Memoirs of the Cha-
racter and Private Life of her Father,’”? written in a high
ftyle of panegyric; and of anovel entitled ‘* Delphine,’’ in
which the has fuffered her defire of working ftrongly on the
feelings, to overpower, ina great meafure, the true notions
of good tafte and morality. New Ann,,Regifter. Hiltory
of the Fr. Rev. by Rabaut de St, Etienne. Hutt. of Frauce,
1790.

Necken’s L/land, in Geography, one of the {maller Virgin
lands, near the N. coahof Virgin Gorda.

NEC

Necker Jf, a {mall ifland in the Pacific ocean, confifting
of an almott barren rock about 500 toifes in length and 60
in height, without a fingle tree, but having on the fummit a
good deal of grafs. M. La Peroufe points it out to navi-
gators, that they may avoid the danger of approaching it :
within a {pace of ten miles from it, no other ground was
found befides coral and broken fhells. N. lat. 23°31! W.
long. 164° 32!.

Necker J/lands, a cluiter of nine fmall iflands or rocks
in the North Pacific ocean, on the W. coaft of -America,
about a league off cape Blanco; fo called by La Peroufe.
N. lat. 42° 58'56". W. long. 124° 45! 20".

NECKERA, in Botany, received its name from Hedwig,
‘cin-memory of the moft eminent oppofer of the doétrine
of the fexual propagation of moffes, to whom neverthelefs
botany is not a little indebted.”” This was Dr. Natalis
Jofeph de Necker, botanift to the Ele€@tor Palatine, who was
born in 1730 and died in 1793. He publifhed a Linszan
Flora of French Flanders in 1768; Methodus Mufcorum in
17713; Phyfiologia Mufcorum in 17743, Elemenia Botanica,
teaching the principles of natural arrangement, in 1790; and
fome other works. We have fufficiently noticed his deter-
mined oppofition to the fexes of moffes; fee Musci1. He
alfo extended his difbelief.to other plants, in fome meafure
confounding, like many other writers, their increafe by
roets or buds, with fexual propagation, as in Lemna, and
Sempervivum tetorum. He even contended that the feeds of
Hemp and Mercury were perfected without impregnation ;
but this is refuted by Linnzus, who proves that no feeds of
Hemp are formed, unlefs the fuddenly withered ftigma fhews
it to have been adted upon by the pollen. When the yita-
lity of the part is exhaufted, by the accomplifhment of its
natural purpofe, it dies (See FecunDATION of Plants.) The
name in queftion was originally written, as it ought,
Neckeria ; but the accidental or defigned alteration, in Hed-
wig’s great work, has now univerfally prevailed.—Hedw.
Fund, v. 2. 93. t. 8. f. 47—50. Crypt. v. 3. 38—55.
Sp. Mufc. 200. Schreb. 762. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 3.
Sm. Fl. Brit.1272. Turn. Mufe. Hib. 101. Sibth. 304.
Michaux Boreal-Amer. v. 2. 307.—Clafs and order, Cryp-
togamia Mufti Nat. Ord. Mufci.

Eff. Ch. Capfule oblong, from a lateral fcaly fheath. Outer
fringe of fixteen acute teeth ; inner of as many intermediate
thread-fhaped teeth. Veil {mooth.

The habit of Neckera is like that of Hypnum, under which
genus fome of its fpecies have been defcribed by Linnets ;
but itill nearer to Fontinalis in the fhortnefs of the fruit-ftalk.
Accordingly feveral of the {pecies, more recently difcovered,
have been referred to the latter genus. (See Hypnum and
Fontinatis.) Neckera differs, in effential charaéter, from
both in its inner fringe, which confifts of diftin& and fepa-
rate teeth or briftles ; not combined by a membranous bafe,
as in the former ; nor conne&ed by tranfverfe lattice-work,
as in the latter. Sixteen fpecies are defcribed in the Species
Mufcorum of Hedwig, five of which are Britifh. They are
difpofed in two fections, and thefe are each fubdivided into
two more, according as the leaves are two-ranked or feat-
tered.

SeGtion 1. Fruit-ftalk foorter than the cap/ule.

In this fection feven of Hedwig’s fpectes have the ftem
irregularly branched ; and three of thefe have the leaves ele-
gantly difpofed in two ranks, making a flat feather-like
figure ; which from their polifh and tranf{parency, and efpe-
cially from the crifped or corrugated nature of fome {pectes,
affords a beautiful {peétacle. An example of this ts

N. pennata. Hedw. Crypt. v. 3. 47. t. 19. (Fontinalis
pennata; Linn. Sp. Pl.is7t. Ehrh, Crypt.132. Sphag-

num

NECKERA.

num pennatum undulatum, vagina {quamofa; Dill. Mufc. 250.
t. 32. f.9. Mufcusterreftrismajor, &c. ; Vaill. Par. t. 27.
f. 4.) —Stem thread-fhaped, decumbent, branched. Branches
fomewhat compound. Leaves imbricated, two-ranked,
lanceolate, corrugated, with an oblique point. Capfule
immerfed in the fheath.—Native of trunks of trees, in
Sweden, Switzerland, France and various parts of Ger-
many, but not in England. We have it however from the
Cape of Good Hope, as well as from Nova Scotia, and the
welt coaft of North America, gathered by Mr. Menzies, fo
that it appears to be widely difperfed over the globe. This
mols is perennial, ripening the capfules in fpring. The /fems
are three or four inches long, with numerous unequal taper-
pointed ranches, lying flat over each other, all thickly befet
with aves {preading likewife in two ranks. Each /eaf has
three or four tranfverfe plaits towards the end, but no rib,
veins, nor ferratures. The whole is ofa light fhining green.
Cap/fules light brown, lateral, axillary, folitary, on very fhort
ftalks, enveloped by the numerous lanceolate, taper-pointed,
feales of the /heath, which extend confiderably beyond the
top of each capfule. Lid convex, with a fharp curved point,
about half as long as the capfule. Fringe pale and delicate.
Feil flender, reddifh.

N. diflicha, Hedw. Crypt. v. 3. t..22; and undulata,
t. 213; two Welt Indian fpecies, have blunter foliage, with
fetaceous feales to the fheath, but otherwife they have much
of the afpe€t of the above. The /aves in the former are
even in the latter tran{verfely corrugated —W. glabella, Sw.
Ind. Occ. 1782, (Lefkea glabella, Tedw. Sp. Mufc. t. 59.
f. 1—5.) anative of Jamaica, requires to be here added.

Among thofe with fcattered leaves is

N. heteromalla. Lateral Neckera. Hedw. Crypt. v. 3. 38.
t.15. Engl. Bot.t.1180. (Sphagnum arboreum ; Linn.
Sp. Pl. 1570. Hudf. 465. S. heteromallum polycephalum ;
Dill. Mofc. 248. t. 32. f. 6. Fontinalis fecunda; Linn.
Meth. Mufe. 30. Dickf. Dr. Pl. 18.)—Stem branched,
diffufe. Leaves ovate, concave, imbricated every way.
Capfules turned to one fide. Native of En.land and Ire-
land, but, as far as has hitherto been obferved, of no other
country. Sherard firit found it at Badminton, Gloucefter-
fhire. This grows in tufts clofely prefled to the trunks of
trees, and is not uncommon in Norfolk. The /fems are
about 13 inch long, diffufe, rigid, with pinnate branches,
thickly clothed with fmall, dull-green, ovate, concave, acute,
fingle-ribbed /eaves, imbricated every way. Cap/ules at the
end of fhort lateral branches, all leaning one way,- over-
topped by the leaves of their /heaths, which are lanceolate
and taper-pointed. Lid conical, acute, erect. Vil tornat
the margin.

The reft of this divifion are N. filiformis, Hedw. Crypt.
v. 3. t- 163; hAypnoides, t. 173 compofita, Hedw. Sp.
Mufe. 203. t. 46. f. 8—133 and flicina, Hedw. Crypt.
v. 3. t. 18 3 all Welt Indian moffes, difcovered by Dr.
Swartz. The laft has an ere& habit, with a naked ftem, like
a little tree. Their difcoverer adds another in his Fl. Ind.
Occ. 1794, by the name of polytrichoides. (Hypnum, Hedw.
Sp. Mufc. t. 61.), but fufpeés it, as well as the three laft,
having hairy veils, may belong to fome other genus, perhaps
Orthotrichum. ‘This we feruple to allow.

SeGtion 2. Fruit-/lalk longer than the capfule.

Six of this feGtion have two-ranked leaves ; and two have
{cattered ones. Among the former are

N. pumila. Small Feathery Neckera. :Hedw. Crypt.
y.3.49.t.20. Engl. Bot. t. 1443. (Hypnum pennatum ;
Dickf. Crypt. fafc. 1.5. t. 1. £8. H.Sicc. fafe. 1. 22.
Fontinalis pennata; Hudf. 468, excluding the fynonyms.)
—Branches pinnate. Leaves two-ranked, ovate, obliquely

pointed, tranfverfely corrugated. Fruit-Ralk fcarcely longer
than the fheath. Native of trunks of trees in Weftmore-
land, Suflex and Scotland, nor has it been obferved in any
other country. No wonder that this mofs was miftaken by
Mr, Hudfon for the firft fpecies, or Fontinalis pennata of
Linneus. None but himfelf had ever gathered it, till the
writer of this, by a diligent fearch, in the fummer of 1782,
found it on trees near Amblefide, as indicated in the Fl.
Angl. but without capfules. Thefe Mr, Dickfon met with
in Suffex, and gave, as we believe, to Mr. Lightfoot. They
decided the character between the prefent plant and pennata,
and Hedwig’s work eftablifhed the fpecies. The habits of
the two plants are much alike, but this is fmaller and lefs
ftrikingly beautiful ; the /eaves are more ovate; and the
fesisfial is about as long, fometimes longer, than the clofe
tapering fheath, being twice or thrice the length of its cap-
Jule. The teeth of the inser fringe, in both thefe fpecies,
are very flender, and but half the length of the outer.

N. crifpa. Crifped Neckera. Hedw. Sp. Mufc. 206.
Sm. Fl. Brit. 1273. ppeae crifpum; Linn. Sp. Pl.

1589. Engl. Bot. t. 617. H.pennatum, undulatim crif-
pum, fetis et capfulis brevibus; Dill. Mufc. 273. t. 36.
f. 12.)—Branches pinnate. Leaves two-ranked, oblong,
tran{verfely corrugated. Fruit-ftalk twice the length of the
fheath.—Native of chalky or limeftone countries, in dry
woods, very abundant, producing capfules in April. The
great fize of this {pecies; its regular femilunar plaits; the
contraft of fhining green and brown in its foliage ; all together
render it one of the handfomeft Britith moffes. ‘The branched
Jlems, leafy throughout, lie over each other in thick elattic
horizontal maffes, and are excellent for package. The
capfules are. not conftantly produced, but when they do occur
are abundant, {pringing from axillary tapering clofe /heaths,
which their {talks greatly exceed in length, efpecially when
the cap/ule is fully ripe.

N. planifolia, Hedw. Sp. Mufc. t. 48. f. 1—3, and ma-
cropoda, Hedw. Crypt. v. 3. t. 23; natives of the South
fea iflands ; ‘with cladorbizans, Hedw. Sp. Mufc. t. 47.
f.1—7, and feduérix, £. 8—13; difcovered by the Rev.
Dr. Muhlenberg, near Lancafter, in Pennfylvania ; are the
only remaining fpecies of this fe€tion defcribed with two-
ranked /eaves, which charaéter however their figures hardly
exprefs, nor do we find it in our fpecimens, at leaft of the
latter.

Thofe of this fecond feGtion with leaves imbricated in
every direction, are only two in Hedwig, both of Britifh
growth,

N. curtipendula. Pendulous Neckera. Hedw. Sp. Mufe.
269. Ehrh. Crypt. 76. Engl. Bot. t. 1444. (Hypnum
curtipendulum ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1594. H. dentatum curti-
pendulum, viticulis rigidis; Dill. Mufe. 333. t. 43- f. 69.)
—Stem branched, diffufe. Leaves ovato-lanceolate, pointed,
even, {preading. Capfules on longifh ftalks, drooping.—
Native of rocks and trees, in various parts of Europe, but
not common in England. Mr. Menzies gathered it on the
weft coaft of North America. The lems are long, and ci-
ther proftrate or pendulous, their principal divifions pinnate
with numerous fhort tapering branches. Leaves imbricated,
fpreading every way, of a yellowifh fhining green, ovate,
pointed, fingle-ribbed, flightly concave, without any tranf-
verfe plaits. Sheaths long and taper, but not half the length
pokes full-grown fruit-ftalk. Cap/ule ovate, drooping 3 finally
erect.

N. -viticulofa. Cylindrical Neckera. Hedw. Sp. Mufe.
209. t. 48. f.4,5- Ehrh. @rypt. 185. (Hypnum viticu-
lofum; Linn, Sp. Pl. 1592. Engl. Bot. t. 265. H.tub-
hirfutum, viticulis gracilibus ereétis, capfulis teretibus ; Dill.

Mufc.

NEC

Mufc. 307. t. 39. £.43-)—Stem creeping. Branches erect,
cylindrical. Leaves lanceolate, imbricated, fpreading, flight-
ly turned to one fide. Capfules ere€.—Found about the
roots of trees, in old dry woods, throughout Europe, bear-
ing fruit plentifully enough in the {pring. The wiry creep-
ing fems throw up numerous, ere€i, crowded, level-topped,
fimple or divided branches, thickly clothed with dark-green
or yellowifh aves, which though imbricated every way, are
curved toward one fide. Fruit-/lalks an inch or more in length,
from very fhort /heaths. Cap/ule ereCt, cylindrical.

Three new f{pecies have been added to this genus by Mr.
W. Hooker, in his paper on the Moffes found by Dr. Bu-
chanan in Nepal. Thefe are

N. /pharocarpa. Hooker Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 9. 312.
t. 27. f. 1.—Stem pinnate, with fhort branches. Leaves
ovate, pointed, fingle-ribbed at the bafe. Capfules nearly
feffile, almoft globular, turned.one way.—On trees at Kargoo
in Nepal, bearing fruit in March. Nearly akin to N. hete-
romalla, next to which it ought to be inferted ; but the more
lax and {preading habit, and efpecially the fpherical cap/ule,
unlike every other known Neckera, diftinguifh it.

N. flavefcens. ibid. 314. t- 27- f. 2.—Stem ereét, pin-
nate. Branches moftly fimple. Leaves ovate, riblefs.
Capfule cylindrical, ere&t. Lid awl-fhaped.—Gathered at
Narain hetty. This forms filky tufts of a tawny yellow.
It belongs to the laft feétion of the genus, along with curti-
pendula and viticulofa ; but differs widely from both in its
fine, crowded branches ; from the former in its long capillary

fruit-fialks ; fromthe latter in its ftill more flender cap/ules, and
/eaves not turned to one fide. :

N. ¢enuis. ibid. 315. t. 27. f. 3.—Stem doubly pinnate.
Leaves imbricated, ferrated; thofe of the ftem roundifh-
heart-fhaped, with two furrows at the bafe. Capfule ered.
Lid incurved.—Gathered at Narain hetty in January. This
belongs to the fame divifion as the laft, with which it agrees
in colour, but its habit, and growth in broad denfe filky
tufts, is like fome of the feathery {pecies of Hypnum. Be-
fides the marks indicated in the fpecific charater,, the long
dark capillary fruit-/alks, and turgid capfules, are peculiar. S.

NECKERHAUSEN, in Geography, a town of the duchy
of Baden; five miles E. of Manheim.

NECKHAM, Atexanner, in Biography, an Englith
abbot, who flourifhed in the thirteenth century, was born at
St. Alban’s in Hertfordfhire. He had imbibed a very early
inclination for acquiring knowledge, and that he might in-
dulge it, he embraced the religious life among the canons
regular of the order of St. Auguftine. He profecuted his
ftudies with great eagernefs not only in his native country,
but on the continent, and direéted his mind to all the various
branches of learning and fcience then known. He became, in
the eftimation of the age in which he lived, an excellent divine,
an able philofopher, an accomplifhed orator, and an elegant
poet. In 1215 he was elected abbot of the monattery of
Cirencefter, where he died three years afterwards. He was
author of ‘Commentaries’? on Ecclefiaftes, the Song of
Songs, the Pfalms, and the creed of Athanafius, and of
other theological and moral pieces; of which a lift is given
in Lelandi Comment. de Scrip. Brit,

NECKIB-cl-efheraf, in Egypt, the head of the therif,
or relations of Mahomet, who has the great cognizance of
their actions, and the power of inflicting punifhments upon
them.

In Arabia, Neckib denotes an officer of inferior defcent,
fome of whom had been flaves in their youth. This title 1s
the higheft which Imam can confer ; and it differs from that
of Scheich, which is a title that can only come by de-

NEC

teens and is peculiar to fovereign princes and independent
ords.

NECKLACE Snake. See SnaKe.

NECROLOGY, Necroxocium, formed of »:xp0<, dead,
and Aoyos, difcourfe, or enumeration, a book anciently kept in
churches and monafteries ; in which were regiftered the bene-
fa€tors to the fame, the time of their deaths, and the days
of their commemoration ; as alfo the deaths of the priors,
abbots, religious, canons, &c.

This was otherwife called calendar and obituary.

NECROMANCY, formed from y<xpo:, dead, and revretoy
inchantment or divination, the art or aét of communicating
with devils, and doing furprifing feats by their affiftance ;
particularly of calling up the dead, and extorting an{wers
from them. See Maaic. 7

NECROSIS, in Medicine, from v:x;0s, dead, is properly
{ynonimous with the term mortification ; but it has been applied
by Sauvages, and fome other writers, to that difeafe which
has been called dry gangrene, mal des ardens, St. Anthony’s
fire, &c.; namely, the ignis facer of Lucretius and the an-
cients, and the ergot, &c. of the moderns. This difeafe,
which terminated in the mortification and dropping off of the
limbs, after they had been converted into a dry and mummy-
like ftate, originated from ftarvation, but has been fuppofed
to arife from poifonous vegetables taken with the food, and
not from its deficiency.

Sauvages makes three fpecies of necrofis, which are varie-
ties of the fame affection; viz. 1. Necrofis u/filaginea, the
ergot, as defcribed by the French academicians; 2. N. @
vine, the “ gangrene feche”’ of Quefnay ; and, 3.'N. febrilis,
which appears to have been the endemic defcribed by the
profeffors of Marpurg, and other German writers, under
the appellation of Kriebel Krankheit. See Sauvages, Nofol.
Method. Clafs x. Gen. 39. See alfo Ercor, lenis Sacer,
Kriepet Krankheit, and RAPHANIA.

“Necrosis denotes, in Surgery, the death, or mortifi-
cation of a part, or the whole of abone. The term is
derived from the Greek verb y:xeow, ‘to deffroy.

, Were any rude and uninftructed perfon to take a hafty
view of the bones of the human body, he might eafily fall
into the error of fancying them to bea mere mafs of ftony,
unorganifed, lifelefs matter ; while to others, who have at-
tentively ftudied the firft formation of thefe parts, their in-
creafe, their decreafe, and their ftates both in health and
difeafe, it is a moft certain and manife{t truth, that the bones,
as well as the foft parts, are endued with vitality.

In the earlieft period of their growth, as the celebrated
Weidmann takes occafion to obferve, we may admire the
principle of life, by which their firft rudiments are be-
gun, and what now exhibits the appearance of a foft gelati-
nous kind of matter gradually changes into cartilages and
membranes, in the middle of which the flender {pecks of offi-
fication arife, and increafing in length, breadth, and thick-
nefs, at laft acquire, in an inexplicable manner, a fixed and
durable external form and internal ftruture.

In their cavities, interftices, canals, cells, &c. there are
yarious fluids, contained in proper veflels and receptacles ;
either blood, lymph, er marrow. Thefe are not liable to
putrefy from being ftagnant, but urdergo a continual reno~
vation, being {pots derived from the common mafs of the
circulation, and afterwards carried back into it again,

But what mutt ftill more excite our admiration of nature,
is the faét, that even thofe earthy elements, which give
{trength and compaétnefs to the bones, do not latt without
any mutation, but have a particular circulation of their own,
and whenever a part of the earthy matter is loft, from caufes

not

NECROSIS.

not neceflary for us toparticularife here, it is well known to
admit of regeneration.

The bones, being then endued with vitality, muft be li-
able to be aéted upon by a variety of ftimulating caufes, and
to become affected with inflammation.

Should the exciting caufe of the inflammation continue
to operate, the foft parts alfo inflame and fuppurate.

When the inflammation and fuppuration are confined to
the furface of the bone, the periofteum being detached,
without, however, any deeper injury of the ftru€ture of the
bone, or the inflammation extending far internally, writers
term the difeafe exulceratio offis, which differs from denudation,
inafmuch as the latter is caufed “by external violence, while
the former always arifes from preceding inflammation.

When the inflammation affe€ts the bone more deeply, and
excavations are formed in it, in confequence of its elementary
parts having been abforbed, the diforder is named by Latin
writers caries, by the Greeks resJv, and by the Germans
beinfrafs. If we examine the different notions entertained
by furgical authors concerning caries, we fhall find that
they are little confiftent either with each other, or the affec-
tion to which they relate. As Weidmann obferves, Sau-
vages has confounded caries with necrofis; while Linnzus has
fet down, as the marks of a caries, fome which occafionally
attend ulcers, without any fuch difeafe of the bone, and do
not invariably exift when caries prevails. Vogel and Sagar
have, indeed, rightly expreffed the diforder; but what they
have ftated is rendered fomewhat obfcure by the addition of
feveral fuperfluous infignificant circumftances to their de-
finitions.

Weidmann contends, however, that thefe writers need not

have had any difficulty in defining caries, fince the celebrated
Cullen conveyed a juft idea of what this difeafe was, by two
words, pit ulcus. ‘
It deferves attention, alfo, that ulcers of the bones chiefly
differ from thofe which afte& the foft parts, in being much
flower in their formation and termination, the vital powers
of the bones being very inferior to thofe which are poffeffed
by the generality of other parts of the body.

Juft in the fame manner as the bones, like the foft parts,
are liable to inflammation and fuppuration, fo, like the flefh,
they may be attacked with gangrene and fphacelus ; but,
inthis inftance, the cafe is not ufually exprefled by thefe
terms, furgeons having agreed to call the difeafe ne-
crofis.

Restos of the bones was a difeafe which did not efcape
the obfervation of the ancient medical writers. (Hippocrat.
Aph. fe&. vii. 77. Celfus, lib. iii. cap. 2, &c.) Many of
them, however, were accuftomed to confound necrofis indif-
criminately with feveral other analogous affections, fo that
the confequence is, great confufion prevails in their details
of the fubjet, truth and error being often found blended
together in their {tatements. Some of thefe old writers fome-
times employed the term caries, while others ufed the ap-
pellations /pina ventofa, cancer offis, &c. fynonimoufly with
mortification of the benes.

As Weidmann remarks, however, it ought to be under-
ftood, that caries, fpina ventofa, and pzdarthrocace, are
all ulcers of the bones, differing merely in their nature and
fituatton. Caries, according to this author, is a fimple
ulcer affeQing the outer part of a bone; fpina ventofa is a
worfe fpecies of the fame diforder, affecting the interior tex-
ture of the bones, and occurring with particular frequency
in the joints of children: by Marcus Aurelius Severinus it
is‘ called’ pedarthrocace: Thefe ulcerative difeafes of the
bones ‘differ from necrofis, in the fame refpe&ts as an ulcer
of the foft parts differs from gangrené and! {phacelus. In

Vor. XXIV.

caries, the organifation and nutrition of the bone are only
injured, a part of its compofition being removed, yet its vi-
tality continuing. On the contrary, in necrofis there
is always a portion of bone deprived of nutrition and
life, and which portion, fince it can no longer be’
fupported like the living part, muft neceffarily be de-
tached.

The celebrated M. Louis, fecretary of the Royal Aca-
demy of Surgery at Paris, firft applied the term necrofis to
the diforder of which we are fpeaking. He differs from
Weidmann, however, in fignifying by this expreffion the death
of the whole thicknefs of a bone, whereas this laft writer,
in common with all furgeons of the prefent day, admits dif-
ferent degrees of the affeétion, from the death of a whole
bone to that of a few bony lamelle, and ufes the word ne-
crofis to exprefs the difeafe in all its ftates.

There have been fome writers, among{t whom is the eminent
M. David, who have implied by necrolis a difeafe, in which a
part of a bone perifhes, and is then reproduced. (See David’s
Obf. fur une Maladie connue fous le Nom de Necrofe, Paris,
1782.) But fince it does not conftantly follow, when part
of abone dies and is feparated, that new bone is formed,
and fince, in both thefe circumftances, the difeafe only
differs in its form and degree, and not in its nature, it is ma-
nifeft that the fignification of necrofis fhould not be fo
limited. We mutt coincide with Weidmann in the propri-
ety of calling every cafe a true necrofis, whenever a frag-
ment of bone perifhes, and is detached, or about to be de-
tached, from the other part, which continuesalive. De
Necrofi Offium, p. 7.

In every climate, age, fex, mode of life, habit, and con-
dition, necrofis may occur; but it is obferved that youth,
the middle age, and perfons who follow laborious employ-
ments, and are expofed to external injuries, are moft fubje&
to the difeafe. None of the bones of the human body are
altogether exempt from the danger of Ys attack ; yet it is
remarked, that the malady moft frequently affects thofe
which are fituated fuperficially and towards the extreme part
of the limb, while fuch as lie more deeply hidden are lefs
apt to be the feat of the diforder. The fpongy portions of
the bones are feldom affected ; the difeafe is more commonly
feen prevailing in the hard compa texture of thefe parts :
and it may take place either in the long bones, or fuch’as
are broad and flat; in thofe which are large, or in the
fmaller ones ; or even in the very leaft, the officula of the ear
having been known to perifh and be difcharged. Aftruc de
Morbis Venereis, lib. iv. cap. 1. Henry, Journal de Med.
tom. xv. p. 363.

Befides the difference, in regard to the bones which are
expofed to necrofis, the difeafe itfelf is attended with vari-
ety. Sometimes only a {mall flender portion of bone dies ;
fometimes the piece is large and of confiderable thicknefs.
The difeafe is fimple, when it is fimple and only in one bone,
and the patient is well in all other refpe&ts. The complaint
puts ona more complicated form, when feveral parts of the
fame bone are affe&ted with necrofis, when different bones
are difeafed together, or when the health in genera! is im-
paired, or other complaints exift. The forms, in which
negrofis prefents itfelf, vary according as the difeafe happens
to occur in the external or the internal layers of the bones 5
in their extremities, or their central parts. The dead piece’
may merely confift of a fmall flender fcale ; or it may be of
confiderable thicknefs, and even comprehend the whole pari-
etes of the bone. Sometimes the portion affected with necrofis
lies between the parietes. In certain cafes, a whole epiphyfis
perifhes, or, what is exceedingly rare, the diplee of the flat
bones. In particular inftances, the cylindrical parts of the

4H long

NECROSIS,

long bones are attacked with necrofis in fuch a manner,
that the external lamelle, which are covered by the perio
teum, are preferved, vhilit the internal part dies, and is
detached from the middle of the parietes of the bone.
Sometimes feveral bones, contiguous to each other, are de-
{troyed and feparated at the fame time. Nor isit unworthy
of notice, that the ravages of necrofis may {pread over the
hones in every poffible dire&tion, longitudinally, tranfverfely,
internally, &c.

In order alfo to have proper ideas refpeéting the treat-
ment of this difeafe, it ought to be known, that necrofis
admits of being divided into cifferent {tages ; in the firit,
the injured part of the bone dies ; in the fecond it is dead,
and the procefs of feparation is taking place; and, in the
third, the feparation is completed.

The various forms of necrofis having been noticed, the
next thing for us to confider is the caufes of this diforder.
Thefe, indeed, are not altogether different from fuch as pro-
duce ulcers and gangrene in the foft parts.” As, however,
the vital power of the bones is lefs than that of the
flefh, it is probable that necrofis may be brought on by
flighter caufes than thofe which induce the preceding af-
fections of the foft parts; and it feems likely, that fuch
caufes as would only give rife to fuppuration of the flefh,
may produce necrofis of the bones.

We may confider, as the caufe of necrofis, whatever ex-
tinguifhes the nutrition of a bone, in the periofteum, the
medullary membrane, or the texture of the bone itfelf, fo as
to annihilate all the vitality of the part affeGted. But it
merits attention, that if fuch caufes fhould only extend their
action to a certain fmall part either of the periofteum, the
medullary ftruGture, or the bone itfelf, the bone does not
fuffer necrofis, but merely fuppurates.

The caufes of necrofis may either be of an external or in-
ternal nature, or both. Sometimes the vitality of the bones
is fuddenly deftroye@ by them, while, in other examples,
the bone undergoes the procefs of inflammation before it
perifhes. The outward caufes, producing necrofis, are
wounds, contufions, preflure, fractures, comminuted injuries
of the bones, luxations, acrid cauftie applications, fire, cold,
&c. If the external part of a bone be affeéted by them,
the necrofis is external; internal, when they extend their
operation to the interior of the part.

When the periofteum has been injured by external violence,
fo that it becomes affe&ted with confiderable inflammation,
and floughs, or when it has been more haltily killed by the
aétion of cauttic, fire, cold, or other caufes, fuch veflels
as give nourifhment to the bone are hurt and deltroyed, fo
that it mutt inevitably follow, that the portion of bone,
which is deprived of the periolteum, mutt die. But when
the feparated piece of the periofteum, and the expofed por-
tion of bone, are of trivial fize ; the patient young, and in
other refpects healthy ; proper antiphlogiftic treatment been
purfued ; and the veffels ramifying within the texture of the
bone preferved ; hope may be entertained that granulations
will arife from the furface of the bone, and an union to the
adjoining flefh be eltablifhed.

The Tice the portion of periofteum is which is de-
ftroyed, while the bone itfelf has been bruifed, and long
expofed to the air, the greater chance is there of a necrofis
taking place. ‘The reafon to be apprehenfive of fuch mif-
chief is {till {tronger, when the patient is advanced in years,
his vital powers on the decline, or his conflitution bad.

The layer of bone that dies and feparates may either be
f{mall, or of fome thicknefs; or the whole paries of the
bone may die; according as the portion of the periofteum,
torn away or deftroyed by the inflammation, happens to be

{mall or extenfive; according to the degree of injury fut-
tained by the interior ftru€ture of the bone; and according
as the treatment has been rightly or injudicioufly conduéted.

Although internal necrofes, extending into the -fpongy

_parts of the bones, moltly originate from conttitutional

caufes, yet fuch difeafe may fometimes proceed from injury
of the internal membranes of the bones, occafioned by out-
ward violence. In external injuries of the fkull, where the
pericranium is detached, or otherwife fpoiled, and the ex-
ternal table and diploe have been hurt, the inflammation
often fpreads to the internal table, from which the dura
mater feparates. Upon the latter membrane matter accu-
mulates, and the fymptoms are of a moft dangerous de-
{cription; if the patient furvive without being trephined, a
part of both tables of the fkull exfoliates. (See Pott’s —
Chirurgical Works, vol. i, p. 32. edit. 1779.) The fame
thing, fays Weidmann, may take place in other bones be-
fides the cranium, and he refers us for proof of the afler-
tion to a cafe recorded by Bromfield, where the fpongy
texture of the upper and internal part of the head “of
the tibia became affeGted with: necrofis, in confequence
of violent preffure having been made on an iffue in that
fituation. Chirurg. Cafes and Obf. vol. ii. p. 9. x

“«« Neque eft quod miremur ; ex eo enim, quod vafa, que
ex periofteo magna copia intra ipfum offis contextum de-
f{cendunt, et in medullas difperguntur, et reciprocis fre-
quenter anaftomofibus rejungantur, pronum eft colligere,
inflammationes, que ab initio morbi in extimis, tantum offium
faciebus inflagrefcunt, per vafa illa, veluti totidem conduc-
toribus, profundius inglifcere, ficque longe et late itrages
fuas exferere pofle.”? Weidmann, p. 10.

Another more formidable train of caufes which may be
produdtive of necrofis, are of a conttitutional nature, and
they affeét the bones either in a fudden or gradual manner.

According to Weidmann, it is proved by frequent obfer-
vations, that the vitality of the bones may be dettroyed by
the effects of acute malignant fevers, exanthemata, {mall-
pox, and meafles.

When the habit is fcrofulous, or affeted with lues venerea,
or fcurvy, writers alfo inform us that a necrofis may more
readily occur.

It is remarked, that quickfilver, which, when judicioufly
employed, is capable of preventing necrofis in venereal cafes,
may become a caufe of fuch mifchief, particularly in the
lower jaw, if too much of the ointment has been rubbed in,
or the frictions have been made without fufficient intervals,
or the patient has expofed himfelf to the cold, lived impro-
perly, &c. See Mémoires de I’? Acad. de Chirurgie, tom. v.

- 356.
‘ Se treating of the caufes of necrofis, Weidmann, with
much judgment, cautions us not to employ fuch applications
as were in vogue amongit the ancient furgeons, who were
ignorant of the nature of the bones, and the diftinGtions of
the difeafes to which thefe parts are liable. Remedies of
the fame kind, fays he, have been too much reforted to in
modern times, and portions of bone have been not unfre-
quently deftroyed, in confequence of {pirituous, acrid,
cauttic applications having been made to injuries of the bones,
or even cutting inftruments had recourfe to, while the
remedies ought to have been of the leat irntating kind,
and things left principally to the operation of nature. Many
furgeons are afraid of applying to an expofed and injured
bone emollient ointments ; and yet, for what reafon is dif-
ficult of determination, they have no hefitation in putting upon
the part acrid, drying, {pirituous dreflings. But, continues
Weidmann, I have learned from certain and repeated ex-
perience, that emollient ointments may be advantageoufly

applied

NECROSIS.

appliéd.to an uncovered or injured bone. Why, fays he,
fhould that kind of dreffing which is known to be beneficial
to the foft parts be hurtful to the bones? Indeed this
writer argues with much truth, that, as the veffels which
nourifh the bones are lefs numerous and fmaller than thofe
with which the foft parts in general are furnifhed, irritating,
drying, fpirituous applications muft be likely to produce
more extenfive mifchief in the former than the latter parts.
Weidmann, therefore, enjoins us never to make fuch appli-
cations to expofed portions of bone, left necrofis fhould be
oceafioned by the mode of treatment: he is ftrongly in
favour of ufing emollient dreffings.

It has been a prevailing opinion amongit practitioners, that
pus, colleéted in the vicinity of a bone, may by ftagnation
acquire irritating properties, fo as at length to erode
the bone, and caufe necrofis. This being the doétrine, the
common advice has been to make an opening into all fuch
ab{ceffes without delay. Weidmann, however, and the gene-
rality of the belt informed furgical writers of the prefent
day, do not admit the accuracy of thefe tenets. It appears
to Weidmann, that erroneous ideas on this fubjeé&t have been
induced by the circumftance of the bones in the neighbour-
hood of abfceffes being frequently found bare, carious, or
affected with necrofis. The inference here drawn is, that
the collected purulent matter has occafioned an erofion of
the bone. The truth is, however, that the inflammation
which has excited fuppuration has not been confined to the
foft parts, but has alfo extended both to the periofteum and
bone. Weidmann afks, whether any abfcefs ever really con-
tained pus of fo acrid and eroding a nature, as to be capable
of dettroying living parts? He obferves, that if you take
a drop of purulent matter, and inftil it into the eye, an organ
of exquilite fenfibility, you will feel no irritation nor incon-
venience. When pus is fituated in the anterior chamber
of the eye, in conta€t with the iris and inner furface of the
cornea, do we find that it erodes the parts? ‘* Multoties
alii et egcmet vidimus, illud hic diu morari neque tamen
tenellas has partes corrodere, tandemque et fenfim reforbtum,
difparere, quia detrimentum his partidus illatum fit. Vi-
dimus ego et dile&ti mecum difcipuli, inter quos fratres Jofe-
phum et Carolum Wenzell, nunc medicine doétores nomi-
naffe fufficiat, in ulceribus, nudas, et periofteo fuo orbas,
offium fuperficies pure continuo, et per longum fatis tempus
allui, ipfum vero os, applicato interim unguento digeftivo
molliffimo, illo illefum perttitiffe, neque fuifle impedimento,
quominus fuperficies, illa nova carne, tandemque cicatrice
obduceretur; video infuper emortua offa per annos puri
intra ulcerum cava expofita, levam fuam fuperficiem reti-
suiffe, nullamque arrofionis notam ; quod cum in offe emor-
tuo ita evenerit, multo adhuc minus in vivo fieri pofle certum
eft.” Weidmann, De Necrofi Offium, p. 12.

But although Weidmann avers his entire diflent from the
dottrine, that pus even erodes the periofteum and bones, he
admits, that this fluid, colle&ted in a certain quantity, may,
by the preffure which it occafions, produce inflammation and
abforption of the adjoining parts. He alfo diftinétly allows,
that purulent matter, when collected between a bone and
the periofteum, may, by the diftention which it canfes,
deftroy the veffels which connect that membrane with the
bone, and thus, according to circumilances, give rife either
to caries or necrofis.

The inflammation which the caufes of necrofis excite in
a bone, is either chronic or acute ; chronic, inafmuch as it
manifefts itfelf flowly, increafes in the fame way, changes
from one {tate to another with equal tardinefs, and, on ac-
count of the mildnefs of the fymptoms, is apt to deceive the

practitioner. Such inflammation is particularly difpofed to
occur in languid conftitutions, in which a tendency to acute
inflammatory difeafes does not prevail ;-in which the affec-
tion originates from a chronic caufe, as fcrofula, lues venerea,
the feurvy, &c. and in which only the fuperficial part of a
bone is attacked. But when the inflammation affeéts the
interior of a bone, and the patient is of a robuft, irritable,
and plethoric temperament, the fymptoms are of the moft
acute defcription, intolerable pain, acute fever, lofs of reft,
delirium, and other nervous diforder. Chronic inflammation
produces lefs fuffering, but it is longer in forming: while
that which is acute occafions exceffive pain, and more quickly
arrives at its termination.

The part in which necrofis is taking place fwells, and the
tumour, like the inflammation of which we have juft now
been fpeaking, moft frequently arifes lowly, though fome-
times it increafes with great rapidity. In the firft circum-
ftance, the pain is obfcure and trivial ; in the latt, itis fevere
and vehement. The tumour is not conical, as that of a
fimple abfcefs, but wide and diffufed. Hence its boundaries
cannot readily be diftinguifhed, particularly when the affected
bone is covered with much flefh. The {welling is fo exten-
five, that the whole region of the bone, or the entire member,
may become enlarged.

From the very beginning the. {welling augments, and
continues to do fo until pus'is formed; but at length the
matter makes its way outward, and, by its’ difcharge, the
tumour fomewhat fubfides. Another fort of tumefaétion,
of the edematous kind, is alfo apt to occur in fuch patients
as have long laboured under the difeafe, and whofe conftitu-
tions have been impaired by the violence of the pain, and the
tedioufnefs and large quantity of the difcharge.

When acute inflammation has prevailed, pus of a good
quality foon colleéts round the dead portion of bone; but
when the inflammation has been of a chronic fpecies, the
matter is not produced fo quickly, and is crude and thin.

An abfcefs around a necrofis, originating from intenfe
inflammation, and fituated near the {kin, foon burits; but
if the difeafed bone be covered with much flefh, or thick
tendinous expanfions, and the inflammation be of a chronic
kind, the pus daily increafés in quantity and occafions dif-
tention and preffure in every direétion. The bones, tendons,
mufcles, and veffels refift the effe€ts of the difeafe a confider-
able time ; but the cellular membrane cannot do this equally
well. Hence large and various finufes take place ; fome of
them extending in the cellular membrane near the main cavity
of the abfcefs ; others fometimes being in quite a different
fituation, efpecially when the matter is ‘confined under any
tendinous expanfion. In this laft cireumftance, the inner
furface of the abfcefs daily increales in a furprifing degree,
the fource of fuppuration is extended, and confiderable ob-
itacles to the cure are produced.

After matter has continued for fome time to be abundantly
difcharged from the openings, by which fuch abfceffes burit,
the fores become fiftulous, being furrounded with callous
margins, emitting fungous granulations, and having no dif
pofition to heal, The impediment to cicatrization here en-
tirely depends upon the dead portion of bone, whether loofe
or adherent, which aéts like any other extraneous body, and
hinders the bottom of the ulcers from healing.

The number of thefe fiftule is different in different cafes ;
the lefe ferious the difeafe is the fewer of them generally
occur; while, in more confiderable cafes, there are many
of fuch apertures, which may be very near together, or at
a confiderable diltance from one another. When the whole
circumference of a bone is affe&ted with necrofis, filtula may

4H 2 be

NECROSIS.

be formed in the integuments on every fide of the limb;
though it occafionally happens that one particular fide is
quite free from them. :

There is no neceffity for any comment here upon the
urgent necefflity of paying clofe attention to all the circum-
ftances on which the diagnofis of the prefent difeafe is
founded ; the maxim of Celfus fhould never be out of recol-
leGtion ; ‘* Cujus certa notitia non eft, ejus certum reperire
remedium non potett.”’

There is fomething in the fort of inflammation with
which the difeafe commences, that might excite fufpiciens
of the approaching occurrence of necrofis. The inflam-
mation is flow in its progrefs, deeply feated, lafts a long
while, and is accompanied with grievous fymptoms; the
colour of the fkin remains a long while unchanged ; but at
laft it aflumes a reddifh purple, or leaden hue ; the pus, after
a time, makes its way to the furface, and, on its being dif-
charged, the inflammatory fymptoms and the difeafe undergo
fome remiffion. When the inflammation is acute, the pain
continues to be fevere a long while.

It is another fign of necrofis, when the {welling accom-
panying the. inflammation feems to comprehend the bone
itfelf, is extenfively diffufed, and not particularly prominent,
and when the matter, after it is formed, lies deeply, and can
only be obfcurely felt.

The ulcers which occur over a necrofis emit a large quan-
tity of matter ; their edges are fhelving; and granulations
arife which are yellowifh, or intenfely red, irregular, and
generally infenfible, though fometimes exceflively painful,
and, on being touched, readily bleed. ;

An old opinion prevails amongft fome praétitioners, that
the matter of fores, in which there is a dead piece of
bone, is always thin, foetid, and fanious, and fuch qualities
of the difcharge have been regarded as a proof of the bone
being affeGted. _Weidmann, however, enjoins us not to put
any confidence in this criterion. He aflures us he has learned,
from frequent obfervation, that ulcers, accompanying ne-
crofis, often fecrete white, thick, inodorous matter, while
other fores, unattended with any difeafe of the bone, have a
thin foetid difcharge. Weidmann does not mean to deny,
that when the bone is affected with necrofis, the accompany-
ing fores never emit unhealthy matter ; and his chief inten-
tion feems to be, that of afferting that the circumitance is
far from being fufficiently conftant to ferve as a criterion
of the difeafe of the bone.

Nor is it any certain mark of a difeafed bone when the
dreflings, with which the ulcers have been covered, turn
black ; for this occurrence often takes place when a necrofis
does not exift, and is abfent when a portion of bone is known
to be dead.

From circumftances like the preceding, no certain in-
formation can be drawn, in refpeét to the diagnofis. Much
may be learned, however, from manual examination, if the
bone be not too deeply concealed, the fiftule not very wind-
ing, and the fores not entirely filled up with fungous granu-
lations.

When the ulcers are large and open, the finger fhould
be carefully introduced, and by this means the dead part of
the bone will be felt and afcertained to be bare, and de-
prived of its periofteum. ‘That the bone is a€tually dead,
will be a matter of greater certainty, if its furface fhould be
rough as well as bare, for there is always a chance of a bone
becoming covered with granulations, even though the
periofteum may be detached.

iixaminations made with the naked finger always give
the fureft information, and confequently ought to be pre-

12

ferred. The ulcers, however, are frequently fo marrow,
that the finger cannot be eafily introduced, in which cir-
cumftance a common filver probe muft be employed.
This fhould be pafled down to the bone, and moved about
in all dire€tions, in order to afcertain how much of the
periofteum is detached, whether the furface of the bone is
rough, and whether the dead portion is loofe, or likely to
become fo quickly, &c.

Sometimes the dead piece of bone projeéts out of the ul-
cer, or, on opening the fore, may be diftinétly feen. When
the vifible bone is of a black colour, it is unqueftionably
dead ; but when its appearance is whiter than natural, it is
more difficult to forma judgment.

It is worthy of notice, that the blacknefs of a bone does
not depend upon the necrofis itfelf, but upon the expofure
of the part to the air, and the drying up of the pus. Itis
even faid, that portions of bone which are exfoliating are
whiter than natural, provided they have always been covered
with fluid purulent matter, and defended from the air,

In order to diftinguifh caries from necrofis, it ought to
be underftood, that the former difeafe, for the moft part,
arifes in the {pongy parts of the bones, and from an internal
caufe, in young fubjeéts of debilitated and bad contftitutions,
the difcharge being fetid, copious, thin, and fanious. If
the bone itfelf be touched witha probe, it does not feel
dry, as in necrofis, but excavated by ulceration, and, as it
were, worm-eaten. :

It is a remarkable circumftance in the hiltory of necrofis,
that in favourable initances of the difeafe, the inflexibility
and firmnefs of the limb are preferved during the whole of
the procefs, by which the new bone is formed. Confequently,
the new bone mutt have begun to grow, and muft have ac-
quired firmnefs before the old bone feparates, or is abforbed.
Were this not the cafe, the limb mutt become flexible and
ufelefs the moment the dead bone is removed. Another
confequence of the new bone being formed before the re-
moval of theold one, is, that the former muft furround aad
include the latter. Fer, fince the lifelefs portion of bone
completely occupies the {pace between the two living ends,
thefe cannot be immediately conne&ed by the new bony
matter. The connection can alone be completed by the new
bone being depofited on the outfide of the old one, from
one end to the other, and attaching itfelf to the portions
which {till remain alive. The new bone mutt alfo be necef-
farily larger than the old one, becaufe externally fituated,
and hence the affected limb, after the cure is complete, will
always continue larger, clumfier, and lefs fhapely than the
other. The length of it, however, remains unaltered, be-
caufe the old bone retains its attachments, while the rudi-
ments of the new bone are lying onits outfide, and connect
the living ends of the old one by an inflexible mafs, equal in
length to the portion which is deftroyed. :

Thus we fee, that in the procefs which nature follows in
the formation of the new offeous fhell, the old bone ferves
asa mould for the new one; and the firft ftep of the pro-
cefs is to furround the old bone with an effufion of coagu-
lating lymph. Ruffell on Necrofis, p. 2—7.

This author adduces many arguments to prove, that the
pulpy mafs, which extends from one portion of the bone to
the other, and is itfelf at laft converted into bone, is formed
quite independently of the original bone, or the periofteum,
P..99.

On the other hand, Mr. Crowther has publifhed a letter,
written by Mr. Macartney, in which the periofteum is de-
{cribed as being the organ producing the new bony matter,
Mr, Macartney Siaieie * that the firft and mott import-

ant

NECROSIS.

ant circumitance is the change which takes place in the or-

nifation of the periofteum ; this membrane acquires the
fighel degree of vafcularity, becomes confiderably thicken-
ed, foft, fpongy, and loofely adherent to the bone. The
cellular fubitance, alfo, which is immediately conneéted with
the periofteum, fuffers a fimilar alteration: it puts on the
appearance of being inflamed, its veffels enlarge, lymph is
fhed into its inter{tices, and it becomes confolidated with the
periofteum. Thefe changes are preparatory to the abforp-
tion of the old bone, and the fecretion of new offeous mat-
ter, and even previous to the death of the bone which is to
be removed. In one inftance, I found the periofteum vaf-
cular and pulpy, when the only affection was a {mall abfcefs
of the medulla, the bone ftill retaining its conneétion with
the neighbouring parts, as it readily received injeGtion. The
newly organifed periofteum, &c. feparates entirely from the
bone, after which it begins to remove the latter by abforp-
tion ;”” and, while this is going on, its inner furface becomes
covered with little eminences, refembling granulations.
«¢ In proportion as the old bone is removed, new offeous
matter is difperfed in the fubftance of the granulations,
whilft they continue to grow upon the old bone, until the
whole, or a part of “it, is completely abforbed, according to
the circumftances of the cafe. What remains of the inveft-
ment, after the abforption of the old bone, and the forma-
tion of the offeous tube which is to replace it, degenerates,
lofes its vafcularity, and appears hike a lacerated membrane.
I have never had an opportunity of examining a limb a
fufficient time after the termination of the difeafe, to afcer-
tain whether the inveftment be at laft totally abforbed, but,
in fome inttances, I have feen very little remaining. During
the progrefs of the difeafe, the thickened cellular fubftance
which furrounded the original periofteum becomes gradually
thinner ; its veflels diminifh, and it adheres ftrictly to the new
formed bone, to which it ultimately ferves as a periofteum.”
Mr. Macartney ftates, that the anatomical preparations
which.authenticate the above obfervations, are preferved at
St. Bartholomew’s Hofpital. See Crowther on White
Swelling, p. 183, edit. 2.

According to Mr. Roffel, an incipient cafe of necrofis is
chara¢terifed by a deep-feated excruciating pain, not at firft
aggravated by preflure, and which is foon followed by a
rapid enlargement of the parts along the courfe of the bone.
Soon, however, after the commencement of the attack, an
external inflammation fucceeds, which quickly ends in the
formation of matter. The abfcefs at length burlts by a
{mall opening. The extent of this inflammation is not in
general great. Molt commonly feveral inflammations of a
circum{cribed kind occur about the fame time the abfceffes
burft by {mall openings, which do not clofe, but continue
difcharging matter as liltulous fores. The apertures are ge-
nerally fituated over the moit fuperficial part of the affected
bone. The pus is ufually of good quality, and large in
quantity, ifluing from extenfive cavities, into which the filtu-
lz lead. Such abfceffes, being fituated within the newly:
formed offeous fhell, cannot be difcharged by preffure, nor
can any fluctuation be felt. A probe can feldom be intro-
duced far into the fiftulous openings, or difcover any loofe
piece of bone. In this ttage, the dead bone, technically
called the fequeflrum, can feldom be felt; though, ina few
inftances, {mall f{picule make their way outward, together
with the difcharge. Fiftulous openings may be regarded
as neceflarily attendant on all cafes of necrolis; though fo
mild a cafe may be conceived, that the new bone may be
generated without any outward ulcerations. No fuch in-
ftance, however,is on record. Ruflell.

After the openings have formed, the cafe may take one
of the following courfes. The ulcerations may in time heal
up, the fequeftrum never be feen, and no veftige of the dif-
eafe remain, except a permanent enlargement and induration
along the courfe of the bone. This is the moft favourable
manner in which a necrofis may terminate. Inthe other one,
the fequeftrum makes its appearance externally, through
the new bone and the integuments, atténded with different
degrees of pain, inflammation and fuppuration, in different
cafes. The fequeftrum may at firft be moved by fhaking it ;
but is too firmly wedged in the furrounding parts to be com-
pletely taken out. In time, however, it becomes loofe
enough to be removed.

Sometimes the middle portion of the fequeftrum prefents
itfelf externally, while its fides are every where wedged in
the fubftance of the new bone. The natural end of fuch a
cafe would be very tedious of accomplifhment, and the in-
terference of art is effentially ferviceable in accelerating the
feparation of the dead bone, thus circumftanced. After
the fequeftrum has been either abforbed ur thrown off, in
one of the above ways, the cavity of the new bone becomes
filled up with granulations, which are, at length, converted
into bony matter. Thus the new bone differs from the ort-
ginal one, in being folid inftead of hollow. Ruffell.

When the fequeftrum is thrown off flowly, the inflamma-
tion is moderate ; but when it feparates quiekly, while the
new bone is ina foft ftate, the detachment is always pre-
ceded by fevere inflammatory fymptoms, and followed by a
temporary lofs of the natural firmnefs of the limb. This
premature feparation of the fequeftrum often occurs in ne-
crofis of the lower jaw, and the chin confequently falls down
on the neck. In-certain cafes, the fequeftrum feparates at
each end from the living portions of the old bone, before the
new offeous fhell has acquired firmnefs, fo that the limb feels
as if it were broken in two places. Ruffell.

When the dead bone is removed by abforption, the pro-
cefs is tedious, and attended with a profufe difcharge of
matter, which gradually ceafes, and at laft {tops altogether.
In young fubje¢ts, this work is more quickly perfe&ted than
in old ones. There are fome chronic cafes of necrofis, in
which the fequeftrum remains unabforbed for an indefinite
length of time, producing no violent irritation, yet always
enough to teafe the patient, and difturb his health.

In necrofis of the long bones, there are always round
apertures in the new offeous fhell, correfponding with the
external filtulous openings, as long as the fequeflrum remains
enclofed init. Ruffell.

The tibia, femur, lower jaw, clavicle, humerus, fibula,
radius, and ulna, are mott frequently affected with necrofis,
Excepting the lower jaw and fcapula, the procefs of rege-
neration has only been noticed in the cylindrical bones,
From twelve to eighteen years of age is the time of life moft
fubjeét to necrofis.. The necrofis of the lower jaw, how-
ever, feldom occurs before the age of thirty. In fome per-
fons, two bones are affected at once, owing to conftitutional
caufes. :

The procefs of cure is faid to take place with more celerity
in the lower jaw than any other bone, and may be com-
pleted inthree months. Mr. Ruffell has never knowna ne-
crofis of the tibia get well in lefs than a year ; but, in ge-
neral, nearly two years elapfe firft; fometimes the cure is

‘protraéied to a much greater length of time.

When the conttitution is predifpofed to necrofis, any
eaufe, capable of exciting inflammation, may occafion an at-
tack of it. Often, however, the difeafe is purely fporadical,
and not referrible to outward caufes. Cafes which =,

rom

NECROSIS.

from external injury, are generally thofe of the lower jaw,
which are frequently imputable to blows, the application of
acrid fub{tances.to carious teeth, effects of mercury, &c.

Necrofis of the lower jaw and clavicle never proves fatal :
that of the lower extremities, which is the worfl cafe, does
fo very feldom, and only from the violence of the firft in-
flammatory fymptoms, which rapidly bring on a heétic
fever, which proves incurable, without removing its local
caufe by a timely amputation. When the violence of the
firft ftage, however, has abated, the irritation ceafes, and
the heétic fymptoms, if there are any, are generally mode-
rate. Nor is this ftate of tranquillity difturbed, till the fe-
queftrum, in making its way outward, again produces trri-
tation. At this fecond period of urgency, extenfive inflam-
mation may originate, ulceration {pread all over the furface
of the limb, aflume an unhealthy appearance, violent fever
fucceed, and the patient either perifh, or fink into a ftate,
ia which he muft confent to amputation as the only means
of faving his life. Thisis the la{t crifis of imminent danger ;
but, in general, it is lefs perilous, than when the inflamma-
tion comes on in the incipient ftage of necrofis. Rufiell.

The following cafe of necrolis of the thigh-bone is related
by Dr. Mackenzie.—William Baxter, a boy thirteen years
old, received a blow oa his thigh at {chool, of which he at
tirft hardly complained; but in a few. months he began to
have pain in the thigh, which inflamed, welled, and ap-
peared to have macter in it. The parents being poor, no
furgeon was called, and the boy was allowed to linger for a
great while. At length the matter made its way through
the fin, by a fmall opening on the interior part of the
thigh, about three inches above the knee, and a thin fanies
continued to be difcharged for eighteen or twenty months.
At length, the hole in the fin enlarged, and the point of a
bone began to protrude, and give a good deal of pain when
the clothes rubbed again{t it. After fuffering in this manner
for two years anda half, the boy, as he lay in bed one morn-
ing, felt the bone loofer, and projecting more than ordinary.
He gaveit a {trong pull, and brought the piece away en-
urely, which proved to be feven inches and avhalf of the
thigh-bone. A good deal of bleeding followed ; but the
wound foon healed, and he has never fince found the leaf
inconvenience. Dr. Mackenzie, hearing of this fingular
cafe, fent for the boy, carefully examined his thigh, aud
found it as firm as the other. he only difference was, that
it was fomewhat thicker, and a little more curved. . The
muf{cles retained their natural foftnefs and loofenefs' on the
bone. The detached piece of bone was a portion of its
whole circumference.

In confirmation. of this cafe, Dr. Hunter mentions a tibia,
which was fent to him by a Mr. Inett, after amputation.
On examination, the cafe at firlt fight feemed to be a
fwelling of the whole bone, with a loofe internal exfoliation.
However, it proved to be a remarkable inftance of the fe-
paration of the greateft part of the original bone, whofe
place was fupplied by a callus. The external furface of the
inclofed loole piece of bone was fmooth. At {mall part of
the furrounding bony fubftance being removed, the con-
tained piece was taken out, and found to be the whole body
of the tibia, It had feparated from the epiphyfis at each
extremity. The middle part of the bone had perifhed, con-
fequently had lolt its connection with the periofteum, and
was rad uilly thrown off from the living parts of the bone
at eachend. A callus extended from end to end, united the
two extremities of the original tibia, preferved the length,
and gave firmnefs and inflexibility to the part. The exfo-
liation was fo encompafled by the new bony cafe, that,

though quite loofe, it could not be thrown out. (Med.
Obf. and Enquiries, vol. ii.) In the fifth volume of the
Mem. de l’Acad. de Chirurg. is the hiftory of a man, the
whole of whofe clavicle came away, without his being de-
prived of any of the motions of the arm. The death of
this patient, which happened fhortly afterwards, afforded an
opportunity of examining how nature had repaired the lofs.
Another clavicle was found regenerated, which neither dif-
fered from the original ene in length or folidity ; but only
in fhape, being flatter, and not fo round. It wasconneéted
with the acromion and fternum, juit like the primitive bone, .

Though necrofis moitly attacks the cylindrical bones, the -
flat ones are not exempt from the difeafe. Pott makes
mention of a parietal bone, the whole of which was de-
tached, and of an o3 frontis, the greatelt part of which
came away. Ina thefis on necrofis, in 1776, aux écoles ‘de
chirurgie, may be found the cafe of a young man, a very
large part of whofe {capula perifhed and came away. Cho-
part, who relates the cafe, mentions, that he faw the pa-
tient quitevrecovered, and felt a new triangular moveable
bone, firmly fupporting the clavicle, but {maller and flatter
than natural, and without any f{pinous procefs. The fame -
has happened to the lower jaw, as may be feen by referring
to the Ephemerides Germaniz, and Mem. de l’Acad. de
Chirurgie. In the fifth volume of the latter work is an ac-
count of a woman who applied to be relieved of fome’ venereal
complaints. From the beginning of the treatment, the bone
was difcovered to be loofe juft under the gums, and feemed
fhortly afterwards to move backwards and forwards with a
tooth... Mr. Guernery took hold of the tooth witha key-
inftrument, and found it firmly inferted m the moyeable piece
of the jaw ; he made with caution the neceflary manoeuvres
for extracting the portion of bone; but was greatly fur-
prifed on finding what an extenfive part yielded to his very
moderate efforts. 1t was the whole of the lower jaw, above
its right angle, from its divifion into the coronoid and con-
dyloid proceffes to the {pace between the firft and fecond of
the front grinders of the left fide. On the right, there only
remained the condyle in the articular cavity of the temporal
bone. This dettruction left a confiderable empty fpace, from
which great deformity was apprehended, in coniequence
of the unfupported foft parts falling down. The woman,
however, got wellin two months, and had the mott perfect
ufe of a new jaw. A fimilar fact is recorded in the Journal
de Medecine, 1791. j

In cafes of necrofis, the furgical indications are few and
obvious; viz. 1. When inflammation attends any itage of
the difeafe, to have recourfe to common antiphlogiitic means.
2. To promote the feparation, or abforption of the dead
bone, according as it tends to make its way outward, or to
become completely incafed with new bony matter; and, in
this fituation, to be invilibly and gradually removed by a na-
tural procefs, 3. When the conititution feems’ unable to
fullain any longer the effeéts of the local difeafe, to ampu-
tate, if the fituation of the affection will permit. ’

During the firft inflammatory attack, the patient’s life is
often endangered from the extent and violence of the inflam-
mation, before the new fhellis formed, or the fequettra loofe,
and ready to feparate. In this ftate, art can do little more
than employ topical bleeding, and fomentations, and poul-
tices. If, notwithftanding {uch treatment, the patient fhould
feem likely to perifh of the he&tic fymptoms, which rapidly
follow, unlefs the limb be immediately removed, the operation
fhould then not be delayed. :

But if the patient get over the firlt inflammatory ftage,
the grand object is to get rid of the fequeftra. When they,

however,

NEC

however, are undergoing a gradual abforption, without ever
making their appearance externally, or giving any confider-
able dilturbance to the con/titution; or when the dead
bone is making its way outward, without occafioning urgent
inconveniences ; the furgeon fhould interfere very little with
the natural progrefs of the cafe. When the dead bone does
not tend to make its way through the fin ; but lies quietly
incafed in the new offeous fhell, the occurrence of extenfive
fuppurations may be prevented, by occafionally applying
leeches, and keeping open a bliiter with the favine cerate,
as recommended by Mr. Abernethy in his lectures, and
Mr. Crowther, in his work on the White Swelling. The
blifter will, at the fame time, have great effect in promoting
the abforption of the fequeltrum, and, of courfe, in accele-
rating the proces of cure.

When the dead bone, however, creates confiderable irri-
tation, when its middle portion is very fuperficial, or quite
expofed, while its ends or edges are overlapped by the fur-
rounding new bony matter, confequently the piece {o
wedged in, that its feparation cannot be expeéted in any
moderate time, the operation of cutting it out is, certainly,
not only feafible, but highly proper and commendable. In
this kind of cafe, Mr. Hey’s faws would be found the mott
convenient in{truments.

Alfo, were the dead bone, though quite covered and in-
cafed in‘the new one, to be tedioufly long in being abforbed,
produtive of great irritation and impairment of the health,
and the affeéted bone fuperticial, like the tibia, no candid
man could condemn making an incifion, and removing a part
of the offeous fhell, in order to take the chance of being
able at once te extract the fequeftrum lodged in its cavity.
Mr. Ruffell mentions fuccefsful attempts of this kind, which
fully juftify the pra€tice. The ftate of the bone may be
examined, without proceeding to any fevere operation, by
laying bare fmall portions of the bone in the vicinity of the
fiftulous openings, introducing a probe, if poffible ; or, if
that be impracticable, drilling {mall holes with a perforator,
for the purpofe of exploring the ftate of the cavity. If
the cavity fhould {till feem extenfive, and to contain a fequef-
trum of cenfiderable fize, the neceflity of operating is ap-
parent. On the contrary, if the whole cavity be filled up
with offeous matter, and no dead bone be found there, the
progrefs of the cafe muft, of courfe, be left to nature.
(Ruffell.) When the furgeon knows, that his objet is to
make an opening large enough to allow the dead piece to be
extracted, he fcarcely needs direétions how to fet about
making it. The fkin muft be divided with a common {cal-
pel, and the bone cut with {mail trephines, a gouge and
mallet, or, what arein moit cafes belt, Mr. Hey’s faws.

Confult Ruffell on Necrofis, 1794. Mem. de Acad. de
Chirurgie, tom. v. Boyer on the Difeafes of the Bones,
vol. i. Encyclopédie Methodique ; Partie Chirurgicale ;
Art. Necrofe. Thefis de Offium Necrofi, 1776. Crow-
ther on White Swelling, &c. edit. 2. Cooper’s Diétionary
of Pra&ical Surgery.

Some remarks on necrofis may be found in Richerand’s
Nofographie Chirurgicale, tom. iii. Levéillé has alfo been
very diffufe upon this fubjeét, in his work, entitled Nou-
velle Do@rine Chirurgicale, tom. iv. By, far the moft in-
ftru@tive book on necrofis, is Weidmann, De Necrofi Offium,
with plates, folio; Francofurti, 1793.

NECTANDRA, in Botany, fo called from vexrxp, honey,
and amp, a man, becaufe the fuppofed neétaries have the
appearance of anthers or male organs. Berg. Cap. 131.
Juff. 77. This genus is thus charaéterized by Bergius.

Neétareous {cales about eight, (rarely swe prominent,
feated upon the margin of the tube of the funnel-fhaped

NEC

corolla, and refembling anthers. Stamens included within
the tube.

The three fpecies defcribed by him are Gnidia fericea and
opps olia, with Struthiola ere@a, of Linneus; but Juffieu
eems not to admit more than the firft, the fecond, having
but four of the neétariferous {cales, being, in his eftimation,
a Gnidia; and the third, having but four ftamens, a Stru-
thiola. ‘The parts in queftion feem to us too variable, to
authorize the e(tablifhment of a genus on fuch a chara@er,
for one fingle fpecies, which has nothing about it befides to
fupport the diftinGion.

NECTAR, x72), among the Ancient Poets, the drink
of the fabulous deities of the heathens. See AmpBrosra.

Necrakr is alfo ufed, by fome of the ancients, to exprefs
honey: this fignification of the word was owing to the fup-
pofition, that honey was the drink of the bees, as they
efteemed the yellow matter colleéted on their thighs to be
their food. They called the latter ambrofia. It feems,
that the ancients have been more in the right, as to their
opinion of the ambrofia, than other authors, who have
uiually efteemed that yellow fubftance to be true wax: but
it appears from experiments, that it is not really fo; nor
can wax be feparated from it by, any of the known procefles
of chemiltry. It feems rather that the bees eat it, agree-
ably to the opinion of the ancients, and that after having
ferved them as*nourifhment, it is converted in the bowels
into the fubftance we call wax.

NECTARINE, a fruit greatly efteemed for its delici-
ous flavour, and fuppofed to have its name from the ne@ar
of the gods, in heathen ftories.

It differs in nothing from the peach, but in having a
{moother {kin and a firmer pulp.

We have ten kinds of neétarine cultivated by the curious
in gardening ; viz. Fairchild’s early neétarine, ripening in
the’ end of July; the Ebruge, Newington, fcarlet, Brug-
non or Stalian, and Roman, which ripen in Auguft; the
murry; golden, and Temple's, which ripen in September ;
and the Peterborough, or late green neCtarine, which ripens
about the middle of O€tober.

The infe&ts in neétarines may be deftroyed in the fame
manner as thofe of peach trees. a

The pruning, planting, and whole culture of this plant,
are the fame with that of the peach.

NECTARIUM, in Botany, the ne&ary or honey-cup,
fo denominated by Linnzus, according to the metaphorical
fenfe in which the word neGar is often elegantly applied, by
the Latin writers, to honey. This in Linnzan language is
reftrained to fome part of the flower, and is defined an or-
gan’ which contains, or which fecretes, honey. Similar
organs are found on the ftalks or leaves of feveral plants,
which produce ‘a liquid, differing, in no refpet, from what
is found in flowers; but fuch are termed neétariferous
glands. They are met with on the footftalks of Paffion-
flowers. The Aletris fragrans of Linneus (Dracena fra-
grans, Ker in Curt. Mag. t. ro81.) exudes, from various
parts of its flower-ftalks, without any particular apparatus,
a great quantity of very {weet concrete honey. In like
manner the tube or claws of the corolla, perhaps even the
ftamens, in many flowers, appear to produce the copious
honey lodged around or within them, without any diitin®
organ, or even a gland, being, as far as we can difcover,
appropriated to that purpofe. Such is generally the cafe
in the ringent flowers, or clafs Didynamia. Honey indeed
is nearly univerfal in flowers, being defigned, in a fecondary
way, to promote their fecundation, by means of the infects
which depend upon it for food, and in fearching for it,
either bruth the pollen from the anthers, upon the ee

6

NEC

of the fame bloffom, or convey it from one to another.
The more we {crutinize and watch the fecundation of flowers,
the more proofs we fhall find that even.in thofe which, as
ufual, have ftamens and piftils in the fame individual, the
former are often more vigorous in one of the fame fpecies,
even on the fame ftem, than in another, whofe piftil, on the
other hand, is more perfeét or vigorous than its. own fta-
“mens. It very often happens alfo that the anthers of a
flower are ripe, not precifely at the fame moment with its
fligma. In thefe cafes the miniftry of infeéts becomes pe-
culiarly ufeful. Their operations are among the infinite
and rich variety of means, by which fimilar purpofes are
accomplifhed under the fuperintendance of Divine Wifdom.
Thefe force even the moft incredulous and faftidious ob-
ferver, to admit the evidence of a defign in Nature. _ Shall
we microfcopically admire thefe, and overlook the infinitely
tran{cending defign of the revealed will of God?

The fhape and ttru€ture of the ze@arium.in different plants
are extremely various, but commonly quite conftant and uni-
form in flowers of the fame genus; very frequently indeed
fupplying the moft clear and decifive marks, by which one
genus is diftinguifhed from another. In the Crown Im-
perial the nectary is a mere cup or depreffion, in the Lily a
bordered furrow in the claw of each petal; in the Violet
the bafe of one petal is elongated into a {pur, or bag, con-
taining the honey; in the Nalturtium, or Tropeolum, the
ne¢tariferous {pur is an elongation of the calyx. “The nec-
tary is of the nature and texture of petals in the Epimedium,
Engl. Bor. t. 438, but perfeétly diltin@ from them, as well
as from the calyx ; while the Larkfpur, Columbine, Ace-
nite, and Hellebore, have likewife neGaries more or lefs
agreeing with their petals, but no calyx. Hence fome bo-
tanifts reckon their petals, though coloured, the calyx, and
their nectaries the only corolla. The neighbouring genus
Ranunculus, whofe neCtaries are pores in the claws of its
petals, certainly gives weight to fuch a determination. In
Euphorbia the petals are in fome fpecies decided cup-like
nectaries, filled. with honey, in others of acrefcent fhape,
poflibly exuding the fame fluid from their upper furface ;
but this we have in many inftances not been able to dete&t,
and there rather appears to be an actual tranfition in this
very natural genus, from petals to nectaries.

Very diftin¢t and certain neétaries, as actually fecretin
honey, are thofe of a ,landular kind, lodged in the det
recefles of a flower, and quite of a different fub{tance from
its other parts, Such are the green’ glands, ufually four,
in the Tetradynamia, or Cruciform, clafs, fituated.at the
bafe of the famens, either on the inner or outer fide. Si-
milar ones are found in Geranium and Salix. In the latter
genus an abortive germen often feems to become a neétary,
which is doubtlefs a very ftrange tranfition. Urtica exhibits
the fame phenomenon, at lealt according to Linnzus, but
we cannot of our own knowledge {peak to this.

Some flowers difplay an elaborate apparatus, which can-
not be demonttrated to have any concern in the feereting or
holding of the honey. Such are the five, green bodies,
fringed with briltles, each of which bears a globe, in the
elegant Parnafia, Engl. Bot. t. 82. Thefe, not being re-
ferrible to any other of the ufual parts of fruétification, all
of which are prefent befides, are by analogy prefumed to
be neétaries, which it is not poflible perhaps either to dif-
prove or to conlirm. Linnzus has been much cevfured for
ufing this compendious term for every fuch fupernumerary
part, thouyh it is very convenient for botanical diflinétions
to dv fo. The numerous and complex rays which decorate
the Paffion-flower, are equally inexplicable.in their nature
But they crown the cell where the copious honey is lodged,

NEC

while their cellular texture and vivid variegation of colour,
indicate their conneétion with air and light, two great pro-
bable agents in the fecretion of that faccharine fluid; nor
does it appear to us at all improbable, that they fhare in
its elaboratica. In other cafes the richly coloured petals of
flowers poflibly anfwer the ‘fame end. Profeflor Sprengel
has very ingenioufly attempted to demonitrate, that many
of thefe, fo peculiarly conftruéted or coloured, appendages
to flowers, have a definite and appropriate ufe, which is to
attraét certain infeéts by their beauty or {mell, that fuch
infeéts may feek for the honey, or elfe to accommodate
their while they are procuring it- Such he confiders to be
the intention of an infinite variety of gorgeous decorations
about many flowers, which he calls macule indicantes, or
{pots that indicate the precife fitaation of the honey.
Perhaps, in the rich benevolence of the Creator, he has in-
dulged this tribe of beings with a tafte for the beauty of
thofe objeéts, thus tempting them to frequent the flowers
for an important purpofe in the economy of nature. So it
feems, he has formed fome flowers in the ftrong likenefs of
particular butterflies, that the latter may be attraéted to
depofit their eggs on the plants fo adorned, which are re-
quifte for the fuftenance of the future brood of caterpillars.
See Sm. Infeéts of Georgia, t. 5, where this hypothéfis is
ftrikingly illuftrated in Papilio Eubule and Caffia Chame-
crifla; fee allo Phalena Gaura, t. 99. of the fame work. .

That Linnzus, or other fyftematic botanifts, may not
fometimes have erred, in giving the name of neGarium, either
to incomplete ftamens, or to fome fringe or other appen-
dage not ftri@tly fuch, we will not deny; but who can ex-
pect to avoid thefe occafional inaccuracies? He firft named
the part in queftion, and illuftrated its ufe, which is no lefs
extenfive in the fcientific difcrimination of plants, than in
the economy of their fruGtification ; and if he was now and
then led aftray by a favourite hypothefis, he is more ex-
cufable than thofe, who could not fee the ufe of the ne&a-
rium at all, either in vegetable phyfiology or fyftematic
botany. S.

NECTRIS, a genus of Schreber’s, derived from vnxless,
any thing that floats; a name however which might, with
equal propriety, be applied to various other aquatics.
Schreb. 237. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 248. Mart: Mill.
Di&. v. 3. (Cabomba; Aubl. Guian. 321. t. 124. Juff.46.
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 265.)—Clafs and order, Hexandria
Digynia. Nat. Ord. Tripetaloidee, Linn. Junci, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, fix-cleft ;
the three outer fegments ovate, acute, coloured on the in-
fide; the three alternate inner ones ovate, obtufe, {maller,
coloured on both fides. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments fix,
capillary, inferted at the bafe of the fegments of the calyx;
anthers ovate. Pi/?. Germens fuperior, two, oblong ; ftyles
fhort; ftigmas obtufe. Peric. Capfules two, ovate, rather
flefhy, crowned with the permanent flyles, of one: cells,
Seeds numerous, very {mall. , i

Obf. We are fomewhat inclined to fubfcribe to Juffien’s.,
opinion of this plant belonging to his Ranunculacee, and, in _
that cafe, the three inner fegments of the calyx muft be’
confidered as petals.

Eff. Ch. Calyx (ix-cleft, the three inner fegments {maller
and obtufe. Corolla none. Capfules two, rather flefhy,
crowned with the ftyles, of one cell, many-feeded.

i. N. aquatica, Linn. Sylt, ed. Gmel. vs 2. 580. Willd,
(Cabomba aquatica; Aubl, Guian. t. 124.)—Found in
pools and gentle rivulets at Guiana, and in the ifland of Ca-
yenne. Stems long, branched, jointed, filtulous, with a
pair of leaves at each joint. Lower leaves immeried, in
fivey capillary fegments, repeatedly three-forked, with taper

points,

HEC

points, the outline of the whole circular; upper ones float-
ing, alternate, peltate, orbicular, undivided, with concen-
tric ribs. Footflalks very long. Flowers on long folitary
flalks, at the axils of the upper leaves, yellow.
’ NECUIA, a name given by the ancient Greeks to a
fpecies of mallein.
* The Greeks and Romans both ufed the ftalks of a pecu-
liar kind of mullein, called thryallis by Nicander. For
the making of wicks of lamps, we have a kind of mullein,
called /; ne and candlewick mullein, from the Auywres
of Diofcorides ; but it is not certain that our’s is the fame
lant.
e The ancients ufed the ftalks of many different plants for
the wicks of their candles and lamps. The ruth, ftripped
of its bark, was as commonly in ule with them as with us
for this purpofe; and they alfo ufed the nettle, this mul-
lein, and many other plants, whofe ftalks were compofed
of tough filaments, for the fame purpofe; beating them
out like hemp, and when dry, dipping them in melted refin,
and other. fuch inflammable fubftances. When thus pre-
pared, they are readily inflammable, like our flambeaux,
and this mullein, having ftalks more long and large, and
more firm than all the others, was ufed to make thofe lights,
with which they fet fire to the funeral pile for confuming
the afhes of their dead friends: .
NECYDALIS, Carrion-Eater, in Natural Hiftory, agenus
of infeéts of the Coleoptera order. The generic character
is this; antennz fetaceous or filiform; four feelers that are
filiform ; fhells lefs than the wings, and either narrower or
fhorter than the abdomen; the tail is fimple. Of this
the there are 39 fpecies, feparated into two divifions, as
ollows. ;

A. Antenne fetaceous ; fhells fhorter than the wings and

abdomen.
Species.

* Mason. The fhells of this fpecies are ferruginous
and immaculate; the antenne fhort. It is found in many
parts of Europe. The head is black, and the wings are
longer than the body,

_Variecata. Abdomen black, with fulvous bands. It
inhabits New Holland.

* Minor. Shells teftaceous, with a {mall white line at
the tip; the antenne are long. ‘This fpecies is found in
feveral parts of Europe. 1

* UmpeitLatarum. The fhells of this {pecies are tef-
taceous and immaculate; the antenne are long. This alfo
is an European infect.

B. Antenne filiform ; fells fubulate, as long as the body.
Species.

Tuarassina. The thorax of this {pecies is channelled ;
the body is green, legs black. It inhabits Germany, and
is faid to be twice as large asthe next, viz. the

* ViripissimA. In this fpecies the thorax is roundifh ;
the body is green, and the fore-legs teltaceous. It inhabits
this and other European countries.

* CzruLescens. The thorax of this is roundifh, and
the body blue and nearly opaque. It is an European
infeé&

Virescens. In this fpecies the thorax is unequal; the
body is of a dull greenifh colour; the antennz and legs are
black. It inhabits Germany, and is lefs than the N. tha-
laffina. The thorax is impreffed on each fide; the fhells
have two raifed lines ; the hind-thighs in one fex are clavate,
and in the other fimple.

Vor. XXIV.

NEC
Cyanea. Thorax ovate; blue; the antennx and legs
are black. It inhabits Germany, and is the fame fize as

the laft; the thighs are blue.

SANGUINICOLLIS. The thorax of this is roundifh and
rufous ; the body is brown. It inhabits Saxony.

Barsara. Thorax uneven, greenifh; tip of the fhells
and legs yellow. It inhabits Barbary. The hind-thighs
are black.

SeLAponiA. Thorax uneven; body green and pdlifhed;
the fhells are blue and thickened at the tip. It inhabits
Germany, and is fomething lefs than the N. virefcens.

Ruricotuis. Thorax roundifh, and with the abdomen
rufous; head and fhells brafly-green. It inhabits Italy.
The head is green ; the antennz and legs are black.

MELANOCEPHALA. Black; thorax and abdomen ful-
vous ; fhells teftaceous, It inhabits Italy, and is the fize
of the latt.

Tristis. Black; thorax roundifh, and with the bafe of
the thighs rufous. It is found in Van Diemen’s Land.
The hells of this {pecies are very fmooth.

Arra.- Shells fubulate, black; all the thighs are cla-
vate. It inhabits the fouthern parts of Europe.

* Humeratis. Shells fubulate, black, yellow at the
bafe. This is an English infe&. The fhells are without
lines; body and legs black. ~

Usrunata. Black; bafe of the fhells and broad future
teftaceous. It inhabits Germany.

Meranura. Black; thorax and fhells teftaceous; the
latter tipt with black. This is found on various plants in
Spain.

Norara, Head and thorax ferruginous; hells teftace-
ous, tipt with black. It inhabits Germany, and is the fame
fize as the latt.

Furvicotuis. Black; thorax and tail fulvous; hells
with a blueifh fhade. It inhabits Germany, and is lefs than
the N, melanura. ;

* Rura. The hells of this {pecies are fubulate; the
body is black; the thighs are clavate; the fhells and an-
tennz are rufous. This is found here and in other parts of
Europe.

Prausta. Black; fhells teftaceous, tipt with black;
the thighs clavate. It is found in Barbary.

* Cmrutea. Shells fubulate; body blue; hind-thighs
clavate and arched. Jt is found here and in other parts of
Europe; and varies in having the legs fometimes fimple.

Popocrarta. Shells fubulate, teftaceous; body black 5
hind-thighs clavate and teftaceous at the bafe. It is found
in gardens in Europe.

Fravescens. Shells teftaceous; body black ; hind-
thighs clavate and curved. It is an Ewropean infe&, and is
thought to be a mere variety of the lait.

Bicotor. Blueifh; edge of the thorax, abdomen, and
legs teftaceous, It inhabits the Cape of Good Hope.

Cravirrs. Black ; fhells tapering, gree:nith ; hind-thighs
thickened and curved. This is found at Kiel, and is not
above half the fize of the others. The therax is impreffed
on each fide black-green; fhells with a raufed dufky line
reaching not half way down.

Testacea. Black; thorax and fhells teftaceous; legs
rufous. This fpecies is found in divers parts of Germany.

Guavucescens. Shells fubulate and glautcous; body
black; incifures of the abdomen white, It inhabits the
fouthern parts of Europe:

Smrerex. Shells fubulate and teftaceous; the legs are
fimple. It is found in Europe, and is thought to-be a va-
riety of N. pedagraria.

al Quercus,

NED

Quercus. Shells fubulate ; abdomen and legs yellowith.
Ji inhabits Denmark, on the oak, and is very {mall.

Brevicornis. The fhells of this {pecies are very minute ;
head and thorax brown, with a yellow line; the antenne
are very fhort and thick. It inhabits Guinea, and is large

and long.

Srriara. Greenifh; fhells raifed with four raifed lines.
It is found in Berlin.

MELANOCEPHALA. Shells teftaceous; head and wings

This inhabits Saxony.

black ; the antennz are brown.
This is

Gravuca. Black; thorax and fhells blue.
found at Berlin.

Corztaris. Black; thorax teftaceous, with twe punc-
tures; the legs are fimple. It inhabits North America.

Exusta. Brown; fhells fubulate and teftaceous, darker
at the margin; the legs are fimple. It inhabits Europe.

Cravata. Black; fhells fubulate and teftaceous; the
outer margin brown; hind-thighs clavate and curved. It
inhabits Europe. :

This genus is generally found in woods, in their perfec
form; but the refidence and charater of the larve are un-
known. In fome individuals the thorax is black, in others
yellow; the elytra or wing-fheaths are generally black,
and lighter towards the middle, which contain a yellow,
or lemon-coloured {pot. )

NEDA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Galicia ; five
miles E. of Ferrol.—Alfo, a river of European Turkey,
which runs inte the fea, 20 miles N. of Navarin.

Neva, in Ancient Geography, a river of Arcadia, $.W.
of Megalopolis. It commenced at mount Ceraufius, and in
its progrefé feparated the Elide from Meffenia. Near it
was a celebrated ancient temple, confecrated to Eurynome,
the pretended daughter of the Ocean: this temple was cn-
compafled by cyprefs-trees. Once a year it was reforted
to for facrifice, but at all other times it was fhut.—Alfo,
a town of the Pelopponefus, in Arcadia.

NEDANORE, in Geography, a town vf Hindooftan,
in the circar of Ellore; 16 miles E. of Ellore.

NEDDAGOONTA, a town of Hindooftan, in the
Carnatic ; fix miles S. of Pallamnaire.

NEDDEEK, a mountainous, narrow, and fteep tract
of Africa, about 70 miles W. of Augela, in the road to
Mourzouk.

NEDDICK, or Neppock, Cape, a cape of America, be-
tween York river and Well’s bay, on the coait of York
county, inthe diftriét of Maine.

NEDEBA, a lake of Egypt, on the borders of Libya,
abounding in natron; 60 miles N.W. of Cairo.

NEDENES, a town of Norway, in the diocefe of
Chriftianfand ; 24 miles N.E. of Chriftianfand.

NEDERBRAKAL, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Scheldt, and chief place of a canton, in the
diltri& @f Audenarde. The place contains 3145, and the
canton 12,439 inhabitants, on a territory of 65 kiliometres,
in nine communes.

NEDERCRUCHTEN, a town of France, in the
department of the Lower Meufe, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftri@ of Ruremonde. The place contains 3522,
and the canton 6614 inhabitants, on a territory of 1024 kili-
ometres, in three communes.

NEDIOUI, a town of Hindooltan, in Vifiapour; 30
miles S. of Calberga.

NEDOSTRALVA, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Irkuthk ; 32 miles N.N.E. of Vitimfkoi.

NEDRIGALLO, a town of Roffia, in the govern-
ment of Charkoy; 80 miles N.W. of Charkov. N. lat.

50° 54’. E. long. 34° 20’.

NED
NED-ROMA, a town of Algiers, anciently ‘ Celama,’’

or “ Salamium,” fituated near a fmall river, in a delightful
country, and furrounded by magnificent ruins; 50 miles
W.S.W. of Oran.

NEDSSED, a very extenfive province of Arabia, com-
prehending all the interior parts of ‘the country, and bound-
ed on the N. by the defert of Syria, on the E. by Lachfa,
on the S. by Hadramaut and Yemen, and on the W. by
Hedsjas. Niebuhr has particularly defcribed it ; and from
him we learn, that the foil is various: among the hills fer-
tile, and bearing abundance of fruits, efpecially dates; but,
being bounded by arid traéts of country, its rivers are fhort
ftreams, the waters of which, after pafling through thé val-
lies, are abforbed in the fandy plains before they reach the
ocean. On this account the inhabitants are, in many places,
obliged to dig deep wells, fo that it does not admit of cul-
tivation. It is chiefly inhabited by Bedouins: and other
parts are mountainous, full of cities and villages, and dif-
tributed among many petty fovereigns, fo that almoft every
town hasits own {cheick. In their moral qualities the in-
habitants of this province refemble the other Arabs ; being
at the fame time robbers and hofpitable. Travellers cannot
pafs with fafety through this country, as they are liable to
be plundered by the different {cheicks. The caravan in-
deed travels fafely between Oman and Mecca, becaufe it
confifts of beggars from whom nothing can be gained. But
the {cheicks levy a contribution upon the caravan from Bag-
dad, on its way to Mecca, in the fame manner as the
{cheicks of Hedsjas lay contributions upon thofe from Sy-
ria and Egypt. Among themfelves and with their imme-
diate neighbours, they carry on a confiderable trade ; and
it is probable that Europeans might travel in fafety through
this part of Arabia. The people feem to be warlike, and are
almoft conftantly in arms: nor do they permit any of their
young men to marry till they have performed fome gallant
aGtion. Nedsjed is divided into two diftrifts; El Arad,
which joins Oman, and El Kherdsje, which ftretches to.
the confines of Yemen. In the latter. diftri@, extending
northward from Hedsjas to the defert, is the city of Imam,
famous, even before the days of Mahomet, for being the
native city of Mofeilama, who aflumed the chara&er of a
prophet. This diftri& contains alfo many other cities.
North from Nedsjed, and about ten days’ journey from
Bagdad, is the famous mountain of Schamer, confiderable
both in extent and fertility. Between this mountain and
Syria is a hilly tra& of cotintry, denominated Dsjof al
Sirhan, which is populous and cultivated. This province
contains Sabzans, or Chriftians of St. John, anda few Jews:
its other inhabitants are all Mahometans, who were once rigid
Sunnites. At alate period, a new religion fprung up in
the diftri@ of El Arad, which has already produced a re-
volution in the government of Arabia. Its founder was one
Abd al Wahkeb, a native of Aijene, a town in El Arad.
In his youth he ftudied thofe fciences which are chiefly cul-
tivated in Arabia; and he afterwards {pent fome time at
Bafra, and made feveral journies to Bagdad, and through
Perfia. After his return to his native place, he began to
propagate his opinions among his countrymen, and having
converted feveral independent fcheicks, their fubjects be-
came followers of this new prophet. ‘The fcheicks who had

‘been engaged in intettine contefts were reconciled to one

another by the mediation of Abd al Wahkeb, and mutually
{tipulated to undertake no future enterprife without confult-
ing their apoille. By this affociation the balance of power
in Nedsjed was deftroyed: the wars became more frequent,
and religion blended itfelf with other difputes. The new

prophet reduced a confiderable part of El Arad, and de-
feated

NED.

feated the {cheick of Lachfa, to whom the vanquifhed
fcheicks of El Arad applied for affiftance. The f{cheick
Mecrami of Nedsjeran, whofe principles refembled thofe of
Abd al Wahkeb, joined the latter, or rather his fon Ma-
homet, who fucceeded his father, in order to reduce the
Sunnite f{cheicks. After the death of Abd al Wahkeb, his
fon retained the fame authority and profecuted his views.
He fuftained the fupreme ecclefiaftical charafer in El Arad,
and became fovereign of the whole diftri€t, the hereditary
-{cheicks of the {mall independent ftates retaining only a no-
minal authority. With a view of carrying on the war
againft the infidels he impofed a tribute, under the name of
«¢ Sikka,”’ or aid. The Sunnites have complained of his
perfecutions; and thofe inhabitants of Nedsjed who were
unwilling to embrace the new religion, have retired to other
parts of the country: and thefe refugees have peopled the
ancient Bafra, now called Zobayer, fo that from being a
decayed hamlet, it is now become a large town. From the
informations obtained by Niebuhr from an intelligent Be-
_douin fcheick, he has given the following account of this
new religion Abd al Wahkeb taught, that God is the
only proper objeét of worfhip, as the creator and governor
of the world. He forbad the invocation of faints, and the
mention of Mahomet, or any other prophet in prayer, as
practices favouring of idolatry. He confidered Mahomet,
Jefus Chrift, Mofes, and many others, refpeéted by the

Sunnites or Sonnites in the character of prophets, as merely”

great men, whofe hiftory might be read with improvement ;
denying, at the fame time, that any book had ever been
written by divine infpiration, or brought down from hea-
ven by the angel Gabriel. He prohibited, as a crime againft
Providence, the making of vows, in the manner of the Sun-
nites, to obtain deliverance from danger. This new reli-
gion is regarded as a reformation of Mahometani{m, by
which it is reduced to its original fimplicity. He has pro-
bably gone farther than fome other reformers; and it re-
mains to be feen, whether a religion {tripped of every thing
that is adapted to itrike the fenfes, can maintain its ground
among a people fo rude and ignorant as the Arabs.
NEDSJERAN, a principality of Arabia, in the pro-
vince of Yemen, three days’ journey N.E. from Saade.
This narrow territory is fertile in corn and fruits, efpeci-
ally in dates. It affords excellent pafturage ; and its horfes
and camels are in high requeft through all Arabia. Its
{cheick, called Mecrami, acquired a very high reputation,
and is faid to have been of the ftock of the ancient no-
bility. In his youth he travelled through all Arabia, Per-
fia, and India; and upon his return, he was invefted by the
Imam of Saade with the government of the province of
Nedsjeran : but he had no fooner been entrufted with this
office than he threw off his allegiance, and became formi-
dable by his genius and valour, extending his poffeflions and
traverfing all Arabia with his army. ‘Through the whole
country ‘he enjoys the reputation of a profound theologian,
as well as that of a valiant warrior. In his religious opi-
nions he differs effentially from the chief feéts of the Maho-
metans. He honours Mahomet as the prophet of Ged, but
entertains little refpeét for his fucceffors and commentators.
This fcheick, taking advantage of the rudenefs of his coun-
trymen, has imprefled them with a fanatical idea of the effi-
cacy of his prayers, pretending that he obtains in this way
whatever he afks from God. Whenever, therefore, the coun-
try fuffers by drought, he appoints a fatt, and after it a pub-
lic proceffion, in which all muft affift, with an air of humi-
lity, without their turbans, and in a garb fuitably mean ;
and, it is faid, that this ceremony never fails to procure an
immediate fall of rain. Some of the more fenfible Arabs

NEE

alfo fay, that this {cheick has found means to avail himfelf
of heaven, even in this life ; for, to ufe their expreffion, he
fells paradife by the yard ; and affigns more or lefs honour-
able places in that manfion, according to the fums that are
paid to him.

The capital of this {mall kingdom is Nedsjeran, an an-
cient city, famous in Arabian Eiloty. The other towns
in it are places of little confequence.

NEDWASTA, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Boleflaw; 16 miles W.N.W. of Jung Buntzel.

NEDWIETITZ, atown of Moravia, in the circle of
Brunn ; 20 miles N.W. of Brunn.

NEEDHAM, Marcuanont, in Biography, a political
writer, was born at Burford, in Oxfordfhire, in the year
1620. He was educated in grammar learning by Me
Glynn, vicar of Burford, who had married his mother on
her becoming a widow. At the age of fourteen he left the
roof of his father-in-law, and waa admitted in All-fouls’
college, Oxford, where he took his firit degree, when be
removed to St. Mary’s-hall. He afterwards became an
ufher in Merchant Taylors’ {chosl, which occupation he
quitted for that of a writer to an attorney in Gray's-[no-
In 1643 he commenced a weekly paper of intelligence, un-
_der the title of ‘ Mercurius Britannicus.’’ Upon fome
occafion of difguft he quitted his party and repaired to
the king at Hampton-court, whofe pardon for the palt
and promife of future favour he readily obtained, and began
a new weekly paper, entitled ‘ Mercurius Pragmaticus.”
In this paper, he indulged his fatire as freely againit the
Prefbyterians, as he had tm the former againift the Royalilts.
This freedom could not be allowed, and being difcovered he
was imprifoned in Newgate. Upon his releafe he joined the
Independents, and in their fervice publifhed a third weekly
paper, entitled ** Mercurius Politicus.” This was com-
menced in 1649, and continued till 1660, when it was fup-
prefled by order of the conncil of ftate. After the reftora-
tion he obtained a pardon, and began to prattife phyfic with
fuccefs and reputation. He was author of many works be-
fides thofe already mentioned, but they were moltly fugitive
and temporary political traé&ts. One work, however, re-
quires to be noticed, entitled «*« A Difcourfe on the Excel-
lency of a Free State above Kingty Government,’’ which
has paffed tbrough many editions, and was reprinted fo lately
as the year 1767. It is chara¢terifed as.a learned and me-
thodical werk, full of illuftrations from Greek and Roman
hiftory. It is founded on the natural fovereignty of the
people, and the principle is ably fupported and vindi-
cated.

NeepuaM, in Geography, a townfhip of America, in
Norfolk county, Maflachufetts, 11 miles from Bofton;
about nine miles long, and five broad, almoft encom-
pafled by Charles river, which, at a fall of 20 feet be-
tween Newton and-Needham, divides Middlefex from Nor-
folk county. It was incorporated in 1711, and contains
1072 inhabitants.

NEEDHAM’s Point, a cape on the S.W. angle of the
ifland of Barbadoes in the Welt Indies, S.E. from Bridge-
town, with a fort upon it called Charles fort.

Neepuam-Market, a {mall market-town in the hundred
of Bofmere and Claydon, and county of Suffolk, England, is
feven miles north-weft from Ip{wich, on the road to Bury
St. Edmund’s. It is faid to have been, in former times, 2
place of confiderable manufaturing importance, but now
fearcely any trade is carried on in it. Indeed, fo funk was
this place at the commencement of the Jaft century, that the
author of the Magna Britannia fays, its poverty had become

proverbial. The principal fupport of the town, at prefent,
ATI2 arifes

NEE

arifes from agriculture, and the number of genteel families
either refident within it, or in its neighbourhood. The
market-day is Saturday; and there are three fairs during
the year, which privileges were obtained by the bifhop of
Ely in the reign of Henry III. The petty feffions for the
hundred are held here. According to the parliamentary
returns of 1801, this town contained 258 houfes, and 1348
inhabitants, and in thofe of 1811, the former are ftated to
have been 284, and the latter 1301 in number, #. ¢. 26
more houfes, and 47 fewer inhabitants, a cirgumi{tance that
feems to indicate fome miftake in one of the reports.

About two miles from Needham are the villages of Creet-
ing-All-Saints, and Creeting-Olaves. The church of the
former, which was ancientlya cell to the abbey of Greiftein,
in Normandy, is a very curious old building ; as is like-
wife that of Olaves, which was a cell to the abbey of Ber-
nay- Kirby’s Suffolk Traveller, 8vo. Magna Britannia.

NEEDHAMIA, in Botany, received its name from
Mr. Brown, in commemoration of Tuberville Needham,
canon of Soigny, late direétor of the Academy of Sciences
at Bruffels, who publifhed at London, in 1745, an octavo
volume of 126 pages, with fix plates, entitled «An Ac-
count of fome New Microfcopical Difcoveries.’’ In this is
faid to be the earlieft account of the particular ftructure
and economy of the pollen.in plants. Some of his writings
may be found in the Philofophical Tranfactions ; and others,
on the fubjeéts of Ants and Bees, in the Memoirs of the
Bruffels Academy. He was born at London in 1713, and
died, probably at Bruffels, in 1781.—Brown Prod. Novy.
Holl. v. 1 549.—Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia.
Nat. Ord. Epacridee, Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of five linear-awl-
fhaped equal, fomewhat membranous, coloured leaves, with
a pair of oblong, coriaceous, external ones, of the fame
length. or. of one petal, falver-fhaped ; tube twice the
length of the calyx; limb in five beardlefs equal fegments,
plaited in the bud, their finufes elevated. Neétary cup-
like, furrounding the bafe of the germen. Stam. Filaments
five, thread-fhaped, inferted into the tube; anthers ob-
long, included within the tube. Pi, Germen fuperior,
roundifh, of two cells; ftyle fhort, columnar; {tigma

obtufe. Peric. Drupa dry. Seed. Nut of one or two
cells ?
Eff. Ch. Outer calyx of two leaves. Corolla falver-

fhaped; its limb five-cleft, beardiefs, with elevated finufes ;
plaited in the bud. Stamens included in the tube. Drupa
dry, of one or two cells.
1. N. Pumilio. Dwarf Needhamia.—The only known
fpecies, gathered by Mr. Brown, in the fouth part of New
Holland, and by Mr. Menzies, from whom we have a {pe-
cimen, at King George’s Sound. The jlem is fhrubby,
three or four inches high, divided from the very bafe into
numerous, {preading, roundifh, notched, leafy, compound
branches, hoary when young. Leaves minute, oppofite ;
fomewhat imbricated, in two rows crofling each other alter-
nately, feffile on the notches of the branches, triangular,
obtufe, keeled, entire, concave, fmooth; the upper ones
finely fringed, and fomewhat more dilated, oravate. F/ow-
ers axillary, feffile, folitary, from feveral of the upper aud
broader leaves, beyond which, after flowering, the branch
is fubfequently extended, and clothed with the ordinary
leaves, till it blofloms again higher up. Ca/yw fringed, red-
difh. Corolla white, turning reddifh-brown in drying, about
a quarter of an inch long.
EEDLE, a very common little inftrument, or utenfil,
made of fteel, pointed at one end, and pierced a% the other ;
ofed in fewing, embroidery, tapeftry-work, &c,

“NEE

Needles make a very confiderable article in commerce ;
and the confumption of them is almoft incredible. The fizes
are from N71, the largeft, to N° 25, the fmalleft. There
is {carcely any, commodity cheaper than needles; which will -
appear fomething extraordinary to the reader, after he has
been fhewn the great number of operations they undergo,
before they are brought to perfeGtion.

Neeptes, Manufaéure of. German and Hungarian fteel
is of moft repute fer needles. The firft thing is to pafs
it through a coal fire, and under a hammer, and to bring it
out of its fquare figure into a cylindrical one: this done, it
is drawn through, a large hole of a wire-drawing iron, re-
turned into the fire, and drawn through a fecond hole of the
iron, {maller than the firft; and thus fucceffively from hole
to hole, till it has acquired the degree of finenefs required
for that fpecies of needles ; obferving every time it is to be
drawn, that it be greafed over with lard to render it the
more manageable. The iteel, thus reduced into a fine wire,
is cut in pieces of the length of the needles iatended.
Thefe pieces are flattened at one end, on the anvil, in order
to form the head and eye: they are then put into the fire,
to foften them farther ; and thence taken out and pierced at
each extreme of the flat part, on the anvil, by the force of
a puncheon of well tempered fteel, and laid on a leaden
block, to bring out, with another puncheon, the little piece
of {teel remaining in the eye.

The corners are then filed off the fquare of the heads,
and a little cavity filed on each iide the flat of the head.
This done, the point is formed with a file; and the whole
filed over.

They are then laid to heat red-hot, on a long, flat, nar-
row iron, crooked at one end, in a charcoal fire; and, when
taken out thence, are thrown into a bafen of cold water to
harden. Qn this operation a good deal depends; too much
heat burns them, and too little leaves them foft ; the medium
is only to be learnt by experience. .

When they are thus hardened, they are laid in an iron
fhovel, on a fire, more or lefs brifk, in proportion to the
thicknefs of the needles; taking care to move them from
time totime. This ferves to temper them, and take off
their brittlenefs; great care, here too, muft be taken of the
degree of heat. They are then ftraightened, one after another,
with the hammer; the coldnefs of the water, ufed in harden-
ing them, having twifted the greateft part cf them.

The next procefs is the polifhing. To do this, they take
twelve or fifteen thoufand needles, and range them in little
heaps again{t each other, on a piece of new buckram,
{prinkled with emery du{t. The needles, thus difpofed,
emery-duft is thrown over them, which is again fprinkled
with oil of olives: at laft, the whole is made up into a roll,
well bound at both ends.

The roll is then laid on a polifhing-table, and over it a
thick plank, loaded with ftones, which two men work back-
wards and forwards, a day and an half, or two days fuc-
ceflively ; by which means the roll, thus continually agi-
tated by the weight and motion of the plank over ir, the
needles withinfide, being rubbed againit each other with
oil and emery, are infenlibly polifhed.

In Germany, in{tead of hands, they polifh with water-
mills.

After polifhing, they are taken out, and the filth wafhed
off them with hot water and foap: they are then wiped in
hot bran, a little moiltened, placed with the needles in a
round box, fufpended in the air by a cord, which is kept
{tirring till the bran and needles be dry.

The needles, thus wiped in two or three different brans,
are taken out, and put in wooden veflels, to have the good

{eparated

#
NEE

feparated from thofe whofe points or eyes have been broken,

either in polifhing or wiping; the points are then all turned
the fame way, and {moothed with an emery-ftone, turned
with a wheel.

This operation finifhes them; and there remains nothing
port make them into packets of two hundred and fifty
each.

Neen es, Surgeons’, are generally made crooked, and their
points triangular: however, they are of different forms and
fizes, and bear different names, according to the purpofes
they are ufed for.

The largeft are needles for amputation; the next, needles
for wounds ; the fineft, needles for futures. They have others,
very fhort and flat, for tendons; others, ftill fhorter, and
the eye placed in the middle, for tying together of veffels,
&c. Needles for couching cataraéts are of various kinds ;
all of which have a {mall, Broad: and fharp point or tongue:
and fome with the fulcus at the point. Surgeons have
fometimes ufed two needles in this operation, one with a
fharp point for perforating the coats of the eye, and another
with a more obtufe point for depreffing or couching the
opaque cryftalline lens: but care fhould be taken in the ufe
of any of thefe, that they be firit well polifhed, with cloth
or leather, before they are applied to the eye. See Cara-
nact and CoucnInG

Mr. Warner obferves, that the blade of the couching
needle fhould be at leaft a third part larger than thofe gene-
- rally ufed upon this occafion, as great advantage will be
found in the deprefling of the cataract, by the increafed
breadth of the blade of that inftrument. The handle, alfo,
if made fomewhat fhorter than ufual, will enable the operator
to perform with greater’ fteadinefs than he can do with a
Jarger handled inftrument.

It is to be obferved, that needles of filver pierce more
eafily in ftitching arteries after an amputation, than thofe
made of fteel. Monro, in Med. Eff. Edin. vol. v: art. 41.

NeepLxe, Jfagnetical, in Navigation, denotes a needle
touched with a loadftone, or fuftained on a pivot or centre,
on which, playing at liberty, it direts itfelf to certain points
in or under the horizon. See MAGNET.

Magnetical needles are cf two kinds; viz. horizontal and
inclinatory.

Neeptes, Horizontal, are thofe equally balanced on each
fide the pivot which fuftains them: and which, playing hori-
zontally with their two extremes, point out the north’ and
fouth points of the horizon. For their application and ufe,
fee Compass.

NEEDLE, Conffrudion of an Horizontal. A piece of pure
fteel is procured, of a length not exceeding fix inches, left
its weight impede its volubility ; very thin, to take its ver-
ticity the better; and not pierced with any holes, or the
like, for ornament fake, which prevent the equable diffufion
of the magnetic virtue.

A perforation is then made in the middle of its length,
and a brafs cap or head foldered on, whofe inner cavity is
conical, fo as to play freely on the ftyle or pivot, headed
with a fine fteel point.

The north point of the needle, in our hemifphere, is
made a little lighter than the fouthern, the touch always de-
ftroying the balance, if well adjuited before ; and rendering
the north end heavier than the fouth, and thus occafioning
the needle to dip.

Now to give the needle its verticity, or directive faculty,
it is to be rubbed leifureily on each pole of a magnet, from
the fouth pole towards the north; firft beginning with the
northern end, and going back at each repeated rub toward

NEE

the fouth. A rub in a contrary dire€tion takes away the
power communicated by the former.

Compafs needles may acquire the magnetic virtue by
means of magnetic bars in the following manner: Jay two
needles of equal length, about an inch afunder, with the
north end of one, and the fouth end of the other pointin
the fame way, and applying two conduétors in contaét with
their ends: then, with two magnetic hard bars, one in each
hand, and held as nearly horizontal as can be, with the
upper ends, of contrary names, turned outwards to the
right and left, let a needle be ftroked or rubbed from the
middle to both ends at the fame time, for ten or twelve
times, a north end of a bar going over the fouth end of the
needle, and the fouth end of a bar going over the north end
of a needle; then, without moving from the place, change
hands with the bars, or, in the fame hands, turn the other
ends downwards, and ftroke the other needle in like manner,
and they wili both be magnetical: but to make them ftill
ftronger, repeat the operation three or four times from
needle to needle; and at laft turn the lower fide of each
needle upwards, and repeat the operations of rubbing them,
as on the other fides.

In the rubbings or touchings to procure magnetifm, the
hand fhould not return dire€tly back the way it came, but
fhould return in a kind of oval figure, carrying the hand
about fix or eight inches beyond the point, where the touch
ended ; but not beyond, on the fide where the touch begins.

If, after touching, the needle be out of its equilibrium,
fomethinz muft be filed off from the heavier fide, till it ba-
lance evenly. See MAGNET.

The needles that were formerly applied to compaffes, on
board our merchant fhips, were formed of two pieces of
fteel wire ; each of which was bent in the middle, fo as to
make an obtufe angle; and their ends being applied toge-
ther made an acute one; fo that the whole reprefents the
form of a lozenge. Dr. Knight, to whom we are indebted
for the improvement of the compafs, found, by repeated
experiments, that thefe needles not only varied from the true
dire€tion, but from one another, and from themfelves: and
he has fhewn that thefe irregularities were owing to their
{truéture: for the wires of which the needle was compofed
were hardened only at their ends; nowif thofe ends are not
equally hard, or if one end be hardened higher up than the
other, when they come to be put together, in fixing them
to the card, that end which is hardeft will deftroy much of
the virtue of the other; by which means the hardeit end
will have the greatett power in direéting the card, and con-
fequently make it vary towards its own dire€tion: and as
the wires are difpofed in the form of a lozenge, thefe cards
can have but little force; fo that they will often, when
drawn afide, ftand at the diltance of feveral degrees on
either fide the point from whence they are drawn; for ail
magnetical bodies réceive an additional ftrength by being
placed in the dire&tion of the earth’s magnetifm, and act
proportionably with lefs vigour when turned out of it.
‘Therefore, when needles of this kind are drawn afide from
their true point, two of the parallel fides of the lozenge
will confpire more direétly than before with the earth's mag-
netifm, and the other two lefs in that direGtion: by this
means the two former fides will very much impede its return,
and the two latter will have that impediment to overcome,
as well as the friGtion, by their own force alone.

The needles formerly ufed on board the men of war, and
fome of the larger trading fhips, were made of one piece of
fteel, of a {pring temper, and broad towards the ends, but
tapering towards the middle. Every needle of this form 18
found to have fix poles inftead of two; one at each end,

two

NIE

two where it becomes tapering, and two at the hole in the
middle. This inconvenience is owing to their fhape; for
the middle part, being very flender, has not fubftance enough
to condu& the magnetic ftream quite through from one end
to the other. In order to avoid thefe inconveniences and
errors, the needle, contrived by Dr. Knight for his com-
pafs, is quite ftraight and f{quare at the ends, and confe-
quently has only two poles, although the curves are a little con-
fufed about the hole in the middle. Needles of this conftruc-
tion, after vibrating a long time, will always point exaétly in
the fame direGtion; and if drawn ever fo little on one fide, will
return to it again, without any fenfible difference. Hence
Dr. Knight concludes, that a regular parallelepiped is the
beit fhape for a needle, as well as the fimpleft; with the
holes for the caps as {mall as can be well contrived ; or if it
can be made to anfwer the purpofe, without any hole at all,
it will be {till more perfeét.—There is a peculiar advantage
attending Dr. Knight’s necdles; for as they are tempered
much higher than ufual, they are able to contain a much
greater quantity of the magnetic force. See Compass.

Mr. Michell fuggefts, that it would not be amifs to cover
the needles made ufe of in the fea-fervice, with a very thin
coat of linfeed oil, or fome kind of varnifh, that may keep
them from rufting, which is generally reckoned to injure all
magnetical bodies that are liable to it. Needles may be
touched through fuch a coat, by applying a great number
of bars, if not according to the common method of making
magnets. He alfo apprehends, that coated needles may
retain a greater degree of magnetifm, than they otherwife
would do.

Mr. Michell alfo propofes to increafe the weight and
length of mariners’ needles; and he obferves, that long
needles, properly hung, traverfing to a greater degree of
exa¢tnefs than the fhort ones, may be of confiderable fer-
vice on many occafions; particularly in mines for difcover-
ing the bearing of one place from another, that they may be
able to fink a fhaft from above, over any place at pleafure.
In many forts of mines, efpecially thofe of coal, there are
often {mall quantities ef magnetical iron ore, which draw the
needle out of its proper direction ; now the long needles are
lefs liable to be diiturbed by any {mall things, already mag-
netical, than fhorter ones. Michell on Magnets, p. 42,
&c.

A. needle, on occafion, may be prepared without touch-
ing it ona load-ftone: for a fine fteel needle, gently laid on
the water, or delicately fufpended in the air, will dire it-
felf to the north and fouth.

Thus alfoa needle, heated in the fire, and cooled again in
the direétion of the meridian, or even only in an ereét fitua-
tion, acquires the fame faculty.

The needle is not found to point precifely to the north,
except in very few places ; but deviates from it, more or lefs,
in different places, and that too at different times; which
deviation is called the declination.

Nerpie, Declination of the, is the variation of the hori-
zontal needle from the meridian ; or the angle it makes with
the meridian, when freely fufpended in an horizontal plane.
See Drcxiination.

NEEDLEs, Cleopatra’s. See Porpuyry.

Nexo.es, Inclinatory, or Dipping. See Dirpinc Needk.

Nerpie-Fifh, in Ichthyology, the Engiifh name of the
fyngnathus, with the middle of the body heptangular, and
the tail pinnated.

It is the fame fifth with the acus Ariftotelis {pecies altera
major. See SynGNatuus Acus.

Neepre-Shell, in Conchology, the Englifh name of a
fpecies ef centronia, or echinoderma,

Ll

N'E. E

NeEEDLE-She/l is alfo the Englifh name of a fpecies of
turbo, which is flender, and has ventricofe fpires, and a
{mall mouth.

NEEDLE, Shepherd's, the name by which fome writers call
the feandix, or Venus’s comb.

NeEEpLeEs, Touch. See Toucn Needles.

NeepLEs, The, in Geography, rocks in the Englifh chan-
nel, near the weftern extremity of the Ifle of Wight.
‘There were formerly three of thefe rocks, but towards the
end of the eighteenth century, the moft elevated of them,
called «* Lot’s wife,”? and rifing about 120 feet above low-
water mark, difappeared. N. Jat. 50° 44’. W. long. 1°
33'. See Istxe of Wight. ,
NEEDLE Rock, a rock inthe Mergui Archipelago, about
half a mile N.W. of Cat ifland.

NEEDUMARAN, a town of Hindooftan, in the Car-
natic 3 15 miles N.E. of Nattam.

NEEDWOOD Forssr, an extenfive diftrid of wood-
land in the hundred of Totmanflow, and county of Staf-
ford, England. It anciently formed a portion of the pro-
perty of the dukes of Lancatter, in whofe right it has be-
longed to the Englifh monarchs for feveral centuries. It is
divided into the four wards of Marchington, Yoxall, Bar-
ton, and Tutbury, each of them containing about five
miles in compafs, exclufive of Uttoxeter-wood, Boughay,
&c. The afpect of this foreft is finely varied with hill and
dale, and, more particularly towards its northern parts, ex-
hibits a feries of deep glens, inclofed by fteep and rugged
precipices, covered with a profufion of trees, According
to afurvey made in 1765, this foreft extends from the con-
fines of Hanbury to Yoxail,-about a mile to the north of the
river Trent, and comprifes 9920 acres of land, of which
about 1000 acres contain oak trees of full growth and fize.
Among thefe is the Swilcar oak, perhaps the moft majettic
tree in England, which is fuppofed to have ftood upwards of
fix hundred years. There were formerly eight parks em-
paled within the ring of this foreft. The officers are a lieu-
tenant and chief ranger, affifted by a deputy, four lieute-
nants, four keepers, and an axe-bearer. A court is ftill held
every year by the king’s fteward of the honour of Tut-
bury, in which Needwood is included, when a jury of
twenty-four perfons, refident within the jurifdiction, pre-
fent and amerce alk perfons guilty of ‘* encroaching on the
forelt, or committing offences in mart or venifon.”” Some
part of the foreft has been lately inclofed for cultivation.
Shaw’s Hiftory of Staffordthire, 2 vols. folio. Pitt’s Agri-
cultural Survey of Staffordthire, o€tavo. :

NEEFS, Perer, in Biography, a painter of architec-
ture, and a difciple of Henry Steenwick, was born at Ant-
werp in the year 1570, He was particularly fkilful in per-
{pective, and generally chofe fuch fubjets as required a con-
fiderable difplay of that fcience ; fuch as the interior of
churches and fplendid halls, &c. Thefe he drew with great
neatnefs and effeét, and painted very clear, gay, and agree-
able, but he never equalled the truth of his mafter. His
execution of the mouldings and maffes of columns in the
varied Gothic works which he chofe as models, is too neat,
and too much made up of lines for real imitation 3, but that
very defeé&t gives them lightnefs ; and the truth with which
he drew the forms of the building, and proportioned his
figures, which are very freely wrought, though not untre-
quently by other artifts, renders them very agreeable. Van
Fulden, ‘Teniers, aid Breughel, were often called upon to
affilt Neefs, and by their {kilful execution made amends
for his want of knowledge of the human figure. He died
at the age of 81, leaving a fon, whole name allo was Peter,

and who is denominated the Young, in contradiftinétion to his
father,

NEE

father, whofe excellence in the art of painting he never ri-
valled, although he had the advantage of his example and
inftruction, and praétifed in the fame branch of the art.

NEEHEEHOW, in Geography. See ONEEHOW.

NEEKALLA, atown of Hindooftan, in Baglana; 10
miles E. of Naderbar.

NEELGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Oriffa; nine
miles W.S.W. of Balafore.—Alfo, a town of Hindooftan,
in Golconda ; 24 miles S.W. of Combamet.

NEEMCUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; 15
miles S.S.W. of Kairabad. N. lat. 27°20’. E. long.
81°.

NEEMDUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Agra; 13
miles E. of Kerowly.

NEEMLA, a town of Candahar, on the Kemah; 50
miles S.E. of Cabul.

NEENEEVA, one of the {maller Friendly Iflands ;
28 miles N.N.E. of Annamooka. S. lat. 19° 47’. E. long.
185% a0!:

NEENY, a town of Algiers; 10 miles E.S.E. of Bag-
gai, formerly Bagafi.

NEEPO, a town onthe W. coaift of the ifland of Ce-
lebes. _S. lat. 3° 50’. E. long. 120°. ,

NEER, Axwnotp Vanonenr, in Biography, a land{cape-
painter, who was born at Amfterdam in 1619. His fub-
jects are generally chofen from among the fcenes of the Low
Countries. A. village, or a few houfes upon the banks of
acanal or river; fuch a colle&tion of forms as the eye of
tafte alone can combine agreeably, by a beautiful diftribu-
tion of fky, of light and dark clouds, and refleétions in
the water, Vander Neer never failed to prefent with a pleafing
afpeét ; and he executed his works, which are generally very
f{mall, with great brilliancy and neatnefs of pencilling.
Very frequently his effects are chofen by moonlight; whole
partial gleams breaking the formality of the canals, he
imitated moft beautifully. Owing to the fimplicity of his
manner, and his painting very thin, his pictures are now
feldom found uninjured ; when they are pure and well
chofen, they are very valuable. He died at the age of 64,
and left a fon, Eglon Hendrick Vander Neer, who practifed
the art of painting in, various branches with contiderable
fuccefs. His portrait, painted by himfelf, is among thofe
that adorn the gallery of Florence. He lived till the year
1703, dying at the age of 60.

NEERCASSEL, Jouw pg, a celebrated Dutch Catho-
lic prelate, was born at Gorcum in the year 1626. He be-
came member of the congregation of the Oratory of Paris,
and after diftinguifhing himfelt for feveral years by his lec-
tures on philofophy and divinity in their feminaries, was
promoted to the archdeaconry of Utrecht, and appointed
apottolic provincial in Holland and the other United Pro-
vinces. In the year 1662, he was created archbifhop of
Utrecht by the chapter of that place, but the pope refufed
to fanétion the nomination, declaring that the vacant fee
fhould be filled by the abbé Catz, dean of the chapter of
Haarlem. The two competitors, being alike friends to peace,
‘agreed to compromife the matter by dividing the epifcopal
labours, and that Catz fhould govern the diocefe of Haar-
lem, under the title of archbifhop of Philippi, while Neer-
caffel prefided over the diocefe of Utrecht, with the title of
bifhop of Caftoria. This arrangement was approved by
the papal nuncio, and after the death of Catz, the {ubject
of this article remained fole prelate of all the Dutch Catho-
lics during the remainder of his life. His zeal and affiduity
in difcharging the functions of this poft were unwearied ;
and he fell a {acrifice to the fatigue occafioned by his exer-
tions at Zwol, in 1686, when he was at the age of fixty.

Il

NEG

He was author of many theological pieces, among which
was his “* Amor Peenitens,”’ adifcourle on the love of God,
as exercifed in the facrament of penance, which was cenfured
by pope Alexander VII., and prohibited by a decree of the
facred congregation. The Jefuits made fome unfuccefsful
attempts to obtain a formal condemnation of it from Inno-
cent XI. It has been tranflated into feveral languages.
The moft complete edition is faid to be that of 1684, in
two vols. r2mo. A French verfion of it was publifhed in
1741, in three vols. 12mo. The name of Neercaflel was
held in high veneration for a long feries of years by the
Catholics of Holland. Moreri. :

NEERDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Babylonia,
in Mefopotamia, where the Jews had a celebrated fchool.

NEERMUL, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Dowlatabad ; 7c miles N. of Warangole. N. lat. 19° 5!.
E. long. 79° 5/.

NEERSEN, atownof France, in the department of the
Roer, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri€& of Cre-
veldt. The place contains 608, and the canton 21,661 inha-
bitants, in 17 communes.

NEESOLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; four
miles N.N.E. of Gooracpour.

NEETA, atown of I{tria ; 12 miles E. of Pedena.

NEETAMUNDY, atown of Bengal ; 16 miles W. of
Beyhar.

NEEVAL, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic; 30
miles S.W. of Madras.

NE EXEAT REGNO, in Law, isa writ to reftraina
perfon from going out of the kingdom, without the king’s
licence. (F. N.B. 85.) It may be dire¢ted to the sheriff,
to make the party find fwrety that he will not depart the
realm: and on refufal, to commit him to prifon: or it may
be.direéted to the party himfelf; andif he then goes, he
may be fined. (3 Inft. 178-) And this writ is granted on
a fuit being commenced again{t a man in the chancery, when
the plaintiff fears the defendant will fly to fome other coun-
try ; and thereby avoid the juftice and equity of the court ;
which hath been fometimes pratifed: and when thus
granted, the party mult give bonds to the matter of the®
rolls, in the penalty of 1000/. or {ome other large fm. for
yielding obedience to it; or fatisfy the court, by anfwer,
affidavit, or otherwife, that he hath no defign of leaving the
kingdom, and give fecurity.

NEFASTUS, a Latin term. The Romans ufed the
appellation dies nefa/li, for thofe days wherein it was not al-
lowed to adminitter juflice, or hold courts ; nor for the
pretor to pronounce the three folemn words or formulas of
the law, Do, dico, addico; JI give, I appoint, I adjudge.
See Fast.

Thefe days were diftinguithed in the calendar by the letter
N. or N. P. nefa/lus primo, as when the day was only nefa/fus
for the tirtt part thereof.

NEFTA, in Geopgraphy, a town of Africa, in Biledul-
gerid, featedon the lake of Marks, anciently called « Ne-
geta,” near which are fome veltiges of the Romans; 60
miles S. of Gafla. N. lat. 33 30'. E.long. 8°.

NEFUS Musca, a town of Abyflinia; go miles S,S.E.
of Gondar.

NEGADA. See Anecapa.

NEGANOOR, a town of Hindooftan, in the country
of Coimbetore ; 20 miles S.E. of Cvoimbetore.

NEGAPATAM, a fea-port town of Hindooftan,
fituated on the coalt of Tanjore; fo called in the language
of the natives, and denoting the city of ferpents, on ac-
count of the refpect paid to thefe animals, which they deem
it finful to deftroy. The Portuguefe, fenfible of the im-

portance

NEG

portance of this city, as foon as they had poffeffion of it,
fecured it by walls, andimproved it ina variety of refpects,
fo that it became a beautiful city, adorned with feveral fine
churches, and a fuperb college, belonging to the Jefuits.
When they loft the ifland of Ceylon, the Dutch became
matters of it; by them it was fortified, and retained till, in
the year 1782, it was captured by the Englifh, to whom it
was ceded by the treaty of peace in 1783. It has broad
{treets, convenient though ancient houfes, handfome churches,
and in its environs a great number of pagodas, fome of
which are richly ornamented, and others mean. Negapatam
is a place of confiderable trade, being inhabited by various
defcriptions of Indians, as well as Moors and Armenians,
and guarded by a fortrefs. It is principally valuable on ac-
count of its local pofition. NN. lat. 10° 46’. E. long. 79°
6! gg!

NEGAPATLA, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carna-
tic; 30 miles N.N.W. of Bomrauzepollam. ?

NEGARA, atownof the ifland of Borneo, and capital
of the kingdom of Banjer-Maffing, fituated near a large
river, which runs into the fea; 100 miles from the fea, and
60 N. from the townof Banjer-Mafling.

NEGATION, in Logic, an a& whereby the mind fepa-
rates one idea from another ; or affirms the one to be different
from the other ; asthe foul is not matter.

Necation is alfo applied by logicians to not-being, as
it has relation to modes, and denotes the abfence of that
which does not naturally belong to the thing fpoken of,
or which has no right, obligation, or neceffity to be pre-
fent with it. In this fenfe it is oppofed to privation, and was
denominated in the {chools ab/entia habitus.

NEGATIVE, a term that denies, or implies a denial of
any thing.

Logicians, &c. fay a negative cannot be proved but by
converting it into an affirmative.

Necative Heretics, in the language of the Inquilition,
are thofe who, being accufed of herefy, by witnefies whofe
evidence they do not deny, {till keep on the negative, make
open profeffion of the Catholic doétrine, and declare their
@bborrence of herefy. {

There are alfo neyative /chi/ms, as well as pofitive ones.—
In the negative, it is fufficient to rejeé&t the errors of a church,
without feparating from it, or fetting up a dittinct fociety.

Necarive Penalties, the laws whereby certain perfons
are excluded from honours, dignities, &c. without infli¢ting
any direct and pofitive pains on them.

NeGative Power, in Algebra, See Power.

Necartive Pregnant, in Law, a negative which implies
or brin.s forth an aflirmative.

As if a man, being impleaded to have done a thing on
fuch a day, in fuch a place, denies he did it, modo et forma
declarata ; which implies, neverthelefs, that he did it in fome
for).

NEGATIVE Quantity, in Algebra.

See QUANTITY.
NEGATIVE Sign.

The ufe of the negative fign, in alge-

bra, is attended with feveral confequences that at firlt fight
are admitted with difficulty, and has fometimes given occa-
fion to notions that feem to have no real foundation. This
ficn implies that the real value of the quantity reprefented

by ch« letter to which it 19 prefixed, is to be fubtracted; and
it ferves, with the politive lign, to keep in view what ele-
menté or parts enter jnto the compolition of quantities, and

in what manner, whether as increments or decrements (that
is, whether by addition or fubtraétion), which is of the
greatelt ule in this art.

In coufequence of this, it ferves to exprefs a quantity of
un oppofite quality to the pofitive, as a line in a contrary

NUELG

pofition ; a motion with an oppofite direétion ; or a centrifu-
gal force in oppofition to gravity, and thus often faves the
trouble of diftinguifhing, and demonftrating feparately, the
various cafes of proportions, and preferves their analogy in
view. But as the proportions of lines depend on their mag-
nitude only, without regard to their pofition ; and motions
and forces are faid to be equal or unequal, in any given ratio,
without regard to their directions; and, in general, the pro-
portion of quantities relates to their magnitude only, with- -
out determining whether they are to be confidered as incre-
ments or decrements; fo there is no ground to imagine any
other proportion of — 6 and + a (or of — 1and 1) than
that of the real magnitudes of the quantities reprefented by
anda, whether thefe quantities are, inany particular cafe,
to be added or fubtra¢ted. It is the fame thing to fubtra&t -
a decrement as to add an equal increment,, or to fubtraét — 6
from a — b, as toadd + 4 to it: and becaufe multiplying
a quantity by a negative number implies only a repeated fub-
tration of it, the multiplying — 4 by — a, is fubtraéting
— 6 as often as there are units inn; and is therefore equiva-
lent to adding + 5 fo many times, or the fame as adding
+26. But if we infer from this, that 1 isto — 2 as — 6
ton, according to the rule, that unit isto one of the fac-
tors as the other factor is to the produG, there is no ground
to imagine that there is any myftery in this, or any other
meaning than that the real magnitudes reprefented, by 1, 2,
4, andn 4, are proportional. For that rule relates only to
the magnitude of the faétors and produét, without deter-
mining whether any faétor, or the produét, is to be added, °
or fubtraéted. But this likewife muft be determined in al-
gebraic computations; and this is the proper ufe of the
rules concerning the figns, without which the operation
could not proceed. Becaufe a quantity to be fubtratted is
never produced in compofition, by any repeated addition of
a politive, or repeated fubtraétion of a negative, a negative
{quare number is never produced by compofition from the

root. Hence, “—-1, or the f{quare root of a negative,
implies an imaginary quantity : and, in refolution, is a mark
or charaéter of the impoffible cafes of a problem, unlefs it
is compenfated by another imaginary fymbol, or fuppofition,
when the whole expreffion may have a real fignification.

Thus, 1 + “— 1,and1 — — 1, taken feparately, are
imaginary, but their fum is 2 ; as the conditions that fepa-
rately would render the folution of a problem impoffible, in
fome cafes deftroy each other’s effet, when conjoined. In
the purfuit of general conclufions, and of fimple forms re-
prefenting them, expreffions of this kind mutt fometimes
arife where the imaginary fymbol is compenfated in a manner
that is not always {fo obvious.

By proper fubftitutions, however, the expreffion may be
transformed into another, wherein each particular term may
have a real fignification as well as the whole expreffion. The
theorems that are fometimes briefly difcovered by the ufe of
this fymbol, may be demonitrated without it, by the inverfe.
operation, or fome other way ; and though fuch fymbols are
of fome ufe in the computations by the method of fluxions,
its evidence cannot be faid to depend upon arts of this kind.
See Maclaurin’s Fluxions, book ii. chap. 1.

NEGATIVELY, Necarivs, in the fchool philofophy,
is varioufly ufed, in contradiftinGtion to pofitive. See
Positive.

NEGELSTADT, in Geography, a town of Saxony, in
Thuringia ; 10 miles S.E. of Mublhaufen.

NEGEM, a town of Arabia, in the province of Hedsjas,
or Hedjas ; 30 miles W. of Giorafh, —

NEGGADE. See Nekkapve.

NEGILA,

NEG

NEGILA, a tolerably well-built town, or rather a vil-
lage, of Egypt, on the eaft bank of the Nile, within one-
fourth of a league from Zaira.

NEGKO, the. name of a clafs of iflands in the Eaftern
Pacific ocean, between Kamtfchatka and America, contain-
ing the fixteen that are called Andreanoffkie [lands ; which
fee.

NEGOIESZTI, a town of Walachia, feated on the
Artifch, where the Ruffians had a garrifon in 17733 25
miles §.E. of Bucharett.

NEGOMBO, Nicompo, or Nizumbo, the largeft village
in the ifland of Ceylon, and containing, for its fize, the greatett
number of inhabitants, built by the Portuguefe, and taken
from them by the Dutch, is fituated on the fea-coaft ina
highly pi€turefque f{pot, accounted one of the healthieft in
the ifland ; 24 miles N. of Columbo. Many Dutch refide
in this place, on account of the pleafantnefs and falubrity
of its fituation ; and warehoufes and gardens are fcattered up
and down in delightful groves of cocoa-nut and other trees.
‘The Dutch built a fort here for the proteGtion of the cin-
namon-cutters, as a confiderable quantity of that fpice grows
in the adjacent diftri&. Store-houfes are alfo ereéted in the
fort, where the cinnamon, after being dried, is lodged, till
aa opportunity offers for conveying it to Columbo. This
’ cinnamon is reckoned equal in quality to any in the ifland.
The fort is not flrong, but is well defended ; and within it
are three long rows of buildings, which ferve for barracks
to the troops, and for ftore-houfes to the cinnamen. The
command is now given to a field-officer, who acts as pre-
fident of the ** Landraed,”’ or civil court, appointed to hear
and determine differences among the natives, and take cog-
nizauce of the crimes committed within this diftrid. Thefe
civil courts exifted under the Dutch, and have been efta-
blifhed by governor North at all the military pofts and
commands round the ifland. Nigumbo is very advan-
tageoufly fituated for carrying on inland trade, particularly
with Columbo and its neighbourhood, as a branch of the
Mulivaddy here runs into the fea. At the mouth of it is
a {mall harbour, where floops and other fmall veffels often
put in and land their cargoes, which are afterwards con-
veyed up the Mulivaddy, and then, by canals which com-
municate with it, to the lake which fkirts the town of
Columbo. One of the principal articles exported from Ni-
gumbo by the inland communications confifts of fifh. This
trade is confidered as the property of government, and is
annually farmed out for feveral thoufand rupees. A Moor,
or Malabar, is ufually the farmer, who is allowed to difpofe
of the fifh caught here, and he employs all the boats be-
longing to the place. The people employed are compelled
by ae authority of government to fifh every day, when the
weather permits, Sundays and particular feltivals excepted.
The fifh, as foon as caught, are put into boats, conveyed by
the rivers and canals during the night, and fold in the
bazars next morning. The fifhermen go into the water up
to the middle of the thighs, carrying in their hands a round
bafket, of a conical form, refembling our wire rat-traps
without the bottom. This they plunge down into the
water as far as the mud.
have caught a fifh by its beating againft the fides of the
bafket, and when this is the cafe, they thruft down their
arm through the hole at the top and take hold of it. They
ftring the fifh, as they catch them, on a piece of rattan or
bamboo, which is faftened round their waift, while the ope-
ration of plunging the bafket is continued. Other perfons
are employed in {olafhing the water all around, in order to
make the fifth go towards the bafket. Befides the produce
of the fifheries, other forts of traffic are carried on at Ni-

Vou. XXIV.

They foon find whether they ,

NEG

gumbo to a confiderable amount. The inhabitants confit
of Moors, Malabars, and Indian Portuguefe ; and it is re-
marked, that the women of thofe cafts, as well as of the native
Cinglefe, are prettier here than at Columbo, and other more
noted places. For its cool, healthy, and pleafant fituation,
Nigumbo is ufually ranked next to Jafnapatam ; though
fome give the preference to Caltura, a delightful village
about 30 miles S. of Columbo. The Englith landed at
Nigumbo in February 1796, and made themfelves matters
of it without oppofition. From Nigumbo fouthward the
road is extremely pleafant ; it is fhaded the whole way, and
there are many refting places provided for travellers. Abont
half way to Columbo is a very large choultry or barrack,
to which the officers of the garrifons frequently refort on
fhooting parties. It is fituated on a molt agreeable fpot,
in the midit of a pi€turefque country ; and fnipe and feveral
{pecies of game abound in this quarter. N.lat.7° 12’. E.

long. 79°48’. Perceval’s Account of Ceylon, p. 108, &c.
NEGR AIS, an ifland near the S.E. coaft of Ava, in
the mouth of the river Perfaim. The Englifh had a factory
in this ifland, chiefly for the purchafe of teak timber. This
ifland was taken pofleffion of by thé Englifh, and a furvey
made of it, by a perfon named Weldon, in the year 1687 ;
and in this ifland the government of Fort St. George efta-
blifhed a fettlement. But it does not appear that much
benefit was derived from the acquifition. At a much later
period, viz. about the year 1751, the Englifh again took
pofleflion of the Negrais, but their affairs were not con-
ducted with prudence, and the fettlement continued in a
{tate of wavering ferment ; the Caffre flaves, who had been
introduced for the purpofe of cultivating the lands, rofe
upon their mafters, and, feizing upon the boats belonging
to the ifland, effe€ted their efcape. Some time afterwards
the Englifh fettlers became unhealthy; and though they
did not evacuate the place, their exertions were rendered lan-
guid by the diminifhed probability of ultimate fuccefs.
Afterwards the Englith fettlers took a decided part with
the Birmans in their conteft with the Peguers; but fome
circumftances occurred that led them to maintain a pee
neutrality, which created fufpicion in the minds of the Bir-
mans; and this fufpicion was proved not to be unfounded
by clandeftine negotiations which took place between the
Englifh and the Pecuers. On the approach of a formidable
armament belonging tothe king of Pegue, the Birmansfought
the co-operation of the Englifh. But they took a decided
part with the enemy, and commenced a fire on the Birman
fleet. Attempts were made on the part of the Birmans,
notwithitanding this hoftile attack, to recover the good
will of the Englifh, and iniftru€tions were given on the part
of the latter to conclude a treaty of amity and alliance with
the Birman monarch. In the progrefs of this treaty, one
of the Englifh deputies, after the king had granted per-
miffion to the company to e(tablifh factories at Dagon and
Baflien, having determined on the total demolition of Syriam,
made a further requifition of the ifland of Negrais. _Whilft
friendfhip and union were thus likely to be eltablifhed be-
tween the Birmans and the fettlement at Negrais, the Pe-
guers hazarded another attempt on the Birman poft at
Dagon, and were again affilted by the Englifh fhips. The
attempt mifcarried, nor was any other enterprife ever under-
taken. Ia 1757, Negrais was negleéted, though not aban-
doned. An Englifh deputy from this ifland was admitted
into the royal prefenee ; and though the Birman monarch
upbraided this deputy with the conduct of his countrymen
in giving encouragement and prote¢tion to the difaflected
Peguers, he referred him to the Portuguefe interpreter and
the Birman governor of Perfaim for a ratification and final
4 K adjuft-

NEG

adjuftment of the treaty. After fome delay, an inftrument
was formally executed, confifting of nine articles. Some
valuable commercial immunities were by thefe ceded to the
India company ; the ifland of Negrais was granted to them
in perpetuity, together with a piece of ground oppofite to
the old town of Perfaim, for the purpofe of ereéting a fac-
tory ; in return for which, the company engaged to pay an
annual tribute, confifting of ordnance and military ftores.
The king fanétioned this agreement. Negrais was, con-
fequently, continued in the poffeffion of the Englifh, and the
allotted portion of ground was a¢tually meafured. During
the abfence of Alompea, the Birman fovereign, upon a
military expedition, the Peguers made an infurreétion, and
the Englifh at Negrais were fufpe&ed of having been in-
ftrumental in producing it. Prejudices, of courfe, were
excited againft them, and they were reprefented to the
Birman monarch as perfidious, hoftile to his government,
and confpiring to effe& its overthrow. The affairs of the
Britifh government in India did not allow the neceffary fup-
plies for the fupport of the fettlement at Negrais ; and on
the 14th of May, captain Newton, who was recalled, reached
Bengal with 35 Europeans and 70 natives; having left a
few perfons to take care of the teak timber and materials for
fhip-building, that could not be conveniently removed, and
to preferve the right of poffeffion, if it fhould be determined
at any future time to re-eftablifh the fettlement. Soon after
this event, a deputy was fent from Bengal to execute the
bufinefs above-mentioned, and to take up his refidence.
But, by treachery and maffacre, he and the former refident
were put to death at a feaft prepared for them, together
with five other Europeans. Thus all the fettlers were either
murdered or difperfed by the favage contrivance of Antonio,
Portuguefe interpreter to the Birman monarch ; and a hor-
rid fcene of unburied bodies fome time after prefented itfelf
to thofe who vifired the ifland. Notwithftanding this un-
accountable conduét, attempts were afterwards made to con-
ciliate the Birman monarch, and to obtain redrefs for the
injury that had been committed, and they were not alto-
gether ineffeGtual. N, lat. 16°. E. long. 95° 32’. Symes’s
Embafly to Ava, vol.i. See Birman Empire.

Necrais, Cape, a cape on the coaft of Ava, in the bay
of Bengal. N. lat. 16°. E. long. 94° 25’. See Ava.

NEGRARO, a town of Italy, in the Veronefe ; 6 miles
N. of Verona.

NEGREPELISSE, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lot, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri&
of Montauban; 7 miles N-.E. of it. The place contains
3126, and the canton 10,003 inhabitants, ona territory of
230 kiliometres, in 8 communes. N. lat. 44°4!. E. long.
1° 36"

NEGRI, Down Francesco, in Biography, a Venetian
ecclefiaftic, difciple of Lolli, an excellent performer on the
harpfichord and violin, a compofer of initrumental mufic, of
motets and cantatas ; but a mafs of his compofition, which
was performed at a concerto fpirituale for Geminiani’s
benefit in 1750, we thought at that time the fineft mufic we
had ever heard.

NEGRIL Hargsour, North, in Geography, a bay at the
W. end of the ifland of Jamaica, having North Negril point
on the N., which is the moft welterly point of the ifland of
Jamaica, and South Negril point on the S. N. lat. 18° 22’.
W. long 78° 21’.

NEGRILLOS, a clufter of fmall iflands in the Pacific
ocean, near the coaft of Peru.

NEGRO Cape. and Harbour lie at the S.W. extremity
af Nova Scotia,

NEG

Necro Point lies on the E. coaft of Brafil, 3 leagues
S.S.E. from the Rio Grande, and 14 from cape St. Rocque.

Necro River, the weftern boundary of Guiana, in South
America.

Necro, in Ornithology, the name of a large bird, approach-
ing to the crane kind, and more ufually known ameng authors .
by its Brafilian name jabiru.

Necro Oil, in Botany. See Paum-Tree.

NEGROES, a kind of black flaves, which long con-
ftituted, to the difgrace of all civilized countries, a con-
fiderable article in the modern commerce; but which, by
late laudable exertions, has been in a great meafure abolifhed
both in Europe and America. See SLAVE.

The Negroes, alfo called Blacks and Moors, are a people

‘of Africa, whofe country extends on each fide of the river

Niger, and is called Nigritia, though, whether the people
communicated their name to the river, &c. or received it
therefrom, is not eafily determined. For an account of the
diferiminating difpofition and charaéters of the Negroes
exported from Africa to. the Weft Indies, &c. fee Enoxrs,
Koromantess, Manpinc, Mocors, Nacors, and Pa-
pAws. See alfo the article Man. To the account oc-
curring under the feveral articles here referred to, of dif-
ferent defcriptions of Negroes, we fhall here add fome fur-
ther particulars. ‘The Negroes from Congo and An-
gola are fuppofed by Mr. Edwards (Hiit. of the Weft
Indies) to have been originally the fame people with the
Whidah negroes. They are in general a flender, fightly
race, of a deep and glofly black, (a tribe of the Congoes
excepted, who very nearly refemble the Eboes,) and of a
difpofition naturally mild and docile. They feem to be fitter
for domettic fervice than for field labour. They are faid,
however, to become expert mechanics; and they are fup-
pofed to be more ftri€tly honeft than many other of the
African tribes.

But whatever may be the general character and difpofi-
tions of the Negroes in their own country, they are influenced
in a confiderable degree, as we may naturally imagine, by
their condition in a ftate of flavery; a circumftance that
foon effaces the native original impreffion which diftinguithes
one nation from another in Negroes newly imported, and
creates a fimilitude of manners, and an uniformity of cha-
racter throughout the whole body. Although the natives
of the Gold Coaft are reported to be firm and courageous,
yet it is certain, that the Negroes in general in our iflands
(fuch of them at leaft as have been for any length of time
in a ftate of fervitude) are of a diftruftful and cowardly
difpofition. So degrading is flavery, that fortitude of mind
is loit as free agency is rettrained. ‘To the fame caufe may
probably be afcribed their propenfity to conceal, or violate
the truth; which is fo general, that the vice of falfehood is
one of the moft prominent features in their chara&ter. Their
pronenefs to theft is alfo very prevalent. Cowardice and
diffimulation have, indeed, been the properties of flavery in
all ages. This unhappy condition neceflarily fupprefles
many ef the belt affections of the human heart. If it calls
forth any latent virtues, they are thofe of fympathy and
compaffion towards perfons in the fame condition ; and
accordingly it 1s found, that the Negroes in general are
ftrongly attached to their countrymen, but, above all, to
fuch of their companions as came in the fame fhip with them
from Africa. But their benevolence, excepting a few cafes,
extends no farther, The fofter virtues are feldom found in
the bofom of the enflaved African. With {uffictent autho-
rity, he becomes a remorfelefs tyrant. Their treatment of
fubordinate flaves, placed under their inftruétion and go-
vernment, i in a high degree harfh, oppreflive, and cruel.

6

Their

NEGROES.

Their condu& towards the inferior animal creation is fevere
and brutal. It has been faid, however, that notwith{tanding
the felfifh and unrelenting temper of the enflaved Africans,
they are highly fufceptible of love. The Negro, fays
Dr. Robertfon, glows with all the warmth of defire natural
to his climate. The tender paffion, fays another writer, is
the moft ardent one in the breaft of the enflaved African.
It is the only fource of his joys, and his only folace in
affliction. Mr. Edwards entertains doubts of the correét-
nefs of this {tatement. The Negroes in the Welt Indies,
both men and women, would confider it as the greateft ex-
ertion of tyranny, and the molt cruel of all hardfhips, to be
compelled to confine themfelves to a fingle conneétion with
the other fex ; and Mr. Edwards is perfuaded, that any at-

tempt to reftrain their prefent liceftious and diffolute man-’

ners, by introducing the marriage ceremony among them,
which many perfons in Great Britain have ftrenuoufly re-
commended, would be utterly impratticable to any good
purpofe. That paflion, therefore, fays this writer, to which
(dignified by the name of love) is afcribed the power of
foftening ail the miferies of flavery, is mere animal defire,
implanted by the great Author of all things for the preferva-
tion of the fpecies. When, indeed, age mitigates the ar-
dour, and diminifhes the ficklenefs of youth, many of them
form attachments which produce an union for life; fo that it
is not uncommon to obferve‘a venerable couple of this ftamp,
who, tottering under the load of years, contribute to each
other’s comfort, with a chearful afliduity, which is at once
amiable and affeGting. The fituation of aged negroes is faid
to be fuch as to compenfate the hardfhips and fufferings of
their youth. Their labour is diminifhed ; aud they derive
their chief happinefs from the high veneration which the
Negroes in general pay to old age; and this is one of the
mott pleafing traits in their charaéter. The greateft affront
that can be offered to a Negro, is to curfe his father and
mother, or any of his progenitors. Many of them, it is
faid, attain to great longevity. Among other propenfities
and qualities of the Negroes, particular notice 1s taken of
their loquacioufnefs. They are as fond of exhibiting fet
fpeeches, as if they were orators by profeflion; but their
harangues are protraéted and tedious, which they commonly
introduce with a detail of their paft fervices and hardfhips,
particularizing the number of children which they have pre-
fented to “ Maffa,’? or mafter, and the tokens of kindnefs
they have received as evidences of their peculiar merit. In
the imitative arts the Negroes have little knowledge. As
practical muficians, they are generally very deficient, and it
is faid, that they prefer a long and continued noife to the
fineft harmony, and frequently confume the whole night in
beating on a board with a ftick; which is one of their
favourite mufical inftruments. Befides this, they have the
« banja,” or ‘¢ merriwang,”’ which isa kind of violoncello,
played on by the finger like the guitar, and producing a dif-
mal monotony of four notes, the ‘¢dundo,’’ which is pre-
cifely a tabor, and the ‘* goombay,”’ which is a ruftic drum,
formed of a hollow tree, one end of which is covered with
a theep’s fkin. Their fongs are commonly impromptu, and
among them there are individuals, who refemble the impro-
vifatore, or extempore bards of Italy, but their poetry
merits little commendation. ‘Their tunes ia general are
charaGteriftic of their national manners ; thofe of the Eboes
being foft and languifhing, and that of the Koromautyns
heroic and martial. At the fame time there is obj/ervable,
in moft of them, a predominant melancholy, which, to a man
of feeling, is fometimes very affeGing. At their merry-
makings, and midnight feftivals, their fongs, which are oc-
cafionally fraught with ridicule and derifion, manifefted to-

wards one another, or their employers, abound with obfcene
ribaldry, and are accompanied with dances in the higheft
degree licentious and wanton. Their funeral fongs are of
the heroic or martial caft, and fome of them exhibit a Pyrr-
hic or warlike dance, in which their bodies are much con-
tufed by running, leaping, and jumping, with many violent
and frantic geftures and contortions. ih fongs of the latter
kind, it is thought by fome, that the Negroes confider
death as a welcome feleafe from the calamities of their
condition, and as a pafsport to the place of their nati-
vity, by which they are reltored to the fociety of their
deareft, long-loit, and lamented relatives in Africa. Others
are of opinion, that this reprefentation is a mere figment of
the imagination. The Negroes are fo far from courting
death, that they feem to dread approaching diffolution no
lefs than the whites. Inftead of rejoicing at a fudden death,
they impute it to the malicious contrivances and diabolical
aus of fome pra¢titioners, in what they call Obaah; which
ee.

The origin of Negroes, and the caufe of that remarkable
difference in complexion from the reft of mankind, has much
perplexed the naturalifts; nor has any thing very fatisfa@tory
been yet offered on that head.

Mr. Boyle has obferyed, that the heat of the climates
cannot be the true caufe of the colour of Negroes; for
though the heat of the fun may darken the colour of the
fkin, yet experience does not fhew that heat is fufficient to
produce a true blacknefs, like that of Negroes. In Africa
itfelf, many nations of Aithiopia are not Negroes, nor were
there any blacks originally in the Weft Indies.

In many parts of Afia, under the fame parallel with the
African regions, inhabited by blacks, the people are but
tawny. He adds, that there are Negroes in Africa, be-
yond the fouthern tropic, and that a river fometimes parts
nations, one of which is black, and the other but tawny.
Boyle’s Works Abr. vol. ii. p. 42. 44.

Dr. Barrere alleges, that the gall of Negroes is black,
and being mixed with their blood, is depofited between their
fkin and fearf-fkin, Diff. on the Phyf. Caufe of the Colour
of Negroes,

We have a differtation on this head by Dr. John Mitchell,
of Virginia, in the Philofophical Tranfactions, N° 476.
fect. 4, where he advances thefe propofitions, and enters into
a learned detail to fupport them.

1. The colour of white people proceeds from the colour
which the epidermis tranfmits; that is, from the colour of
the parts under the epidermis, rather than from any colour
of its own,

2. The {kins of Negroes are of a thicker fub{tance, and
denfer texture, than thofe of white people, and tran{mit no
colour through them.

3- The part of the fkin which appears black in Negroes,
is the corpus reticulare cutis, and external lamella of the epi-
dermis: all other parts are the fame colour in them with
thofe of other people, except the fibres which pafs between
thofe two parts.

4. The colour of Negroes does not proceed from any
black humour, or fluid parts contained in their fkins ; there
being none fuch in any part of their bodies, more than in
white people.

5- The epidermis, efpecially its external lamella, is di-
vided into two parts by its pores and f{cales, two hundred
ae lefs than the particles of bodies on which their colours

epend,

This is founded on Leeuwenhoek’s obferyation, that a
portion of the epidermis, no bigger than what can be dif-
cerned by the naked eye, is divided into 125,000 pores, and

4K2 thefe

NEGROES.

thefe pores mutt divide fuch a portion of the fkin into as
many particles. But the particles of bodies on which their
colours depend, are, by fir Ifaac Newton’s Optics, lib. ii.
p-3- prop. 7. 600 times lefs than thofe which can be dif-
cerned by the naked eye. Therefore, the particles of the
fkin muft be about 200 times lefs than thefe; fince 223252
= 208%. It may alfo be obferved, that fuch a fmall por-
tion of the epidermis is divifible into 250 fcales, which muft
increafe the number of its parts. ig

6. From thefe propofitions, and from fir Ifaac Newton’s
theory of light and colours, the doctor thinks he may con-
clude, that the proximate caufe of the colour of Negroes is
threefold ; viz. the opacity of their fkin, proceeding from
the thicknefs and denfity of its texture, which obftru€ts the

tranfmiffion of the rays of light, from the white and red

parts under the fkin, together with its greater refractive
power, which abforbs thefe rays; and the {mallnefs of the
particles of this fkin, which hinders it from refle¢ting any
light.

7. The influence of the fun in hot countries, and the
manner of life of their inhabitants, are the remote caufes of
the colour of Negroes, Indians, &c. And the ways of
living in ufe amongtt moft nations of white people, make
their colours whiter than they were originally, or would be
naturally.

In fupport of this propofition, the doétor obferves, that
the {kin is deprived of its white colour, by the force and in-
fluence of the fun, four ways. ft. By being rendered
opaque, from a diffipation of its more aqueous and pellucid
juices. 2dly. By aconcretion of its veffels and glandules,
from this diffipation of its more aqueous contents, which
renders the fkin both thicker and denfer, or more callous
and rigid. 3dly. By a new accretion of many new mem-
branes, which render it thick and opaque. 4thly. By in-
creafing thofe parts or principles, in the compofition of the
epidermis, which have the greatett refractive power; as the
terrettrial and fixed faline; but efpecially the tenaceous {ul-
phureous, which refraét and abforb light more ftrongly than
any other fubftances; while the more tranfparent and pellucid
principles, as the aqueous, fpirituous, and volatile faline,
are evaporated ‘by the heat, which caufes the other more
fixed principles to be accumulated ; and thefe particles being
likewife more comminuted by ¢he fun, will, on this account,
be black; as happens to oil when well boiled. Thefe
cafes, with thofe firft mentioned, may, the do¢tor thinks,
by confpiring, make the fin quite black ; efpecially if we
add another effect of the fun’s power, a peculiar necrofis
of the epidermis, occalioned by the forcible vibrations,
contractions, and exficcations of its fibres by the fun-beams,
which caufe it to turn black, as thefe, or other parts do, by
the heat of an inflammation, or a fever, in yangrenes, black
tongues, &c.

We cannot pretend to follow the author in all the detail
of his obfervations on this fubject, nor of his anfwer to a
material objection already mentioned from Mr. Boyle, that
the fun cannot be the caufe of the colour of Negroes, be-
caufe feveral nations, in the fame latitude with thofe Negroes,
are not made black by it. He feems to think “he heat! of
Africa greater than that of other parts of the world) Whe-
ther it be fo, or not, is, we apprehend, not eafy to deter-
mine ; but it would be a {trong confirmation of his doctrine,
if we could fee ahy people, originally white, become black
and woolly by tranfplantation, or vice wer/a.

Mr. Buffon, and many other writers, have attributed the
colour of the Negroes to the influence of the climate. ‘Sce
a flatement and examination of this opinion under the article
Man. See alfo InrxGumeNnTs. Concerning the corporeal

5

form and mental capacities of Negroes, fee Man, and alfo
CRANIUM. :

Negroes have been brought from Guinea, and other coalts
of Africa, and fent into the colonies in America, to culti-
vate fugar, tobacco, indigo, &c. and Peru and Mexico, to
dig in the mines. This commerce, which is altogether in-
defenfible on the principles either of religion or humanity,
has been carried on by all the nations that have fettlements
in the Weft Indies; particularly by the Englifh, Dutch,
Spaniards, and Portuguefe.

For an account of the rife, progrefs, and abolition of this
infamous traffic in human beings, we refer to the article
Suave-Trade. See allo Asstenro.

There are various ways of procuring thefe Negroes:
fome, to avoid famine, fell themfelves, their wives, and chil-
dren to their princes, or great men, who have wherewithal
to fubfift them. Some are born to flavery, and fold by
great men as their property. Someare fold, together with
their families, for debt. Adultery is punifhed by felling the
offending parties. Obi, or pretended witchcraft, is alfo pu-
nifhed in the fame manner. There are varions other crimes
which fubje@& the offender and his children to be fold.
Others are made prifoners in war ; and great numbers feized
in excurfions made for that very purpofe by the petty princes
upon one another’s territories ; in which it is ufual to {weep
away all both old and young, male and female.

The Negroes make a frequent praétice of furprifing one
another while the European veffels are at anchor, and drag-
ing thofe they have caught to them, and felling themin
{pite of themfelves ; and it is no extraordinary thing to fee
the fon fell, after this manner, his father or mother, and the
father his own children, for a few bottles of brandy, or a bar
of iron.

It is not eafy to obtain a precife and fatisfa@tory account
of the means by which the market for flaves has been annu-
ally kept up and fupported in Africa. Many nefarious
practices were unquettionably recurred to for this purpofe.
But the inltances that have been given of flavery arifing from
captivity in war, delinquency, and debt, feem to be inade-
quate to the regular fupply that furnifhed an annual export of
74,000 perfons. Befides thisnumber multitudes were pro-
cured from the nations bordering on the rivers of Senegal
and Gambia, for the emperor of Morocco and the ftates of
Barbary. Caravans have alfo travelled from thence acrofs the
continent to Upper Egypt with confiderable fupplies of Ne-
groes, fome of which were fent afterwards to Conftantinople.
Great numbers of flaves have likewife been fent from Mo-
zambique, and the ports on the eaftern coaft, to Perfia, Goa,
and other parts of the Eatt Indies. Henceit has been calcu-
lated that Africa has been drained annually of no lefs than
150,000 of its natives.

As foon as the fhip has its complement, it immediately
makes off; the poor ,wretches, while yet in fight of their
country, falling into fuch deep grief and defpair in the paf-
fage, that a great part of them languifh, fall into ficknefs,
and die: while others of them difpatch themfelves. The
only fure means to preferve them, is to have fome matical
inftrament play to them, be it ever fo mean. But this excef-
five love for their country abates as they get farther off. For
other particulars, fee SLAVE-Trade.

It is now laid down, that a flave or negro, the inftant he
lands in England, becomes a free man; that is, fo far as that
the law would proteé him in the enjoyment of his perfon
and property. But with regard to any right which the matter
may have acqmred to the perpetual fervice of John or
Thomas, ‘this will remain exactly in the fame ftate as be-
fore. Hence alfo it follows, that the infamous and unchrif-

tian

NEG

tian practice of withholding baptifm from negro fervants,
leit they fhould thereby gain their liberty, is totally without
foundation, as well as without excufe ; for the flave is in-
titled to the fame protection in England before, as after
baptifm, and whatever fervice the heathen negro owed to
his American matter, the fame he is bound to render, when
brought to England and made a Chriftian. Blackit. Com.
book i. p. 425. :

Necroes, J/land of, or Buglas, in Geography, one of the
Philippine iflands, about 240 miles in circumference, abound-
ing in rice, for which the inhabitants pay tribute: it fup-
plies Sebu and other adjacent parts. It derives its name
from the blacks with curled hair, who occupy the moun-
tains, and among whom the lands, both on the tops and the
fides of the mountains, are diltributed. Their inteftine wars
are frequent and fatal, as they ufe poifoned arrows, which
are headed with iron, flint, bone, or wood hardened in the
fire. The mouths of the river are occupied by another tribe
of blacks, who have no intercourfe with the others, and who
give the Spaniards, to whom they are inveterately hoftile,
no quarter. When the ifland is invaded by pirates, they
defend it by their arms, and having accomplifhed this fer-
vice, which they perform as the old lords of the ifland,
they retire. The Bifays, who live on the plain and are molt
numerous on the W. fide, fupply thefe blacks with rice,
as an acknowledgment for permiffion to fettle there, and
the blacks in return furnifh them with wax. The ifland
contains about 3000 perlons, who pay tribute, and are go-
~ verned by a correyidore and a military commander. ‘Vhe
cacao, which the ifland produces, was firft brought to the
Philippines from New. Spain: the rice is produced in the
mountains without watering. N. lat. 10° ro’. E. long.
122° 30).

NEGROLAND, or Nicriria, an immenfe extent of
country in the interior part of Africa, comprehending many
large and populous kingdoms, and extending from W. long.

°'to E. long. 27°, and from 10° to 25" N. lat.; bounded on
the N. by Sahara and mountains that feparate it from Bar-
bary, on the E. by Nubia and Abyflinia, onthe S. by
Guinea and unknown countries, and on the W. by Guinea.
The Arabs call the country denominated by European geo-
graphers Nigritia, Soudan, and the natives give it the name
of Aafnou, both words denoting “ the land of the Blacks ;”
but all thefe appellations alike apply only to a part of the
extenfive region to which their proper import belongs: but
in this limited fenfe, the term Soudan is differently ufed :
whilft fome of the Africans reftri€t it to the empire of
Cafbna, N. of the Niger, (which fee). Others extend it to
the Negro ftates on the S. of theriver. Some parts, efpeci-
ally near the Niger, are reprefented as very fertile, others are
no lefs fandy and defert. The population muft be very
confiderable, as it has been a fource of ample fupply to
European traders.

NEGROPONT, a large and important ifland of the Gre-
eian Archipelago, about 100 Britifh miles in length by 20
in breadth, formerly called Eubca, which fee. It is di-
vided from the continent by a ftrait anciently denominated
Euripus, now the gulf of Negropont, of fuch narrow ex-
tent near the capital, thata galley can hardly pafs through ;
and joined to the continent by a bridge, as it was formerly
thought to have been conneéted by anilthmus. ‘The ifland
is remarkable for its fertility, and the level parts produce
in great abundance grain, wine, oil, and all kinds of ex-
cellent fruits. ‘The mountains are for a great part of the
year covered with fnow; the higheft is called Oche. The
moft noted of its capes are Capo d'Oro, or Capo Chimi,
Capo Figara, anciently Caphareus, and Capo Liter, formerly

NEH

Cenzum, This ifland had once many confiderable cities ;
but the only places now worthy of notice are Negropont
and Caftel Roffo. It was taken from the Venetians in 1740
by Mahomet II. N. lat. 38° to 39°10. E. long. 23°
10! to 24° 44!.

Neororonr, called alfo LZgripo, a fea-port town on the W.
coalt of the above-mentioned ifland, fuppofed to be fituated
on the ruins of the ancient Chalcis, the capital of the ifland.
The admiral of Turkey, who is governor of the ifland and
the adjacent parts of Greece, refides here; and the harbour
is feldom without a fleet of gallies. It is the fee of a Greek
bifhop. N. lat. 38° 30!. E. long. 23° 54'.

NEHAVEND, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Irak; fuppofed by fabulous tradition to have been built by
Noah, and from him at firft called Noahavend. In the year
638, Jezdegird, king of Perfia, loft his life and kingdom in
a battle at this place with the caliph Omar; 200 miles N. of
If{pahan.

NEHEIM, a town of Weftphalia; 48 miles N.E. of
Cologre.—Alfo, a town of Weltphalia, in the bifhopric of
Paderborn ; 12 miles N.E. of Paderborn.

NEHEMIAH, fometimes called the /econd book of Ezra,
a canonical book of the Old Teftament, fo called from the
name of its author. Nehemiah was the fon of Hilkiah,
of the tribe of Levi, was born at Babylon during the cap-
tivity, and fucceeded Ezra in the government ef Judah and
Jerufalen. He was a Jew, and was promoted to the office
of cup-bearer to Artaxerxes Longimanus, king of Perfia;
when the opportunities he had of being daily in the king’s
prefence, together with the favour of Efther, the queen,
procured him liberty to repair and fortify the city of Jeru-
falem, in the fame manner as it was before its deftruétion by
the Babylonians. On his going to Jerufalem, in the 2oth
year of the reign of Artaxerxes, he finifhed the rebuilding of
the walls in 52 days, and dedicated the gates of the city with
great folemnity. He then reformed fome abufes which had
creptin among his countrymen. The hiftory of thefe tranf-
actions is the fubjéét of this book,

Nehemiah, after ftaying twelve years at Jerufalem, re-
turned to Babylon; and having continued in Babylon for
feveral years, he obtained leave of the king of Perfia te
go and end his days in his own country; where he died
about the end of the reign of Darius Nothus, or in the be-
ginning of that of Artaxerxes Mnemon. To the chreno-
logy of this book it has been objeéted, that in chap. xii.
22. mention is made of the reign of Darius Codomannus,
and of the high-prieft Jaddua, who went to meet Alexander
the Great ; and that it is morally impoflible that Nehemiah
fhould have lived to that time ; becaufe from the zoth year
of Artaxerxes Longimanus to the reign of Darius Codoman-
nus and the prieithood of Jaddua, there was an interval of
more than 100 years. For the folution of this difficulty
it has been fuggeited, that it is not certain that Darius,
mentioned in this place, was Darius Codomannus; pro-
bably this was Darius Nothus, who died about 40 years
after the 2oth year of Artaxerxes Longimanus; and it is
not faid, that Jaddua or Jaddus was high-prieft already.
He might have been born towards the end of the reign of
Darius Nothus, or in the beginning of the reign of
Mnemon, and might {till have been alive in the time of
Alexander. But it 1s probable, that what is faid in this
place, from the beginning to the 27th verfe of the rath
chapter, was an interpolation, or added afterwards, as it
has no conneétion with what goes before or comes after,
and interrupts the feries of the hiftory. For Nehemiah,
after he had related in what manner he had rebuiit the
walls of the city of Jerufalem, in the 11th chapter, gives

us

NEI

us a catalogue of the families and perfons who inhabited it.
It was natural that he fhould afterwards give an account of
the dedication of the city walls, which begins at the 27th
verfe : and the whole of that which is faid between thefe
two accounts concerning the fucceffion of the Levites and
high-priefts feems foreign to the purpofe. Dupin’s Hilt.
Canon.

NEHERPOUR, in Geography, a town of Hindoottan,
in Oude; 34 miles N.E. of Manickpour.

NEHKON, a principality of Yemen, in Arabia, which is
a {mall diftri€& between Dsjof and Hafchid-u-Bekil. The
{cheick is an independent prince, who poffefles a few {mall
inconfiderable towns, with a fertile mountain, on which are
many villages. The inhabitants of Dieban are free; but
they always join the fcheick of Nehkon in his wars with the
Imam.

NEHLA, atown of Hindooftan, in the circar of Jyena-

ur; to miles N. of Jyenagur.

NEHOTENAN, a town of Cochinchina, on a river
which runs into the Chinefe fea, forming at its mouth a bay.
N. lat. 12° 55’. E. long. 109° 9!.

NEHRWALEH, a town of Hindooftan, and the an-
cient capital of Guzerat; which city, together with the
whole of the peninfula, fell into the hands of Sultan Mah-
mood in 1024; four years before his death ; 12 miles S.E.
of Puttau.

NEHURSCHDORFF,atown of Bohemia, in the circle
of Kaurzim; 14 miles E. of Prague.

NEIA, atown of Naples, in Calabria Citra; 8 miles
S.W. of Bifignano. f

NEIDA, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 9 miles S.E.
of Hardeburg.

NEIDAGY, a town of Auftria; 8 miles W.S.W. of
Sonneberg.

NEIDEK, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Eln-
bogen ; 8 miles S. of Joachinftal.

NEIDENAU, a town of Wurtemberg, on the Jaxt ; 9
miles N.of Heilbronn.

NEIDENBURG, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Oberland ; 80 miles S. of Konigfberg. N. lat. 53° 12’. E.
long. 20° 23. -

NEIDENSTEIN, atown of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Heffe ; g miles S.W. of Caffel. N. lat. 51° 12.
E. long. 9° 15).

NEIJFALEN, a town of Auttria; ro miles S.S.E. of
Aigen.

NEIFE, Nariva, in our Ancient Cufloms, a bond-woman,
or fhe villain, born in one’s houfe. g Rich. II. cap. 2.

Anciently, lords of manors fold, gave, or afligned their
neifes, and natives. See SLAVE, VILLAIN, Kc.

NEIFFEN, or Neurren, in Geography, a town of Wur-
temberg; 17 miles S.S.E. of Stuttgart. N. lat. 48° 32!.
E. long. 9° 25!.

NEIFTY, Writ of, in our Ancient Cuftoms, is an ancient
writ, whereby the lord claimed fuch a woman for his niefe.

NEILSVILLE, in Geography, a town of America,
in Tazewell county, Virginia; 342 miles W. from Wath-
ington.

NEIMPHY, a town of Meckley ; 96 miles S.S.E. of
Munnypour.

NEINJUSTE Vexes, in Law, a writ founded on Magna
Charta, cap. 10. which lies for a tenant in fee fimple againft
the lord forbidding him to diftrain on the tenant for more fer-
vice than he ought to perform; particularly when he has
formerly prejudiced himfelf by doing or paying more than
he needed.

NEIR ibn Marend, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in

NEI
the province of Nedsjed or Neged; 110 miles N.E. of

Mecca.

NEIRA, one of the Banda iflands, the firft in rank and
feat of government, with a fpacious and commodious har-
bour, but difficult of accefs ; in which fhips anchor under
two forts. Its annual fupply is about 8000 pounds of nut-
megs, and 2000 of mace. In this ifland are two towns,
one of its own name, and the other called Labetacka. S.
lat. 4° 8’. E. long. 130° 37!. ;

NEISAPOUR, Nessapour, or Nifabur, a town of
Perfia, in the province of Chorafan, which was deftroyed,
with a dreadful flaughter of its inhabitants, by Jenghis-
khan; 150 miles N.W. of Herat. N. lat. 36° 20’. E. long.
57° 10".

NEISCHLOT, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Viborg, on the lake Saima; 40 miles N. of Viborg. N. lat.
60° 15’. E. long. 28° 24!

NEISIG, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of Bam-
berg ; 15 miles N. of Bamberg.

NEISS, a river of Weftphalia, which runs into the Em-
mer, four miles S.S.E. of Blomberg, in the county of
Lippe.

NEISSE, or Neysse, a principality of Silefia, fome-
times called “ the principality of Grotkau.’”” This princi-
pality, which is environed by thofe of Munfterberg, Brieg,
Oppeln, and Jagerndorf, as well as Moravia and the county
of Glatz, is one of the largeft in Silefia. The fouthern
part is hilly ; but the northern part, being lefs mountainous,
is more fertile. Good horfes are bred in the Neiffe and
Grotkau circles. The latter alfo yields tobacco, and the
former has feveral iron mills. The largett river is the Neiffe,
but the principality comprehends eleven cities. It belongs
to the king of Pruffia; but that part which is contiguous
to Moravia is annexed to the crown of Bohemia. Though
Grotkau is neither a duchy nor principality, yet the bifhop
of Breflau is ufually ftyled prince of Neiffe, and duke of
Grotkau ; and by virtue of this principality takes rank of
all the other places in Silefia.

Nerssx, or Ney/ze, a city of Silefia, and capital of the
above principality. Itis a very itrong place, and is fitu-
ated on the river Neifle, on the oppolite fide of which is a
Pruffian fort, erected in 1743. The king appoints a go-
vernor and commandant : but the prince and bifhop poffeffes
the palace, with a treafury, a court of jultice, a demefne,
and a confiftorial office. After the peace of 'Drefden, a
new fuburb was added to the old ones that were rebuilt,
called Friedrichitadt, lying between Pruffia fort and the
Neiffe, in which is held a court, in his majetty’s name ; 42
miles S. of Breflau. N. lat. 50° 22. E. long. 17° 13!.

NEIssE, a river which rifes ia the N. part of Bohemia,
and after pafling through Lufatia and by feveral towns, en-
ters the Oder about’ 12 miles N.E. of Guben. -

NEISTIFT, a town of Auttria; 16 miles S.E. of
Steyr.

NEISTRIFT, a town of Anttria; 8 miles S.W. of
Sonneberg.

NEITH, in Mythology, the name of Minerva in Egypt.

NEITRA, in Geography, a town of/ Hungary, on a river
of the fame name, the capital of a country, and the fee of
a bifhop.

NEITSERSOAK, an ifland near the W. coaft of Green-
land. N. lat. 63° 22!. W. long. 49° 201.

NEIVANSKOJ, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Ekaterinburg, on the Neiva, which runs into the Tura :
this town has confiderable iron works; 40 miles W. of

Turink.
NEKA.

NiE L

NEKAVIKBAN, a town of Perfian Armenia; 39
miles S.E. of Erivan.

NEKEEL, a town of Egypt, on the left bank of the
Nile; 4 miles S.S.E. of Aboutige.

NEKKADE’, or Necuapa, a town, fometimes called a
city, but rather a village, of Upper Egypt, on the W.
bank of the Nile ; almott entirely peopled by Copts, among
whom are fome Catholics, and the fee of a Coptic bifhop.
The Catholics have here a vicar, and two monks of the
order of Recolle&ts. This place has fome manufaétures
of blue or ftriped cloth, of which they make an article of
trade, that diffufes fome degree of affluence among the in-
habitants.

NEKKE’, a town of Egypt, on the left bank of the
Nile ; 4 miles S. of Momflot.

NEKOUBAN Lakg,a lake of Canada; 24 miles N.W
of Quebec. N. lat. 49° 55’. W. long. 75°

NEKRESE, a town of Afia, in the principality of
Georgia, and province of Kaket; 65 miles N.E. of
Tefiis.

NEKSHAB, or Karsnzi, a town of Grand Bucharia ;
60 miles E. of Bukhara. N. lat. 39° 5!.. E. long. 63° 4o’.

NELANJENUM, in Natural Hiffory, the name of a
curious and peculiar foffile fub{tance, found in the Eaft
Indies. ;

It has much the appearance of fome of our fteel-grained
lead ores, and is very ponderous, but it does not contain
any lead ; in this it approaches to the nature of that fub-
ftance common in Europe, and called blende, or mock-lead ;
but this la{t is foliated, and refembles the plated lead ores,
whereas this refembles the clofe ground ores. It is found in
the beds of rivers in many places; they calcine it, and re-
ducing it to powder, mix it with the juice of herbs, and ufe
it in ulcers. :

NELCYNDA, in Ancient Geography. See NevisurAM.
—Alfo, a town of Arabia, near the mouth of the Red fea;
faid by Arrian to have been a commercial place _

NELEVANGOLE, in Geography, atown of Hindoo-
ftan, in Myfore; 15 miles N.W. of Bangalore.

NELGOOND, a town of Hindooftan, in Vifiapour ;
30 miles W. of Baddammy.

NELISURAM, fomerly Nelcynda, a town of Hin-
dooftan, and capital of a {mall country on the W. coaft, S,
of Canara. This town and diftri&t were ceded to Great
Britain in 1799; 33 miles N.E. of Mangalore. The fort
of Nelifuram is fituated on a river named Cangenecora,
whofe courfe is from the N.E. and falls in about four miles
to the north of mount Della. This Nelifuram, which is
fituated about 12 miles up the river, is confidered by major
Rennell as the place meant by Nelcynda, and Melcynda by
Pliny and Ptolemy ; a place vifited by the Egyptian and
Roman fhips. N. lat. 12° 20’. E. long. 74° 57’.

ELITRIS, in Botany, a name given by Gertner to
the Deca/permum of Forlter, and apparently derived from
yy esr privation, and sAurpov, the cafe of a feed, becaufe
the abfolute want of partitions in the berry, to feparate the
feeds, is [aid to be one of its chief diftinétions from Guaiava,
or Pfidium. Gertn. v. 1. 134. t. 27: The propriety of
changing Forfter’s original name does not appear. Sub-
fequent authors have, like fir Jofeph Banks and Dr. So-
lander, referred the plant in queftion to Pstpium; fee that
article.

NELLA Corvinpum, in Mineralogy. See ADAMAX-
TINE SPAR.

NELLEMBI, or Nivempy-neur, in Geography, a town
of the ifland of Ceylon, about fix or feven miles S. of
€andy, which has occafionally afforded a retreat to the

N E-L

king, and in which he has.a palace and ftore-houfes. N.
lat. 7° 25'. E.long. 80° gol,

NELLENBURG, a landgraviate of Germany, which
confifted formerly of the towns and prefeéturates named
from it, viz. Steckach, Aach, and Thengen, and contained
about 30 boroughs, villages, and a diftri€t 32 miles in cir-
cuit. The landgraviate, diminifhed by the difmemberment
of Thengen, and deprived of the land-court which is held at
Stockach, is governed by a landvogt ; and it has its name
from Nellenburg, a town with a citadel fituated on a moun-
tain, 16 miles N.W. of Conftance.

NELLER, Georce Curistopuer, in Biography, a
learned German writer on ecclefiattical antiquities, and on
the {cience of medals, was born in Franconia in the year
1709. He attained to fome confiderable rank in the church,
and became canon of St. Simeon’s at Treves, privy-coun-
fellor to the prince-ele@or, and doGtor of laws. He ex-
celled in the knowledge of ancient monuments and medals,
of which he had amaffed a fine colleGtion ; but his celebrity
re(ts on his various publications, which confit of differta-
tions that difplay great learning and laborious refearch, but
not without paradoxical notions. He died at Treves in
1783, ‘The titles of a great number of his works are given
in the General Biography, to which we refer our readers.

NELLIPILLY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in the circar of Rajamundry, fituated on the coaft ; 30 miles
S.E. of Rajamundry.

NELLON, in Botany, a name given by fome to rice. It
is an Indian word, and properly fignifies the grain of rice
taken off from the ftalks, but covered with its proper pel-
licle. The firft operation to be performed upon this, is the
beating it with large ftones, or other more manageable tools,
till this fkin flies off. Then it is to be dried in the fun, and,
after that beat a fecond time, to get off its thin, internal,
reddifh coat : when this is done it is in a ftate to be ufed,
and it is then only that the Indians call it arifi, the word
from which we formed our word rice.

NELLORE, in Geography, a town and fortrefs of Hin-
doottan, in the Carnatic, near the Pennar river, and within
16 miles from the fea; 85 miles from Madras. N. lat. 14°
26!.-_ E. long. 79° 57’.

NELLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ; 34 miles S.
of Harponelly.

NELSON, Rosert, in Biography, an excellent divine
of the church of England, was the fon of a confiderable
Turkey merchant, and born at London in the year 1656.
He received the early part of his education at St. Paul’s
{chool, after which he was taken home by his mother, the
father being dead, and placed under the private tuition. of
the learned Dr. Bull, at that time reGtor of Suddington, near
Cirenceiter, Gloucetterfhire. Ata proper age he was fent
to Cambridge, and admitted a fellow-commoner of Trinity
college. Here he fecured tne efteem and affection of all
who knew him; and on one’of his vifits to London he be-
came acquainted with Dr. (afterwards archbifhop) Tillotfon,
and from the congeniality of their chara@ers and difpofitions,
a clofe friendfhip took place between that celebrated divine
and Mr. Nelfon, which was only diffolved by the death of the
former. In the year 1680, Mr. Nelfon was chofen fellow
of the Royal Society, and, being anxious to obtain the im-
provement which a refidence in foreign countries is calculated
to afford, he fet out for Paris with his friend and {chool-
fellow Dr. Halley. On their road to that city, they faw
the remarkable comet which gave rife to fir Ifaac New-
ton’s ** Aftronomy of Comets,’’ andto Dr. Halley's * Sy-
nopfis Cometarum.” While he continued at Paris he had an
invitation to undertake an office at the court of Charles II.

of

NELSON.

of England, which he declined, on account of the averfion
which his mother and other friends had for it. From Paris
the travellers paffed to Rome, where they feparated, and
Mr. Nelfon, after completing what is called the grand tour,
returned to England in the fummer of 1682. At Rome he
met with the widow of fir Kingfmill Lucy, bart., fecond
daughter of the earl of Berkeley; a mutual affe€tion took
place between them, and he married her foon after their
arrival in England. Some time after this union had taken
place, the lady acquainted her hufband with what the had
previoufly concealed from him, viz. that fhe had become a
convert to the Roman Catholic religion. This change in her
religious fentiments had been effeGted by her converfations
at Rome with cardinal Howard, grandfon of the earl of
Arundel, colleGor of the Arundelian marbles, who had
been raifed to that high dignity by pope Clement X. Lady
Nelfon having once avowed an adherence to the Catholic
faith, became a zealous advocate for the papal doctrines,
made aconvert of her daughter, by her former hufband, and
entered into the lifts of controverfy, and is fuppofed to have
written a piece, publifhed in 1686, under the title of «A
Difcourfe concerning a Judge of Controverfy in Matters of
Religion, fhewing the Neceffity of fuch a Judge.” Mr.
Nelfon was filled with grief when he learnt of the dereliétion
of his lady from the principles of the Proteftant faith, and
made every effort in his power to reclaim her, but his at-
tempts, as well as thofe of his friends Tillotfon and Hickes,
were unavailing. The former, however, wrote a long letter
to her on the fubje&, and the latter, on her account, pub-
lifhed his colle&ion of “ Letters,’’ which pafled between
him and a Popihh prieft in 1675. In this colletion is a letter
to an Englifh prieft of the Roman communion at Rome,
which was written by Mr. Nelfon for his lady’s ufe. It was
very fimilar te a view which he took of the fame fubjeé& in
1687, in a piece entitled « Tranfubftantiation contrary to
Scripture: or the Proteftant’s Anfwer to the Seeker’s Re-
quelt.” Lady Nelfon, notwithftanding all the pains taken
to bring her back to the church of England, continued
in the Popifh communion till her death. She was a perfon
of fine underftanding, and had cultivated her mental powers
with great care and fuccefs. Dr. Tillotfon not only lamented
the lofs of this lady from his own church, but probably
dreaded that the influence which fhe had over her hufband’s
mind might wean him from the faith in which he had been
educated. He, however, continued fteady to his principles,
though he travelled in foreign countries with his lady for the
fake of her health, where the temptations to abandon the
Proteftant religion muft have been much flronger than they
could have been at home. In 1691 Mr. Nelfon returned with
his lady, entirely diffatisfied with the revolution that had
taken place in the government three years before, and with
a determination not to transfer his allegiance from king James.
To that prince he fhewed his fteady attachment while he
refided at Florence, by keeping up a correfpondence with
the earl of Melfort, ambaffador from the exiled James to the
pope, and he now avowed himfelf a noujuror, and withdrew
from the communion of the church of England. His
condué in this particular did not difturb the friendfhip that
fubfifted between him and archbifhop Tillotfon, whofe death-
bed he feduloufly attended, and who at length expired in his
arms. After that event he continued his kindnefs to his
grace’s widow, and was very inftrumental in procuring her
penfion from the crown to be augmented from 40o/, to 600/.
per ann. As he now refided in or near the metropolis, a co-
incidence of opinions led him to form an acquaintance with
Mr. Kettlewell, who appointed him fole executor and truttee
to his laft will, and in purfuance of that truft Mr. Nelfon

publifhed fome pofthumous pieces of that worthy divine,
with particulars of his life and charaCter ; aud it was by the
perfuafion of this gentleman that he took up his pen in the
fervice of pietyand devotion, The principal works of Mr.
Nelfon are his ‘‘ Companion for the Feftivals and Fafts of the
Church of England, &c.’? which has been exceedingly po-
pular, and has paffed through 20 or 30 editions: ‘* The
great Duty of frequenting the Chriftian Sacrifice :” “ The
Practice of true Devotion, in relation to the End, as well as
the Means of Religion, with an Office for the Holy Gom-
munion.”? Mr. Nelfon for many years adhered to the com-
munion of thofe bifhops who had been deprived of their fees
by the revolution, but upon the death of Dr. Lloyd, bifhop
of Norwich, in 1709, the laft of that number, except Dr.
Kenn, he joined in communion with the church eftablifhed by
law. Mr. Nelfon died at Kenfington in January 1714—1I5,
in the fifty-ninth year of hisage. He left his whole fortune
to pious and charitable purpofes, to which he had devoted a
great part of his income during life. He was author of many
other pieces befides thofe already noticed, of which may be
mentioned “ The Life of Dr. George Bull, bifhop of St.
David’s, with the Hiftory of the Controverfies in which he
was engaged, &c.:’’ alfo ‘* The Scripture Doétrine of the
moft holy and undivided Trinity, vindicated from the Mif-
reprefentations of Dr. Clarke.’ Biog. Brit.

Netson, Horatio, Lord Vifcount, one of the bravelt
and moft fuccefsful naval commanders that ever appeated in
the world, was the fifth fon of the Rev. Edmund Nelfon,
rector of Burnham Thorpe, in Norfolk, in which county
the family of Nel{cn had long been refident. His lordfhip’s
grandfather was rector of Hilborough, in the fame county,
of which living the family of the Nelfons have been for a
great length of time the patrons. His father married, in
May 1749, Catharine, daughter of Maurice Suckling, D.D.,
by whom he had eight fons and three daughters.

Horatio, the fubjeé&t of the prefent article, was born on
Michaelmas day 1758, in the parfonage-houfe of Burnham
Thorpe. He was firft fent to the high-fchool of Norwich,
from whence he was afterwards removed to North Walfham.
During the Chriftmas holidays of 1770, he read in the news-
paper that his uncle, captain Maurice Suckling, was ap-
pointed tothe Raifonable of 64 guns. Young as he then
was, it is faid he felt a defire of relieving his father from the
burden of fupporting him; and it was the thought of pro-
viding for himfelf that a€tuated him in the requeft that he
now made: ‘ Do, brother William,”’ faid he, * write te
my father, and tell him, I fhould like to go to fea with
uncle Maurice.” Mr. Nelfon did not oppofe the plan, but
wrote to his brother-in-law, who had, previoufly to this,
promifed to provide for one of his nephews in his own pro-
feffion; but this was not the lad he would have chofen,
on account of the extreme delicacy of his conftitution.
«« What,” faid he, in his reply, ‘* has poor Horace done,
who is fo weak, that he, above all the reft, fhould be fent
to roughit out at fea? But let him come, and the firft time
we go into action, a cannon ball may knock off his head,
and provide for him at once."’ In the fpring of 1771, his
father fent him to join the fhip, then lying in the Medway.
When he got on board, captain Suckling ltad not joined,
and the child, then but juft turned of twelve years of age,
paced the deck almoft a whole day without being noticed
by any one. ‘ The pain,’’ fays one of lord Nelfon’s bio-
graphers, ‘ which is felt when we are firft tranfplanted from
our native foil, when the living branch is cut from the pa-
rent tree, is one of the moft poignant that we have to endure
through life. There are after-griefs which wound more
deeply, which leave behind them {cars never to be ence

which

NELSON.

which bruife the fpirit, and fometimes break the heart ; but
never do we feel fo poignantly the want of love, the necef-
fity of being loved, the fenfe of utter defertion, as when we
firft leave the haven of home, and are, as it were, pufhed
off upon the ‘ream of life. Added to this, the fea-boy
has to endure phyfical hardfhips, the privation of every
comfort, even of fleep. Nelfon had a feeble body and an
affetionate heart, and he remembered through life his firit
days of wretchednefs in the fervice.'’ The Raifonable, by
the termination of the difpute with Spain refpe€ting the
Falkland iflands, was foon paid off, and captain Suckling
was appointed to a guard-fhip in the Medway. ‘This he
confidered as too inative a fervice for. his nephew, and ac-
cordingly fent him in a merchant-fhip to the Weft Indies,
under Mr, Rathbone, who had formerly been matter’s mate
with him in the Dreadnought. On his return from this
voyage, he was received by his uncle on board the Triumph,
then lying at Chatham, in the month of July 1772. His
voyage to the Welt Indies, in the merchant fervice, had
given the youth a good praétical knowledge of feamanfhip ;
but it appeared that he had acquired an entire horror of the
royal navy. Captain Suckling beheld with the utmoft
anxiety and diftrefs the prejudices of his nephew, and at firft
attempted to win him over, by working upon his ambition,
a principle which he poflefled in an eminent degree, of be-
coming an excellent and thorough-bred feaman. It was
accordingly held out to the youth, that if he attended to
his duty, he fhould be permitted to go in the cutter and
decked long-boat, which was attached to the commanding
officer’s fhip at Chatham, ‘This operated on the mind of
young Nelfon as it was wifhed; and the confequence re-
fulting from it was, that by degrees he became an excellent
pilot for veffels of that clafs, which failed from Chatham to
the Tower of London, and alfo down the Swin Channel,
and to the North Foreland. In each fubfequent trial of
navigating difficult paflages, or dungerous coalts, he became
more and more equal to the tafk, and felt that confidence
within himfelf which afterwards was a great comfort to him,
and which effentially forms and eftablifhes a great and un-
daunted mind.

In the following f{pring, an expedition of difcovery to-
wards the north pole was fent out under captain Phipps, in
confequence of an application from the Royal Society ; and
though, on account of the extreme difficulty of the fervice,
it was ordered that no boys fhould be received on board, yet
the enterprifing mind of Horatio Nelfon anxioufly folicited
to be appointed coxfwain to captain Lutwidge of the Car-
cafs. The captain, ftruck with the unfubdued fpirit which
he difplayed, admitted him to the office after which he
afpired. During the expedition, captain Phipps, afterwards
lord Mulgrave, took particular notice of the youthful cox-
{wain, and formed that high opinion of his chara¢ter, which
his fubfequent condu&t has more than juftified. The two
veffels, on the 31{t of July, were in a mott perilous fituation,
off the Seven iflands, which is a clufter in the Northern
Frozen ocean, fituated in 80° N. Jat., and nearly 19° E.
long., from becoming fuddenly faft amidft immenfe fields of
ice. The labour of the whole fhip’s company to cut away
the ice proved ineffe€tual: their utmoft efforts, for a whole
day, could not move the fhips above 300 yards. In this
dreadful ftate they continued nearly five days, during which
the young cox{wain, after much folicitation, obtained the
command of a four-oared cutter with twelve men; and he
took pride in imagining ke could navigate her better than
any other boat in the fervice.

Soon after his return, his uncle recommended him to
¢aptain Farmer of the Sea-Horfe, of 20 guns, then going

Vou. XXIV.

to India, in a f{quadron under fir Edward Hughes. Tn this
fhip young Nelfon was ftationed to watch in the fore-top,
whence, in due time, he was placed on the quarter-deck.
The matter foon perceived that he was extremely defirous to
make himfelf acquainted with the minuteft parts of a fea-
man’s duty, and particularly recommended him to the
captain, who rated him as a midfhipman. The fervice
which he went through ftrengthened his conftitution, and he
feemed flout and athletic; but in India he caught one of
thofe malignant difeafes which are frequently fo fatal to
European habits: it totally deprived him for a time of the
ufe of his limbs, and nearly brought him to the grave. In
confequence of this, he returned to Europe with captain
Pigot, in the Dolphin, 1776, in fuch a ftate of weaknefs
that his life was defpaired of; and he attributed the pre-
fervation of it, at this period, to the kindnefs of that officer.
He had, during this voyage, formed an acquaintance with
Thomas (afterwards fir) Trowbridge, and other diftin-
guifhed officers, who, like himfelf, were entering upon
their career of glory, and had left them purfuing it full of
health and enjoyment, while himfelf was returning with a
body broken down by ficknefs, and fpirits dreadfully de-
prefled. Long afterwards he fpoke, almoft with horror,
of the feelings which he at that time endured.‘ I felt im-
prefled,”’ faid he, ** with an idea that I (hould never rife in
my profeffion. My mind was ftaggered with a view of the
difficulties which I had to furmount, and the little intereft I
poffeffed. If, at a moment, I felt the emulation of ambi-
tion, I fhrunk back, as having no means within my power
of reaching the obje&t of my wifhes. After a long and
gloomy reverie, in which I almoft wifhed myfelf overboard,
a fudden glow of patrictifm was kindled within my breatt,
and prefented my king and country as my patrons. Well
then, I exclaimed, I will be a hero, and, confiding in Pro-
vidence, I will brave every danger.’’ From that hour his
defpondence was changed into hope, and, as he told captain
Hardy, a radiant orb was fufpended before his mind’s eye,
which urged him on to renown. Nelfon, fays his bio-
graphers, {poke of thefe afpirations of his youth as if they
had in them a chara@er of divinity, as if

“The light which led him on,
Was light from heaven.””

His fits of dejeGtion, though not unnatural to a great
mind, were, as we fhall fee, altogether caufelefs: his
profpeéts were fair, and his progrefs almoft as rapid as it
could poffibly be. When he reached England, he found his
uncle comptroller of the navy, and was immediately ap-
psinted to a&t as fourth lieutenant of the Worcefter of
64 guns, captain Mark Robinfon, then on the point of
failing with a convoy to Gibraltar; and he was at fea from
this time, September 1776, to the beginning of April of
the next year: and though he had not yet completed his
18th year, captain Robinfon placed the moft unlimited con~=
fidence in him, and declared that he felt equally eafy durin
the night, when it was Nelfon’s watch, as when the olaete
officer on board had charge of the fhip. Mr. Nelfon was
paffed as lieutenant on the roth of April 1777, and the
next day received his commiffion as fecond of the Loweftoffe,
32 guns, captain William Locker. During his examina-
tion, captain Suckling fat at the head of the table, and
when it had ended in a manner moft honourable to him, he
introduced him to the other members of the board as his
nephew. The examining captains exprefled their furprife
that he had not apprifed them of this relationfhip before.
“No,” replied the comptroller, ‘I did not with the
yonker to be favoured: I felt convinced that he would pafs

4L a good

NELSON.

a good examination, and you fee I have not been difap-
» pointed.’” In the Loweftoffe he arrived at Jamaica, but
finding that even a frigate was not fufficiently aétive for his
ardent mind, he folicited an appointment to the command
of a {chooner, tender to the Loweftoffe; and in this {mall
veflel he eagerly availed himfelf of the opportunity of be-
coming a complete pilot for all the intricate paflages through
the keys, fituated north of Hifpaniola. During Mr. Nel-
fon’s continuance in the Loweiltoffe, fhe captured, in a
ftrong gale of wind and a heavy fea, an American letter of
marque. The captain ordered his firft lieutenant to board
her, which he inflantly attempted, but was unable to effec,
owing to the tremendous fea. On his return to the fhip,
the captain exclaimed, ‘* Have J then no officer who can
board the prize?’ On hearing this, the mafter immediately
ran to the gang-way, in order to jump in the boat, when
lieutenant Nelfon fuddenly ftopped him, faying, ‘ It is my
turn now; if I come back, it will be yours.’”’ He no
doubt had made up his mind not to return, unlefs he firft
accomplifhed his obje& ; and the circumftance ftrongly pre-
faged his future character. He probably never faw a difh-
culty, in the courfe of his fervice, that he did not furmount ;
and, as it afterwards appears, the greater the obftacles with
which he had to contend, the better was he pleafed with the
nature of his duty. After a year’s a€tive fervice, he was
removed to the Briftol, the flag-fhip of fir Peter Parker ;
and under this commander he finifhed his fervices as a lieu-
tenant. It is obfervable that the late lord Collingwood,
who fucceeded to the command fo many years afterwards,
upon his glorious death, fucceeded him now in the Lowe-
dtoffe, and again in the flag-fhip, when, on the 8th of De-
cember, the fame year, he was made commander in the
Badger brig, at the age of 21. While captain Nelfon
commanded the Badger, his majefly’s fhip Glafgow, captain
Thomas Lloyd, lying near, took fire from a cafk of rum;
but by the unceafing exertions and prefence of mind of
Nelfon, the whole crew was faved from the flames.

Captain Nelfon obtained his rank of poft-captain on the
rith of July 1779; and during nine years that he had been
in fervice, he had, by keen obfervation, and inceflant ap-
plication to every part of his known duty, not only become
an able officer, but had likewife laid the foundation for
forming a mott fkilful and fuccefsful pilot. This feems in-
deed, as has been already obferved, from the firft, to have
been his conitant ambition. After his advance to poft rank,
he was appointed to the Hinchinbroke, of 28 guns. On
the arrival of count D’Eftaing at Hifpaniola, with a nu-
merous fleet and army from Martinique, an attack upon
Jamaica was expe¢ted: In this fituation of the ifland, Nelfon
was entrulted, both by the admiral and general, with the
command of the batteries at Port-Royal. This was the
molt important polt in the whole ifland, as being at once the
key to the naval force of the town of Kingfton, and to the
feat of government at Spanifh Town. A plan was next
formed tor taking fort San Juan, on the river St. John, in
the gulf of Mexico; and captain Nelfon was appointed to
the command of the naval department. His bufinefs was to
have ended when he had convoyed the forces, about 500
men, from Jamaica to the Spanifh main; but it was found,
that not a man of the whole party had ever been up the
river: he therefore difplayed his ufual intrepidity, quitted
his fhip, and fuperintended the tranfporting of the troops,
in boats, 100 miles up a river which, fince the time of the
Buccaneers, none but Spaniards had ever navigated. Of
all the fervices in which he had been engaged, this was the
moft perilous. It was the latter end of the dry feafon: the
river was low, full of fhoale, and fandy beaches; and the

men were often obliged to quit the boats, and drag them

through fhallow channels, in which the natives went before

to explore. This labour, and that of forcing the rapids,

were chiefly fuftained by the failors; men at all times ac-

cuftomed to rely on their own exertions, and at all times

fure to do their duty, Seven or eight hours during the day
they were expofed to a burning fun, rendered more in-

tolerable by being refleéted from dry fhoals of white fand;

and at night their fufferings were not lefs fevere, owing to

the heavy dews that fell in that climate. On the gth of
April they arrived at a fmall ifland, called St. Bartholomew,

which commanded the river in a rapid and difficult part, and

was defended by a battery mounting nine or ten fwivels.

Nelfon, according to his own phrafe, refolved to board this

out-poft. Putting himfelf at the head of a few failors, he

leaped on the beach. Captain Defpard, fince driven to

de{peration, crimes, and an iznominious end, by negleé and

ill ufage, gallantly fupported him; and they ftormed the

battery, and fought and defeated the Spaniards with their

own guns. ‘Two days afterwards they came in fight of the
caftle of San Juan, and began to befiege it on the 13th: it

furrendered on the 24th. Before that time they had a more
formidable enemy to encounter, and againft which even the
prowefs of a Britifh failor is of no avail. The bad weather
had fet in: failors, foldiers, and Indians, funk alike under
it; the latter from exertions to which they had never been
accuftomed, and the Europeans from the deadly effeéts of a
climate allotted by the diftribution of nature to a race of
differen: colour and complexion. All that vi€tory pro-
cured them was a ceffation from toil: no fupplies were
found, and the caftle itfelf was worfe than a prifon. The
hovels, which were ufed as an hofpital, were furrounded
with putrid hides ; and when orders were obtained from the
commander-in-chief to build one, the ficknefs had become fo
general, that there were no hands to work at it. The rains
continued, with few intervals, from April to OGeber, when
they abandoned their baneful conqueft. Of 1800, who
were fent to different pofts upon this ill-fated fcheme, only
380 returned. Nelfon narrowly efcaped. His advice had
been to carry the caftle by affault ; inftead of which, eleven
days were {pent in the formalities of a fiege. He returned
before its furrender, exhaufted with fatigue, and fuffering
under a dyfentery; yet to him the commander-in-chief
afcribed the principal caufe of fuccefs in reducing fort Juan,
in which were found one brafs mortar ef five inches and-an
half, twenty pieces of brafs ordnance mounted, befides
{wivels, ten or twelve ditto difmounted, with a propor-
tionable quantity of military ftores. From the extreme fa-
tigue which captain Nelfon endured on this expedition, his
health became vifibly impaired ; but he fortunately received
an appointment to the Janus of 44 guns, vacant by the
death of captain Glover, fon to the author of Leonidas.

This promotion removed him from the fatal ftation juft in

time, and he reached Jamaica in fuch a ftate of ficknefs,

that he was carried to his cot. The careful attention of a

good old negrefs, and afterwards that of fir Peter Parker

and his lady, faved his life; but his health had fuffered fo

much and fo feverely, that he was foon cornpelled to return

to England, which he did in the Lion, commanded by the

Hon. William Cornwallis, through whofe attention a com-

plete recovery was effected.

In the mouth of Auguft 1781, captain Nelfon was ap-
pointed to the command of the Albemarle of 28 guns, and
fent into the North fear. During this voyage he gained a
confiderable knowledge of the Danifh coalt, and its found-
ings; a knowledge which afterwards proved of ‘great im-
portance to his country. On his return, he was ordered to

4 Quebec

NELSON.

Quebec with a convoy, under the orders of captain Thomas
Pringle. Here he became acquainted with Mr. Alexander
Davifon, who faved him from an imprudent marriage.
Nelfon was about to quit the itation, had taken leave of his
friends, and had gone down the river to the place where men
of war ufually anchor: neverthelefs, next morning, as Mr.
Davifon was walking on the beach, he faw him coming
back in his boat. Ele could not, he faid, leave Quebec,
without offering himfelf and fortune to the woman he loved.
Dayifon remonftrated with him, and fhewed that his utter
ruin mutt of neceffity follow fuch a ftep. ‘ Then let it fol-
low,” was his reply ; ‘* for I am refolved to do it.’ His
friend was, however, equally refolute that he fhould not ;
and after fome difputes, Nelfon confented to return to his
fhip.
Captain Nelfon failed from Quebec with a convoy to
New York, in the month of Oober 1782, at which place
he joined the fleet, under the command of fir Samuel Hood.
Here he became acquainted with prince William Henry,
the prefent duke of Clarence, who was at that time ferving
as midfhipman in the Barfleur, under fir Samuel Hood.
« [ had,” fays his royal highnefs, “the watch on deck,
when captain Nelfon came in his barge along-fide, who ap-
peared to be the mereft boy of a captain I ever beheld; and
his drefs was worthy of attention. He had on a full laced
uniform ; his lank unpowdered hair was tied in a ftiff Hef-
fian tail, of an extraordinary length: the old-fafhioned flaps
of his wailtcoat added to the general quaintnefs of his figure,
and produced an appearance which particularly attracted my
notice; for I had never feen any thing like it before, nor
could I imagine who he was, nor what he came about.
There was, however, fomething irrefiftibly pleafing in his
addrefs and converfation, and an enthufiafm, when {peaking
on profeffional fubjects, which fhewed that he was no com-
mon being.’”? In November he failed with fir Samuel Hood
to the Weft Indies, where he continued atively employed
till the peace. By the commander-in-chief, Nelfon fays he
was treated as if he were his fon: ‘* nor is my fituation with
prince William lefs flattering. Sir Samuel was kind enough
to tell his royal highnefs, that if he wifhed to afk queftions
relative to naval taGtics, I could give him as much informa-
tion as any officer in the fleet. He will, I am certain, be
an ornament to our fervice. He is a feaman, which you
could hardly fuppofe: every other qualification you may
expet from him; but he will be a difciplinarian, and a
ftrong one.’’ When Nelfon was ordered back to England,
he was directed, in his way, to attend his royal highnefs
prince William on a vifit to the Havanna. On his arrival,
the Albemarle was paid off at Portfmouth, on the 31ft of
July 1783. During the autumn of this year, captain Nel-
fon went to France, where he continued till the {pring of
the year 1784, when he was appointed to the command of
the Boreas frigate, 28 guns, antl was ordered to the Lee-
ward iflands. While his veffel was at anchor in Nevis road,
a French frigate paffed to the leeward, clofe along fhore.
Nelfon had received information that this frigate was fent
from Martinico, for the purpofe of making a furvey of our
Welt India iflands. This he was determined to prevent.
Accordingly he followed her to St. Euttatia, and being in-
vited by the Dutch governor to mect the French officers at
dinner, he took that opportunity of affuring the captain,
that underftanding it was his intention to honour the Britifh
poffeffions with a vifit, he had taken the earlieft opportunity
in his power to accompany him in his majefty’s fhip the
Boreas, in order that fuch attention might be paid to an
officer of his moft Chriftian majefty, as every poe
would be proud to fhew. The French, with equal polite-

nefs, protefted againft giving him this trouble; but Nelfon
infifted upon paying them this compliment, followed them
clofe, in f{pite of all attempts to elude his vigilance, and
never loft fight of them, till finding it impoffible either to
deceive or efcape him, they gave up their intention in defpair,
and beat up to Martinico.

This ftation, moreover, opened a new fcene to the officers
of the Britifh navy. The Americans, when colonifts, pof-
feffed almoft the whole of the trade from America to our
Weit India iflands; but on the return of peace, and when
their independence was acknowledged, they forgot that they
were then to be confidered as having no more privileges in
this trade than foreigners. ‘The governors and cuftom-houfe
officers pretended, that by the NavicaTion 4@ (which fee),
the Americans hada right to trade. He knew the meaning
of that a& as well as they, and though the commander-in-
chief was difpofed to wink at this commerce, he addrefled a
letter to the governor of the Leeward iflands on the fubject,
who, in reply, told him that old generals were not in the
habit of taking advice from young gentlemen. Nelfon, in
anfwer to this, faid, ‘¢ Sir, I am as old as the prime minifter
of England, and think myfelf as capable of commanding one
of his majefty's fhips, as that minifter is of governing the
ftate."’ He accordingly fhewed that he could a& for him-
felf, and, in defiance of the judgment of thofe who thought
themfelves his fuperiors, a all the American veffels to
quit the iflands in forty-eight hours; declaring, that if they
refufed, or hefitated, or prefumed to land their cargoes, he
would feize them. The Americans, fupported by the go-
vernors of the iflands, did refift; and the admiral, unwilling
to take an ative part on either fide, advifed captain Nelfon
to be guided by the withes of the prefidents of the council.
With refpe& to this advice of fir Richard Hughes, he faid
within himfelf, *¢ I muft now difobey my orders, or difobey
aéts of parliament: I determined on the former, trufting
to the uprightnefs of my intentions, and believing that my
country would not allow me to be ruined by protecting her
commerce.’ He wrote to the admiral, and in very re{pect-
ful language told him, he fhould decline obeying his orders
till he had an opportunity of feeing and converfing with him.
The firft feelings of fir Richard Hughes were thofe of
anger, and he determined to fuperfede Nelfon; but having
mentioned the bufinefs to his own captain, the latter told
him, he believed all the {quadron thought he had iffued il-
legal orders, and therefore did not know how far they were
bound to obey him. The admiral fubmitted, and even
thanked Nelfon for having fhewn him his error. At Nevis
the Boreas found fome American veffels deeply laden, with
the colours of the ifland flying. They were ordered to
hoift their proper flag, and leave it in eight-and-forty hours.
At firft they denied their country, and refufed to obey ; but
upon being examined before the judge of the admiralty, they
admitted that they were Americans, and that their veflels
and cargoes were wholly American property. Upon this,
Nelfon feized them. Aétions were brought againft him,
and the damages laid at 40,000/.: he, however, triumphed,
and the four fhips and their cargoes were condemned.
While the affair was pending, he Feat a memorial to the
king ; in confequence of which, orders were forwarded to
defend him at the expence of the crown: and upon the repre-
fentation which he made at the fame time to the fecretary of
ftate, the Regifter A& was framed, The treafury, upon
this occafion, and certainly without much reafon, tranfmitted
thanks to fir Richard Hughes, and the officers under him,
for their activity and a in protecting the commerce of
Great Britain. Nelfon felt indignant at their condu&; he,
indeed, had protected the commerce of his country, in op-

4L 2 pofition

NELSON.

pofition to the opinion and the exprefs advice, which in mili-
tary language always means order, of fir Richard; and yet
Nelfon was paffed over, and the admiral applauded. “ I
feel hurt,”’ faid the high-minded captain, ‘* that after the
lofs of health, and the rifk of my fortune, another fhould be
thanked for what I did, and againft his orders. I either
deferved to be fent out of the fervice, or at leaft to have had
fome little notice taken of what I had done. They have
thought the a& worthy of notice, but they have neglected
me;

From the month of July 1786, till June 1787, captain
Nelfon continued at the Leeward iflands, when at length he
failed for England. He had, during his ftay in this quarter
of the world, become acquainted with Mrs. Nifbet, the
widow of Dr. Nifbet of the ifland of Nevis, then only in her
eighteenth year, and married her on the trth of March 1787,
prince William Henry ftanding father on the occafion. On
his return to England, the Boreas frigate was for nearly
five months kept at the Nore, as a flop and receiving fhip;
a circumftance that roufed the indignation of its commander.
During the whole time, captain Nelfon fcarcely ever quitted
the fhip, but was obferved to carry on the duty with a ftri&
but fuller attention. When orders were received for his
fhip to be paid off at Sheernefs, he expreffed his joy to the
fenior officer in the Medway, faying, <<‘ It is my determina-
tion never again to fet my foot on board-a king’s fhip. Im-
mediately after my arrival in town, I fhall wait on the firft
lord of the admiralty, and refign my commiffion.”” The
officer, finding it in vain to reafon with him againft this re-
folution in the prefent ftate of his feelings, ufed his fecret
interference with the firit lord of the admiralty to fave Nel-
fon from taking a ftep fo injurious to himfelf, and which
would ultimately have been fo mifchievous to his country.
Lord Howe took the hint, fent for captain Nelfon, and
having had a long converfation with him, and probably ex-
preffed to him, with the feelings of admiration and a warm
héart, the obligations that the country and government owed
him, defired that he might, on the firft levee day, have the
honour of prefenting him to his majefty. This thing was
done: he was moft gracioufly received at court, and the
refeatment of captain Nelfon was effe€tually removed. He
now retired to enjoy the pleafures of domeftic happinefs at
the parfonage-houfe at Burnham Thorpe, which his father
gave him as a place of refidence. But the affair of the
American captures was net terminated: he had, while
amufing himfelf in his little farm, a notification that he was
again to be fued for damages to the amount of 20,000/.
This circumftance, as unexpected as it was unjuft, excited
his aftonifhment and indignation. ‘ This affront,’? he ex-
claimed, ** I did not deferve ; but I will no longer be trifled
with. I will write immediately to the treafury, and if go-
vernment will not fupport me, I am refolved to leave the
country.’’ He accordingly informed the treafury, that un-
lefs a fatisfaGtory anfwer were returned to him by return of
polt, he would immediately take refuge in France. Mr.
Rofe replied, that he would affuredly be fupported.

In the year 1790, during the armament occalioned by the
difpute relative to Nootka found, captain Nelfon offered his
fervices, but they were not accepted. He made fimilar ap-
plications again and again, and with the fame fuccefs ; and
he determined to quit the fervice, at leaft he aflumed this as
his refolution: but he did not know himfelf; he was not
aware that it was his meat and drink’? to ferve his country ;
his peace, his comfort, his exiltence even depended upon his
being able to be ufeful.

On the 30th of January 1793, he was delighted with the
appointment to the Agamemnon of 64 guns, and was very

foon after placed under the orders of lord Hood, then ap-
pointed to command in the Mediterranean. The temper
with which Nelfon engaged in this war is manifefted in the
inftru€tions which he gave to one of his midfhipmen, pro-
bably ‘his fon-in-law, Jofhua Nefbit. ‘* There are three
things, young gentleman, which you are conftantly to bear
in mind: firft, you muft always implicitly obey orders,
without attempting to form any-opinion of your own
refpe€ting their propriety (he probably did not recolleé his
own condué in the American bufinefs) ; fecondly, you muft
confider every man as your enemy who fpeaks ill of your
king ; thirdly, you are to hate a Frenchman as you do the
Devil.”” This was naval morality !

The unbounded confidence which lord Hood always re-
pofed in captain Nelfon, manifetts the high opinion which
he entertained not only of his courage, but of his talents and
ability to execute the arduous fervices with which he was ©
entrufted, If batteries were to be attacked, if fhips were to
be cut out of their harbonrs, if the hazardous landing of
troops was to be effected, or difficult paflages to be ex-
plored, we invariably find Nelfon foremoft on the occafion,
with his brave officers, and the gallant crew of the Aga-
memnon. During the time that Nelfon had the command
of the Agamemnon, and previoufly to the commencement of
hoftilities with Spain, he put into Cadiz to water; and on,
beholding the Spanifh fleet, exclaimed, ‘* Thefe fhips are
certainly the fineft in the world. Thank God! the
Spaniards cannot build men, as they do fhips!”? It was
obferved in the Mediterranean, that before captain Nelfon’
quitted his old fhip, he had not only fairly worn her out,
there not being a maft, yard, fail, nor any part of the rig-
ging, but was obliged to be repaired, the whole being cut
to pieces with fhot, but had exhaulted himfelf and his fhip’s
company. At Toulon, and the celebrated victories achieved
at Baftia and Calvi, lord Hood bore ample teltimony to the
fkill and unremitting exertions of captain Nelfon, “ which,”
faid his lordfhip, “I cannot fufficiently applaud.”? During
the memorable fiege of Battia, he fuperintended the difem-
barkation of the troops and ftores, and commanded a bri-
gade of feamen, who ferved on fhore at the batteries. Lord
Hood had fubmitted to general Dundas, and afterwards to
his fucceflor D’ Aubert, a plan for the reduction of Baitia ;
but they refufed to co-operate, or to furnifh a fingle foldier
on the occafion. He obtained only a few artillery-men, and
began the fiege with lefs than 1200 foldiers,.artillery-men,
and marines, and 250 failors. <* We are but few,’’ fays the
brave Nelfon, “ but of the right fort; our general not .
giving us one of the five regiments he has lying idle,’
They were landed on the 4th of April, under colonel Vil-
letes and Nelfon, who had obtained trom the army the title
of brigadier. The failors dragged the guns up the heights,
which was a work that could probably have been accom-
plifhed only by Britifh feamen. The foldiers behaved with
the jame fpint. ‘* Their zeal,” {aid he, ‘ is, I believe,
almoft unexampled. There is not a man but confiders him-
felf as perfonally interefted in the event; and deferted by
their general, it has, I am perfuaded, made them equal to
double their numbers.’ “ This,” fays a biographer of
Nelfon, ‘is one of many proofs, that to make foldiers equal
to our feamen, it is only neceflary that they fhould be well
commanded. They have the fame heart and foul, as well as
the fame flefh and blood, Too much may indeed be ex-
ated from them in a retreat; but with their face towards a
foe, there is nothing within the reach of human achievement
which they cannot perform.” The fiege continued nearly
feven weeks, and on the 19th of May a treaty of capitula-
tion was begun; and on that fame evening, and not aa

the

NELSON.

the troops made their appearance on the hills; and on the
following morning, general D’ Aubert arrived with his whole
army to take Baltia. The event of the fiege had juftified
the opinion of the failors; and when the conqueft was as
good as made, then they had the affiftance of the army,
which they had folicited before in vain. ‘I am,” faid
Nelfon, when he got poffeffion of the fortrefs, “ all aftonifh-
ment, when I refle& on what we have achieved; 1000 re-
gulars, 1500 national guards, and a large body of Corfican
troops, laying down their arms to 1000 {foldiers and marines,
and 200 feamen.’’ The enemy were fuppofed to be far in-
ferior in number, when it was refolved to attack the place ;
and it was not till every arrangement was made, that Nelfon
received certain information of their great fuperiority. This
intelligence he kept a fecret, fearing the attempt would be
readily abandoned, if a fair pretext were afforded. The
fiege of Calvi was carried on by general Stuart, and Nelfon
had lefs refponfibility here than at Baftia, but the bufinefs
was equally arduous. He certainly knew the importance of
his fervices, and on no occalion fcrupled to fet a value upon
them. When at Calvi, he faid to lord Hood, * We will
fag ourfelves to death, before any blame fhall lie at our
doors. I truft it will not be forgotten, that twenty-five
pieces of cannon have been dragged to the different batteries,
and mounted, and all but three fought by feamen.” He
was employed full four months on fhore; and the climate
was more deftruétive to his health, and to the conftitutions
of his brave comrades, than the war. Nelfon defcribed
himfelf as the reed among the oaks bowing before the ftorm,
when they were laid low. “ All the prevailing diforders
have attacked me,’’ faid the captain; ** but I have not
itrength enough for them to faiten on me. One plan I
purfue, never to employ a doctor. Nature does all for me,
and Providence proteG&ts me.’’ It was at the fiege of Calvi
that he loft an eye; and yet, ftrange as it muft appear, he
was altogether overlooked; his name did not even appear
among the wounded. ‘ One hundred and ten days,’ faid
he, ** I have been a@tually engaged at fea, and on fhore,
with the enemy: three actions again{t fhips, two againft
Baltia in my own fhip, four boat actions, and two villages
taken, and twelve fail burnt. I do not know that any one
has done more. I have had the comfort of being always
applauded by my commanders-in-chief, but never rewarded :
and what is more mortifying, for fervice in which I have
been a@tually wounded, others have been praifed, who, at
the time, were aCtually in bed, and far from the feene of
action. They have not done me juitice: --but never mind:
[ll have a gazette of my own.” He lived long enough to
tafte all the glory that he anticipated.

When lord Hood left the Mediterranean in Oétober
1794, the command devolved on admiral Hotham, who
confided in Nelfon with the fame alacrity as lord Hood had
done before; and Nelfon again diftinguifhed himfelf in the
aétions with the French fleet of the 13th and 14th of
March, and-alfo on the 13th of July 1795. Under. admiral
Hotham, he had occafionally the command of a light
f{quadron of frigates, with which he performed fome valuable
fervices ; and he was rewarded with a colonelcy of marines.
When fir John Jervis, now earl St. Vincent, fucceeded ad-
miral Hotham in November 1795, he was too fenfible of
the merits of captain Nelfon to part with him. He raifed
him to the rank of commodore, and removed him from the
Agamemnon to the Captain of 74 guns; and on the 11th
of Auguit he had a captain appointed under him.

From the month of April ull O&ober, commodore Nel-
fon was conltantly employed in the moft arduous fervices,
wiz. the blockade of eaaes the taking of port Ferrajo,

with the ifland of Caprea, and, laflly, in the evacuation of
Battia: after which, he joined the admiral in St. Fiorenza
bay, and proceeded with him to Gibraltar. While the
name of Nelfon was hardly known to the Englith public, it
was feared, refpeéted, and highly honoured throughout
Italy, and in other parts of the continent. A letter was
fent to him, dire&ted, ‘* Horatio Nelfon, Genoa.’ When
the writer was afked, how he could addrefs a letter fo
vaguely? he replied, “ There is but one Horatio Nelfon in
the world.’ In the letter in which he mentions this cir-
cumftance to his lady, captain Nelfon fays, ‘* Had all my
ations been gazetted, not one fortnight would have paffed,
during the whole war, without a letter from me. One day
or other I will have a long gazette to myfelf. I feel that
fuch an opportunity will be given'me. I cannot, if I am in
the field of glory, be kept out of fight.”

During the month of December 1796, commodore Nelfon
hoifted his broad pendant on board La Minerve frigate, cap-
tain George Cockburne, and was difpatched with that fhip
and La Blanche to Porto Ferrajo, to bring the naval ftores
left there to Gibraltar. On the paflage thither, in the night
of the rgth, the commodore fell in with two. Spanifh fri-
gates. He immediately attacked the fhip which carried the:
poop light, and direéted the Blanche to bear down and en-
gage the other. At forty minutes paft ten at night, the
commodore brought his fhip to clofe a€&ion, which con-
tinued without intermiffion till half paft one, when La Sabina
of 40 guns, and 286 men, commanded by captain Don
Jacobo Stuart, ftruck to La Minerve. Captain Prefton in
La Blanche filenced the fhip he had engaged, but could not
effet poffeffion, owing to three more fhips heaving in fight.
Commodore Nelfon's fetter, on this occafion, to his admiral
fir John Jervis, has been regarded‘as a noble example of a
generous and modett fpirit, inafmuch as he aflumes no merit
to himfelf, but gives every praife to the captain, his officers,
and crew. ‘ You are, fir,” fays he, “ fo thoroughly ac-
quainted with the merits of captain Cockburne, that it is
needlefs for me to exprefs them; but the difcipline of La
Minerve does the higheft credit to her captain and lieu-
tenants, and I wifh fully to exprefs the fenfe I have of their
judgment and gallantry. Lieutenant Culverhoufe, the firft
lieutenant, is an old officer of very diftinguifhed merit 5
lieutenants Hardy, Gage, and Noble, deferve eyery praife
which gallantry and zeal juftly entitle them to ; as does every
man in the fhip. You will obferve, fir, I am, fure, with
regret, among the wounded, lieutenant James Noble, who
quitted the Captain to ferve with me, and whofe merits, and
repeated wounds received in fighting the enemies of our
country, entitle him to every reward a grateful nation can
beftow.”’ In this aétion, the captured fhip had 164 men
killed and wounded, and loft the mizen, main, and fore-
mafts ; and La Minerve had feven men killed, 34 wounded,
and all her mafts fhot through.

On the 29th of January 1797,-commodore Nelfon failed
in La Minerve from Porto Ferrajo, on his return to fir John
Jervis, with a mind irritated and deprefled, through the
fear that a general engagement would take place before
he could join the fleet. He arrived at Gibraltar a few days
after the Spanifh fleet had paffed the ftraits from Carthagena.
Impatient to join his admiral, the commodore only remained
one day at Gibraltar; and on the 11th of February, while
he was proceeding to the weftward, to the place of ren-
dezvous, he was chafed by two Spanifh line of battle fhips,
and fell in with their whole fleet off the mouth of the ftraits.
He fortunately effected his efcape, and joined the admiral
off cape St. Vincent, on the 13th of February, juft in time

to communicate intelligence relative to the force and ftate of
the

NELSON.

the Spanifh fleet, and to fhift his pendant on board his
former fhip, the Captain, 74 guns. Before fun-fet, the
fignal was made to prepare for ation: At day-break, the
enemy were in fight. The Britifh force confilted of two
fhips of 100 guns each, two of 98, two of go, eight of 74,
and one of 64, with four frigates, a floop, and a cutter.
The Spaniards had one fhip of 136 guns, fix of 112 guns
each, two of 84, and eighteen of 74 guns, with ten frigates.
The difproportion was very great, but the Spanifh admiral,
Don Jofeph de Cordova, had reafon to believe it was ftill
greater, or he would not have hazarded a battle. He had
Yearnt from an American, that the Englifh had but nine
fhips on that ftation, which was a¢tually the cafe when the
American had fallen in with them; and upon this informa-
tion he fought an engagement, inftead of going into Cadiz,
as he at firft intended, relying with a fatal confidence upon
the accuracy of the American.

Sir John Jervis, following the new fyftem of naval tactics,
determined to break the line of the enemy; and before the
Spanifh admiral could form a regular order of battle, of
which he feemed very defirous, fir John, by carrying a prefs
of fail, came up with them, paffed through the fleet, then
tacked, and thus cut off nine of their fhips from the main
body. Thefe, in their turn, attempted to form on their
larboard tack, either with a defign of paffing through the
Britifh line, or to the leeward of it, and thus rejoining their
friends. One of the nine only fucceeded ; the others were
fo warmly received, that they took to flight, and did not
appear in aétion till the clofe. The admiral was now en-
abled to dire& his whole attention to the enemy’s main body,
ftill fuperior to his whole fleet. He made fignal to tack in
fucceffion. Nelfon, whofe ftation was in the rear of the
Britifh line, perceiving that the Spanifh fleet was bearing up
before the wind, with an intention of forming their line,
joining their feparated fhips, or flying; determined to pre-
vent either of thefe fchemes from taking effe€t, and ac-
cordingly, without a moment’s hefitation, difobeyed the
fignal, and ordered his fhip to be wore. This at once
brought him into aétion with feven of the largeft fhips of the
enemy's fleet, among which were the Santiflima of 136
guns, and two others of 112. Captain Trowbridge, in the
‘Culloden, nobly fupported him; and the Blenheim, captain
Frederick, came to their affiftance. The Salvador del
Mundo and the San Ifidro dropped aftern, and were fired
into by the Excellent, captain Collingwood, to whom the
latter ftruck. ‘ But Collingwood,” fays Nelfon, « dif-
daining the parade of taking poffeflion of beaten enemies,
moft gallantly pufhed up with every fail fet, to fave his old
friend and mef{s-mate, who was to all appearance in a very
critical fituation.’’ The Captain was at this moment fired
upon by three firft rates, and the San Nicholas and a 74
were within piftol-fhot. ‘The Blenheim was a-head, and the
Culloden crippled a-ftern. Collingwood ranged, and pafled
within ten feet of the San Nicholas, giving her a mott tre-
mendous broadfide, pufhed on for the Santiflima ‘l’rinidad.
At this time the Captain had loit her fore-top-maft, had not
a fail, fhroud, or rope left, her wheel was fhot away, and
thus left incapable of farther fervice in the line or the chafe ;
her noble commander, Nelfon, inftantly refolved on a bold
and decifive meafure, and determined, whatever might be
the event, to attempt his opponent {word in hand; and di-
re€ted captain Miller to put the helm a-ftar-board, and the
boarders were fummoned. ‘ Fortune,’’ fays colonel Drink-
water, the animated narrator of this battle, “ favours the
brave!’’ nor on this occafion was fhe unmindful of her
favourite, Ralph Willett Miller, the commodore’s captain,
(who was afterwards in the battle of the Nile, where he

gained great honour, and was flain in the Thefeus, under fir
Sidney Smith,) fo judicioufly direG&ed the courfe of his
fhip, that he laid her aboard the ftar-board quarter of the
Spanifh 84; her fprit-fail-yard paffing over the enemy’s
poop, and hooking in her mizen fhrouds: when the word to
board being given, the officers and feamen, de(tined for this
perilous duty, headed by lieutenant (now fir Edward) Berry,
(who was afterwards lord Nelfon’s captain in the Vanguard,
in the battle of the Nile,) together with the detachment of
the 69th regiment, commanded by lieutenant Pearfon, then
doing duty on board the Captain, paffed with rapidity on
board the enemy’s fhip, and in a fhort time the San Nicholas
was in poffeffion of her intrepid affailants. The commo-
dore’s ardour would not permit him to remain an inattive
{pe€tator of this fcene. He was aware that the attempt
was hazardous, and he thought his prefence might animate
his brave companions, and contribute to the fuceefs of this
bold enterprife. He, therefore, as if by magic impulfe,
accompanied the party in this attack ; pafling from the fore-
chains of his own fhip into the enemy’s quarter-gallery, and
thence through the cabin to the quarter-deck, where he ar-
rived in time to receive the {word of the dying commander,
who had been mortally wounded by the boarders. The
Englifh were at this time ‘in poffeffion of every part of the
fhip, and a fire of mufketry opened upon them from the
itern-gallery of the San Jofef. The commodore was not
long in refolving on the line of conduct which he fhould
adopt. The two alternatives that prefented themfelves
were, to quit the prize, or inftantly to board the three-
decker. Confident in the bravery of his feamen, he deter-
mined on the latter. Dire€ting, therefore, an additional
number of men to be fent from the Captain on board the
San Nicholas, Nelfon, whom no danger could appal, headed
himfelf the affailants in this new attack, exclaiming, “¢ Weft-
minfter Abbey, or a glorious vi@tory!”” Succefs in a few
minutes, and with little lofs, crowned the enterprife. For
a moment, commodore Nelfon could fcarcely perfuade him-

felf of this fecond inftance of good fortune; he, therefore,

ordered the Spanifh commandant, who had the rank of
brigadier, to affemble the officers on the quarter-deck, and
means to be taken inftantly for communicating to the crew
the furrender of the fhip. All the officers immediately ap-
peared, and the commodore had the furrender of the San
Jofef duly confirmed, by each of them delivering his {word.
"The cox{wain of the commodore’s barge, John Sykes, had
attended clofe by the fide of his commander throughout this
perilous attempt. To him the commodore gave in charge
the {words of the Spanifh officers, as he received them; and
the undaunted tar, as they were delivered to him, tucked
thefe honourable trophies under his arm with all the coolnefs
imaginable. It was at this moment, one of the failors came
up, and with an Englifhman’s feeling, and apologizing for
the hberty, took his commander by the hand, and con-
gratulated him on being fafe on the quarter-deck of a Spanifh
three-decker. On this occafion Nelfon had received only a
few bruifes. ‘The Spaniards kad ftill eighteen or twenty
fhips, which had fuffered little or no injury; but they did
not think right.to renew the battle. As foon as the aétion
was difcontinued, Nelfon went on board the admiral’s fhip,
who received him on the quarter-deck, took him in his arms,
and faid he could not fufficiently thank him.

Before the news of the action had arrived in England,
Nelfon had been advanced to the rank of rear-admiral; and
now for his gallantry, on the 14th of February, he received
the infignia of the Bath, and the gold medal from his fo-
vereign. He was alfo prefented with the freedom of the
city of London in a gold box.

In

a

NELSON.

In the month of April 1797, fir Horatio Nelfon hoifted
his flag as rear-admiral of the blue, and was detached to
bring down the garrifon of Porto Ferrajo; and on the 28th
of May, he fhifted his flag from the Captain to the Thefeus,
and was appointed to the command of the inner {quadron at
the blockade of Cadiz. During this fervice, his perfonal
courage was, if poffible, more con{picuous than at any other
period of his former exploits. In the attack on the Spanith
gun-boats, July 3d, 1797, he was boarded in his barge,
with only its ufual complement of ten men and the cox{wain,
acoompanied by captain Freemantle. The commander of
the Spanifh gun-boats, Don Miguel Tregovia, in a barge
rowed by 26 cars, having 30 men, including officers, made
a moft defperate effort to overpower fir Horatio Nelfon and
his brave companions. ‘The conflict was long and doubtful :
they fought hand to hand with their fwords. His faithful
coxf{wain, John Sykes, was wounded in defending the ad-
miral; and twice faved his life, by parrying the blows that
were aimed at him, and mortally wounded his adverfaries ;
and at latt a&tfally interpofed his head to receive the ftroke
of a fabre, which he could not by any other means avert.
The whole of the Spaniards were either killed or wounded,
and Nelfon brought off the launch. Sir John Jervis, in his
letter to the admiralty, dated the sth of July, fays, «¢ The
rear-admiral, who is always prefent in the moft arduous en-
terprifes, with the affiltance of fome other barges, boarded
and carried two of the enemy’s gun-boats, and a barge-
Jaunch belonging to one of the fhips of war, with the com-
mandaat of the flotilla. Rear-admiral Nelfon’s ations {peak
for themfelves: any praife of mine would fall very fhort of
his merit.” ;

On the 15th of July, he was detached with a {mall
f{quadron to make an attack on the town of Santa Cruz, in
the ifland of Teneriffe, where it was imagined a Manilla thip
had landed an immenfe treafure. The rear-admiral, on his
arrival before the town, loft no time in directing a thoufand
men, including marines, to be prepared for landing from the
fhips, under the direction of captains Trowbridge, Hood,
Thomfon, Freemantle, Bowen, Miller, and Waller, who
volunteered their fervices. The boats of the fquadron were
accordingly manned, and the landing was effeGted in the
courfe of a dark night. The party were in full poffeffion of
the town of Santa Cruz in about feven hours; but finding it
impracticable to ftorm the citadel, they prepared for their
retreat, which was allowed by the Spaniards unmoletted,
agreeably to the ftipulations made with captain Trowbridge.
On this expedition, Nelfon had orders on no account to land
in perfon with the forces, unlefs his prefence was abfolutely
neceffary ; but no orders could reftrain him, where there was
danger to be encountered. That he was aware of the peril
is evident from the letter which he wrote to the commander-
in-chief : in this he fays, ‘¢ This night I command the whole
force deitined to land under the batteries, and to-morrow
my head will probably be crowned either with laurel or
cyprefs.” He was very defirous, likewife, that his fon-in-
law, lieutenant Nefbit, fhould remain behind, faying,
«‘ Should we both fall, what will become of your poor
mother? Befides, the care of the Thefeus falls to you ; flay,
therefore, and take charge cf her.”’ Nefbit replied, « Sir,
the fhip muft take care of herfelf: I will go with you to-
night, if I never go again.” Nelfon, in the a¢t of ftepping
out of the boat, received a fhot through the right elbow,
and fell. Nefbit, who was clofe to him, placed him at the
bottom of the boat, and applied his neckhandkerchief as a
tourniquet to the admiral’s arm, and conveyed him to the
Thefeus, under a tremendous fire from the enemy. The
fame night, at 10 o'clock, the admiral’s arm was amputated ;

and immediately after, he began his official letter: and on
the following day he wrote to lady Nelfon, and fays, «J
know it will give you much pleafure, in finding that your
fon, under God’s providence, was inftrumental in faving my
life.” The lofs of the Enghth amounted to 250. But the
admiral, in his official difpatches, did not mention his own
wound ; though in a private letter to lord St. Vincent, the
firlt which he penned with his left band, he fays in the fpirit
of defpondence, * I am become a burthea to my friends,
and ufelefs to my country. When I leave your command,
I become dead to the world. —I go hence, and am n> more
feen.”” He was obliged to go to England for advice, that
he could not have abroad; and here honours awaited him,
abundautly more than fufficient to recover his accuftomed
{pirit: but what gave zeft to every pleafure was the af-
furance, that he would be foon fit for attive fervice. Let-
ters were addrefied to him by the firft lord of the admiralty,
and by his fteady friend the duke of Clarence, to congra-
tulate him on his return. The freedom of the cities of
Briftol and London was tranfmitted to him ; he was invefted
with the order of the Bath, and he received a penfion of
1000/. a-year. Not having been in England fince he lott his
eye, he went to receive a year’s pay as {mart-money ; but

‘could not obtain it, becaufe he had not brought a certificate

from a furgeon, that the fight was aGtually deftroyed. He
was fomewhat angry that this formality fhould be infifted
upon, the fact being fo notorious. He, however, complied ;
and on his return to the office, the clerk, finding it was the
annual pay of a captain only, obferved, he thought it had
been more. * Oh,” replied Nelfon, “ this is only for an
eye; in a few days, I fhall come for an arm; and in a little
time longer, God knows, moft probably for a leg.”" Ac-
cordingly he foon after went, and exhibited the certificate
of the lofs of an arm, On his firlt appearance at court, his
fovereign received him in the mott gracious and tender man-
ner, exprefling his forrow at the lofs which the noble admiral
had fuftained, and at his impaired ftate of health, which
might deprive the country of his future fervices. « May it
pleafe your majelty,”” {aid the admiral, « I can never think
that a lofs, which the performance of my duty has occa-
fioned ; and fo long as I have a foot to ftand on, I will
combat for my king and country.’’ Previoufly to his
having received the grant, already referred to, of a penfion,
cuftom required that a memorial of his fervices fhould be
drawn up, and a more brilliant detail was never exhibited.
He had been a@ually engaged againft the enemy 120 times !
and during the war then carrying on, he had affifted at the
capture of feven fail of the line, fix frigates, four corvettes,
and eleven privateers of different fizes; and taken or de-
ftroyed hearly fifty fail of merchant veflels.

In April 1798, fir Horatio Nelfon hoifted his flag in the
Vanguard, and he was ordered to rejoin earl St. Vincent.
Upon his departure, his father addreffed him with affection
and much folemnity. «I truft in the Lord,” faid the
venerable reGtor, ‘ that he will profper your going out and
coming in. I earneitly defired once more to fee you, and
that wifh has been heard. If I fhould prefume to fay, I
hope again to fee you, the queftion would be readily afked,
How old are you? Vale, vale!” A. gloomy foreboding
of the future, it has been faid, hung on the fpirits of lady
Nelfon at their parting» this was, probably, through dread
of lofing him by the chance of war. “No apprehenfion of
lofing his affeétion could poffibly have exitted: for we are
affured, that all his letters to this time evince that he con-
fidered himfelf happy in his marriage; and his private life
had hitherto been as fpotlefs as his public one: and one of
the lait things he faid to ber was, that his own ambition was

fatisfied,

NELSON.

fatisfied, but he was going to raife her to that rank in which
he had long wifhed to fee her.

As foon as he had joined earl St. Vincent, he was dif-
patched to the Mediterranean, that he might afcertain the
obje&t. of the great expedition fitting out at Toulon. He
failed with a {mall fquadron from Gibraltar, on the gth of
May, to watch this armament. On the 22d, afudden ftorm
in the gulph of Lyons carried away all the top-maits of the
Vanguard; the fore-maft went into three pieces, and the
bow-fprit was fprung. Captain (afterwards fir Alexander)
Ball took the fhip in tow, to carry her into St. Pietros, Sar-
dinia. Nelfon, apprehenfive that this attempt might en-
danger both veffels, ordered him to caft off; but that excel-
lent officer, poffeffing a fpirit very like that of his com-
mander, replied that he was confident he could fave the
Vanguard, and by God’s help he would do it. Previoufly
to this, there had been a coolnefs between thefe brave fea-
men; but from that moment, Nelfon became fully fenfible
of the extraordinary merit of captain Ball, and a _fincere
friendfhip fubfilted between them during the remainder of
their lives. Being compelled to refit, the delay enabled him
to fecure his junGion with the reinforcement which lord St-
Vincent had fent to join him, under commodore ‘Trow-
bridge. That officer brought with him no inftruétions to
Nelfon, as to’ the courfe he was to fteer, nor any poltive
account of the enemy’s deftination: every thing was left to
his own judgment. The firfl news was, that they had fur-
prifed Malta. He formed a plan for attacking them while
at Gozo; but on the 22d, intelligence reached him that
they had left that ifland on the 16th, the day after their ar-
rival. He then purfued them to Egypt, but he could not
learn any thing of them during his voyage; and when he
reached Alexandria, the enemy were not there. He.then
fhaped his courfe for the coaft of Caramania, and fteered
from thence along the fouthern fide of Candia, carrying a
prefs of fail both mght and day, with acontrary wind. — Ir-
ritated that they fhould have eluded his vigilance, the
tedioufnefs of the night made him impatient, and the officer
of the watch was repeatedly called ypon to declare the hour,
and convince his admiral, who meafured time by his own
eagernefs, that it was not yet break of day. « It would
have been my delight,” faid he, ‘* to have tried Bonaparte
on a wind.’’ Baffled in his purfuit, Nelfon returned to
Sicily, took in ftores at Syracufe, and then made for the
Morea. There, on the 28th of July, he learnt that the
French had been feen about a month before, {teering to the
fouth-eaft from Candia. He refoived to return, aud im-
mediately, with every fail fet, ftood again for the coaft of
Egypt. On the aft of Auguft, they came in fight of
Alexandria; and at four in the afternoon, captain Hood, in
the Zealous, made fignal for the French fleet. For feveral
preceding days, the admiral had fearcely taken either food
or fleep: he now ordered his dinner to be ferved, while
preparations were making for battle ; and when his officers
rofe from table, and went to their feparate ftations, he faid
to them, “ Before this time to-morrow I fhall have gained
a peerage or Weltminfter Abbey.” It has never been ex-
plained, why Bonaparte, having effected his landing, fhould
not have ordered the fleet to return. It is, however, certain,
that it was detained by his exprefs command ; though after
the death of Brueys, he accufed him of having lingered there,
contrary to his received orders. ‘hat admiral, not being
able to enter the port of Alexandria, had moored his fleet in
Aboukir bay, in a {trong and compa& line of battle; the
neadmolt veflel being as clofe as poffible to a fhoal’on the
north-welt, and the reft of the fleet forming a kind of curve
along the line of deep water, fo as uot to be turned by any

means on the fouth-weft. This pofition the French admiral
thought the ftrongeft poffible, in an open road; and he had
no doubt that he could bid defiance to a force more than
double their own. Inftead of which, he had the advantage
of numbers in fhips, in guns, andin men: he had thirteen
fhips of the line and four frigates, carrying 1196 guns, and
11,230 men; whereas the Englifh had the fame number of
fhips of the lite, and one 50 gun fhip, carrying 1012 guns,
arid 8068 men. They had, however, Nelfon for chief-in-
command, who, in all cafes, was a mighty hoft in himfelf.
During the whole cruife, it had been Nelfon’s praétice,
whenever circumitances would admit of it, to have his cap-
tains on board the Vanguard, and fully explain to them his
own ideas of the beft modes of attack, whatever might be
the fituation of the enemy. His officers, therefore, were
well acquainted with his principles of taétics; and fuch was
his confidence in their abilities and zeal, that the only plan
arranged, in cafe they fhould find the French at anchor, was
for the fhips to form as moft convenient for their mutual
fupport, and to anchor by the ftern. His maxim war,
« Virit gain the victory, and then make the beft ufe of it
you can.”

When he had fully explained his intended plan, captain
Berry exclaimed with tran{port, “* If we fucceed, what will
the world fay?’ ‘ There is no if,” replied the admiral ;

‘that we fhall fucceed is moft certain: who may live to tell

the ftory isa very different queftion.”

The pofition of the enemy. prefented the moft formidable
obftacles, but the admiral viewed thefe with the eye of a
feaman determined on an attack ; and it inftantly flruck him,
that where there was room for an enemy’s fhip to fwing,
there was room for one of ours to anchor, No further
fignal was neceffary than thofe which had already been made.
The admiral’s defigns were as fully known to his whole
fquadron, as was his determinaticn to conquer or perifh in
the attempt. We cannot attempt to give a detailed ac-
count of this a€tion, of which there is an excellent narrative
in the firft volume of the ** Naval Chronicle ;"’ neither can
we wholly pafs by an occurrence fo important to the in-
terefts of our country.- The action commenced at fun-fet,
at half paft 6 o’clock, with an ardour that cannot be de-
f{cribed. The Goliath, captain Foley, and the Zealous,
captain Hood, received the firft fire from the enemy. It
was received with filence. On board every one of the Bri-
tith fhips, the crew were employed aloft in furling fails, and
below in tending the braces, and making ready for an-
choring; a wretched fight for the French, who, with alt
their advantages, were on that element, upon which, when
the hour of trial comes, a Frenchman has uo hope but in
efcape;.and here an attempt of the kind was impoffible.
Admiral Brueys was a brave and able man, yet he had, in
a private letter, boafted that the Enghth had miffed him,
becaufe not finding themfelves fuperior in numbers, they did not
think it prudent to try their Arength with him. The moment
was now come in which he was to be fatally undeceived.
The fhores of the bay of Aboukir were foon lined with
{pectators, who beheld the approach of the Englifh, and the
awful confli& of the hoftile fleets in filent aftonifhment.
Admiral Nelfon had fix colours flying in different parts of
his rigging, left they fhould be fhot away ;—that they fhould
be ftruck, no Britifh commander confiders as a poflibility.
The two firft fhips of the French line had been difnmafted
within a quarter of an hour after the aétion, and the others
fuffered fo feverely, that vi€tory was even now regarded as
certain. The third, the fourth, and the fifth, were taken
pofleffion of at half paft eight. In the mean time, Nelfon
had received a fevere wound on the head from a piece of

iron,

—————E

NELSON.

iron, called a langridge-fhot ; the fin of hie forehead, being
cut with it at right angles, hung down over his face. Cap-
tain Berry caught him in his arms, as he was falling. The
great effufion of blood occafioned an apprehenfion that the
wound was mortal. When the furgeon had examined it, he
found there was no immediate danger, but urged him to
keep himfelf quiet. He called for his fecretary to write the
difpatches, but he had been himfelf wounded. The chap-
lain was next fummoned, but before he could get to the
admiral’s cabin, Nelfon feized the pen, and began himfelf.
Suddenly a cry was heard on deck, that the Orient was oa
fire. In the confufion, the admiral found his way up, and,
to the aftonifhment of every one, appeared on the quarter-
deck, when he immediately gave orders that boats fhould be
fent to the relief of the enemy. It was about nine o’clock
that this fire broke out. Brueys was dead: he had received
three different wounds, yet would not leave his pot: a
fourth almoft cut him in two; he refufed to be carried be-
low, being determined to die upon the deck. The flames
foon overpowered every effort to fave the fhip. By the pro-
digious light of this conflagration, the fituation of the two
fleets were clearly diftinguifhable by the colours .of each
fhip.. About 1:0 o’clock the Orient blew up with a moit
tremendous explofion. This was followed with an awful
paufe, and a death-like filence. The firing inftantaneoufly
ceafed on both fides, and the firft found was the fall of her
fhattered mafts and yards, which had been carried to an
altonifhing height. The firing recommenced with the fhips
to leeward of the centre, and continued till three in the
morning. At day-break, the two rear fhips of the enemy
were the only French fhips of the line which had their
colours fying: thefe cut their cables in the forenoon, and
ftood out to fea, and two frigates with them. The Zealous
purfued, but as there was no other fhip in a condition to
fupport captain Hood, he was recalled. ‘Thefe, however,
were all that efcaped, and the victory was the moft com-
plete and glorious in the annals of naval hiftory. Of thir-
teen fail of the line, nine were taken and two burnt; of the
four frigates, one was funk and another burnt. The lofs
on the part of the Englifh, in killed and wounded, amounted
to 895; on the part of the French, 5225 perifhed, and
3105, including the wounded, were fent on fhore by
cartel.

Admiral Nelfon was now at the height of his glory. He
had realized his hopes: he had nobly earned a peerage.
Congratulations, rewards, and honours of every kind, were
fhowered down upon him in great abundance, by ail the
princes and powers to which this important wGery or
f{plendid conquelt was beneficial. The grand feignior, and
his brother, the czar, the king of Naples and Sardinia, fent
him prefents, accompanied with letters, acknowledging his
unequalled fervices to the common caufe. In his own
country he was created baron Nelfon of the Nile and of
Burnham Thorpe, with a penfion of 2000/. for his own life,
and thofe of two of his immediate fucceflors. When this
fubject was brought before the houfe by Mr. fecretary
Dundas, he faid, ‘* Some vi&tories had been marked with
peculiar circumftances: fome had been marked by the fkill
of the commanders; fome by the particular bravery of the
feamen ; others by the great and extenfive benefits refulting
from them. But it was peculiar to this victory, that it
united all thofe qualities by wiich other victories had been
mott diftinguifhed. When,” faid he, ‘ we look to the ex-
tent of the confequences of this viétory, both at home and
abroad; when we behold the fpirit with which it has elec-
trified Europe from one end to the other; we muit acknow-
ledge that there never did exift a vi€tory, which had pro-

Vor. XX1V.

duced fo much at prefent, and which was likely to produce
fo many and fuch important confequences in future.” It
was on this occafion that general Walpole expreffed an
opinion, that a higher degree of rank ought to have been
conferred. ‘To this Mr. Pitt replied, that he thought it
needlefs to enter into that queftion, which, after all, be-
longed to the crown, and to the crown only. « Admiral
Nelfon's fame,”’ he faid, ** would be coéval with the Britifh
name ; and it would be remembered that he had obtained the
greateft naval viétory on record, when no man would chink
of afking whether he had been created a baron, a vifcount,
or an earl. True indeed, whatever title had been beftowed,
he who received it would have been Nelfon ftill: that name he
had ennobled beyond all addition of nobility. It was the
name by which England loved him, France feared him, and
Italy, Egypt, and Turkey celebrated him, and by which
he would continue to be known while the prefent kingdoms
and languages of the world endure.’’? See Debates in the
Houfe of Commons for November 21, 1798.

The title of baron once obtained was not fatisfaétory to
Nelfon; he had feen that fir John Jervis and admiral Duncan
tad obtained higher honours, and more {plendid rewards for
victories lefs decifive and important than that which he had
achieved, and he did not helfitate to fpeak with indignation on
this treatment of minilters.

On the twenty-fecond of September 1798 he arrived at
Naples, where he was received asa deliverer by their ma-
jetties, and the whole kingdom. The king himfelf went
{ome leagues to fea in his barge to meet him. The victory
of the Nile had infpired the court with courage openly to
declare againft France, and a powerful army under general
Mack was preparing to march again{t the French in Italy.
Malta was at this time in a {tate of blockade by the Englifh
and Neapolitans, and lord Nelfon went thither to affift in its
reduction. Inthe month of November he proceeded witha
{quadron to Leghorn, which town, with its fortrefs, was de-
livered to the Neapolitan troops accompanying him. When
the mifmanagement and ill condué of the court of Naples,
and the cowardice of the troops, had rendered the French
triumphant, and brought the capital into immediate danger,
lord Nelfon, zealoufly attached, by principle, to the royal
family, took them, with his friends fir William and lady
Hamilton, on board his fhip, and carried them fafe to Pa-
lermo. He remained at that capital, direGting the various
operations of the veffels under his orders in the Mediterranean,
not without fome occafional altercations with fir Sidney
Smith. Lord Nelfon had a punétilious jealoufy refpeéting
any interference with him in the rights attached to his ftation,
and felt a high fenfe of his own confequence and fuperiority,
though, as it has appeared in various inftances, no man was
more ready to give due praife to others. His jealoufy had
no taint of envy in it, but it proceeded from his early habit
ot naval difcipline, and a confcioufnefs of the importance of
his fervices. After the French had taken poffeffien of
Naples, and eftablifhed a republic, on the ruins of the for-
mer monarchy, the dormant fpirit of loyalty began to revive,
and meafures were taken for acounter revolution. In thefe
Jord Nelfsn concurred with an enthufialtic zeal, and he fent
captain Trowbridge to cruize in the bay of Naples, and re-
duce the iflands by which it is furrounded. On the 24th of
June 1799 his lordfhip himfelf arrived in the bay, when the
republicans had juft entered into an armiftice with the Nea-
politan general Ruffo, figned by commodore Foote and the
‘Turkifh and Ruffian commanders, for the caftles which alone
remained in their poffeffion. ‘The king of Naples, in this
profperous ftate of his affairs, was induced to difavow the
authority cf the cardinal to treat with fubjeéts in rebellion,

4M and

NELSON.

and lord Nelfon immediately put an end to the truce. The
fortrefles were afterwards obliged to capitulate, and a bloody
execution, in {pite of the treaty, took place of a number of
the Neapolitan republicans, under the eye of the Britifh ad-
miral. For this part ef lord Nelfon’s conduét, much has
been faid by his panegyrifts, but itis not, and cannot be, juf-
tified. He fubmitted to be fubfervient to the paffions of the
court, and this, perhaps, the more readily as his own pre-
judices and paffions were all on the fame fide. That we have
not f{poken too ftrongly on this fubject is evident from the
vindication of commedore Foote, who fhall fpeak for him-
felf: ‘* Nothing,’’ fays this much injured and infulted officer,
“ can be more evident than the faét that a folemn capitula-
tion had been agreed upon, formally figned by the chief
commander of the forces of the king of Naples, by the
Ruffian commander, and by myfelf, all duly authorized
to fign any capitulation in the abfence of fuperior powers.
This was not a treaty of peace, fubje& to ratification: it
was not liable to be broken; it was a ferious agreement
for furrender, upon terms which involved the lives and pro-
perties of men, who might have chofen to forfeit thofe
lives and properties, had they not relied principally upon
the faith of a Britifh officer. Parts of the agreement were
performed, and aétual advantage was afterwards taken of
thofe parts of the capitulation that had been thus exe-
cuted, to feize the unhappy men who, having been thus de-
ceived by a facred pledge, were facrificed in a cruel and def-
potic manner.’ * Thefe facts,” fays the writer in the
Quarterly Review, ‘are certain and undeniable. They can-
not be defended: they cannot be excufed; they cannot by
any fophiftry be palliated. A faithful hiftorian has no al-
ternative but to relate them with fhame and forrow.”’

On the ninth of Auguft lord Nelfon brought his Sicilian
maje(ty fafe to his court, having kept him fome weeks in his
fhip out of the reach of peril, and on the thirteenth the king
prefented him with a {word moft magnificently enriched with
diamonds, and conferred upon him the title of duke of Bronté,
and annexed to the title an eftate fuppofed to be worth 3000/.
per ann. Lord Nelfon himfelf gave an account of the pre-
fents which he had received for his fervices, in the Medi-
terranean, between the firlt of October 1798 to the fame
date in the following year. Befides what has been juft
mentioned he received from the king and parliament of
Great Britain a peerage and 2000/. per ann. for his own
life and two next heirs. From the Eaft India company
10,000/.; from the Turkey company a piece of plate of
great value; from the city of London a {word of exquifite
workmanfhip and great worth; from the grand feignior a
diamond aigrette, or plume of triumph, valued at zooo/. ;
alfo a rich pelifle valued at 1000/,, and from the feignior’s
mother a rofe fet with diamonds of equal value; from the
emperor of Ruffia and the king of Sardinia boxes fet with
diamonds worth 3700/.: befides many other prefents of
lefs value, but coltly, and expreffive of a high fenfe of gra-
titude in the donors.

It was at Naples, that lord Nelfon fuffered himfelf to be
fo far infatuated as to form.a connection with lady Ha-
milton, which led to his feparation from his own wife, and
till which he had been an affectionate hufband, and happy

and amiable in all his domettic relations. This is incon-
teftibly proved by the letters which pafled between him
and his lady, and which have been given in the life of his

lordfhip by Meffrs. Clarke and M‘Arthur.

Afier the appointment of lord Keith to the command of
the Mediterranean fleet, lord Nelfon made preparations to
returi, and proceeding, in company with fir William and
lady Hamilton, to Tefte, he travelled through Germany

to Hamburgh every where received with diftinguifhed he-
nours. He embarked at Cuxhaven, and landed at Yar-
mouth on the fixth of November 1800, after an abfence
from his native country of three years. In the follow.
ing January he received orders to embark again, and it was
during this fhort interval that he formally feparated from
lady Nelfon. Some of his laft words to her were, “I call
God to witnefs that there is nothing in you or your con-
du@& that I wifh otherwife.’”? He was now raifed to the
rank of vice-admiral of the blue, and foon after hoifted
his flag on board the San Jofef of 112 guns, his own
prize at the battle of cape St. Vincent. About this time
the emperor Paul of Ruffia had renewed the northern
confederacy, the exprefs and avowed obje& of which was
to fet limits to the naval fupremacy of England. A re-
folution being taken by the Englifh cabinet to attempt
its diffolution, a formidable fleet was fitted out for the
North feas under fir Hyde Parker, in which lord Nelfon con-
fented to go fecond incommand. Having fhifted his flag to
the St. George, of 98 guns, he failed with the fleet in the
month of March, and on the 3oth of that fame month he led
the way through the Sound, which was pafled without any
lofs. When the fleet failed, it was known that its deftina-
tion was Copenhagen; fome Danifh failors who were on
board the Amazon frigate went to captain Riou, and begged
he would get them exchanged into a fhip bound on fome other
fervice ; they did not wifh to quit the Britifh navy, but they
intreated that they might not be led to fight againit their own
country. The captain felt deeply for their fituation, ordered
his boat inftantly, and did not return to the Amazon till he
had procured their exchange. See Riou.

The battle of Copenhagen gave occafion for an equal dif-
play of lerd Nelfon’s talents as that of the Nile. The Danes
were well prepared for defence. Upwards of two hundred
pieces of cannon were mounted upon the crown batteries at
the entrance of the harbour, and a line of 25 two-deckers,
frigates, and floating batteries, was moored acrofs its mouth.
An attack being determined upon, the condu& of it was
entrufted to lord Nelfon ; the action was fought on the fecond
of April; Nelfon had with him twelve fhips of the line, with
all the frigates and {mall craft, the remainder of the fleet
was with the commander-in-chief, about four miles off. The
combat which fucceeded was one of the moft terrible on re-
cord. Nelfon himfelf faid, that of all the engagements in
which he had borne a part it was the moft terrible. It
began at ten in the morning, and at one victory had uot de-
clared itfelf. A fhot through the main-maft knocked a few
fplinters about the admiral: ¢¢ It is warm work,” faid he,
“ and this may be the lait cay to any of us ina moment; but
mark you, I would not be elfewhere for thoufands.’”? Juft
at this moment fir Hyde Parker made fignal for the action
to ceafe. It was reported to him, but he continued pacing
the deck, and appeared to take no notice of it. The fignal-
lieutenant afked if he {hould repeat it. ‘* No,"’ rephed Nel-
fon, “acknowledge it.” Prefently he called to know if the
fignal for clofe action was {till hoilted, and being anfwered in
the affirmative, he faid «¢ Mind you keep it fo.” «* Doctor,””
faid he to the furgeon, “ you know what’s fhewn on board
the commander-in-chief, N 39?’ He faid he did, and afked
what it meant. Why to leave off action: No d—n me
if Ido! You know Foley,” {peaking now to his captain,
« T have only one eye, and havea right to be blind fometimes.
D—rn the fignal! hoilt mine for clofer battle; that is the
way I anfwer fuch fignals.—Nail mine to the maft.”’ Ad-
miral Graves difobeyed that of the commander-in-chief, in
like manner, but whether intentionally, or by miftake, has
not been explained. The fquadron of frigates hauled off:

Riou

NELSON.

Riou in the Amazon probably did not think himfelf {uf-
ficiently high in reputation to fet at defiance the com-
mands of his fuperior officer ; but at the moment that the
Amazon fhewed her ftern to the enemy the captain was
killed :—that he obeyed the fignal for retreat with regret
was evident from his laft words, which expreffed his for-
row, and he added, ‘* What will Nelfon think of us?”
About two o’clock, great part of the Danifh line had
ceafed to fire, and many of them had ftruck, but, though
the victory was complete, yet it was difficult to take pof-
feffion of the vanquifhed fhips, on account of the fire from
the fhore, which was ftill kept up. Nelfon was irritated
at this, and the more fo, as part of his own fleet was in
a perilous ftate. The crown batteries were, as yet, un-
touched, as were the fhips at the entrance of the arfenal ;
while two of his own were aground, and others in immi-
nent hazard of alike fate. At this critical period lord Nel-
fon, with the prefence of mind of one familiarized to danger,
inftantly opened a negociation, pretending that he had been
urged to this ftep through humanity to the vanquifhed Danes ;
He thus wrote to the crown prince ; ‘* Lord Nelfon has di-
reétions to fpare Denmark, when no longer refifting ; but if
the firing is continued on the part of Denmark, lord Nelfon
muft be obliged to fet on fire all the floating batteries he
has taken, without having the power of faving the brave
Danes who have defended them.” A wafer was given him
for his letter, but he ordered wax and candle, faying, it was
no time to appear informal, and he did not with it to appear
that he was hurried. This meafure put an end to further car-
nage; and on the landing of lord Nelfon, the preliminaries
of a treaty were arranged, which finally terminated the dif-
pute. The death of Paul, though not then known, had
happened about nine days before this dreadful engagement ;
and thus the northern confederacy was annihilated. For this
fignal fervice, in which lord Nelfon has been applauded as
well for his adroitnefs as a negociator and ftatef{man, as for
his courage and talents as an admiral, he was raifed to the
rank of vifcount. ‘There was fome prudence,” fays a
biographer, ‘in thus dealing out honours to him ftep by ftep;
had he lived long enough, he would have fought his way to
a dukedom.”’

The preparations made for the invafion of England from
Boulogne, having now excited a great alarm in the nation, it
was thought advifable to calm the public fears by entrutting
the marine defence to the popular hero, and lord Nelfon was
appointed commander-in-chief of a {quadron, with the whole
attached flotilla of gun-boats, bomb-veffels, &c. Refolving
to attempt fomething that was worthy of his name, and the
celebrity to which he had attained ; fomething that fhould
effe&{ more than a temporary fecurity, he planned a vigorous
attack upon the enemy’s veflels before Boulogne harbour.
This was executed on the 16th of Auguft 1801, but from
a miftaken calculation of the enemy’s preparations, and from
the extreme difficulty of the enterprize, it proved unfuccefs-
ful. He however received the thanks of the firft lord of the
admiralty in very warm terms: ‘I cannot,’’ fays lord St.
Vincent, ‘ fufficiently exprefs my admiration of the zeal and
perfevering courage with which this gallant enterprize was
followed up, lamenting mott fincerely the lofs fultained in it.
The manner in which the boats of the flotilla were made faft
to the ground, and to each other, could not have been fore-
feen. The higheft praife is due to your lordfhip, and all
under your command, who were actors in this gallant at-
tempt.” The public at large, however, did not confider
the matter in the fame light; they beheld the lofs of fo
many brave men with the deepeft regret, and thought the
perfons who ordered the attack, or thofe who undertook it,

ought to have been apprized of all circumftances before the
attempt was made.

The enfuing peace reftored lord Nelfon to his friends on
fhore, and to the enjoyment of that renown which rendered
all his journies of amufement to different parts of the king-
dom fo many triumphal progreffes. On the termination of
the fhort-lived peace, lord Nelfon, more fitted for aétion
than repofe, accepted the command of the Mediterranean
fleet, and in May 1803, failed for Gibraltar in his flag-
fhip the Vidtory. It was his particular bufinefs to watch
the Toulon fleet ; but he difdained a clofe blockade, and
rather wifhed to give the enemy an opportunity of coming
out, and trying his ftrength and fortune againft him. This
was not fo fuccefsful as he anticipated, for after having been
on the look-out for two years, with an inferior force they
efcaped him, formed a junGtion with the Spaniards, and
ran for the Weft Indies, whither Nelfon foon followed.
The enemy’s fleet confilted of eighteen fail of the line and
fix frigates, having 12,000 troops aboard, which Nelfon
did not hefitate to purfue with ten fhips and three fri-
gates. ‘ There is juft a Frenchman a-piece, he faid to his
captains, leaving the Spaniards to me: when I haul my co-
lours down, I expe@& you will do the fame, but not till
then.”” This extraordinary chafe acrofs the Atlantic was
conduéted with fingular order and expedition! The mere
terror of Nelfon’s name compelled them to fly before him ;
falfe intelligence, which he, and he alone, fufpected to be
falfe, mifled him, and they fecured their return to Europe,
without having accomplifhed any other part of their pur-
pofe than that of reinforcing fome of their own iflands; ours
were preferved from pillage, invafion, and perhaps con-
queft, by this purfuit, which, in all its circumftances, can-
not be parallelled in naval hiftory. Having purfued them to
Europe, he delivered over his fquadron to admiral Corn-
wallis, left they fhould make for Breft to liberate that fleet,
and place him between two fires, and then returned to
England with an intention to enjoy leifure and repefe with
his friends. He had fearcely been at Merton, his country
feat, a month, when captain Blackwood, on his way to the
admiralty with difpatches, called early in the morning.
Upon feeing him, he exclaimed, ‘*1 am fure you bring
me news of the Spanifh fleets! I think I fhall have to
beat them yet.”” They had joined the fleet from Ferrol,
and had got fafe to Cadiz. * feresd upon it, Blackwood,
I fhall yet give M. Villeneuve a drubbing.”’ After the
captain had left him he was much agitated, but affected to
be quite eafy ; his friends, however, perceived that he was
anxious to be again in fervice; that his whole mind was
bent upon meeting the combined fleet, which he confidered
as his own property, and that he would be the moft mifer-
able man living if any man but himfelf did the bufinefs.
He again offered his fervices, which were readily accepted
by the firft lord of the admiralty, who gave him a lift of the
navy, and bade him choofe his own officers. He reached
Port{mouth after an abfence of only twenty-five days: he
was hailed with joy wherever he went: numbers followed
him to the fhore, and many, when they faw him embark,
knelt down to offer up their prayers for his fuccefs. The
wind was againft him, and blew itrong, but fuch was his
impatience to be at the fcene of action, that he worked
down channel, and after a rough paflage arrived off Cadiz
on his birth-day, September 29, on which day the French
admiral, Villeneuve, received orders to put to fea the firft
opportunity. In point of preparation the two fleets were
fuppofed to be on an equality; but in refpeé to force,
the French were the ftronger in the proportion of nearly
three to two, they having 34 thips of the line of 74 guns

4M2. and

NELSON.

and upwards ; and under lord Nelfon there were but 24 of
the fame rank: ir frigates they out-numbered him in a fimi-
lar proportion. Early in the month of O&ober, lord Nelfon
received information which led him to imagine the enemy
would foon put to fea, He had already arranged a plan
according to which he determined to fight. ~He was aware
of the mifchief of too many fignals, and was refolved never
to diftra& the attention of his fleet on the day of aétion
by agreat number of them. On the 4th of Odtober he
affembled the admirals and captains of the fleet into the
cabin of his fhip, the Vitory, and laid before them a new
and fimple mode of attack. Every man comprehended his
method in a moment, and felt certain that it mutt fucceed.
It proved irrefiftible.

Lord Nelfon did not remain diretly off Cadiz with his
fleet, or even within fight of the port. His objeé was to
induce the enemy to come out; with this view he {tationed
his fleet in the following manner. The Euryalus frigate was
within half a mile of the mouth of the harbour to watch
the enemy’s movements, and to give the earlieft intelligence.
Ata ftill greater diltance he had feven or eight fail of the
line. He himfelf remained off Cape St. Mary with the reft
of the fleet, and a line of frigates extended aad communi-
cated between him and the feven or eight fail off Cadiz.
The advantage of this plan was, that he could receive am-
ple fupplies and reinforcements off Cape St. Mary, without
the enemy being informed of it, and thus they always re-
mained ignorant of the real force under his command: Vil-
leneuve had alfo been mifled by an American, unintention-
ally on his part, who declared that he was fure Nelfon could
not poffibly be with the fleet, as he had feen him in London but
a few days before. Relying on this, and on their own fuperi-
ority, they put to fea on the 1gth, and on the arft lord
Nelfon intercepted them off Cape Trafalgar, about fixty
miles eaft of Cadiz. When his lordfhip found, that by his
manceuvres, he had placed the enemy in fuch a fituation,
that they could not avoid an engagement, he difplayed
much animation, and his ufual confidence of victory.
“ Now,’’ faid he, ‘¢they cannot efcape us; I think we
may make fure of twenty of them; J hall probably lofe
a leg, but that will be purchafing a victory cheaply.”
Notwithftanding this light way of fpeaking, Nelfon never
went into battle but with a full fenfe of its danger, and he
feems, on all occafions of the kind, rather to have prepared
his mind for death, than to have taken any means to banifh
the thought of it, On the morning of this, his laft con-
teft for glory and immortality, he wrote a prayer in his
journal, and folemnly bequeathed lady Hamilton as alegacy
to his king and country. He left alfo to the beneficence
of his country his adopted daughter, defiring that in fu-
ture fhe would ufe his name only. ‘ Thefe,’? faid he, ‘are
the only favours I afk of my king and country at this
moment, when 1 am going to fight their battle.’’ He had
put on the coat which he always wore in aétion, and kept
for that purpofe, with a degree of veneration; it bore the
infignia of all his orders. ‘In honour,’ faid he, « I
gained them, and in honour I will die with them.’’? The
laft order which his lordfhip gave previoufly to action, was
fhort, but comprehenfive, “* ENGLAND EXPECTS EVERY MAN
TO DO HIS DUTY.’’ It was received with a fhout of applaufe
throughout the whole fleet. ‘ Now,’ faid the admiral,
«© T can do no more; we mult truft to the great Difpofer
of all events, and the juftice of our caufe. I thank God
for this opportunity of doing my duty.’’ It had been re-
prefented to him fo frongly» both by captain Blackwood,
and his own captain, Hardy, how advantageous it would be
for him to keep out of the aétion as long as poflible, (hat

he confented that the Temeraire, which was then failin
abreaft of the Victory, fhould be ordered to pafs ahead,
and the Leviathan alfo. They could not poffibly do this
if the Victory continued to carry all her fail; and yet fo
far was Nelfon from fhortening fail, that he feemed to
take pleafure in baffling the advice to which he could not
but affent. As ufual, he hoifted feveral flags, that they
might not be fhot away. The enemy, on the other hand,
fhewed no colours till late in the ation, when they began to
feel the neceffity of having them to ftrike.

Lord Nelfon determined himfelf to fight the Santiffima
Trinidada; and it is worthy of remark, that he gained
the higheft honour in grappling with this fhip in the a€tion
off Cape St. Vincent. She was the largeft fhip in the
world, carried 136 guns, and had four decks. The Vic-
tory did not fire a fingle fhot till fhe was clofe along-fide
the Trinidada, and had already loft 50 men, in killed and
wounded. Lord Nelfon ordered his fhip to be lafhed to his
rival, and in this labour the commander of the Trinidada
ordered his men alfo to affift. For four hours the con-
flit which enfued was tremendous. The Victory ran on
board the Redoubtable, which, firing her broad-fides into
the Englifh flag-fhip, inftantly let down her lower deck
ports, for fear of being boarded through them. Captain
Harvey, in the Temeraire, fell on board the Redoubtable
on the other fide; another fhip, in like manner, was on board
the Temeraire, fo that thefe four fhips, in the heat of bate
tle, formed as compaét a tier as if they had been moored
together, their heads lying all the fame way. The heu-
tenants of the ViGory immediately depreffed their guns,
and fired with a diminifhed charge, leit the fhot fhould
pafs through and injure the Temeraire : and becaufe there
was danger that the enemy's thip might take fire from the
guns of the lower-deck, whofe muzzles touched her fide
when they were run out, the fireman of each gun ftood
ready with a bucket of water, which, as foon as the gun was
difcharged, he dafhed at the hole made in her fides by the
fhot. In the prayer to which we have already alluded, and
which Nelfon wrote before the a&ion, he defires that hue
manity, after vidtory, might diltinguifh the Britifh fleet.
Setting an example himfelf, he twice gave orders to ceafe
firing upon the Redoubtable, fuppofing fhe had ftruck, be-
caufe her great guns were filent ; and as she carried no flag,
there were no means of afcertaining the faét. From thie
fhip, whofe deftru€tion was twice delayed by his with to
{pare the vanquifhed, he received his death. Captain Hardy,
on perceiving frequent fhowers of mufket-balls fired on the
Victory’s quarter-deck, reque{ted lord Nelfon to take off
the infignia by which he was expofed, as a mark, to the
fharp fhooters placed in the main-round-top of the enemy's
fhips. He anfwered, he would when he had time; but
paid no farther attention to his fafety. In a minute after-
wards, his fecretary, Mr. Scott, who ftood near him, was
killed. A mufket-ball entered his head, and he fell dead
inftantly. Another fhot, a few minutes afterwards, ftruck
the epaulette on Nelfon’s left fhoulder: he fell with his
face on the deck. ‘They have done for me at lait,
Hardy,” he exclaimed, “ my back-bone is fhot through.”
He did not, for the fmalleft portion of time, lofe his pre-
fence of mind, but obferved, as they were carrying him
down the ladder, that the tiller ropes, which had been
fhot away, were not replaced, and ordered that new ones
fhould be rove immediately ; and to prevent any dejeCtion
which the fight of their dying admiral might occafion, he
took out his handkerchief and covered his face, and the ine
fignia upon his coat; certain by the fenfations which he
felt in his back, that no human aid could benefit him,

I After

NE iL

After the furgeon had probed the wound, he defired him to
return to affilt thofe to whom his fervices might be ufeful,
“© for,”” faid he, “¢ you can do nothing for me.’’ From the
feverity of the pain he could not refrain from withing to
die, ‘‘ yet,’’ faid he, checking himfelf, ‘ one would like
to live a little longer ;”’ no doubt to hear the completion of
a victory which he had feen fo glorioufly begun. Having
been placed in a chair, he defired that captain Hardy
might attend him, and during the hour that he lived he
. difplayed all his coolnefs and recollection, and employed the
time in dictating orders relative to the battle, in receiving
reports, in enquiring what was the condition of the enemy,
and what fhips had ftruck. Upon hearing that fourteen or
fifteen had certainly furrendered, ‘¢ That’s well,’? faid he,
“but I bargained for twenty.’ After a fhort paufe, he
exclaimed, ‘“* Anchor, Hardy, anchor.’’ To this the cap-
tain replied, that he fuppofed admiral Collingwood would
now take upon himfelf the command. * Not while I live,”
cried the dying hero, “no, do you anchor Hardy.” He
had forefeen the great importance of this; for, by the po-
fition in which the enemy waited for the attack, the fhoals
of Trafalgar and St. Pedro were under their lee, and the
port of Cadiz, with the exifting wind open to them, and it
was on this account he had, before the action, made fignal
to prepare to anchor. The laft fhip that ftruck before his
death was the Santiffima Trinidada, of which he heard with
the moft lively emotions of joy. He felt himfelf now nearly
at the laft gafp, and called fur Hardy, and faid in a low
tone, “Don’t throw me overboard,”’ and defired that he
might be buried at Burnham Thorpe, unlefs it fhould pleafe
the king to order otherwife. «* Kifs me, Hardy,” fatd he,
Hardy knelt and kiffed his cheek, and the admiral faid,
<‘ Now I am fatisfied. I have done my duty. Thank God!
I have done my duty :”” thefe were the laft words that he
uttered, and in the arms of his gallant captain he breathed
his laft.

The final event of this a&ion was the capture of eighteen
men-of-war, of the French commander-in-chief, and two
other flag-officers, with a general. It was a blow to the
maritime ftrength of the two hoftile powers that entirely
ruined their prefent projeéts, and laftingly crippled their
exertions. The maritime war might from this day be con-
fidered as at an end: the fleets of the enemy were not
merely defeated: they were as good as annihilated, and
with them the fpirit of the French marine fo completely
depreffed, as to forbid the hope of a revival, till a new race
of men fhould arife, upon whom the terror of the name of
Nelfon would ceafe to operate. Well then might the death
of lord Nelfon be felt as fomething more than a publis
calamity: well might our countrymen, when the fatal intel-
ligence was communicated to them, {tart and turn pale, as
if they had heard of the lofs of a dear friend; the object
of their admiration and affeétion, of their pride and hopes,
had been fuddenly taken from them, and it is {till [1813]
in the remembrance of every one, that it feemed as if they
had never, till then, known how deeply they efteemed and
reverenced him. ‘It was not,” fays a writer already re-
ferred to, ‘* from any felfifh refleGtion upon our own lofs
that we mourned for him: the general forrow was of a
higher chara&ter. The people of England grieved that fu-
neral ceremonies and public monuments were all which they
could now beftow upon him, whom the kiag, the legifla-
ture, and the nation, could alike have delighted to honour ;
whom every tongue would have blefled ; whofe prefence, in
every village through which he fhould have palt, would have
awakened the church bells ; have given fchool-boys a holi-
day ; have drawn children from their fports to gaze upon

NEL

him, and old men from the chimney corner to look upon
Nelfon ere they died. The viGtory of Trafalgar was in-
deed celebrated with the ufual forms of rejoicing, but they
were without joy ; for fuch was the glory of Nelfon and of
the Britifh navy, in a great meafure through his genius,
that they fcarcely feemed to receive any addition from
this; that the moft fignal victory that ever was achieved
upon the feas, and the deftruGtion of fo great a fleet, hardly
appeared to add to our ftrength or fecurity ; for we felt
ourfelves as ftrong and fecure while Nelfon was living to
watch them, as when they were deltroyed.”’

Perhaps, in no country, bave higher public honours been
paid to the memory of a public benefaétor than thofe that
were enthufiaftically given to lord Nelfon. His body was
brought home for interment: it was exhibited for feveral
days in the proudeft ftate at Greenwich: from thence it
was conveyed to Weftminfter ; and finally buried in the ca-
thedral of St. Paul's. The funeral, made at the public
expence, was the moft folemn and magnificent fpeétacle
ever beheld in this country, and was duly honoured by the
prefence of feven of the fons of his majefty. Honours and
rewards were munificently beftowed on his relations, and an
earldom was perpetuated in the family of Nelfon, of which
his brother was the firft poffeffor.

Admiral Nelfon died at the age of forty-feven, ‘ yet he
cannot be faid to have fallen prematurely, whofe work was
done; nor ought he to be lamented who died fo full of ho-
nours, and at the height of human fame. The moft trium-
phant death is that of the martyr, the moft awful that of
the martyred patriot ; the moft {plendid that of the hero in
the hour of victory; and, if the chariot and the horfes
of fire had been vouchfafed for Nelfon's tranflation, he
could fearcely have departed in a brighter blaze of glory.
He left us, not indeed his mantle of infpiration, but a
name and an example which are at this hour infpiring hun-
dreds of the youth of England—a name which is our pride,
and an exainple which will continue to be our fhield and our
ftrength.’’

We cannot conclude without obferving, that to the traits
of charaéter which have been already given, mutt be added
a {pirit of piety which he imbibed in his youth, and which
diftinguifhed him through the whole of his progrefs. It
appeared in all his public difpatches, a fervent afpiratio fell
from his pen juft as he was advancing to the final combat :
and expreffions of true Chriftian refignation were among the
laft that faultered from his dying lips.

For this article, we have been, in part, indebted to the
fifth number of the Quarterly Review, but principally to
a very popular periodical work, entitled ‘The Naval Chro-
nicle,’’ to which his lordfhip communicated, under his own
hand, all the particulars of the early part of his life and
naval exploits, and trom which, would our limits have al-~
lowed it, we could have feleted a volume almoft of intereft-
ing matter relating to lord Nelfon. 5

NEeLson, in Geography, a county of Kentucky, in Ame-
rica, containing go87 inhabitants, of whom 1234 are flaves,
Its chief town is Bairditown.

NELson’s Quay, a town with a poft-office in Charleftown
county, South Carolina; 539 miles from Wathington.

Nexson’s Fort, a fettlerient on the W. fhore of Hudfon's
Bay, fituated at the mouth of a river of the fame name; 250
miles S.E. ef Churchill fort, and 600 N.W. of Rupert’s
fort, in the poffeffion of the Hudfon’s Bay company, N. lat.
57° 12'. W. long. g2° 42!.

Netson's River, the N.W. branch of Hayes river, on
the W. fhore of Hudfon’s Bay, feparated into two channels by
Hayes ifland, at the mouth of which Nelfon’s fort is fituated.

NELSONIA,

NEL
NELSONIA, in Botany, fo named by Mr. Brown, in

juft commemoration of the merits of the late Mr. David
Nelfon, an excellent gardener and good practical botanift,
who was fent out with captain Cook, in his lait voyage, and
difcovered many new plants, for which we have, in feveral
places, had occafion to mention him. He afterwards ac-
companied captain Bligh, in the firft voyage of that able na-
vigator, and unfortunately died in the ifland of Timor.—
Brown Prod. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 480. Clafs and order, Di-
andria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Perfonate, Linn. <Acanthi,
or Acanthacee, Jufl.

Eff. Ch. Calyx in four deep unequal fegments. Corolla
funnel-fhaped; limb five-cleft, flightly unequal. Stamens
two, fhorter than the tube, without any barren filaments.
Cells of the anthers equal in their infertion, divaricated.
Capfule feffile, with an elaftic point, the partitions from
the centre of the valves. Seeds feveral in each cell, without
any f{pinous fpring. Brown.

A genus of herbaceous plants, with diffufe fems, and a
downy, fomewhat hoary, habit. Leaves broadifh, undi-
vided. Spikes terminal, denfe, equal. BraGeas broad, op-
pofite, fingle-flowered. Flowers {mall, each with a pair of
f{maller inner braéeas.. Anterior fegment of the calyx emar-~
ginate, or divided half way down. Corolla either white or
purple.

This genus is faid to differ from Vahl’s Elytraria, (with
which it agrees in. the want of an elaftic fpinous procefs un-
der each feed,) in the want of barren ftamens, as well as in
the figure of its anthers, and efpecially in habit. Mr, Brown,
befides fome hitherto nondefcript {pecies from the Eaft Indies,
and others from the tropical regions of Africa, fufpeéts that
Juflicia hirfuta, origancides, canefcens and nummularifolia of
Vahl, Enum. v. 1. 121, 122, properly belong to this genus.

The two New Holland fpecies, both tropical, are thus
defined.

1. N. campeftris —Leaves elliptical, woolly. Braéteas of
the {pike acute. Anterior fegment of the calyx cloven half
way down; dorfal one acute, undivided. Segments of the
corolla entire. —Gathered by Mr. Brown.

2. N. rotundifolia.—Leaves roundifh ; fomewhat hairy
when full-grown. Braéteas of the {pike acute. Two
broader fegments of the calyx emarginate, as wcll as the
divifions of the corolla—Gathered by the Rt- Hon. fir
Jofeph Banks, in whofe herbarium only Mr, Brown has
feen it.

NELUMBIUM, Juff. 68. Willd. v. 2. 1258. Ait.
Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 3. 332. Curt. Mag. t. 903; fee
Netumso. See alfo the article Cyamus, written by the
late Rev. Mr. Wood.

NELUMBO, tlie name given by the natives of Ceylon,
to the facred bean of India, xuxy0; of Theophraftus, Nym-
phea Nelumbo of Linneus. Adanfon, who firft, with un-
queftionable propriety, feparated this plant from Nymphaea,
having no objection to barbarous names, retained Nelumbo
for a generic appellation, and he is followed by Gzrtner.
It is not eafy to fay why they preferred a very confined and
local appellation, for a plant known throughout India by
the name of Tamara, by which it is diflinguifhed in the
Hortus Malabaricus, and celebrated in Hindi poetry and
mythology. Juffieu intended as an improvement the altera-
tion into NeLumpiumM ; fee that article. We with toadhere,
as much as poffible, to the Linnzan rejeétion of barbarous
generic names, and have no defire to eftablith either Nelumbo
or Tamara, greatly preferring Cyamus; fee that article.
It is much to be wifhed that botanilts, not totally illiterate
and taftelefs, would advert a little to the propriety of keep-

NEM

ing their nomenclature under fome regulations of fenfe and
uniformity, which thofe who can read the writings of Lin-
nezus, will find already eftablifhed, and abundantly fupported
by reafon and convenience. S.

NEMA, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, in the province
of Ufting, which runs into the Vitchagda at Utnemiko1.

NEMAN, or Nemean Games, one of the four great
kinds of games, or combats, ceiebrated among the ancient
Greeks.

Some fay, they were inftituted by Hercules, on occafion

of his killing the Nemzan lion; and that it was hence they
took their name, as alfo the place of celebration, the foreft
of Nemza.
- Others relate, that the feven chiefs fent to Thebes, under
the condu& of Polynices, being extremely oppreffed in
their journey with thirft, met with Hypfipyle of Lemnos,
who had in her arms Opheltes, fon of Lycurgus, prieft of
Jupiter, and Eurydice. They begging her to thew them
fome water, fhe laid the child down on the grafs, and
conduéted them to a well. In her abfence, a venomous
ferpent killed the child ; upon which the nurfe, out of
an excefs of gricf, grew defperate. The chiefs, at their
return with her, killed the ferpent, buried the young
Opheltes, and, to divert Hypfipyle, inftituted the Nemzan
games.

fElian fays, they were indeed the feven chiefs going to
the fiege of Thebes that inftituted them ; but he adds,
that it was in favour of Pronax.

Paufanias refers the inftitution of them to Adraftus ; and
their reftoration to his defcendants.

Laftly, Hercules, on his viGtory over the Nemzan lion,
augmented the games, and confecrated them to Jupiter
Nemeus.

The games were opened with facrificing to Nemzan Jove,
appointing him a prieft, and propofing a reward for fuch.
as fhould be victors in the games.

They were held every three years, in the month called Pae
semos by the Corinthians, and Boedromion by the Athenians.

The Argians were the judges, and fat clothed in black, to
exprefs the origin of the games. As they were inftituted by
warriors, none at firft were admitted to them but military
men, and the games themfelves were only equeftrian and
gymmic; at length they were open to the people, and
other kinds of {ports were introduced.

The conquerors were crowned with olive, tll the time
of the war with the Medes; when a blow they received
in that war, occafioned them to change the olive for the
{mallage, a funeral plant: though others maintain, that the
crown was originally {mallage, on account of the death of
Opheltes, otherwife called Archemorus; this plant being
fuppofed to have received the blood which ran from the
wound made by the ferpent.

NEMAKA Peants, a name given by Mr. Barrow to
fubftances which he found on the mountains N. of the Cape
of Good Hope, and which confifted of large rounded mafles
of granite.

NEMAKAS, Great and Lirtie, in Geography, in-
habit a part of the colony of the Cape of Good Hope, and
are feparated by the Orange river, called alfo the Groot or
Great river, where it difcharges itfelf into the fea. We
refer to Mr. Barrow for particulars.

NEMALLY, a town of Hindoottan, in Madura; 15
miles N. of Coilpetta.

NEMALONI, in Ancient Geography, a people of the
Alps, placed by Pliny in the number of thofe whe were fub-
dued by Auguttus,

NEMANTURISTA, a town of Spain, according to

Ptolemy,

a ome

—

NEM

Ptolemy, who places it among the Vafcones between An-
delus and Curnonium.

NEMARAM, 1n Geography, a town of Hindoottan, in
Golconda; 32 miles S. of Combamet.
~ NEMATOSPERMUM, in Botany, from vnye, vrelo:, a
thread, and orepuc, feed, a genus eftabliihed by M. Richard,
in a catalogue of Cayenne plants, fent to the Natural Hiltory
Society at Paris, in 1792, and publifhed in their Aées, v. 1.
105. Clafs and order, Monandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord.
Amentacea, Jufl.

Eff. Ch. Catkins thread-fhaped. Anther of two diftant
cells. Stigmas three, briftle-fhaped. Capfule of one cell.
Seeds three, fufpended by threads from the valves.

1. N. levigatum. The only known fpecies. The saves
are ovate, very{mooth. Cap/uleoval,{mooth. It isthought
to beakin to the Laci/fema myricoides, Swartz. Prod, 12; fee
Lacisrema. The name alludes to the fitnation and infer-
tion of the feeds.

NEMAUSUS, in Ancient Geography, the name of one
of the richelt towns of Gallia Narbonnenfis, which was the
capital of the Arecomaci. In the Notitia Imperii it is called
© Prefectus thefaurorum Nemanfentium.” See Nismes.

NEMBRO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the de-
partment of the Serio; four miles N.E. of Bergamo.

NEMBS, a town of the duchy of Holitein ; fix miles N.
of Seceberg.

NEMEA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Argo-
lide, fituated at the foot of mount Apefas, upon which
it is faid that Perfeus was the firft who offered facrifice to
Jupiter Apefantius. In this town was a very beautiful tem-
ple of the Nemean Jupiter, furrounded with a grove of
cyprefs. The chief prieit of the temple was named by the
Argians. hey alfo, as fome have faid, inftituted in this
place the Nemzan games (fee Nemman), in which the
prize of the caufe was contended tor by perfons completely
armed. Here was fhewn the tomb of Opheltes, encom-
pafled by a wall, within the compafs of which they had fome
altars. It is alfo faid that at a {mall diftance from this place
was the fepulchre of Lycurgus, king of Thrace, and par-
ticularly of Nemea.—Alfo, a river of the Peloponnefus,
which, according to Strabo, feparated the kingdom of Si-
cyon from the territory of Corinth.k—Alfo, a country of
the Peloponnefus, in the Elide.

NEMEN, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Tra-
vancore; 15 miles N.W. of Travancore.

NEMERSDORF, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Culmbach ; fix miles N.E. of Bayreuth.

NEMESA, in Ancient Geography, a country of the Pe-
Joponnefus, in which Hercules is faid to have killed the
lion.

NEMESIA, in Antiquity, a religious folemnity in me-
mory of deceafed perfous, fo called from the yoddefs Ne-
mefis, who was thought to defend the relics and memories
of the dead from injuries.

NEMESIANUS, M. Auretius Otymptus, in Bio-
graphy, a Latin poet, was a native of Carthage, and flou-
rifhed under the emperors Carus, Carinus, and Numerianus.
The lait of thefe princes had a particular efleem for him,
Under this prince he rofe to ,high favour and fortune, and
probably interelted himfelf in behalf of his contemporary
poet Calphurnius, who was reduced to indigence. Ne-
mefianus was author of three poems, of which only the
one entitled ‘¢ Cynegeticon’’ has come down to modern
times, and that in a very imperfeé&t ttate. It was dif-
covered by Sannazarius of Tours, and publifhed by Paulo
Manuzio at Venice in 1538. It has allo been pubhfhed
in the * Poetz rei Venatice,’’ by Barthelet in 1613, and

NEM

at Leyden in 1653, with notes. The Cynegeticon” ap.
pears to have been well known in the dark ages; it was
fo highly efteemed in the eighth century, that it was read
among tlie claffics in the public fchools, in the time of
Charlemagne. It cannot rank high as a poetical compo-
fition, but is faid to deferve praife for its polifh and ele-
gance. The “ Cynegeticon’” is ufually printed with that
of Gratius Falifcus, and four “ Eclogues” afcribed to
him, with thofe of Calphurnius. Another poet of the fame
name and age, but of very inferior merit, wrote a work en-
titled « Ixeutica,” of which fome fragments have been
publifhed in the “* Poete Lat. Minor.’”? Moreri.

NEMESIS, in Mythology, one of the infernal deities, re-
prelented by the ancients as watching for the punifhment of
the guilty, not only in this world, but alfo in the other, where
the chaftifes them with the utmoft rigour. For this reafén
fhe was exhibited with wings, fometimes too with a helm
and a wheel, to fignify that fhe purfued the guilty both by
fea and land. As {he was the daughter of valliaks fhe was,
as Ammianus Marcellinus deferibes her office, appointed to
revenge impiety, and at the fame time to recompentfe virtuous
actions. Several among the ancients, and {ome moderns,
fuppofe Nemefis to be the fame with Leda, the mother of
Caftor and Pollux, who obtained that name after her deifi-
cation, but the more common opinion is, that Nemefis her-
felf was the mother of thofe two heroes, whom {fhe had by
Jupiter, and that Leda was only their nurfe. Nemefia was
worfhipped in feveral places, as well in Greece as in Italy,
even in the Capirol itfelf ; and it has been faid that fhe had a
temple at Rome; but her worfhip was at no place more
pompous than at Rhamnus, a town of Attica, where the
had a ftatue ten cubits high of a fingle ftone, and fo exqui-
fitely beautiful that it was not inferior to the finett works of
Phidias. Anciently the ftatues of Nemefis were without
wings, as we learn from Paufanias, and the inhabitants of
Smyrna were the firft who gave her any. Paufanias {peaks
of * Nemefes” in the plural number. The Romans, be-
fore they fat out for war, offered a facrifice to Nemefis, pro-
bably taking that goddefs for Fortune, who ought to accom-
pany and favour warriors,

NEMESIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Marma-
rica, placed by Ptolemy between Azicis and Tifarchi.

NEMESIUS, in Biography, an eminent ancient Chriftian
philofopher, fuppofed to have been bifhop of Emeia in Phe-
nicia, and to have flourifhed towards the clofe of the fourth
century. He was author of a treatife «On the Nature of
Man,” which has been afcribed, but erroneonfly, to St. Gre-
gory Nyffen. It refsates the notions of the Manichzans,
Eunomians, and Apoliinaritts, and defends that of Origen
concerning the pre-exiftence of fouls. The opimons of the
Greek philofophers on the fubject of which he treats, he
relates with great perfpicuity of thought and correctnefs of
language; but it is faid to be chiefly curious, as it difcovers
a degree of acquaintance with phyfiolegy, not at all to be
parallelled in any other wrizers of fo early a date. The firtt
Latin verfion of it was publifhed at Lyons in 1538; it was
afterwards publifhed in Greek and Latin, at Antwerp. It
is inferted in the fecond volume of the Auc. Bibl. Patr.
The beft edition is that of Oxford in 1671, in Greek and
Latin, with notes, and a learned preface. Moreri. Entield’s
Hift. Phil.

NEMESKO, in Geography, a town of Hungary ; fix
miles W. of Ziget.

NEMESTRINUS, in Mythology, an ancient divinity
who prefided over forefts, called ** Nemora.” He was
probably the fovereign of the Dryads, Hamadryads, Fauns,
Satyrs, and other gods, inhabitants of the woods.

3 NEMET,

NEN

NEMET, in Geography, a town of Tranfilvania, on the
river Maros ; 12 miles W.N.W. of Hunyad.

NEMETES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Ger-
many, who named their capital Nomamagus. In the time
of Cefar, they occupied both fides of the Rhine. They
were eftablifhed along the Rhine, between the Vangiones to
the north, and the Triboci to the fouth.

NEMETH-UJAVAR, or GtussinGEn, in Geography,
a town of Hungary, on the borders of Stiria; it is a popu-
lous walled town, having a caftle feated on a high rock, de-
tached from all the other mountains. It is delightfully
fituated among woods, corn-fields, and rifing grounds, which
are covered with vines; 45 miles S.W. of Raab.

NEMETOBRIGA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Spain, in the Tarragonenfis, belonging to the Callaici, at
fome diftance N. of the Aquz Flaviz, on the route from
Breraca to Afturica.

NEMETZ, in Geography, a town of Hungary ; 14 miles
from Cafchau. :

NEMI, a town of Campagna di Roma; two miles S. of
Albano.

NEMIA, in Botany, Berg. Cap. 160; fee MANULBA.
The name feems to be derived from yeux, to divide, alluding
to the difference between the anthers, the two uppermoft of
which are roundifh, the two lowermoft oblong.

NEMINE ConrrapicenrTe, f.¢. none contradicting it ;
aterm chiefly ufed in parliament, or any public aflembly,
when any matter is carried with the confent of all the mem-
bers.

NEMINPILLY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Myfore ; 16 miles N.N.E. of Punganore.

NEMIR, a town of Perfia, in Khorafan; 15 miles N.
of Terfhiz.

NEMLI, a town of Hindooftan, in Vifiapour; 20 miles
E. of Anamfagur.

NEMOROW, a town of Mecklenburg ; fix miles S.W.
of Stargard.

NEMOSSUS, in Ancient Geography, an ancient town of
the Gauls, and capital.of the Arverni. Strabo.

NEMOURS, Mary pe Lonevevitir, Duchefs of, in’

Biography, was daughter of the duke de Longueville, and
born in the year 1625. She was married to the duke de
Nemours ; and wrote *‘ Memoirs of the Court of France
during the Minority of Lewis XIV."’ which are compofed
with {pirit, and with the fidelity of an hiftorian who had an
opportunity of becoming well acquainted with the faéts re-
corded. They are commonly united with thofe of Joly,
but have been printed feparately. The duchefs died at the
age of 82, in the year 1707.

Nemours, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Seine and Marne, and chief place of a
canton, in the diltriét of Fontainebleau. ‘The place contains
3760, and the canton 6475 inhabitants, on a territory of
200 kiliometres, in 16 communes. N. lat. 48° 16. E.
long. 2° 47/.

Nemours, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
near the fea; 20 miles S. of Adramiti.

NEMTCHITZ, a town of Moravia, in the cirele of
Olmutz; 12 miles S. of Olmutz.

NEMTSCHITZ, or Nemezicr, atown of Moravia, in
the circle of Brunn; 15 miles from Brunn.

NEMUS, in Ancient Geography, a {mall town of La-
tium, E. of Aricias; which owed its commencement to a
temple ereéted in honour of Diana Taurica, by an inha-
bitant of Aricia. ‘he Romans paid great refpect to this
divinity.

NEN, a town of Hindooftan, in Lahore; 74 miles E.S.E.

in Natolia,

NEO

of Bullaufpour.—Alfo, a river in the E. riding of the
county of York, in Upper Canada, which rifes feveral miles
beyond York, and difcharges itfelf into lake Ontario ; it
abounds with fifh.

-_ NENAGH, a poft-town of the county of Tipperary,
Ireland, is a large, regular, well-built town, fituate upon a
river which empties itfelf into lough Deirgeart. There is
a handfome old caltle, formerly of great ftrength, called
Nenagh Round, and it was the feat of fome monaftic efta-
blifhments. It is the chief town of the barony of Upper.

» Ormond, and a military ftation ; and is 75 miles S.W. by
W. from Dublin.

NENEEVA, one of the Friendly iflands, which is fmalt
and low; 29 miles N.E. of Annamooka.

NENESS, a cape on the S.E. coaft of Shetland. N.
lat. 59° 58!. W. long. 1° 20’.

NENGENGOOD, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ;
20 miles $.S.W. of Seringapatam.

NENIA, or Nani, in the Ancient Poctry, a kind of
funeral fong, fung to the mufic of flutes, at the obfequies of
the dead.

The word comes from the Greek vnvieto, on which Sca-
liger obferves, that it fhould be writcen in Latin Menia, not
Nenia.

Authors reprefent them as bad compofitions, fung by
hired women-mourners, called prefcia. The firlt rife of
thefe neniz is afcribed to the Phrygians.

Guichart notes, that nenia was anciently the name of a
fong, fung by nurfes, to lull children afleep ; and conjec-
tures it tocome from the Hebrew }?)) nin, child.

In the heathen antiquity, the goddefs of tears and fune-
rals was called Nenia, whom fome fuppofe to have given
that name to the funeral fong ; and others to have taken her
name from it. Some will have the one, and fome the other,
formed by onomatopeeia, from the found or voice of thofe
that weep.

NENNE, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province
of Irak ; 30 miles N.N.E. of Nehavend.

NENNIUS, in Biography, an ancient Britifh hiftoriaa,
abbot of Bangor, is generally faid to have flourifhed about
the year 620, and to have taken refuge at Chetter, at
the time of the maffacre of the monks at that monaftery.
This, however, has been controverted, and bifhop Nicolfon
fays, that from his own book he appears to have written in
the ninth century. He was author of feveral works, but
the only one remaining is his «* Hiftoria Britonum,” or
“« Eulogium Britanniz,’? which has been printed in Gale’s
Hitt. Brit. Scrip. Oxon. 1691. Great part of this work
is f{uppofed to have been compiled, or perhaps tranferibed,
from the hiltory of one Elborus or Elvodugus.

NENORTOLIK, in Geography, an ifland on the S.W.
coat of Greenland. N. lat. 59 54'. W. long. 45°.

NENSLINGEN, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Anfpach ; 26 miles S.E. of Anfpach.

NENUFAR, a river of Natolia, which runs into the fea
of Marmora; fix miles E. of Mikalidi.

NENUPHAR. The ancient writers on the materia
medica have all mentioned a peculiar fpecies of this plant,
under the name of nenuphar indicum. The roots of this they
call fel, and Avicenna fays, that they have the fame virtues
with the mandrake.

Nenuruar, in Botany, is aifo a name ufed by fome au-
thors for the water-lily.

NENUPHARINI, a name given by the adepts to a
kind of imaginary fpirits which they fuppofe to inhabit the
air, and to direét and govern many things on earth.

NEOCASAREA, in Ancient Geography, a town of

Pontus,

NE ©

Pontus, upon the Lycus, N. of Comana, called by dif-
ferent authors Hadrianopolis. Ptolemy places it in the in-
terior of the country between Ablata and Saurania.—Alfo,
a town of Bithynia.—Alfo, a town of Syria.—Alfo, a town

» of Afia, upon the banks of the Euphrates.—Alfo, a town

of Mauritania.

NEOCAESAREANS, in rnd Hiflory, Chriftians
of Neocefarea, in Cappadocia, who were the difciples of
Theodore, afterwards named Gregory, and called by Jerom
a man of apoftolical figns and wonders. Thefe Chriftians
were very troublefome to Bafil, bifhop of Czfarea, for in
divers of his letters, he complains of them that they were
all Sabellians, and he laments the ftrange averfion they had
for him. They formed a {mall church in Neocefarea, as
early as the year 250, to which Gregory made many addi-
tions about that period. His church continued ftedfaft in
the faith after his death, which happened either in the year
265 or 270. Near the end of the fourth century, the
Neocefareans were all Chriftians, having been favoured
until that time with paftors, who were men of true worth.
Thele people retained for a long while remarkable impref-
fions of religion; and they had an affeétion for the primi-
tive fimplicity, almoft fingular at that time, when innova-
tions came apace into the church. They feemed by no
means to approve of the common zeal for the monattic life,
of which Bafil complained. Lardner’s Works, vol. iii.

NEOCASTRO, in Geography, a town of European
Turkey, in the Morea, at the mouth of a river which runs
into the Mediterranean ; 32 miles N. of Navarin.—Alfo, a
town in Romania, ftrongly garrifoned, whither Chriftian
prifoners of confequence are fent; 12 miles N. of Conttan-
tinople. '

NEOCORI, Neoxogs, among the Ancients, perfons whofe
bufinefs it was to take care of temples, and other confe-
crated places. Theodoret (1. iii. c. 16.) mentions two other
funétions of the Neocori; thefe are, to ftand at the gates of
the temples, in order to fprinkle holy water for the purifica-
tion of thofe who were entering into.them; the other to
throw fome of the fame water upon the meat ferved up at
the emperor's table. They were otherwife called edifut.

NEGENIA, Neomea, in Antiquity, a feltival celebrated in
honour of Bacchus, when the new wine was firft tafted.

NECTHO, in Ancient Geography, a {mall town of Italy,
in Brutium, towards the E., upon the Necetus, at a little
diftance N. of Croton.

NEOLA, in Geography, a country of Africa, N. of the
Gambia, and W. of Dentila. N. lat. 12° 30’. W. long.
11° 40.

Neota Koba, a river of Africa, which runs into the
Gambia, N. lat. 12° 40’. W. long. 12° 25’.

NEOMAGUS, Novimacus, or Nopiomagus, in Ancient
Geography, a town of the Regni, in the ifle of Albion, ac-
cording to Ptolemy. The Itinerary of Antonine places it
between Londinium aes nce and Vagniacis ( Northfleet).

The fituation of this {tation is very uncertain; but Camden,
~ Gale, and Horfley, have agreed in placing it at Woodcote,

near Croydon. Mr. Baxcer, however, and fome other anti-
quaries, contend for Ravenfburn in Kent.

Neomacus, or Noviomagus Batavorum, a town of Ger-
mania fecunda, at the extremity of Gaul. The Peutingerian
table places it on the Rhine, between Caftra Herculis and
Arenatio.

NEOMENIA, Neomsnay in Antiquity. See NumENIA.

NeEoMENIA, in Chronology, &c. a term ufed for the new
moon.

Some fay, the Jews reckoned two kinds of neomenia, or
new moons ; the firft on the day of her conjun¢tion with the

VoL. XXIV.

NEO

fun ; the fecond on that of her apparition or phafis; and
add, that they celebrated two paflovers, on account of the
uncertainty which of thefe days it fhould be held on.

F. Hardouin, on the contrary, maintains, they had no
other neomenia but that of the moon’s conjunétion with the
fun; which it was eafy to afcertain by aftronomical calcula-
tion; whereas the other was liable to miftakes; the mcon
fometimes not fhewing herfelf till four or five days after con-
junGtion. ;

NEOMINAS, in Geography, a large river on the coaft
of Peru, difcharging itfelf into the Pacific ocean by two
mouths; 12 or 14 leagues N.W. of Bonaventura river.
N. lat. 4° 301.

NEON, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece, in the
Phocide, {ituated on the ridge of Parnaffus, called Tithorea.
At firit a mere fort, it was a confiderable town in the time
of Plutarch.

NEONE, in Geography, a town of European Turkey,
in Theffaly ; 20 miles W. of Zeiton.

NEONTICHOS, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Eolide, placed by Strabo at 20 ftadia from Lariffa, but
Herodotus places it at the diftance of 30 ftadia E. of that
town, near the plain of Hermus. The appellation denotes
a new-walled town.—Alfo, a town of Greece, in the Pho-
cide.- .Paufanias.—Alfo, a town of Thrace, on the Pro-
pontis.—Alfo, a town of Afia Minor, in Caria, between
Orthofia and Bargaffla. Ptol.

NEOPATRA, in Gesgraphy, a town of European Tur-
key, in Theffaly ; 20 miles W. of Zeiton.

NEOPHYTES, Nroduzos, in the Primitive Church, were
Ae Chriftians; or the heathens newly converted to the
aith.

The word fignifies a new plant; being formed of the
Greek vro:, new; and Quw, J produce; q.d. newly-born; bap-
tifm, whereby they commenced Neophytes, being a kind of
new birth. 3

The fathers never difcovered the mytteries of their reli-
gion to the Neophytes.

The term Neophyte is ftill applied to the converts which
the miffionaries frequently make among the infidels. The
Japonefe Neophytes, in the latter end of the fixteenth and
beginning of the feventeenth century, are faid to have fhewn
prodigies of courage and faith, equal to any known in the
primitive church. See CATECHUMEN.

Neopuyres has formerly likewife been ufed to denote
new priefts, or thofe firft admitted into orders; and fome-
times, the novices in monatteries.

NEOPSCO Creek, in Geography, a river of America,
in Virginia, which runs into the Potomack, N. lat. 38° 40’.
W. long. 77° 19'.

NEOPTOLEMIA, Neowiodsex, in Antiquity, a feftival
celebrated by the Delphians with much pomp and fplendour,
in memory of Neoptolemus, the fon of Achilles, who was
flain in an attempt to fack Apollo's temple, which he under-
took in revenge of his father’s death, to which that god was
acceffary.

NEOTS, Sr., in Geography, a parifh in the hundred of
Welt, and county of Cornwall, England, is fituated four
miles from Lefkeard, and 226 welt from London, Its
name was derived from Neotus (brother to king Alfred),
who obtained the appellation of faint, and was buried in this
church: a monaltery was founded in honour ef him, and
fubfifted till after the conqueft, when, being difpoffefled of
its lands, it fell to decay, and only its name has defcended
to the prefent age. All remains of the ancient church have
likewife been long fince deftroyed: the prefent parifh church,
which confifts of a nave and two ailles, with a tower at

aN the

NEO

the weft end, is. apparently not older than the reign of
Henry Vi.: the windows, feventeen in number, contain
reprefentations, in painted glafs, of {cripture hiftory, and of
the events recorded in the legends of St. Neot and other
faints; but moft of the windows are much damaged, and
the broken panes repaired with plain glafs, fo that in fome
inftances the defigns can hardly be traced. The popula-
tion of this parifh, according to the return in the year 1811,
was 1041 perfons, inhabiting 173 houfes. Some Account
of the Church and Windows of St. Neots Cornwall, by
the Rev. Mr. Fotter. Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. ii. Cornwall. The Life of St. Neot, the oldeft of all
the Brothers to King Alfred, by the Rev. J. Whitaker, 8vo.
1809.

Nea. St., a confiderable market-town in the hundred
of Tofeland, and county of Huntingdon, England, is plea-
fantly feated on the north bank of the river Oufe. It was
anciently called ¢ Enolfefbury,”’ and had a palace, belonging
to earl Elfred, which was fubfequently converted into a
monaftery, in honour of St. Neot, whofe relics are tradi-
tionally faid to have been removed hither from St. Neots in
Cornwall. The monks of this monaltery were difperfed by
the Danes ; but being reftored again by earl Leofric, it con-
tinued a priory fubordinate to Ely till after the conqueft,
when the religious were expelled a fecond time by Gilbert
de Clare. Lady Roifa, wife to Richard, the earl’s fon,
replenifhed it, however, about the year 1113, and granted
it, along with the manor, to the abbey of Bec, in Nor-
mandy. On the diffolution of alien priories, this houfe
became a “ prioratus indigena,”? and remained fo down to
the time of Henry VIII., when its revenues were eftimated
at 256/. 1s. 33d. The ruins of this edifice, now remaining,
are very inconfiderable. St. Neots confifts of a large mar-
ket-place, and feveral refpeftable ftreets interfeGting each
other. The church isa very beautiful building in the pointed
ftyle of Henry VIIth’s reign. At the weft end rifes an ele-
gant tower, 150 feethigh. The windows are large, and bear
the remains of paintings on the glafs. Ina chapel, called
Jefus chapel, lately laid open to the church, there was for-
merly a monument, fuppofed to have once contained the
relics of St. Neot, and removed hither from the’ priory.
This town contains, according to the population returns of
1811, 410 houfes, and 1988 inhabitants. The market day
is Thurfday.

On the oppofite fide of the river, and connected with the
town by a large handfome ftone-bridge, is the village of
Eynefbury, which was the feene of an action between the
royalifts, under lord Holland, and the parliamentary forces,
in 1648. The church here has a feparate tower on its
fouth-eaft fide ; and in the north wall of the chancel is a
ftone coffin, in which Saar de Quincy is faid to have been
buried. The parifh-regifter records a curious licence to
eat flefh on days not permitted by the ftatute. Beauties of
England and Wales, vol. vii. by E. W. Brayley.

NEOTTIA, in Botany, a name which properly belongs
to the Ophrys Nidus-avis of Linnzus, or Bird’s-neft Ophrys,
and which originated with Dodonzus, srk fignifying a
bird’s neft. Linnzns retained this plant, along with the
Corallorrhiza, as a genus, in AG. Upfal. ann. 1740, 32,
under the name in queftion; but that genus was afterwards
funk in Ophrys. Haller reftored it under another appella-
tion, which is now eltablifhed; fee Epipactis. Neottia
therefore being unoccupied, was chofen by Jacquin and
Swartz, for the very diftinét genus of which we are here to

eak, fome of whofe fpecies had been previoufly referred
to Ophrys, others to Satyrium. Jacq. Coll. v. 3.174. Swartz.
A&. Holm, 13800. p. 224. t. 3. t I, Traéts on Botany,

5

NEO
151.t.4.f.1. Schrad. Neues Journ. v. 1. 49. t. 1. f. Is
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4.72. Brown Prod. Nov. Holl. vy. 1.
319. Clafs and order, Gynandria Monandria. Nat. Ord.
Orchidea. i

Gen. Ch. reformed. Cal. Perianth of three oblong _
acute leaves, cohering below, ieee at the point; the
two lateral ones elongated at the bafe, in front, often con-
need, running down, at the bottom of the lip, on each
fide, in the form of a fpur. Cor. Petals two, cohering
lengthwife with the upper leaf of the calyx. Neary a lip
proceeding from the lower part of the ftyle, tapering at the
bafe, {welling upwards, embraced by the lateral leaves of
the calyx; its margin beardlefs, rather dilated and fpread-
ing. Stam. Anther parallel to the flyle and attached to its
back, erect, pointed, of two cells; maffes of pollen linear,
powdery, granulated, half enclofed in two longitudinal fur-
rows of the {tyle, oppofite to the cells of the anther. Pif,
Germen inferior, oblong, triangular; ftyle ereét, cylindri-
cal, with a membranous pot; ftigma in front, near the
oblique fummit of the ftyle, convex. Peric. Capfule ob- -
long, of one cell, opening between the angles. Seeds nume-
rous, minute, tunicate.

Eff. Ch. Calyx-leaves cohering, the two lowermoft elon-
gated at the bafe, embracing the neftary. Corolla ringent ;
lip without a fpur, beardlefs; petals cohering with the
upper ca'yx-leaf. Anther parallel to the ftyle, inferted at
the back.

t. N. /peciofa. Red-flowered Neottia, Willd. n. 1. Jacq.
Ic. Rar. t.600. Curt. Mag. t. 1374. Andr. Repof. t. 3.
(Helleborine foliis liliaceis, radice afphodeli, major; Plum.
Ic. 184. t. 190. f. A.)—Lip lanceolate, pointed, undivided.
Brafteas longer than the flowers. Stalk with numerous
fheathing feales. Leaves elliptic-oblong, glaucous, undu-
lated, fomewhat crifped.—Native of the Welt Indies. It
flowered for the firlt time in this country, at Mongewell, in
the ttove of the late Hon. Mrs. Barrington, who received the
plant from Jamaica, about the year 1793. Mr. Andrews’s
plant is certainly the fame as that of Jacquin, though his
plate is, as Willdenow remarks, badly drawn and coloured.
Mr. Edwards's in the Bot. Mag. is excellent. This is a
very handfome fpecies, diftinguifhed by the large /pike of
numerous crimfon flowers, each of which is fubtended by a
very long concave éraéea, of the fame hue. The numerous
leafy {cales on the /fa/k, which is 12 or 18 inches high, are
pale or reddifh. Each flower, with its germen, is about an
inch and half. Root a clulter of oblong, cylindrical, blunt
knobs. :

2. N. elata. Talk Small-flowered Neottia.. Willd. n. 2.
Swartz. Ind. Occ. 1403. (N. minor; Jacq. Ic. Rar.
t.601. Andr. Repof. t. 376. Redout. Liliac. t. 164.
Satyrium elatum; Swartz. Prod. 119. Helleborine foliis
liliaceis, radice afphodeli, major; Plum. Ic. 184. t. 190.)
—Lip obovate, obtufe, fomewhat notched. Stalk elongated.
Spike downy. Bracteas fhorter than the flowers. Leaves
elliptical, even at the margin. Native of the Welt Indies.
It flowered in the {tove at Chelfea garden, under the care
of Mr. Fairbairn, in 1791. The /eaves are all radical, nu-
merous, dark-green, even, not crifped, at the edges. Stalk
two feet high, with a few lanceolate {cales, cylindrical,
downy, as well as the {pike. FVowers numerous, {mall and
inconfpicuous, drooping, turned to one fide and rather f{pi-
rally di‘pofed. Corolla white, or blufh-coloured. Lip broad
and obtsfe, ufvally with a flight notch. Germen downy.

3. N. glandulofa. Glandulous Neottia. Sims in Curt.
Mag. t. 842,—Lip inverfely heart-fhaped, concave, pointed.
Clutter downy, of few flowers. Bracteas the length of the
partial ftalks. Leaves elliptical, bluatifh, recurved.—Na-

tive

NEOTTIA.

tive of the Welt Indies. It flowered in Mr. Woodford’s
ftove, in January 1805. The flowers being racemofe, not
fpiked, diftinguifh this from moft of the genus; their co-
lour is a mixture of green and white, and they are much
more expanded, with broader petals and lip, than thofe of
the laft. Their figure is indeed fo unlike all the fpecies we
have feen, as to excite fufpicion of the genus, but we have
never examined them alive. ~~

4- N. lanceolata. Purple Lanceolate Neottia. Willd.
n:3. (Limodorum. lanceolatum; Aubl. Guian. v, 2. 821.
Helleborine purpurea, afphodeli radice; Plum, Ic.' 176.
t. 181. f. 2.)—Lip ovate, entire. Stem leafy at the bate.
BraGteas fhorter than the flowers. Leaves elliptic-lanceo-
late, obtufe, ere&t.—Native of Guiana and the Welt Indies.
Known only by Plumier's figure. The /pike and flowers are
about the fize of the firlt {pecies.

5- N. diuretica. Diuretic Neottia. Willd. n 4. (Epi-
pactis floribus uno veriu difpofitis, vulgo Nnil; Feuillée
Peruv. v. 2. 726. t.17.)—Lip oblong, bluntifh, crenate,
reflexed. Spike turned one way. Bratteas about as long
as the flowers. Leaves radical, linear.—Native of dry
barren and mountainous places in Chili. Teuillée fays the
natives ufe this plant in retentions of urine, and gravelly
diforders, drinking the water in which it has been infufed
for a night. He fpeaks of the cylindrical knobs of the
root as watery, with a {weetifh and pungent flavour. The
Jfralé is about 18 inches high, clothed with fheathing fcales.
Leaves few, linear, nearly upright, about five inches long,
and half an inch wide. Flowers white, in a denfe {pike, all
turned to one fide, but apparently not ina {piral order.

6. N. quadridentata. Four-toothed Neottia. Willd. n. 5.
(Ophrys peruviana; Aubl. Guian. v. 2. 816. Helleborine
fpiralis, flore albo; Plum. Ic. 178. t. 183. f. 1.)—Lip
rounded, four-toothed. Spike fpiral. Flowers turned one
way, about equal to the bra¢teas. Stem leafy at the bafe.
Leaves elliptic-oblong, obtufe, wavy.—Native of Guiana
and the Welt Indies. Known only by Plumier’s figure.
Willdenow has very properly diftinguifhed this fpecies from
the laft, with which Aublet confounded it. The /pike ap-
pears to be about a foot long. Lip with four or five teeth.
Braéeas enlarged after flowering.

7. N. fpiralis. Spiral Sweet Neottia, or Ladies’ Traces,
Willd. n.6. Swartz. Ind. Occ. 1408. (Ophrys {fpiralis ;
Linn. Sp. Pl. 1340. Sm. Fl. Brit. 934. Engl. Bot. t. 541.
Curt. Lond. fafe. 4. t. 59. Fl. Dan. t. 387. Triorchis ;
Ger. em. 218.)—Lip ovate, obtufe, crenate. Stalk lateral.
Spike fpiral, downy. Flowers turned one way. Leaves
ovate, fpreading, with broad footftalks.—Native of grafly
open paftures, in various parts of Europe, flowering in
Angult and September. Dr. Swartz gives its charaGer in
his'Weft Indian Flora, but does not fpeak of this {pecies as
found in that part of the world. The knobs of the root
are thick, almo{t ovate, downy. Stem fpiral, about fix
inches high, bearing a few fheathing fcales. Leaves feveral,
radical, lateral, about an inch long, ovate, {preading in a
{tarry form, glaucous, ribbed. Spite two or three inches
long, flender, downy, fpiral, the flowers turned one way,
Amall, highly fragrant. Calyx, as well as the coral/a, white.
Lip with a green rib; its margin more or lefs crenate or
erifped. The draGeas are ovate, concave, taper-pointed,
imbricated like a braid, whence the old name of Ladies’
Traces. The variety 8 of Willdenow may belong to this
{pecies, but his y and 2 furely are diftin&.

8. N. efivalis. Summer Neottia. (N. fpiralis y and 2;
Willd. n. 6. (Ophrys zitivalis; Juff. MSS. Michaux Bo-
real-Amer. v. 2. 157. Poir. in Lamarck Diét. v. 4. 567.
O. fpiralis y; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1340. Orchis fpiralis alba

odorata, longo angultoque folio; Vaill. Paris 147. Orchi-
aftrum eftivum paluftre fpirale album odoratum; Mich.
Gen. 30. t. 26. Epipactisn. 1294; Hall. Hift. v. 2. 152.
t, 38. ed. 2. t. 41.)—Lip obovate, crenate. Stalk central,
leafy at the bafe. Spike f{piral, lightly downy. Flowers
turned one way. Leaves linear-lanceolate, ere&t.—In the
moift paftures of France, Italy, and Switzerland, flowering
in Auguft, earlier than. the laft, frem which it evidently
differs in having the fia/é, or rather flem, from the centre of
the radical eaves, which are nearly upright, linear-lanceo-
late, full thrice the length of the laft Feferibed, and much
narrower. The flowers too are rather larger; the /pike lefs
downy ; the /lem ufually near a foot high. We never met
with this plant in England, but we have it from near Paris;
as well as from Switzerland, marked Haller’s n. 1294, whofe
figure indeed accords with it, and not with the real /piralis.
He feems to have confounded them, nor is it clear that he
ever found the true /piralis in Switzerland. His citation of
Micheli in his Nomenclator, p. 117, refers to the name of one,
and the plate of the other. Gmelin’s plate, Fl. Sib. t. 3
f.1, feems taken from ;rather a large {pecimen of the
aftivalis. ;
9. N. flexuofa. Bending Indian Neottia.—Lip ovate,
wavy, crenate. Stalk central, wavy, leafy at the bafe.
Spike repeatedly fpiral, downy. Leaves oblong, fpread-
ing.—Gathered by Dr. F. Buchanan, May 1ft, 1802, in
watery places, at Suembu in Upper Nepal. The root con-
fifts of longer and much more flender knobs than the latt.
The /eaves are broader, fhorter, and more horizontal. The
flowers are more downy, fcarcely half fo large, twice as
numerous, directed every way, in confequence of the re-
markably fpiral fpike, which makes four or five turns be-
tween its bafe and fummit. Their colour is whitifh.
10. N. parviflora, Small-flowered Neottia.—Lip ovate,
wavy, crenate. Stalk central, leafy at the bafe. Spike
flightly fpiral, downy. Flowers turned one way. Leaves
oblong, {preading.—Gathered by Dr. Buchanan, July 23d,
1802, at Suembu in Upper Nepal. The knobs of the root
are thicker than in the laft-defcribed; fem ftraighter ;
flowers nearly the fame fize, but rather fewer, in a /pike
that, though inclined to be fpiral, makes but half a turn
from top to bottom. The /ip is of a bright red, not white.
It appears that this f{pecies flowers near three months later
than the flexuofa. Their learned finder was doubtful of
their being dittin& from the European N, fpiralis, but
though the fpecific characters between the four f{pecies laft
defcribed, are not very ftriking in defcription, the plants
when once feen cannot be confounded. When we defcribe
the flowers as turned one way, we mean that they follow
each other in a clofe, though fomewhat fpiral, line, perhaps
completing one turn; the circumvolutions not being many
times repeated as in.our flexuo/a.
11. N. tortilis. Twitted Neottia. Swartz. Ind. Occ.
1406. Willd. n. 7. (Satyrium fpirale; Sw. Prodr.
118.)—Lip three-lobed. Spike {pirally twifted, {mooth.
Leaves radical, Mmear, erect, half as long as the ftalk.—
Gathered by Dr. Swartz, in dry graffy places, on moun-
tains in the weftern part of Jamaica. He mentions havin
received the fame from North America and China. The
knobs of the root, in his Jamaica plant, are oblong, round,
and fmooth. eaves all radical, almoft a foot in length,
linear, ere, ftriated, {mooth, fheathing at the bafe, often
withering away before the flowers expand. Stalk two feet
high, ere&, round, {mooth, as thick as a ftraw of rye, ~
fheathed with a few remote, clofe, lanceolate, acute fcales.
Spike rather lax, from three to fix inches long, fpirally
twilted. Flowers drooping, fmooth, whitifh. BraGeas
aN 2 ovate,

NEOTTIA.

ovate, acute, convex, as in all the neighbouring fpecies.
Lip reflexed, with three rounded, finely crenate, lobes, the
central one largeft.

12. N. cernua. Drooping Neottia.
n. 5. Willd. n. 8. (Ophrys cernua ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1340.
Michaux Boreal-Amer. v. 2. 158.)—Lip oblong, acute,
undivided. Spike downy. Flowers turned every way, de-
flexed. Leaves radical, linear-oblong, bluntifh.—Native of
various parts of North America, from Hudfon’s bay to
Carolina. Michaux. Root of numerous, thick, cylindrical
knobs. Zcaves radical, linear, long. Sta/k twelve or
eighteen inches high, erect, {mooth, with feveral long tu-
bular fheaths. Spife two or three inches long, downy, of
numerous, crowded, whitifh, drooping flowers, above twice
the lize of N. /piralis, all turned to one fide when they firlt
expand, though their common {talk is then very much
twilted. It appears, by our dried fpecimens, that the part
in queftion foon becomes lefs {piral, and that in confequence
the flowers foon point every way.

13. N. aujfralis. New Holland Neottia. Brown. Prod.
v. 1. 319.—Lip oblong,
tongue-like appendages at the bafe. Lateral lobes of the
ityle longer than the {tigma. Spike twilted. Leaves radi-
cal, lanceolate. Gathered by Mr. Brown near Port Jack-
fon, New South Wales. The kuobs of the root are oblong,
as in moft of the genus.

14. N. adnata. Clofe-fpurred Neottia. Swartz. Ind.
Oce. 1409. Willd. n.g. (Satyrium adnatum; Swartz.
Prod. 118.) —Lip deflexed, two-lobed ; its bafe. decurrent
along the germen. Spike lax. Leaves radical, oblong,
with very long footftalks.—Native of fhady woods, in the
interior parts of Jamaica and Hifpaniola, flowering in May.
Root of numerous, oblong, downy knobs. Leaves feveral,
radical, elliptic-oblong, pointed, four or five inches in
length, reticulated with veins, {mooth; their foot/falks red,
channelled, half a foot long, or more, fheathing at the bafe.
Stalk two or three feet high, downy, reddifh, with remote,
thin, coloured fheaths. Spike fix or eight inches long.
Flowers rather f{cattered, almoft ereét, greenifh white.
Braéeas \inear-lanceolate, the length of the germens. Lip
elongated at the bafe into an obtufe fpur, half the length of
the germen, to which it is attached, and accompanied by a
fimitar elongation of the two lateral leaves of the calyx; its
fore-part rounded, deflexed, two-lobed, whitifh.

15. N. orchivides. Frotted-flowered Neottia. Swartz.
Ind. Occ. 1411. Willd. n. 10. Curt. Mag. t. 1036.—
Lip lanceolate, pointed, undivided; its bafe, with the
calyx, forming a pouch. Spike downy. Leaves radical,
ovato-lanceolate-—Gathered by Dr. Swartz, in very dry
grafly fields in Jamaica. It flowered in Mr. Woodford’s
jtove at Rickmanfworth, in May 1807. ‘The colour and
lize of the fowers molt refembie the firit {pecies, NM. /peciofa,
but the culyx, germen, and flalks are, as it were, trotted,
with pellucid white dots, and are befides downy. The
leaves are all radical, ovate or elliptical, tapering at both
ends, widely fpreading, or recurved, with numerous ribs.
Stalk a foot or more in height, downy, and purplifh near
the flowers.

16. N. repens. Creeping Neottia. Swartz. Orchid.
n. 8. Willd. n. 11. (Satyrium repens; Linn. Sp. Pl.
1339. Sm. I'l. Brit. 930. Engl. Bot. t. 289. Jacq.
Aultr. t. 369. Palma Chritti, radice repente ; Ger.

em. 227.)—Lip inflated, with a lanceolate, entire, deflexed
point. Calyx-leaves lanceolate. Spikes downy, {piral.
Leaves ovate, flalked, reticulated. Root creeping, with
downy fibres.—- Native of alpine fir forelts, in Sweden, Si-
beria, Germany, Switzerland, and Scotlands flowering in

9
/

Swartz. Orchid.

undivided, crifped, with two —

July. The branched, downy, fomewhat flefhy roots creep
among wet mofs and decayed leaves, throwing out long
horizontal fhoots, leafy at the end, and at length taking
root there. eaves feveral, in tufts, ovate, full an inch
long, fmooth, marked with many ribs and reticulated veins,
and often checquered with dark brown, as in Mentzel.
Pugil. t. 3. £4, 5. Jootffatks as long as the leaves, broad
and fheathing. Sta/é terminal, from the centre of the
leaves, near a fpan high, round, bearing a few fheaths.
Spike two or three inches long, downy, fpiral, the flowers
following its direGlion, and rather drooping. Braéleas
lanceolate, pointed, longer than the germen. Flowers
flefh-coloured, fragrant, as is the whole plant in fome de-
gree, long after it has been dried. Lip inflated and almoft
globular underneath, terminating in a little reddifh deflexed
point.

17. N. pubefcens. Downy American Neottia. Willd.
n. 12. (Satyrium repens; Michaux Boreal-Amer. v. 2.
157-)—Lip inflated, with a pointed, deflexed point. Ca-
lyx-leaves ovate. Spike downy. Flowers fpreading every
way. Leaves ovate, ftalked, reticulated. Root creeping,
with downy fibres.—Native of North America, from Canada
to Florida. We have it from Pennfylvania, but what Mr,
Menzies found in Nova Scotia feems rather the checquered
variety of N. repens, figured in Mentzelius, and in Morifon,
fe. 12. t. 11. f. ro. The plant of Willdenow and Mi-
chaux is taller, with a ftraight, not {piral, /pike, the nu-
merous fowers rather {maller, pointing every way, and
ereét, neither turned to one fide, nor at all drooping. , The
calyx-leaves are very broad, ovate, or almoit orbicular.
The point of the inflated /ip feems very {mall.

18. N. calcarata. Spurred Neottia, Swartz. Ind. Occ.
1413. Willd. n. 13.—Lip lanceolate, pointed ; decurrent,
with the calyx, at the bafe, forming an awl-fhaped, curved
fpur. Spike of few flowers. Leaves elliptical, much
fhorter than their foot{talks.—Native of fhady woods on the
mountains of Hifpaniola. Root of downy, thick, cluttered
fibres. Leaves radical, elliptical, ribbed, {mooth, three or
four inches long. Foo#/falks much longer than ‘he leaves,
erect, fheathing at the bafe. Sva/k twelve or eighteen inches
high, ere&, round, {mooth, pale red, bearing feveral taper-
pointed fheaths. Syike upright, cf a few, large, greeny
rather diftant flowers. Upper leaf cf the calyx erect, cone
cave, keeled, pointed, forming, together with the petals,
which are but half as long, and partly included within it, a
hood or upper lip. The two lateral leaves of the calyx are
very much elongated at the bafe, forming, together with
the bafe of the /ip, a long incurved {pur, refembling the real

fpur of an Orchis, but very different in nature. The /ip
itfelf is lanceolate, taper-pointed, undivided. Germen
{mooth.

19. N. polyfachya. Toranched Red Neottia. Swartz.

Ind. Occ. 1415. Willd. n. 14. (Serapias polyftachya 5
Swartz. Prod. 119.)—Lip ovate, recurved. Cluiter com-
pound, terminal. Stem fubdivided, jointed.—Native of
woods on the high mountains of Clarendon in Jamaica, in a
marthy barren foil. Root of long, thickith, whorled, brown
fibres. Stem two or three feet long ; round and fomewhat
branched in the lower part; the branches angular, jointed,
as thick as a wheaten ftraw, ftriated, rather (tiff, leafy.
Leaves altecnate, folded and fheathing at the bafe, oblong,
pointed at each end, entire, ereét, ribbed, {mooth, ant
green, afoot in length; their fheaths flightly compreffed,
{triated, each originating from one of the joints of the ttem,
like thofe of grafles. Clufler compound, fupported by a
{talk which terminates the ftem, and is fometimes accom-
panied by a fhort leaf; its branches alternate, each confilting

of

NEP

of from five to feven pale red drooping flowers, om very
fhort ftalks. va 4 ovate, purple, flat, with a recurved
point ; its bafe inflated.

20. N. flava. Branched Yellow Neottia. Swartz. Ind.
Occ. 1417. Willd. n. ts. (Serapias flava; Swartz.
Prod. 119.) — Lip pointed, ere&t. Clafters compound,
axillary. Stem fubdivided, jointed. — Gathered by Dr.
Swartz, with the lat, flowering in January, in marfhy
woods, on the mountains of Jamaica. The roots, flem, and
leaves are like thofe of that fpecies, but twice or thrice as
large Cluflers from the fheaths of the terminal ‘aves, als
ternately branched. Flowers Crooping all one way, yellow,
larger than thofe of N. polyftachya. Lip lanceviate, ere&,
not recurved; its bafe concave, or channelled, embracing

the ftyle.

21. N. acaulis. Stemiefs Neottia. Sm. Exot. Bot.
Vv. 2. oI. t. 105.—Stem none, Flowers feffile, folitary, in
the bofom of each leaf.— Native of the ifland of Trinidad,
from whence it was obtained by Mr. Evans of Stepney, and
flowered in his ftove in June 1806. This plant is fingular
in its genus, and, as far_as we know, in its natural order,
for having neither ffem nor flower-flalk of any kind. The
root confilts of many thick fibres. The /eaves are numerous,
ovate, glaucous, glittering, pointed, ribbed, wavy, forming
a denfe tuft; their under fide and bafe brown or purplifh;
their fize and afpeét mott like the firft fpecies. Flowers
radical, large, feffile, erect, green end white, with an oc-
cafional {weet mufky fcent. Germen an inch and a half
long; calyx half that length; both downy. Lip oblong,
concave, downy, with a blunt point, and two dilated wavy
lateral lobes, ftriped with green and bordered with white.

Mr. Brown obferves that Orchis /frateumatica of Linnzus
belongs to this genus; but we have had no opportunity of
examining it. ‘Vhere are fome fpecies ftill undeferibed in
the herbarium of Sir Jofeph Banks; and incomplete fpeci-
mens of one or two others in our poffeflion, which mutt be
left for future contideration. S.

NEOU, the African nae of a tree, found by Adanfon
at Senegal, which Juffieu refers to the Perrocarya ; fee
that article and Mampata.

NEOUNBENGZEICK, in Geography, a town of Ava,
on the Irawaddy; 15 miles N. of Prome.

NEOUNDAH, a town of the Birman empire, on the
Irawaddy, which has rifen on the ruins of Paghan, to
which it nearly joins.

NEP, in Botany. See Nepera.

NEPA a word ufed by naturalifts fometimes to exprefs a
érab, {ometimes for a /corpion, and fometimes for a plant,
called by the botamiits geni/fa Spartium.

Nepa, Water-Scorpion, in Entomology, a genus of infe&s
of the order Hemiptera: the generic chara¢ter is this, the
fnout is inflected, and antenne fhort; it has f ur wings,
‘folding crofs-wife, coriaceous on the upper part; the fore-
legs are cheliform ; the other four are formed for walking.
There are fourteen fpecies included in this genus, which are
divided into feétions, according as they have no lip, or a
fhort lip, or one that is projeGting and round. ‘Two of the
fpecies are common to this country.

The infe&s of this genus belong to the water, and their
eggs are likewife depofited in water; they are of an oblon
fhape, and generally {unk and concealed in the ftalk of a
bull-rufh. When they arrive at their full fize, and become
complete infects, they are fometimes nearly an inch in length,
and nearly half as broad. The antenne appear in the ufual
place of the fore-legs; they are armed with a forceps adapted
tothe purpofes for which they are applied. The nepas are,
of all animals, the moft tyrannical ; like wolves, among a

NEP

flock of harmlefs fheep, they deftroy a vaft number more
than their wants require. It has been obferved, that if a
nepa be placed in a bafon of water with thirty or fort
worms of the libellula kind, each as large as itfelf, it will
deftroy them all in a very fhort fpace of time, getting on
their backs, and piercing them through the body with the
roftrum. Thefe animals, though they live upon the water
by day, are capab'e of taking long flights from one pool
or ftagnant water to another, in queft of food; this they
are probably obliged to at-empt from the fiercenefs of
their manners, by which the infects in their vicinity muft
foon be deltroyed. ‘The nepas, fo formidable to other
creatures, are themfelves neverthelefs haunted by a little
pediculus, which, perhaps, abundantly avenges the in-
juries that the water-fcorpion fo frequently commits upon
others.

A. Antenne palmate, and without Lip.

Species.

Grannis. Chefnut-brown, variegated with yellow. It
inhabits South America. The antennz are four-cleft, and
the divifions are curved. This is the largelt {pecies yet
known, it meafures more than three inches ia length. | It
is faid to prey on tadpoles and young frogs.

AnnvuLata. The tail of this fpecies is unarmed, roundifh,
pale brown; the fore-fhanks are pale, and annulate with
brown. It is found in Coromandel, and is reckoned
broader and more round than others.

Rustica. Tail unarmed, brown; the lateral and hind-
margin of the thorax, and fore-margin of the upper wings,
whitifh. It is likewife found in Coromandel.

Tusca. Tail ending in two briftles; fcutel rugged ;
wings fnowy. It inhabits the Eaft Indies, The body of
this {pecies is brown ; and the tail is as long as the body,

Grossa. Tail ending in two briftles ; dy ovate; and
in this {pecies the tail is longer than the body. It inhabits
Tranquebar.

CryerEa. This is the common water-{corpion, whofe
{pecific chara&er is this ; tail ending in two bnitles, half as
long as the body; the body is ovate and brown. It in-
habits this country, and many parts of Europe, chiefly on
ftagnant waters, meafuring about an inch in length, and ap-
pearing, when the wings are clofed, of a dull brownifh colour;
but when the wings are expanded the body above appears
of a bright red colour, with a longitudinal band down the
middle ; and the lower wings, which are of a tranfparent
white, are decorated with red veins; from the tail proceeds
a tubular bifid procefs or ftyle, nearly of the length of the
body, and which appears tingle on a general view, the two
valves of which it confilts being generally applied clofe to
each other throughout their length. The animal is of flow
motion, and is oftem found creeping about the fhallow parts
of ponds. In May, when the weather is warm and favour-
able, it depofits its eggs on the foft furface of the mud at
the bottom of the water. They are of a fingular fhape,
refembling fome of the crowned feeds, having an oval body,
and an upper part furrounded by feven radiating procefles
or curved {pines ; the young, when firft hatched, are not
more than the eighth of an inch in length. This infeé
flies only by night, when it wanders about the fields, in the
neighbourhood of its native waters. The larve and pupe
differ in appearance from the complete infe& in having only
the rudiments of wings, and being of a paler or al
colour.

Macurara. Tail ending in two briftles; the body is
black ; the thorax and fcutel {potted with ferruginous.

; This

N E P

This is found in the Eaft Indies, and is about half the fize

of the N. cinerea.

B.. Antenne palmate ; Lip very Jhort, and widely emarginate.
. Species. i

Frurorstis. Tail ending in two briftles, fhorter than the
body ; body linear; legs teitaceous ; the thighs are annu-
late, and of a cinereous colour. It inhabits Tranquebar.

* Livearis. The tail of this {pecies ends in two briftles,
as long as the body ; the thorax is of one colour ; the fore-
fhanks have a {pine down the middle. The infects of this
fpecies have a highly fingular afpet, bearing a diftant re-
femblance to fome {maller infe&ts of the genera Mantis and
Phafma. It is about an inch and a half long, and the whole
animal is extremely flender ia proportion to its length. It
inhabits the larger kind of ftagnant waters, frequenting the
fhallower parts during the middle of the day, when it may
be obferved to prey on the {maller water infects. Its mo-
tions, too, are fingular; often ftriking out all its legs ina
kind of ftarting manner at intervals. The eggs are imaller
than thofe of the N. cinerea, of an oval fhape, and furnifhed
with two proceffes or briftles divaricating from the top of
each.

Exonearta. Tailending in two briftles, flat, and longer
than the body; the body is linear; the thorax teftaceous,
with a brown dorfalline. It inhabits Tranquebar.

C. Lip projeéting, and rounded.
Species.

* Crmicorpes.. Abdomen ferrate at the edge ; head and
thorax varied with yellow and brown. ‘This, at the firft
appearance, is more like a notone¢ta than a nepas the hind-
legs being formed for {wimming brifkly, and furnithed with
an edging of hairs on the inner fides: it likewife bears a
refemb!ance to the cimex in its broadly ovate fhape.

ZEstivatis. Abdomen ferrate at the edge; head and
thorax white. It inhabits France, and 1s about half the
fize of the lait.

Nep=rormis. Edge of the abdomen entire.
the South American iflands.

Cursrrans. The abdomen of this is black, the edge
entire; all the legs are formed for running. It is a very
{mall infe&, and is found at Kiel.

NEPAUL, Nepat, or Napaul, in Geography, a kingdom
of Hindooftan, confilting of an extenfive plain in a valley,
enclofed in the great range of fecondary mountains, which
branch out towards the S. and W. from the gigantic ridge of
Himalaya and the lofty regions of Tartary. On the ealtern
fide, the pofleffions of the Ghoorkhali, or prefent reigning
family, are bounded by Bochtan, or the country of the Deb
Rajah ; to the S.E. they touch upon our diftriéts of Runga-
mutty and Coochbehar ;, on the N.E. they are divided from
Thibet by the Alpine ridge, in which the paffes of Phullak and
Kooti are fituated. ‘To the fouthward the Nepaul territories
are bounded by the purgunnahs of Durbungah, Tirhoot,
and Ghemparum. ‘To the S.W. is Bulrampore of Goruck-
pore, adjoining to which is the tributary principality of Boot-
wal. ‘l'o the weftward, the Nepaul borders touch on various

arts of Oude; and to the N.W. are divided from various
Giticts of Rohilcund by the Allmorah hills. T’o the N.W.
they are bounded by the dominions of the rajahs of Serinugur
and Siremor, and by parts of Thibet ; all of them fituated
beyond the {nowy ridge of Himmalch. While the Nepaul
territories include between their eaftern and weltern limits,
as is feen in major Rennell’s map, no lefs a {pace than twelve
geographical degrees, they extend only two degrees from

It inhabits

NEP

N. to S., and for the moft part exhibit a flip of even lefs
than a degree in breadth. The extenfive plain of Nepaul,
fituated N.E. of Patna, at the diftance of ten or eleven
days’ journey from that city, refembles an amphitheatre
covered with populous towns and villages: the circum-
ference of the plain is faid to be about 200 miles, fomewhat
irregular, and furrounded by hills on all fides, fo that no
perfon can enter or come out of it without pafling the moun-
tains. There are three principal cities in this plain, each
of which was the capital of an independent kingdom; viz,
CaTH’MANDU, on the eaftern bank of the Bifhmutty, about
one mile in length, and half a mile in breadth, containing
nearly as many temples as houfes, and as many idols as in-
habitants. ‘The number of houfes, according to Col. Kirk-
patrick, in Cath’mandu, and its dependant towns and villages,
is 22,000; and that of inhabitants in the town itfelf, allow-
ing ten to a houfe, about 50,000; and the number of idol
deities 2733. The other cities are Lelit PaTAN, or Patn;
and Buarean, or Bhatgong ; which fee refpetively. Be-
fides thefe three principal cities, there are many other large
and lefs confiderable towns or fortreffes, one of which is
Timi and another Cifol, each of which contains about 8000
houfes, and is very populous. (See alfo Kurrripour.) _
All thefe towns, both great and {mall, are well built of
brick, three or four ftories high, with doors and windows
of wood: the ftreets are paved with brick or ftone, with a
regular declivity for carrying off the water, but Kirkpatrick
fays, the ftreets of Cath’mandu are narrow and filthy ; in
almoft every {treet of the capital towns are good wells of
ftone, from which the water paffes though feveral ftone-
canals for the public benefit. In every town there are
f{quare varandas, called « Pali,’’ well built, for the accom-
modation of travellers and the public, and there are many
of thefe in different parts of the country for public ufe,
On the outfide of the great towns are {mall {quare relervoirs
of water, faced with brick, with a good road to walk upon,
and a large flight of fteps for the convenience of thofe who
choofe to bathe.

The moft northerly part of Nepaul fearcely lies in a
higher parallel of latitude than 274°; and yet this valley
enjoys, in certain refpeéts, the climate of fome of the fouthern
parts of Europe. Snow, during winter, is {prinkled on the
tops of the furrounding mountains for feveral days, and it
fometimes falls in the valley below; and in this feafon a
hoar froft commonly covers the ground, and the ftanding
water of the pools and tanks freezes, but the rivers are never
frozen. Nepaul feems to owe its. favourable climate to its
great elevation ; its height above the level of the fea, as in-
dicated by the barometer, not being lefs than 4000 feet : the
mean temperature, during Kirkpatrick’s refidence towards
the clofe of the year 1792, being, for a {mall interval of efghr
days,67°. The feafons aremuch the fame with thofe of Upper
Hindooftan. The rain commences a little earlier, and fets
in from the S.E. quarter: it is ufually very copious, and
ends towards the middle of O&ober, and at this time the
rivers are very fubject to overflow their banks. On the fides
of the mountains there is a confiderable variety of tem-
perature ; and in three or four days the traveller may ex-
change, by moving from Noakote to Khenoo, the heat of
Bengal for the cold of Ruffia. ‘The falubrity of the more
elevated fummits is indicated by the afpe& of the inhabitants.
The guttural tumours, fimilar to the goiters of the Alps,
and called in Hindooftan ‘ ghaigha,’’ and in Nepaul
‘« ganoo,”’ to which the inhabitants are fubject, are afcribed
by many of them to the imagination of their pregnant
women, who conttantly fee the protuberant pouches of
monkies, with which part of the country ais 3

~ which,

NEPAUL.

which, accerding to a prevalent fuperftition, it would be
an ac of the greateft impiety to diflodge.

It was formerly thought that Nepavul contained gold
mines ; but although this is not the cafe, it produces al-
moit every other metal ; its iron is admirable ; but copper
fearce and dear. Near Ghoorka there is faid to be a confi-
derable mafs of rock-cry{tal ; and limettone, as well as flate,
abounds every where. However here are no lime-kilns, and
the cement employed is mud, which is preferred for their
buildings. The cattle, génerally {peaking, are not much fu-
perior to thofe commonly met with in Bengal and the upper
provinces. The honey is excellent; but the vegetables are
of the worft kind. A fpecies of yam, called * tooral,’’ anda
kind of wild afparagus, denominated * kuraila,’’ form a
confiderable part of the fubfiftence of the poor.

The inhabitants confift principally of the two f{uperior
clafles of Hindoos, and of a race called the ‘* Newars,’’
who are probably of Tartar or Chinefe origin. The
former are generally difperfed; but the latter are confined
almoft entirely to the valley of Nepaul Proper. The
«© Dhenwars’’ and ‘¢ Mhanjees”’ are the hufbandmen and
fifhers of the weftern diftri€ ; and the “ Bhootias” occupy,
generally fpeaking, fuch parts of the Kucha as are included
in the Nepaul territories. The ‘* Bhanras’’ area fort of fe-
paratifts from the Bhootias, and are fuppofed to amount to
about sooo. They fhave their heads, like the Bhootias ;
obferve many of the religious rites, as wellas civil cuftoms,
of thefe idolaters, in a diale&t of whofe lanzuage they are
faid to preferve their facred writings. The total: popula-
tion is eftimated at about half a million. As Nepaul has
been governed for many centuries paft by Rajapoot princes,
and as Hindoos in their various clafles have conftituted their
chief population, it is natural to expect that a general re-
femblance fhouid fubfift, with regard to cuftoms and man-
ners, between this portion of its inhabitants, and the kindred
feéts eftablifhed in the adjacent countries. The differences
are flighter than might be expected, when it is confidered
that Nepaul is the only Hindoo country that has never been
difturbed by any Muffulman power. The Hindoos, how-
ever, and the Newars, differ very confiderably : the latter
are rarely employed in their armies ; their occupations are
agriculture, arts, and manufactures; they are capable of
great labour, and evince a very confiderable degree of fkiliin
their mechanical operations. They are. in general, of mid-
dle fize, with broad fhoulders and cheits, very ftout limbs,
round and rather flat faces, {mall eyes, low and fomewhat
fpreading nofes, and open cheerful countenances. At
Bhatgong molt of the women have a florid tint upon their
cheeks, but, for the moft part, their complexion, like that
of the men, 18 between a fallow and a copper-colour. The
Newar women (like the ** Nairs’’) have as many hufbands
as they pleafe, being allowed to divorce them often on the
flighteft pretences. The popular religion of Nepaul differs
in no refpeé from the Hinduifm efablithed in Bengal,
except fo far as the fecluded nature of the country may
have tended to preferve it in a ftate of greater purity,
Father Giufeppe fays, that the religion of Nepaul is of two
kinds ; the one ancient, profeffed by many people who call
themfelves “ Baryefus ;’’ thefe pluck out all the hair from
their heads; their drefs is of coarfe red woollen cloth, and
they wear a cap of the fame; they are confidered as peo-
ple of the religious order; and they are prohibited by their
religion from marrying, as it is with the Lamas of Thibet,
from which country their religion was originally brought; but
in Nepaul they do not obferve this rule, except at their own
diferetion. They have large monafteries, in which each has
a feparate apartment ; they alfo obferve particular feftivals,

the principal of which they call Yatra,” which continues
a month, or longer, at the pleafure of the king. The cere-
mony confifts in drawing an idol, called at Lelit-Pattan
“‘ Baghero,”’ in a large and richly ornamented car, covered
with gilt copper ; round the idol ftand the king and the prin-
cipal Baryefus; and thus the vehicle is drawn almoft every day
through fome one of the ftreets by the inhabitants, who run
about beating and playing upon every kind of inftrament their
country affords, which make an inconceivable noife. The
other religion, which is the moft common of the two, is that
of the Brahmins, or Hinduifm, as already ftated.

The government of Nepaul is defpotic. .The choutra is
the prime minifter of the rajah, to whom he is invariably
akin. . He tranfaéts the bufinefs of the country, and for his
fervices he has, befides his jaghires, eight annas on ever
kaith or rice plantation throughout the country ; and thele
kaiths are fubje€t to various other impofitions. The law,
and the adminiltration of it, are inan equally imperfect flate.
The trade of Nepaul needs better regulations, in order to
render it more extenfive. Some of the reftraints by which
it was fhackled were removed by a treaty concluded with the
Eat India company in 1792; but it ftill languifhes under
feveral impolitic reftrictions. The exports of Nepaul are
elephants, elephants’ teeth, rice, timber, hides, ginger,
terra japonica, turmeric, wax, honey, refin, fruit, pepper,
{pices, ghee, lamp-oil, and cotton, The duties on articles
pafling between Thibet and Nepaul are enormous. The
company import into Nepaul woollen goods, chintzes,
fhawls, raw filk, gold and filver lace, carpets, cutlery,
cloves, fandal wood, alum, quickfilver, dyeing woods, tin,
zinc, lead, foap, tobacco, coral, &c. &c. &c. The Ne-
wars, already mentioned, are almoft the only artifans;
their cloths are coarfe ; in iron, copper, and a and alfo
in carpentry, they work well; they export fome of their
brazen articles to the fouthward ; and their cutlery is not
contemptible. They gild extremely well, cafl bells of a
large fize ; make paper, diftil fpirits, and prepare fermented
liquors. The filver brought into Nepaul by way of Thibet
mutt be brought to the mint, as no filver is allowed to pafs
into Hindooftan ; in exchange for his filver, the merchant
receives rupees, lofing from 10 to 12 per cent. by the tranf-
action, 4 per cent. on account of coiage, and 8 cent.
for alloy. Gold has ufually been a monopoly in the hands
of government, which is fuppofed to be rich. Their artil-
lery is contemptible. Their troops are armed with match-
locks, bows and arrows. The regular force confilts of
from 50 to 60 companies, each containing 140 firelocks ;
but their difcipline is very lax. They are, however, as co-
lonel Kirkpatrick fays, brave, and capable of fuftaining
great hardfhips.

The Pundits of Nepaul are not inferior to their brethren
in fuch branches of {cience as are cultivated in Hindooitan,
Aftronomy, in conneétion with judicial aftrology, is faid to
be their favourite ftudy. In the valley of Nepaul, and par-
ticularly at Bhatgong, which is reprefented as the Benares
of the Ghoorkali territory, a {ingle private library contains
15,000 volumes. ‘The Sanfcrit is confiderably cultivated by
the Nepaul Pundits; and befides, there are eight vernacular
languages fpoken within the dominions of that kingdom.
Befides his own immediate eltates, there is hardly any divifion
of the Ghoorkali conquefts, in which the prince has not ap-
propriated a fhare to himfelf. Some of thefe eftates are
cultivated by hufbandmen, with whom he equally divides the
produce; others are managed by agents of his own, and
tilled by the neighbouring hufbandmen, who are obliged to
dedicate a certain number of days in the year to his fervice ;

and others are farmed out, Many of the kaith lands yield
shree

N_E P

three harvefts, one of wheat, one of rice, and one of an
excellent vegetable, called « tori.” The fugar-cane is alfo
cultivated in thefe lands. In the generality of them, land is
reckoned to yield from 20 to 30 fold ; in fertility not much
exceeding that of the beft arable land in this ifland. The
plough is fcarcely known among the Newars ; the prejudice
againft the ufe of it originating in their reverence for the
bullock, which they never approach but in the form of
adoration. The expences of the military eftablifhment are
for the moft part difcharged by affignments of land; though
in fome inftances, the foldier receives his pay, either from
the treafury or the granary.

The kingdom of Nepaul is thought to be very ancient ;
becaufe it has always preferved its peculiar language and in-
dependence ; but the caufe of its ruin has been the diffention
which fubfifts among its three kings. At length the king
of Gorcha, taking advantage of the diffentions which pre-
vailed among the other kings of Nepaul, attached to his
party many mountain-chiefs, and having poffefled himfelf of
the mountains which furround the plain of Nepaul, defcend-
ed into the flat country; but failing to fubdue it by force
of arms, he hoped to effe& his purpofe by caufing a fa-
mine. Not fucceeding in this barbarous mode of conquett,
he fomented divifions among the nobles of the three kingdoms
of Nepaul, and he gained over to his party fome of the prin-
cipal of thefe, for which purpofe he had about 2000 Brahmins
in his fervice. He then laid fiege to Cirtipour, or Kirtipour,
a ftrong town, confifting of about 8000 houfes, about a
league from Cath’mandu, which having long attempted in
vain, he at laft obtained by treachery. After the capture
of this city, he proceeded againft Lelit Pattan ; but in
the mean while he made himfelf mafter of Cath’mandu, in
1768, and then compelled the inhabitants, with their king,
to withdraw to the king of Bhatgan. Having gained Le-
lit Pattan, he got into his poffeflion the perfons of the no-
bility. At the commencement of the year 1769, the king
of Gorcha regained the city of Bhatgan, by the fame modes
of violence and treachery by which he had fucceeded in his
other conquefts ; and having thus in four years effected the
conqueft of Nepaul, he made himfelf mafter alfo of the
country of the Ciratas to the ealt of it, and of other kingdoms,
as far as the borders of Coochbehar. After his deceafe, his
eldeft fon held the government of the whole country ; but
in about two years afterwards, when he died, a younger
brother was requefted to a€cept the government, who began
his reign with many dreadful maffacres. A fiatic Refearches,
vol. ii. Kirkpatrick’s Account of Nepaul, 4to. 1811.

NEPEAN Istanp, a {mall ifland in the South Pacific
ocean, near the S. coaft of Norfolk ifland, about half a
mile from Point Hunter.

Nepean Sound, a bay on the N.W. coatt of North Ame-
rica, in the North Pacific ocean. N. lat. 53° 32'. W.
long. 127° 30!.

Nepean Town/bip, lies in the eaftern diftri& of Upper
Canada, being the eighth townfhip in afcending the Ottawa
river, and the firft on the W. fide of the river Radeau.

NEPENTHE, or Nerentues, Nrxw9n:, formed of the
privative mn, non, or abfque, and aor, luéus, forrow, in
Antiquity, a kind of magic potion, which made perfons
forget all their pains and misfortunes.

The nepenthe, mentioned in ancient authors, was the juice
or infufion of a plant, now unknown: Homer fays it was a
plant of Egypt; and adds, that Helena made ufe of it to
charm her hofts, and make them forget their pains.

Some authors fay it was the plant we call helenium ; others
buglofs, whofe juice infufed in wine has this effect. M. Petit
hag a differtation on the ancient nepenthe,

NEP

NepENTHE, in Pharmacy, is aname given to a kind of
opiate, contrived by Theo. Zwingerus, from the great
opinion he had of his giving eafe in all manner of pain.

NEPENTHES, in Botany, a name adopted by Lin-
nzus, or rather Breynius, from the ancient Greeks, which,
being formed of the negative, », and r:vfo:, grief, exprefles
a plant furnifhed with the power of driving away care, in
which fenfe Homer ufes the word. The Borage and the
Elecampane have been fuppofed to poffefs this valuable pro-
perty, and the above name has been applied to them, or to
fome potation in whofe compofition they had a fhare. The
Nepenthes of Linnaeus is an herb, whofe leaves bear a fingu-
lar pitcher-like veffel, into which a pure and fweet water is
diftilled through their ftalks, in great abundance ; and this
liquor might, in fome circumftances, prove a welcome re- -
frefhment to travellers. We can give no further explanation
of the matter—lLinn. Gen. 465. Schreb. 709g. Mart.
Mill. Di&. v. 3. Juff. 444. Poiret in Lam. Di&. v. 4.
458. Gertn. t. 83.—Clats and order, Divcecia Monadelphia.
Nat. Ord. uncertain. Juffieu well remarks that it has no
affinity to any other genus.

Gen. Ch. Male, Ca/. Perianth of one leaf, coriaceous,
in four deep, {preading, ovate, nearly equal fegments, co-
loured on the infide. Cor. none. Stam. Filament one,
columnar, cylindrical, ereci, rather fhorter than the calyx ;
anthers feveral, (fifteen or more), colle€ted into a globular
head, oblong, recurved,

Female, ona feparate plant, Ca/. as in the male, perma-
nent. Cor. none. iff. Germen fuperior, feffile, ovate,
with four furrows; fyle none; ftigma large, peltate, four-
lobed, each Jobe marked with a hollow, permanent. Peric.
Capfule oblong, columnar, abrupt, quadrangular, furrowed
at the fides, of four cells and four valves, burfling at the
angles, each valve crowned with one lobe of the ftigma ;
partitions from the centre of the valves. Seeds numerous,
oval, each enclofed in a long, membranous, angular tunic,
tapering at both ends, inferted into the partitions in two
rows, obliquely imbricated.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx in four deep fegments.
none. Anthers numerous, in a round head.

Female. Cal. and Cor. as in the male. Stigma feffile.
Capfule fuperior, of four cells and four valves. Seeds nu-
merous, tunicated.

Obf. Linnzus greatly erred in referring this genus to
Gynandria Tetrandria, as it an{wers neither to that clafs nor
order. Koenig tir(t afcertained it to be dioecious. Schreber
defcribes the anthers as fingle-celled, of which we cannot”
fatisfy ourfelves.

1. N. difiillatoria.~ Linn. Sp. Pl. 1354. (N. zeylanicum,
flore minore; Breyn, Prod. 85. Cantharifera; Rumph.
Amboin. v. 5. 121. t. 59. f.2. Bandura zeylaniea; Burm.
Zeyl. 42. t. 17. Utricaria vegetabilis, zeylonenfium Ban-
dura cingalenfibus di@a; Pluk. Phyt. t. 237. f. 3.)—Na-
tive of Ceylon, Amboyna and Madagafcar. Root perennial.
Stems erect, rather zigzag, fimple, three or four feet high,
round, fmooth, leafy ; very fpongy and vafcular intel
Leaves alternate, elliptic-oblong, imooth, entire, with one
principal rib and feveral {mall ones more or lefs parallel to
it ; tapering, and clafping the ftem, at their bafe; each ter-
minating in a long twilted {ftalk, which bears an oblong,
membranous, ribbed, upright bag, finely crenate at the
margin, and clofed by an orbicular lid, attached at one fide.
Flowers very numerous, filky or downy externally, in a long,
terminal, fimple or compound clutter.

M. Poiret has diftinguifhed the Madagafcar plant as a fe-
parate {pecies, by the {moothnefs of the edge of the veffel
at the end of the leaf, In our fpecimens from that country,

as

Corolla

NiEIP

as well as from Amboyna and Ceylon, the ‘part in queftion
is uniformly crenate. Perhaps the clufter of flowers being
imple or compound may indicate a fpecific difference, but
we perceive gradations that lead us to hefitate. The lateral
ribs of the leaves too vary in diftin&tnefs and direétion. The
pitcher at their ends is one of the moft curious appendages
to leaves. It holds two ounces or more of clear water, dif-
tilled through the highly vafcular ftalks, and according to
Rumphius is the refuge of a {mall aquatic thrimp.
NEPER, or Napier, Jonn, baron of Merchifon, in
Biography, inventor of the arithmetic of logarithms, was the
eldeft fon of fir Archibald Neper of Merchifton, and born in
the year 1550. He was educated with great care, and after
going through the ordinary courfes of philofophy at the uni-
yerfity of St. Andrew’s, he made the tour of France, Italy,
and Germany. Upon his return home his talents and ac-
quirements rendered him confpicuous, and might have raifed
him to the higheft offices of ftate; but his love of fcience
led him to decline all civil employments, and the butftle of
the court, and to retire from the world to purfue literary
refearches, in which be made uncommon progrefs. Mathe-
matics were his chief delight, next to the ftudy of the holy
feriptures. In every purfuit to which he applied himfelf he
quickly difcovered the moft extenfive knowledge and pro-
found penetration. His work entitled “¢ Plain Difcovery of
the Revelation of St. John,” was publifhed in 1593, and
gives fufficient evidence that the author was accuftomed to
the moft acute and diligent inveltigation, though the pro-
refs of time has fhewn that his calculations proceeded upon
falfe data. This work obtained for Mr. Neper a high re-
putation at home and abroad, and it was tranflated into
feveral languages. ‘The French edition was eagerly bought
up by the Proteftants in France, on account of the zeal and
erudition employed by the author to prove the pope to be
antichrift. But what immortalized his name was his for-
tunate difcovery of logarithms, and their application to all
trigonometrical calculations, by which improvements in the
fciences ‘of aftronomy, navigation, &c. have been wonder-
fully facilitated. The attachment of Mr. Neper to aftrono-
my and {pherical trigonometry led him to make many numeral
calculations of triangles, with fines, tangents, &c. Thele, at
firft being expreffed in large numbers, occafioned a great
deal of labour and trouble: to fhorten the operations many
contrivances were reforted to, and fome ingenious con-
trivances were invented, particularly the computation by
Neper’s-rods, which fee. At length, the moft complete
one of logarithms was difcovered in the actual con{tru@tion
of a large table of numbers in arithmetical progreffion,
adapted to a fet of as many others in geometrical pro-
“greffion. (See Logaritums.) Neper publifhed his inven-
tion in 1614, under the title of ** Logarithmorum Canonis

Defcriptio,”? containing a large canon of logarithms, with:

the defcription and ufes of them; but the mode of their
conftru&tion was ftill concealed. As foon as the inventor
had communicated this difcovery to Mr. Briggs, the mathe-
matical profeffor of Grefham college, the latter fet about
the application of the rules in his * Imitatio Nepeirea,”’ and
in a letter which he wrote to the celebrated Ubher in the
fame year, already mentioned, he fays, ‘* Napier, lord of Mar-
kinfton, hath fet my head and hands at work with his new
and admirable logarithms. I hope to fee him this fummer,
if it pleafe God; for I never faw a book which pleafed me
better, and made me more wonder. Briggs was too great a
man to indulge the f{pirit of envy :’’ fo far, indeed, was he
removed from a feeling of that nature, that he afforded
every facility to the reception of Neper’s work, teaching
the nature of the logarithms in his public lectures, and, at

Vox, XXIV.

NEP

the fame time, recommending a change in the fcale of them,
which he fubmitted to lord Neper. During a fubfequent
vifit to lord Neper thefe two friends agreed upon a form,
according to which the baron ftrongly urged Mr. Briggs to
proceed with his computation, and hence they are denomi-
nated Briggs’s logarithms. ‘To Neper {cience is greatly
indebted for confiderable improvements in {pherical trigono-
metry, particularly by his univerfal rule, or general theorem
for the folution of all cafes of {pherical triangles, which is
commonly known by the title of ‘ The five circular Parts,’?
He prepared for the prefs his «« ConftruGtion of Logarithnis,’’
and his «¢ Rabdology and Promptuary of Multiplication,’
confiiting of inftruments and tables for the more eafy per-
formance of the arithmetical operations of multiplication,
divifion, &c. Neper died in the year 1617, when he was
in the fixty-eighth year of hisage. To him Kepler dedi-
cated his ‘¢ Ephemerides,” regarding him as the greateft
man of the age, in that particular department to which he
applied his talents. Lord Buchan, in his account of the
life, writings, and inventions of our author, fays, “If we
confider that Neper’s difcovery was not, like thofe of Kepler
or of Newton, conneéted with any analogies or coincidences
which might have led to it, but the fruit of unaflifted reafon
and fcience, we fhall be vindicated in placing him in one of
the highelt niches in the temple of Fame.” Sones was twice
married, and left behind him a numerous iffue. His only
fon, by his firft lady, Archibald, a perfon of fine parts and
learning, was raifed to be a privy counfellor by James VI.,
under whofe reign he held the feveral offices of treafurer-
depute, juftice-clerk, and fenator of the college of juftice ;
and he was promoted by Charles I. of England to the
peerage, by the title of lord Napier. “In his family,”
fays lord Buchan, ‘ he (Neper) feems to have been uncom-
monly fortunate, for his eldeit fon became learned and emi-
nent, even in his father’s lifetime ; his third was a pupil of his
own in mathematics, to whom he configned the care of pub-
lifhing his pofthumous works ; and lofing none of his chil-
dren by death, he loft all his daughters by refpeétable and
honourable marriages.” See Account of the Life, &c. of
John Napier, by the earl of Buchan and Walter Minto.

Neper’s, Naiper’s, or Napier's, Bones, an inftrument, b
which multiplication and divifion of large numbers are muc
facilitated and expedited; fo called from its inventor J,
Neper, baron of Merchilton, in Scotland.

Conflruction of Neper’s Bones.—Five rods, plates, or la-
mellz, are provided of wood, metal, horn, pafteboard, or
other matter (Plate I. Algebra, fig. 7.) of an oblong form,
and divided each into nine little {quares; each of which is
refolved into two triangles by diagonals.

In thefe little fquares are written the numbers of the mul-
tiplication-table ; in fuch manner as that the units, or right-
hand figures, are found in the right-hand triangle; and the
tens, or the left-hand figures, in the left-hand triangle ; as in
the figure.

Ufe of Neper’s Bones in Multiplication —To multiply any
given number by another; difpofe the lamelle in fuch man-
ner, as that the top figures may exhibit the multiplicand 5
and to thefe, on the left-hand, join the lamella of units; in
which feek the right-hand figure of the multiplicator: and
the numbers correfponding thereto, in the fquares of the
other lamellz, write out by adding the feveral numbers, oc-
curring in the fame rhomb together, and their fums. After
the fame manner write out the numbers correfponding to
the other figures of the multiplicator ; let them be difpofed
under one another, as in the common multiplication, and
laftly, add the feveral numbers into one fum.

40

Yor

NEP
For example; fuppofe the multiplicand 5978,

and the multiplicator 937. From the outermott 5978
triangle on the right-hand (Plate I. Algebra, 937
Jg- 8.), which correfponds to the right-hand 1846
figure of the multiplicator 7, write out the igure a1O4
6, placing it under the line. In the next rhomb, rhea
towards the left, add g and 5; their fum being 53002
14, write the right-hand figure, viz. 4, againft 3601386

6; carrying the left-hand figure, 1, to 4 and 3,
which are found in the next rhomb. The fum 8,
join to 46, already put down; after the fame manner in the
laft rhomb, add 6 and 5, the latter figure of the fum r1,
_put down as before, and carry 1 to the 3 found in the left-
hand triangle ; the fum 4 join as before, on the left of 1846:
thus you will have tke factum of 7 into 5978; and after the
fame manner will you have the fa&tum of the multiplicand,
into the other figures of the multiplicator: the whole added
together gives the whole produd.

Ufe of Neper’s Bones in Divifion.—Difpofe the lamelle fo,
as that the uppermoft figures may exhibit the divifor; to
thefe, on the left-hand, join the lamella of units. Defcend
under the divifor, till you meet thofe figures of the dividend,
wherein it is firft required, how oft the divifor is found, or
at leaft the next lefs number, which is to be fubtrated from
the dividend ; the number correfponding to this, in the place
of units, write down for a quotient. By determining the
other parts of the quotient after the fame manner, the di-
vifions will be completed.

For example ; fuppofe the dividend

5601386, and the divifor 5978; fince 5978) 5601386(937
it is firit afked how often 5978 is found 53°02
in 56013, defcend under the divifor i 8
(Plate 1. Algeb. fig. 9-) till in the suit
loweft feries you find the number 7934
2802, approaching neareft to 56013; ie
an forkie whenb Eis to be fi brraGed galas
out of the latter, and the figure g cor- Aho
re{ponding thereto in the lamella of
00000

units write down for the quotient.
To the remainder, 2211, join the fol-
lowing figure of the divifor, 8; and the number 17934. being
found, as before, to be the next lefs number thereto, the
correfponding number in the lamella of units, 3, is to be
written down for the quotient ; and the fubtraétion to be
continued as before, After the fame manner.the third and
laft figu-e of the quotient will be found to be 7; and the
whole 937.

NEPETVA, in Botany, fuppofed to be the plant of Pliny
which bears that name, and faid to be derived from nepa, a
fcorpion, becaufe it was fuppofed an efficacious remedy for
the bite of that animal. Linneus thought that the name
originated from a town in Italy, between Rome and Viterbo.
Linn. Gen. 289, Schreb. 386. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 49.

Mart. Mill. Dit. v. 3. Sm. Fl. Brit. 608. Prodr. Fi.
Grec. v. 1. 398. Ajit. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 3. 377.
Michaux. Boreal: \mer. v. 2, 2. Juff. 113. Lamarck
Dis. v. 1. 709. Iiluftr. t. 502. (Cataria; Tournef:
t.95.) -Clafs and order, Didynamia Gymnofpermia. Nat.

Ord. Verticillate, Gion. Laltatea, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Cal Perianth inferior, of one leaf; tubular,
cylindrical, throat five-toothed, acute, ereét; upper teeth
longer; lower more {preading. Cor. of one petal, ringent;
tube cylindrical, incurved; limb gaping; throat {preading,
heart-fhaped, terminating in two, raffeeeds obtufe, very
fhort feyments; upper lip ereét, roundifh, emarginate ;
lower roundifh, concave, larger, undivided, notched. Stam.
Filaments four, awl-fhaped, fituated under the upper lip,

10°

NIEGP

approximated, two of them fhorter; anthers incumbent.
Pift. Germen fuperior, four-cleft; ftyle thread-fhaped, in
length and pofition like the ttamens; ftigma cloven, acute.
Peric. none, except the upright, permanent calyx which
envelopes the feeds. Seeds four, nearly ovate.

Obf. If the fegments which border the throat be con-
font as part of the lower lip, it will then become three-
obed.

Eff. Ch. Corolla with the middle fegment of its lower
lip notched ; orifice with a reflexed margin. Stamens ap-
proaching each other.

1. N. Cataria. Nep, or Cat-mint. Linn. Sp. Pl. 796.
Engl. Bot. t. 137. Fil. Dan. t. 580. (Mentha felina, feu
Cattaria; Ger. em. 682.)—Flowers fpiked; the whorls
flightly pedunculated. Leaves on footftalks, heart-fhaped,
with tooth-like ferratures.—A native of moft parts of Europe
about hedges or road-fides, in a chalky or gravelly foil, but
not very common in England. It flowers in July and Au-
guit. Root perennial. Stem about a yard high, ereét,
iquare. Leaves oppofite, on ftalks, deflexed or fpreading,
heart-fhaped, acute, unequally ferrated, rugofe. Spike ob-
tufe, whorled, many-flowered, the lower whorls pedun-
culated, leafy. Calyx veined, with briftly, nearly equal
revit Corolla white, with a reddifh or crimfon-dotted
ip.

The whole herb is covered with a very foft, hoary, velvet-
like downinefs, and has a ftrongly pungent, aromatic odour,
like penny-royal or Valerian, that is peculiarly grateful to
cats, whence its {pecific and Englifh names. Thefe animals
are fo fond of this: fpecies of Mepeta, efpecially when it is
withering or bruifed, that it is almoft impoffible to keep
them from it, after being tranfplanted. Ray and Miller
both affert however, that cats will never meddle with fuch
plants as are raifed from feed. Hence the old faying,

«¢ Tf you fet it,
The cats will eat it ;
If you fow it,
The cats don’t know it.’’

N. Cataria @, which Miller makes a fpecies and calls
N. minor, grows in Italy and the fouth of France. It is
about half the fize of the original fpecies. The /ffa/ks are
more flender, and their joints further afunder. Leaves nar-
rower. MWhorls more diftant, and the whole plant whiter.

2. N. anguflifolia. Narrow-leaved Cat-mint. Willd.
n.2. Vahl. Symb. p. 1. 41.—Flowers in fpiked corymbs,
on ftalks, Leaves lanceolate, rugofe, downy, obtufely
ferrated.— A native of the province of Arragon in Spain.
It flowers at Kew in June and July. The whole plant is
hoary with down. Stem about a foot high, ereét, branched.
Leaves ttalked, half an inch long, narrow, obtufe. FYowers
ftalked, oppofite, forming an oblong, compaét, fpiked
corymb, accompanied by fmall, linear bracieas.

3. N. crifpa. Curled Cat-mint. Wild. n. 3. (N.
racemofa; Lam. Di&. n. 12 ?)—Flowers in whoris, form-
ing an interrupted fpike. Leaves ftalked, heart-thaped,
toothed, rugofe, hoary. All we know of this {pecies
is from Willdenow, who fays that it is extremely beautiful.
Stem more than a foot high, branched, afcending. Leaves
oppofite, on longifh ttalks, fearcely an inch long, heart-
fhaped, obtufe, unequally toothed, undulated and curled
or crifped, hoary with foft down. lowers compoling a
terminal, interrupted, cluttered, whorled {pike, of a blue
colour, few ina whorl. Bradeas briftle-fhaped, hairy.

4. .N. heliotropifolia. 'Lurnfole-leaved Cat-mint. Willd.
n. 3. Lamarck Dict n. 1g. (Cataria orientalis, minor,
folis Heliotropii; Tourn. Cor. 13.)—Flowers about five

in

NEPETA.

in a tuft, on ftalks. Leaves ovato-oblong, entire, rather
downy.—Native of the Eaft. Stem rather more than a foot
in height, very much branched and forked. Leaves whitith-
green. Corymé terminal, fmall, forked, confifting of five
flowers, the central one feffile, the reft on ftalks. We are
not acquainted with any figure of thefe three laft {pecies.

5. N. pannonica. Hungarian Cat-mint. Linn. Sp. PI.
797- Jacq. Auftr. v. 2. t, 129.—Flowers in panicles.
Leaves on ftalks, heart-fhaped, flightly notched. — Native of
Auftria, Hungary, and Siberia. It flowers from Auguift
to Otober. Root perennial, branched, knotty. Stems
numerous, branched, three or four feet in height, channelled,
{moothifh. Lower leaves on long ftalks, upper on fhort
ones; all oppofite. C/uflers panicled, axillary and oppofite,
containing about twenty, reddifh, elegantly-dotted flowers.
Seeds black.

6. N. caerulea. Blue Cat-mint. Willd. n. 6. Ait.
Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 3. 378.—Cymes ftalked, many-
flowered, hairy. Leaves oblong, heart-fhaped, villofe,
nearly feffile. Lateral lobes of the corolla reflexed.—In-
troduced at Kew in 1777, by Dr. Ortega, where it flowers
in May and June; but from whence is unknown. Will-
denow and Martyn adopt it folely from the Hortus Kewenjis,
ae referring to any {pecimen, figure, or defcription
of it.

7. N. violacea. Violet-coloured Cat-mint. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 797. (N. montana, purpurea, major, fparfa {pica ;
Barrel. Ic. 601. Bocc. Muf. v. 2. 46. t. 36.)—Cymes
ftalked, many-flowered, befet with fine hairs. Leaves
flightly ftalked, almoft naked. Lateral lobes of the corolla
fpreading.—Native of Spain, flowering from July to Sep-
tember. Stems two feet high, purple, with a few flender
branches coming out of their fides. Leaves indented on
their edges. F/swers in roundifh whorls, pedunculated,
blue; varying occafionally to white. Scopoli fays che /fem
is frequently five or fix feet high.

8. N. japonica. Japan Cat-mint. Willd. n. 9. (N.
incana; Thunb. Jap. 244.)—Flowers in axillary panicles.
Leaves ftalked, ovate, notched, downy.—Native of Japan,
or the higheft mountains. It flowers in O&tober and No-
vember. Stem five or fix inches long, herbaceous, decum-
bent, ere&t, downy. Leaves acute, downy on both fides,
but whiter underneath, gradually {maller on the upper part
of the ftem. Flowers in axillary panicles, in which refpect
it differs from N. Nepetella, as well as in having ovate, not
heart-fhaped, Jeaves.

9. N. incana. Hoary Cat-mint. Willd. n. 8. Ait.
Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 3. 379. (N. teucrioides ; Lamarck
Di. n. 13.)—Cymes ftalked, many-flowered. Leaves
ftalked, oblong, fomewhat heart-fhaped, notched, downy.—
Native of the Eait? Cultivated at Chelfea in 1723. Some
have thought it the fame as the laft {pecies.

to. N. ucranica. Ukranian Cat-mint. Linn. Sp. Pl.
797. (Cataria betonice folio anguftiore, flore cerulefcente ;
Gerb. Tan. $7.—Flowers in panicles. Leaves feffile, lance-
olate, ferrated, naked.—Native of Mufcovy. Introduced
at Kew in 1789 by Dr. Pitcairn, where it flowers in July
and Auguft. We know not of any figure or defcription of
this {pecies.

11. N. Nepetella. Small Cat-mint. Linn. Sp. Pl. 797.
Willd. n. xz. Allion. Pedem. v. 1. 37. t. 2. f. 1.—Leaves
lanceolate, heart-fhaped, at the bafe, toothed, downy.
Clufters compound, each branch bearing about five flowers.
—Native of the South of Europe. It flowers from July
to September.—This {pecies greatly refembles NV. cataria in
habit, being about one-third of its fize. Leaves very nar-
row, acutely finuated or toothed. Flowers in loofe cluiters,

as in WN. violacea but not fo numerous, when frefh of a red
colour, not white or blue, Braéeas very narrow, fpread-
ing.

a. N. nuda. Naked or Spanifh Cat-mint. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 797. Jacq. Auftr. t.24. (Catarid hifpanica, betonicz
folio anguftiori, flore ceruleo; item flore albo; Tourn.
Inft. 202/)—Leaves heart-fhaped, nearly feffile, ferrated.
Clufters whorled, naked.—Native of Spain, and of Greece
on Mount Parnaffus, flowering from June to Augutt. Stems
two feet high, fmooth, ftraight, furrowed, the older ones
dark purple. Leaves like thofe of Stachys palufiris, blunt,
veined, naked, rugged on both fides. Cluffers crofling each
other. Flowers diftin&. Corolla reddifh or white, dotted
with purple ; according to Haller blue or white. Krocker
is of opinion that this and ucranica may be the fame fpecies.

13. N. meliffefolia. Balm-leaved Cat-mint. Willd. n. 13.
(Cataria cretica meliffe folio afphodeli radice ; Tourn. Cor.
13.)—Leaves on ftalks, heart-fhaped, ferrated. Whorls
pedunculated, corymbofe. Calyx long, ftriated.— Native
of the ifland of Candia, where it flowers in July and Auguft.
Root compofed of a bundle of fpindle-fhaped knobs. Stem
a foot and half high, fquare, downy. Leaves on _ftalks,
heart-fhaped, largely toothed as in Lryfimum Alliaria.
Whorls talked, forming a terminal clufter. Corolla blue,
its under lip dotted with red.

14. N. hirfuta. Hairy Cat-mint. Linn. Sp. Pl. 798.
Hort. Cliff. 311.—Flowers in whorled, feffile pikes, whorls
downy. Native of Sicily, and, according to Loureiro, of
Cochinchina. Stalks about two feet high, branching from
the bottom. eaves heart-fhaped, obtufe, fomewhat in-
dented, on rather long ftalks. Flowers in whorled {pikes,
feparate, feffile, covered with a hoary down.

15. N. italica. Italian Cat-mint. Linn. Sp. Pl. 798.
Jacq. Hort. Vind. t.112. (Cataria minor alpina; Tourn.
Inft. 202.) Flowers feffile, in whorled fpikes. Braéteas
lanceolate, the length of the calyx. Leaves ftalked.—
Found in Italy and Greece, on hills in the neighbourhood of
Athens. Stalks about 18 inches high, {paringly branched.
Whorls of flowers diftant, nearly feffile. Leaves fhort, oval,
heart-fhaped, crenate. Corolla white. The whole 4erb is
hoary and ftrong-fcented.

16. N. longiflora. Long-flowered Cat-mint. Ait. Hort.
Kew. ed. 2. v. 3. 378. Ventenat Jardin de Cels. t: 66.—
Cymes diitant, ftalked, few-flowered. Leaves heart-fhaped,
obtufe, notched, glandular beneath; floral ones all feffile.
Tube of the corolla twice as long as the calyx.— Native of
Perfia. Root fibrous. Stema foot and half high, [quare,
branched. Leaves oppofite, ftalked, rugged. Flowers a
little drooping, ftalked, of an azure blue.

17. N. Muffni. Scollop’d-leav’d Cat-mint. _ Marfch.
Taur-Caucas. v. 2. 39. (N. longiflora; Sims in Bot. Mag.
t. 923.)—Cymes ftalked, lowermoft diftant. Leaves heart-
fhaped, obtufe, downy, notched, rugofe, not glandular ;
floral ones moftly ftalked. Native of Siberia. It flowers
from May through the whole fummer. Stemrather fhrubby,
decumbent, branched, fquare, with obtufe angles. Leaves
oppofite, on longifh ftalks, hoary; upper ones feffile.
Flowers whorled, three to five on a ftalk, of a very rich
light-purple colour. In young plants the aves are rounder
and lefs hoary.

18. N. multibraéeata. Bra€teated Cat-mint. Willd. n. 16,

Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 11. t. 123.—Flowers feffile, in
whorled fpikes. Braéteas lanceolate, longer than the calyx,
downy. Leaves ttalked, hairy beneath.— Found upon

Mount Atlas. Stem ereét, flightly branched, fquare. Leaves
heart-fhaped, ftalked; upper ones feffile, very diftant.
Flowers whorled, forming a denfe fpike. BraGeas very

402 numerous

NEP

numerous and confpicuous, violet-coloured. This is nearly
allied in habit to NV. ttalica.

19. N. reticulata. Netted Cat-mint. Willd. n. 17.
Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 12. t. 124.—Spikes terminal. Brac-
teas oblong, acute, with reticulated veins, coloured. Leaves
lanceolate, heart-fhaped at the bale, downy. Lateral lobes
of the corolla reflexed.—Found upon Mount Atlas. Stem
hairy, furrowed, obtufely fquare. Leaves feffile, notched.
Corolla pale purple. Braéeas large, ovate, pale, reticulated,
frequently violet-coloured at the margin.

20. N. tuberofa. Tuberous-rooted Cat-mint. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 798. (N. tuberofa violacea fpicata minor hifpanica ;
Barrel. Ic. t. 602.)—Spikes terminal, feffile. Bracteas
ovate, coloured. Upper leaves feffile.—Native of Spain and
Portugal. Stem ereét, furrowed, branched at the upper
part. Leaves {fmooth, ferrated. Flowers feffile, {mall,

urple. BraGeas veined, entire, downy. Desfontaines ob-
fo a variety with downy leaves, and uncoloured bratteas.

21. N. Janata. Woolly Cat-miat. Willd. n.19. Jacq.
Obf. v. 3. 21. t. 75.—Spikes terminal. Bra&teas ovate,
nerved, rugged, dry and membranous. Leaves oblong,
heart-fhaped, villofes Lateral lobes of the corolla fpread-
ing.—Native of the South of Europe. Root flefhy, com-
pofed of many fpindle-fhaped tubes. Stems from one to
two feet in height, vifcid and hairy. Leaves bluntith,
notched, ftrongly fcented. F/owers in a{pike, about feven
on a ftalk, pale purple.

22. N. Scordotis. Cretan Cat-mint. Linn. Sp. Pl. 798.
Amoen. Acad. v. 4. 317.—Spikes feffile, terminal. Bratteas
fomewhat heart-fhaped, villofe. Leaves heart-fhaped, ob-
tufe.—Native of Crete. Stem afoot high, hairy. Leaves
oppofite, downy thickifh. Flowers about five together,
white, accompanied by an ovate, pointed draéea.

23. N. virginica. American Cat-mint. Linn. Sp. Pl.
799. (Clinopodium amarici folio, floribus albis; Pluk.
Alm. ito. t. 85. f. 2.)—Tufts terminal. Stamens the
length of the flower. Leaves lanceolate.—Native of Vir-

inia. Stems two feet high. Leaves hairy, refembling
thofe of Sweet Marjoram (Origanum) but larger. Flowers
whorled, forming a terminal tuft, of a pale flefh colour.
The lower lip of the corolla is ferrated but not concave.

24. N. malabarica. Malabar Cat-mint. Linn. Mant.
566. N.[malabarica; Morif. Hift. v. 3. 415. (Carim-
tumba; Rheed. Mal. v. 10. 185. t. 93.)—Spike whorled.
Braéteas thread-fhaped. Leaves lanceolate, entire at the
lower part.—Found originally by Koenig on the Mala-
bar coaft. Stems ereét, obtufely angular, downy. Leaves
ftalked, ovato-lanceolate. Flowers whorled, diltant, form-
ing an interrupted fpike, pale violet-coloured.

25. N. amboinica. Amboina Catgmint. Linn Suppl.
273. Willd. n. 24.—Leaves heart-fhaped, obtufe, notched.
Bra¢teas ovate.—Native of Amboina. Stem rather fhrubby.
Branches ere&t, downy, purplifh below. Leaves oppotite,
ftalked, very foft with down. Flowers whorled, of a Vio-
let and white colour.

26. N. madagafcarienfis. Madagafcar Cat-mint. Willd.
n.25. Lamarck Dict. v.1. 712. (Kurka; Rheed. Mal.
Vv. 11. 49. t. 25.)—Leaves ftalked, ovate or roundifh,
notched, rather hairy. Clufter terminal, naked.—Native of
the iflands of Mauritius and Madagafcar. Root fibrous and
tuberous. Stem a foot high, herbaceous, flightly branched,
downy. Leaves foft, green. Flowers of a reddifh-violet
colour.—The root is like a turnip in flavour, and is eaten by
the natives,

27. N. multifida. Perennial Siberian Cat-mint. Linn.
ore Pl. 799. (N. lavandulacea; Linn. Suppl. 273.)—
Flowers in {pikes. Leaves pinnatifid, entire.—Native o

NEP
Siberia. Stem ere&t, not branched. Leaves ftalked; up.
per one feffile, oblong, three, four, or five-lobed. Flcwers
very {mall, white or purplifh, in a terminal, feffile fpike.

28. N. botryoides. Annual Siberian Cat-mint. Willd.
n. 27. (N. multifida; Linn. Suppl. 273.)—Flowers in
fpikes. Leaves bipinnate, linear, their fegments nearly
equal.—Native of Siberia. Stem ere&, {quare. Leaves
naked, linear, heart-fhaped. Spike terminal, hexagonal, fef-
file. Flowers {mall, white. :

N. indica, Linn. Sp. Pl.799. See Lavanputa carnofa.

N. fedinata, Linn. Sp. Pl. 799. See Bystropocon fec-
tinatum. /

Nepera, in Gardening, comprifes plants of the herbace-
ous perennial kind, of which the {pecies cultivated are, the
common catmint (N. cataria) ; the Hungarian catmint (N.
pannonica) ; the naked or Spanifh catmint (N. nuda) ; the
Italian catmint (N. italica) ; and the tuberous-rooted cat-
mint (N. tuberofa).

Method of Culture. —Thefe plants are all capable of being
increafed by feeds, parting the roots, flips, and cuttings,
but the firfl-is the principal mode.

And the feeds may be fown in the autumn or [pring, on
a bed of light earth, raking it in lightly: when the plants
have attained fome growth, they may be planted out in
nurfery rows, to remain till the autumn, when they may be
fet out where they are to remain; or they may remain where
fown, only thinning them properly out.

The partings of the roots may be fet out feparately,
where they are to remain, in the beginning of the autumn
or {pring, being afterwards kept free from weeds.

And the flips or cuttings of the branches may be planted
out in the fpring in fhady fituations, occafional fupplies of
water being given till they have ftricken root perfe@ly.

It may be ftated that the firft fort and varieties, as well
as many of the others, may afford variety in the borders,
clumps, and cther parts of pleafure-grounds, in mixture
with herbaceous plants of different defcriptions. They are
likewife fome of them cultivated for medicinal ufe occa-
fionally.

NEPHALIA, among the Greeks, a fettival called the
feaft of fober men, at which the Athenians offered to the
fun and moon, to Aurora and Venus, a drink made of water
and honey. They burnt all forts of wood on the occation,
except the vine and fig-tree.

NEPHELIUM, in Botany, from +:¢:As0v, @ little cloud,
Speck, or Jpot, but of the reafon of its application to the
plant in quettion we can offer nothing more than conjeQure.
One of the {pecimens from Thunberg in the Linnean her-
barium is remarkable for a molt curious Lichen, or Endo-
carpon, with which its leaves are fpotted; but this is not an
original {pecimen. Whether that from which Linnews took
his defcription was fo marked, we have no means of deter-
mining, as the plant does not exift in his old original col-
le€tion. Such however might be the cafe, as he certainly
defcribed the genus from nature, perhaps in the herbarium
of fome friend, who had no duplicate to fpare. Lion.
Mant. 18. Schreb. 634. 837. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 372.
Mart. Mill. Did. v. 3. Juff. 191. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 764.
Poir. in Lam. Dis. v.4. 460. Gaertn. t. 140.-—Clafs and
order, Monoecia Pentandria. Nat. Ord. Tricocca, Linn.
Corymbifere, Jull. Amentacee, Gertn. Rather perhaps akin
to the Sapindi, or to the Terebintacee of Juflieu ; it certainly
can have nothing to do with his Corymbifere.

Gen. Ch. Male, Ca/. Perianth of one leaf, bell-fhaped,
with five ‘teeth. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments five, awl-
fhaped, longer than the calyx; anthers obtufe, deeply cloven
at their bafe,

Female,

NEP

Female, in the fame clufter, Ca/. Perianth of one leaf,
bell-thaped, with four teeth, the two oppofite ones mott
remote; withering, permanent. Cor. none. iff. Ger-
mens two, fuperior, roundifh, muricated, larger than the
eulyx ; ftyles two, thread-fhaped, recurved, originating
trom between the germens; ftigmas thickifh, obtufe. Peric.
Drupas two, ovate, clothed with awl-fhaped briftles, each
of one cell, with a cartilaginous coat, containing a watery
pulp. See. Nut folitary, rowndifh.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx with five tecth. Corolla none.
Bemale, Calyx unequally four-cleft, inferior. Coro:la none.
Germens two. Styies two, from their bafe. Drupas two,
muricated, fingle-feeded.

1. N. fappaceum. Rambutam. Linn. Mant. 125. —Na-
tive of the Ealt Indies. A /brud or tree, with round {mooth
branches. Leaves alternate, ttalked, abruptly pinnate, about
a {pan long, {mooth, coriaceous, of two or three pair of
elliptical ‘leaiets, on fhort partial ftalks; their upper fide
polifhed ; the under paler and opaque; with one mb, fend-
ing off numerous oblique veins, connected by a multitude of
reticulations. Stipulas none. C/uffers axillary and terminal,
about the ends of the branches; their /ffa/ks, as well as the
calyx, rulty. Bra&eas minute. Fruit about an inch in
length, covered with innumerable proje¢ting, curved, co-
loured, polifhed briitles. A confiderable aifinity may be
traced between this fruit and the Chinefe Lit-chi; fee
Evrnoria and Scyraria. We can find no figure of the
plant except Lamarck’s, cited above. The habit of the
feaves, the inflorefcence, pubefcence, form of the calyx, all
are evidently akin to Seytalia Longan; a {pecimen of which,
brought by Lord Valentia from the botanic garden at Cal-
cutta, is infelted with the fame Lichen as we have mentioned
above, and which we have fcarcely met with elfewhere. S.

NEPHEW, aterm relative to uncle and aunt; fignify-
ing a brother’s or filter’s fon, who, accerding to the civil law,
is in the third degree of confanguinity ; "but, according to
the canon law, in the fecond. See ConsANGUINITY.

The word is formed from the Latin nepos ; which in the
corrupt ages of that language fignified the fame: though
anciently and properly it denoted a grandfon.

NEPHILIM, in Mythological Hiftory, a name given both
to giants and to perfons of diffolute manners. In the book
of Genefis (chap. vi.) we read that the fons of God, that is,
the fucceffors of Seth, had intercourfe with the daughters
of men, i.e. with thofe who defcended from Cain, and from
this intercourfe proceeded the Nephilim, who fell into the
groflett enormities, as their name imports, The Centaurs
were alfo called Nephilim.

NEPHIN, in Geography, a mountain of the county of
Mayo, Ireland, which is 2640 feet high. It ttands almott
infulated, and appears rounded at all fides, and at top like
a huge rath or barrow. Mr. Arrow{mith, in his Map of
Treland, has given the name of Nephin Bog mountains to a
range extending N.W., and lying to the weftward of Ne-
phin, and alfo the name of Green Nephin Mount to a hill
fouth of lough Conn. This lake, which is nine miles long,
is at the foot of mount Nephin, which rifes from its weftern
fhore.

NEPHRALGIA, in Medicine, from +9;01, the kidnies,
and «Ayo: pain, fignifies every painful affection of the kid-
nies, except that which is conneéted with inflammation of
thefe glands, the prefence of which is indicated by a fymp-
tomatic fever, and conflitutes the Neruritis of the nofolo-
gifts; which fee below. The abfence of fever, therefore,
diftinguifhes the nephralgia from nephritis.

The painful affections of the kidnies, which are not in-
flammatory, have been improperly termed xephritic colic ;

NEP

for, in itri& propriety, the word colic is applicable only to
the painful condition of the colon, or large inteltine.

The cau/es of pain in the kidnies, independently of inflam-
mation in the fubitance of thefe organs, or in the membranes
that furround them, are not very numerous. Sauvages, in-
deed, has enumerated /ixteen {pecies of nephralgia (fee his
Nofol. Methodica, Cla!s vii. Genus xxv.) ; but if we examine
accurately the grounds of thefe fpecific diltinétions, we
find that he has included feveral painful affeGtions of the
loins, in which the kidnies are not concerned ; and which,
therefore, are not inftances of nephralgia. Thus, his fourth
{pecies, nephralgia rheumatica, is in fact lumbago, or rheu-
mati{m of the mufcles and ligaments conneéted with the
{pine. His eighth, ninth, and tenth fpecies, nephralgia
a pancreate, N. verminofa, and N. mefenterica, are obvioufly
painful diforders of other organs in the vicinity of the kid.
nies ; as well as his laft, N. gravidarum, originating from
the diftention of the gravid uterus. He defends this ar-
rangement upon the principle, that the generic appellation
does not neceffarily denote the aétual feat of the fymptoms,
but the part to which the patient’s fenfations refer them ; but
this is an incorreé view of the fabjeét ; as it tends to miflead
the practitioner in the choice and application of his remedies,
by confounding together thofe things which it is the princi-
pal office of the phyfician to feparate and to diftinguifh ;
namely, the difeafes which have fome fymptoms in common,
and are referred to the fame fituation, but which aétually
belong to different organs, and therefore require different
modes of treatment.

The moft frequent caufe of nephralgia, or pain in the
kidnies, is the prefence of {mall /fones or concretions in the
pelvis of the kidney, or in the ureters leading to the bladder,
or of the fandy or gravelly matter irritating the fame parts.
The nature of thefe fubitances, the fymptoms by which
their prefence is indicated, the diagnofis between them, and
the fymptoms of other painful diforders affeéting the loins,
and the proper remedies to be adminiftered for their cure,
have been {tated at fufficient length under the head of Gra-
VEL, in Medicine. Thefe forms of the difeafe are included
in the firft and fecond fpecies of Sauvages, viz. the nephral-
gia calculofa, and N. arenofa; and the gouty nephralgia, of
the fame author (fpec. 3.) fhould probably be referred to
the fame caufe, fince that difeafe fometimes alternates with
gravel, and the gravel is compofed of the fame matter with
the external concretions, or chalk-{tones, of gout.

Among the various acute fpafmodic pains, which occur
in the Ayfterical attacks of nervous women, a fevere nephral-
gia is hable to come on fuddenly, and fuddenly difappear,
like other fymptoms of hyfteria. The fevere pain in the
loins, which fhoots along the courfe of the ureters, and is
accompanied with violent vomiting, often mimics the fymp-
toms of calculus in‘the kidnies, and is only to be diftin-
guifhed by an experienced practitioner, who examines the
{tate of the pulfe, and the prefence of the other fymptoms
of hytteria ; efpecially the globus hy/lericus, and the fudden
tranfitions of mental emotion from one extreme to another.
(See Hysteria.) This f{pecies of nephraglia, like other
hyfterical pains, 1s fpeedily relieved by opiates and antifpaf-
modics,

The nephralgic pains, or rather the pains which are appa-
rently feated in the kidnies, when the mefentery, pancreas,
gravid uterus, and other contiguous vifcera are difeafed, be-
ing fecondary or fymptomatic, can only be relieved by thofe
means which alleviate the primary difeafe.

NEPHRITIC, Nepuriticus, wsizixcs, formed of
vQpar, rein, kidney, fomething that relates to the kidnies.

See Kipney.
NEPHRITIC

NEW

Nepuaitic Colic. See NEPHRALGIA.

Nepuritic Stone, Lapis Nephriticus, in Natural Hiftory,
a fort of precious flone; fo called from its extraordinary
virtues again{t the ftone and gravel in the kidnies.

It is afpecies of jafper, commonly of an uniform dufky
green colour; but fometimes variegated with white, black,
or yellow. It feems only to differ from jafper in its being
harder, and always without any thing of red.

It is brought chiefly from New Spain, where it is fome-
times found in pieces large enough to make moderate
cups. There is fome, likewife, found in Old Spain, and
Bohemia.

This ftone was once very dear, by reafon of the wonder-
ful virtues afcribed to it. A cup made of it was fold for
1600 crowns, in the time of the emperor Rudolphus IT.
The beft for medicinal wfe is of a greyifh-green, fat and
unctuous, like tale of Venice.

The Indians of New Spain, who firft difcovered its ufe,
and taught it the Europeans, wear it hung about their necks,
after having cut it in various figures, chiefly of the beaks of
birds: whence fome charletans take occafion to counterfeit
it, by cutting other green ftones into like figures; and fell
them at great prices, to thofe who have an opinion of their
nephritic faculty.

Nepuritic Wood, Lignum Nephriticum, a kind of medi-
cinal wood growing in New Spain, chiefly in the kingdom
of Mexico ; called by the Indians cou/t and tlapalcypatly, as
being reputed fovereign againit nephritic pains.

Dr. Lewis fays, he has never known its being given medi-
cinally, and that it is not received in practice.

It mutt be chofen well cleared of its bark and rind ; itis
of a bitter tafte, and a dufky yellow colour ; but when in-
fufed with cold water, gives it a fky-blue tinéture, when
viewed by a falfe light, and a gold colour by a true one: a
little of any acid being mixed with the tin¢ture, both thefe
colours difappear; but a little oil of tartar reftores its fky-
blue.

Some fubftitute ebony, and others red Brazil wood, for
lignum nephriticum ; but the deceit becomes apparent by in-
fufing it in water. See TRansMUTATION of Colours.

NEPHRITICS, Nepuritica, in the Materia Medica,
medicines proper for the relief of the difeafes of the kidnies,
and efpecially, therefore, of the {tone and gravel. See
GRAVEL.

In addition to the alkaline and abforbent medicines, men-
tioned in the article juft referred to, and which operate
chiefly by preventing the formation of the uric or lithic
acid, feveral drugs, poffefled of a mucilaginous, anodyne,
or diuretic quality, have been recommended as conducive to
the relief of nephritic complaints. (See Lirnonrripric.)
The uva urfi has obtained confiderable reputation for its
virtues in this way ; but it is very queftionable, whether it
pofieffes any other powers than the mallow, afparagus, fago,
and other mucilaginous fubftances, and whether any of
thefe are beneficial, except from the quantity of diluent
fluid taken with them. The fpirit of nitrous ether, tur-
pentine, &c. when they act as diuretics, and therefore aug-
ment the dilution of the urine, occafionally produce relief.
And opiates, camphor, and other foothing medicines, afford
a temporary alleviation, by leffening the fenfibility of the
nervous fy{tem, and thus diminifhing the degree of actual

ain.

NEPHRITIS, in Medicine, from veQpos, the kidney, with
the termination itis, fignifies inflammation of the kidnies.

The local fymptoms, which denote the prefence of in-
flammation in the kidnies, do not differ very materially from
thofe which belong to nephralgia, and hick are principally

NE (Pe

the xefult of the irritation of-calculus, or fandy concre-
tions, formed in the urinary paflages. (See Graver.)
For, in faét, inflammation of the kidnies is not very common
as an idiopathic diforder, originating from the ordina
caufes of inflammatory affections ; but is ufually an effeét of
the irritation of calculi in the fame paflages, when au
continued, or particularly fevere in degree: in other words,
nephralgia is liable to terminate in nephritis.

The principal circumftance which marks the cecurrence of
inflammation in the kidnies, is the addition of fymptomatic
fever to the nephralgic figns. The pulfe becomes frequent
and fharp in its beats; the fin grows hot ; the tongue is
dry, and loaded with a clammy fur ; and there is conlider-
able thirft, lofs of appetite, languor, and depreffion of
ftrength. Pain is felt in the region of the kidney, which is
fometimes acute and pungent, but fometimes obtufe, and is
mott frequently confined to one of thefe glands. This pain
is afcertained to be featedin the kidney, (and not in the muf-
cles of the loins, in the bowels, or the liver, ) by its fhooting
along the courfe of the ureter towards the bladder, and by
the accompaniment of a ftupor or numbnefs in the thigh of
the fide affeGted, and of a retraction of the telticle of the fame
fide in men, as well as of a fympathetic derangement of the
flomach, which is troubled with ficknefs and frequent vo-
miting. There are alfo occafionally colic pains in the bowels,
and often coftivenefs, accompanying nephritis. The urine
is voided frequently, and in fmall quantity at each time, and
it is fometimes of a pale, but molt commonly of a deep red
colour. When pusis formed, by the progrefs of the inflam-
mation, it may be known by its appearance in the urine,
which will be more diftin@ly marked, in proportion to the
quantity ef the pus, or by the fymptoms to be mentioned
immediately. ‘

The right diftintion of this difeafe from the lumbago,
from the mere {pafmodic nephralgia arifing from the paflage
of a calculus along the ureter, and from inflammation of
other vifcera contiguous to the kidnies, is of more import-
ance innephritis, than in the more chronic nephritic com-
plaints; becaufe the treatment required for its cure muft be
materially different. Thus, with refpect to the fpafmodic
pain accompanying the irritation of a calculus, impacted in
the ureter, a large dofe of opium will fometimes at once re-
lax the fpafm, and allow the concretion to pafs into the blad-
der, producing inftantaneous relief; but if aétual nephri-
tis were prefent, the opium would confer no benefit; on
the contrary, it would tend to augment the inflammation,
and to carryit on to fuppuration, From lumbago, then, the
nephritis may be diftinguifhed by the prefence of acute fe-
ver; by the pain being little increafed by moving the
mu({cles of the back, but confiderably aggravated by fhaking
or jolting motion, efpecially when a calculus is prefent; and
by the concomitant ficknefs. From {pafm, excited by cal-
culous irritation, it is diltinguifhed by the prefence of fe-
yer: and from colic, and inflammation of the inteftines,
which are fometimes accompanied, more particularly the laft,
by ficknefs and vomiting, ard the laft always by fever, it is
diftinguifhed by the numbnefs of the thigh, and the pain and
retraction of the telticle in male patients.

In addition to the ordinary exciting caufe of nephritis
above mentioned, feme other circumftances occafionally give
rife to it. Among thefe are mechanical injuries to the kid-
nies; as blows in the lumbar region; ftrains from violent
mufcular exertion, in raifing weights, &c.; and violent ex-
ercife in travelling, efpecially on horfeback ; even travellin
in a carriage has induced it, and occafioned a dilcharge 4
bloody urine, where a calculus was already formed in the
kidney. ‘I'he influence of cold combined with moifture, efpe-

cially

ee

WE FP

cially when applied to the loins and belly, has likewife ex-
cited nephritis as well as other acute inflammations. And
certain {timulating fubftances, which have been {wallowed,
and exerta fidcific action on the urinary paflages, fuch as
cantharides, turpentine, and other acrid diuretics, have been
faid alfo to produce this inflammation. In fome it has oc-
curred, in the way of metattafis, on the retroceflion of
gouty inflammation from the extremities.

A predifpofition to nephritis is obvioufly attached to pe-
culiar conttitutions, efpecially to thofe which have a gouty
tendency, ora difpofition to calculous complaints ; and thefe
two maladies are fo far conneéted, that they fometimes al-
ternate with each other, and fome individuals of a gouty pa-
rentage have been obferved to be affeéted with gout, while
others have fuffered from caiculous complaints. _ Corpulency
feems alfo to predifpofe to thefe affeGtions of the kidnies ; or
the predifpofition may be produced, in cafes of this nature,
from the conitant {timulus given to the urinary paflages by
the ufeof much high-feafoned food and fermented liquors.

The treatment of nephritis, like that of other acute inflam-
matory difeafes, is fmple and obvious, when the exiftence
of the complaint has been clearly afcertained by the prefence
of the fymptoms above defcribed. Where the pain and fe-
brile fymptoms are violent, general bloodletting mult be em-
ployed in proportion to the age and itrength of the patient.
In habits that are lefs robuft, and in cafes of minor feverity,
the free local detraétion of blood from the lumbar region by
means of /eeches, or cupping mutt be {ubltituted ; or it may
be reforted to after the general bleeding, where the circum-
ftances of the patient render the repetition of the former lefs
advifable. Atthe fame time, a d/i/er may be applied to the
loins, and removed as foon as it has produced any degree of
vefication, left the abforption of the cantharides may occa-
fion an irritation in the urinary paflages. Dr. Cullen, Dr.
Gregory, and other able phyficians, however, have main-
tained, that fuch an irritation, which rather affects the neck
of the bladder than the kidnies, is not much to be appre-
hendec, while the effects are as beneficial as in other local in-
flammations. Mild cathartics, which fhall empty the bowels,
without irritating them and the contiguous organs, are like-
wife neceffary ; and their operation may be aided by the in-
jection of warm emollient g/y/ers, which will likewife afford
a fomentation to the difeafed parts, and thus contribute to
the alleviation of the pain, as well as to the refolution cf the
inflammation. Saline medicines, whether uied as catuartics,
diuretics, or refrigerants, are on the whole to be depre-
cated, inafmuch as they are liable to irritate the urinary paf-
fages. The only diuretics that are admiflible, are muci-
laginous diluent drinks, which fhould be copioufly admi-
niftered, for the purpofe of diminifhing the acrimony of the
urine, by diluting the falts which it contains; to fay nothing
of the lubrication of the paffages by the mucilages, which
is a queitionable hypothefis. At the fame time, the anti-
phlogiitic regimen, as it 18 called, fhould be rigidly en-
forced; i. e. all animal food, condiments, and heating li-
quors fhould be profcribed, and milk, whey, herb-tea,
gruel, aud vegetable and farinaceous matters be exclulively
ufed.

With refpe& to the exhibition of spiates in nephritic in-
flammation, although during the carly and active flage it is
not to be trulted to; yet when the violence of the difeafe
has been mitigated by thefe antiphlogiftic meafures, they may
be employed with great advantage to relieve irritation. /s-
mentations and the warm bath may be alfo employed, under
the fame circumf{tances, with great benefit. ;

Under the plan of treatment above recommended, if it
be actively purfued within the firlt week of the difeafe, the

NEP

nephritic inflammation will admit of a cure by refOlution;
and this event is fometimes accompanied by a copious dif-
charge of urine, a diarrhoea, or hemorrhoidal pieediny: If,
however, the inflammation continues unfubdued for twelve or
fourteen days, fuppuration is to be apprehended; rhe pain
begins to remit, and is accompanied with a ferfe of throb-
bing ; daily paroxy{ms of rigour and heétic fever, followed
by perfpiration in the night, occur; emaciation etifeés ; in a
word, a fort of renal confumption, as Hippocrates calls it;
comes on, and may terminate the life of the patient. In
fome cafes, the whole fubftance of the difeafed kidney Has
been reduced to a bag of pus, while the other kidney, beiti
under the neceflity of carrying off a larger proportion oF the
excrementitious fluids, has become confiderably enlarged:
In thefe cafes of renal fuppuration, the fame lizht demuleent
diet, which is required in other varieties of he@ic, is the prin-
cipal remedy to be relied on, as it affords the beft means of
{upporting the conftitution through the fuppurative procefs,
while it does not aggravate the febrile fymptoms ; we mean
a milk and vegetable dict, efpecially of yoat’s milk, and the
farinaceous vegetable fubftances. ‘I'he moft' favourable te=-
mination of fuppuration in the kidney is} When the abfcefs
opens into the proper urinary paflages, and is difcharged
through the bladder; or when, in confequence of previous
adhelion of the parts, it opens into the large inteftine, and
paffes off by ftool, as was obferved' by the ancients. See
Hippoerat. Lib. de Intern. A ffeGtion; Aétius, férm. xi.
cap. 18.

Sometimes, though very rarely, néphritic inflammation is
faid to have terminated in gangrene, and fometimes in {cirf=
hus; but this lait affection, by which the kidney is fometimes
enlarged to an enormons bulk, is perhaps more commonly
the refult‘of a chronic, than cf an acute inflammation of the
kidnies, and is fearcely within the influence of medicine. See
Van Swietern, Comment. ad Aph. 993—1006. Cullen,
Firft Lines, vol. i. chap. 11. Baillie’s Morbid Anatomy.

NEPHRODIUM, in Botany, from »:9;05, a2 kidney, in
allufion to the fhape of the involucrum, or {cale that covéts
the fru@ification ; a genus of Ferns, firft feparated by'the
French botanilts, from the Afpidium of Swartz, and” of
Sm. Fl. Brit. 1118, on account of the kidney-fhaped invo-
lucrum. Michaux Boreal-Amer. v. 2. 266. Brown. Prod.
Noy. Holl. v. 1. 148.—Clafs and order, Cryptogamia Filices.
Nat. Ord. Filices.

The writer of the prefent article has long ago inditated
this charaéter in fome of the old genus Polypodiumt'as it ftood
in Linneus; fee Mem. de l’ Acad. de Turin, v. 5-409; and
Tracts relating to Nat. Hift. 233. The part in quef-
tion is nearly Tadhey: aged in the Polypodium Filix mas, or
Afpidium Filiz mas, Engi. Bot. t. 1458, as well as in’ the
North American Polypodium, or Afpidium, marginale. In
thefe however it moft nearly approaches the orbicular form,
which the authors who have founded Nephrodium with to
confider as the mark of A/pidium. It is needlefs to fay the
true genus Polypodium is now, by univerfal confent, agreed
to have no involucrum atail. On the other hand, the’mvo-
lucrum in A/pidium Filix femina, Engl. Bot. t. 1459, and
feveral others, verges towards a crefcent, whofe curve, in
certain cafes, is very flight, at fome periods of its growth.
Thefe therefore approach A/plenium and Darea (Seé Fi-
Licks.) ‘I’hey are neverthelefs diftinguifhed from the two
genera laft mentioned, by the infertion of the involucrum
being at a livited point, or fhort finus, in one of its fides.
If the infertion of this part in any A/pidium were really cen
tral, or peltate, we might admit Nephrodium ; but we believe
fuch a charaéter does not exift'in any, there being always’a
lateral finus, however fhort or concealed by the expandirg

membrane ;~

NEP

membrane; infomuch that a regular feries of {pecies may
be traced, from the moft orbicular A/pidium, to the confines
of Darea and Afplenium. S.

NEPHROMETRA&, a name given by fome authors to
the mufcles of the loins, called by the generality of medical
authors p/oz.

~NEPHROTOMY, derived from s:¢;0:, a kidney, and
reuyw, to cut, denotes, in Surgery, the operation of extract-
ing a ftone from the kidney.

There have been furgeons who entertained the opinion
that nephrotomy admits of being practifed in two dif-
ferent cafes; viz. 1. When the kidnies are entire, and no
external fign indicates that thefe organs contain a ttone.
2. When an ab{cefs, or fiftulous aperture, occurs in the loins.
But, fays Sabatier, it is eafy to prove, that it is only in the
fecond cafe that the operation is practicable.

The following reafons have been advanced for the pur-
pofe of proving that nephrotomy is practicable in the cafe
firft {pecified: 1. The operation has been recommended by
Hippocrates : 2. It has been repeatedly performed : 3. Ana-
logy is favourable to the practice. How little validity thefe
reafons poflefs will next be confidered.

1. Hippocrates fays ; “‘cum autem intumuerit et elevatus
fuerit, {ub id tempus juxta renem fecato, et extracto pure,
arenam per urinam cientia fanato. Si enim fetus fuerit,
fuge {pes eft ; fia'minus, morbus homini comminatur, &c.”’
«Tf the part fhould {well and become elevated, an incifion
mutt be made near the kidney in order to let out the matter,
and the gravel is then to be got rid of by means of diuretics;
for fuch an incifion may fave the patient's life, which other-
wife would certainly be loft.” Sabatier with reafon con-
tends, that it cannot be inferred from this paflage that Hip-
pocrates has recommended the performance of nephrotomy,
when the kidnies are entire. On the contrary, he appears
to have advifed the operation only when thefe vifcera are in
a ftate of abfcefs, and the matter tends to the furface of
the body. There cannot be adoubt that Celius and Galen
have given this interpretation to the above paflage in Hip-
pocrates, inafmuch as neither of them makes any mention
of extraéting calculi which are included in the kidnies.
Their filence upon this point has been imitated by the
Greek and Latin writers, and it is inthe Arabian authors
that the firft evidence in favour of fuch a preceeding is to
be traced.

There are not many inftances of nephrotomy being done
when the kidney was fuppofed to be entire, nor are thefe
well authenticated. The moft ancient is fcarcely known
except by tradition. It is related in the Abrége Chrono-
logique de |’ Hiltoire de France, par Mézerai. The doctors,
(fays this hiftorian,) having learned that an archer of Bagno-
let, who had been for a long while affiéted with the {tone, was
condemned to death for his crimes, requefted the magiftrates
to give him into their hands, in order that the experiment
might be made, whether it were pratticable to open the kid-
nies, and extraét a calculus, without fatal confequences.
This operation proved entirely fuccefsful, and the man lived
feveral years afterwards, in exceHent health.

This account feems, indeed, to fhew, that an incifion
was actually made into the kidney. But, fays Sabatier, if
we refer to Ambrofe Paré, who mentions the fame cafe, it
will not appear that fuch a proceeding was adopted. The
following 1s the paffage in the latter writer: ‘ Je ne puts
encore pafler que je ne recite cette hiftoire Archer de Meudon,
pres Paris, qui etoit prifonnier au chatelet pour plufieurs
larcins, a raifon defquels il fut condamné a@ mort. Au
méme jour, fut remontré par les médecins de la ville, que
plufieurs étoient fort travaillés et moleftés de pierres, coliques,

Ni iy B

paffion, et maladies des cétés, dont étoit fort molefté iedit
Franc Archer, et auffi defdites maladies étoit fort molefté
monfeigneur du Bouchage, et qu’il feroit fort requis de voir,
les lieux ou lefdites maladies font concrées dang le corps hu-
main, laquelle chofe ne pouvoit étre mieux vue qu’en in-
cifant le corps d’un homme vivant, ce qui pourroit étre bien
fait en la perfonne d'icelui Franc Archer ; et dedans icelui
fut perquis et regardé le lien defdites maladies, et aprés qu’il
eut été vu, fut reconfu, les entrailles mifes dedans, et par
ordonnance fut bien panfé; tellement que dedans quinze
jours il fut bien, gueri, et eut fa rémiffion, lui fut donné
avec ce argent.’’

This laft ftatement proves how difficult it is to forma
judgment refpeGting the difeafe under which the above
archer laboured. Opinions upon the fubje@ are confi-
derably divided. Collot believes that nephrotomy was
really performed upon the man. On the contrary, Meri
thinks that the archer had a ftone in the bladder, and was
cutin amanner analogous to the apparatus major. Haller
entertained the fame opinion as Méri, in regard to the feat
of the difeafe, but fufpeé&ts that the operation performed
mutt have been the apparatus altus, becaufe, after the ftone
had been extraéted, the bowels were replaced, and the abdo-
men fewed up. Laftly, Tolet believes that the archer was
afflicted with a volvulus, and that an opening was made in
the abdomen, inorder to difentangle the intettines. Befides
thefe different fentiments, it is proper to remark that hilto-
rians do not concur refpeéting feveral other effential particu-
lars of the event under confideration. Some reprefent it as
having occurred in the time of Charles VII.; others in the,
reign of Lewis XI. Some defcribe the patient as an inha-
bitant of Meudon; others of Bagnolet. Some affert that
he lived afterwards a long while in good health ; others that
he furvived only a fhort time, &c.

The fecond example of the operation of nephrotomy de-
ferving notice, is that recorded inthe Philofophical Tranf-
aétions for 1696. Ivis there ftated, that Mr. Hobfon, the
Englifh conful at Venice, having been a long while afflicted
with pain in the kidnies, in confequence of a calculus being
lodged in one of thofe crgans, went to Padua, for the pur-
pofe of confulting Marchettis, a very experienced phyfician,
who told him that he knew of no other mode of relieving
him, except that of making an incifion, through which the
extraneous fub{tance that annoyed him might be extracted.
There was no external fign by which the prefence of the
{tone could be afcertained, and Marchettis did not conceal
from the patient the difficulty and danger of the operation.
Mr. Hobfon, however, fhewed fo much refolution, and fo
{tron a defire to fubmit to any means of cure, that Mar-
chettis could not decline the attempt. The parts were
divided with a ftraight biftoury. The hemorrhage was fo
profufe, that the extraGtion of the ftone was unavoidabl
deferred to the next day. In fhort, two or three cio
were then taken out, and the wound dreffed. The fubfe-
quent fymptoms were not ferious, and Mr. Hobfon was
{oon well enough to return to Venice, although his wound
was not completely healed, as a {mall fittula {till continued,
from which pus and urine were difcharged. Some time af-
terwards, another flone prefentéd itfelf, and was eafily
taken out. The patient at length experienced a radical
cure. Ten years had elapfed, when Mr. Hobfon related
his cafe to Dr. Bernard, who afterwards communicated it to
the Royal Society.

That the operation was a@tually done, was proved by the
cicatrix, which was vifible in the loins; but the circum.
ftances of the cafe could not be accurately known. Who,
{ays Sabatier, can pretend to decide whether Marchettis was

2 induced

NEP

induced to operate by the prefence of a deeply-feated ab-
fcefs, of which Hobfon himfelf might be ignorant? This
conjecture is rendered probable by the circumftance of this
* Operation not having been mentioned by any body, though
doubtlefs it muft have been done before witnefles, and Peter
de Marchettis, who furvived his fon that died in 1673, takes
no notice of it in his “ Sylloge Obfervationum Medico-Chi-
rurgicarum Rariarum.’?

According to Sabatier, there are fome other inftances re-
corded of nephrotomy being performed while the kidnies
were entire; but the details are fuch as can claim no kind
of confidence.

3- Analogy, fays Sabatier, is not in favour of this ope-
ration, Confiderable abfcefles, indeed, are obferved to
form in the kidnies, and burit externally, and wounds to ex-
tend to thefe vifcera, without dangerous fymptoms being
produced. But the nerves and blood-veflels are not injured
in cafes of abfcefs, and, by great good fortune, a bvord
may pafs through the texture of important vifcera, without
the injury being followed by dangerous confequences ; but,
in adeep incifion made witha biftoury, every thing that pre-
fents*itfelf to the edge of the inftrument is divided.

The little validity of the reafons alleged in favour of ne-
_ phrotomy, in the cafe in queflion, is not the only motive
which fhould incline us to reject this operation. ‘There are
other confiderations, deduced both from the want of fymp-
toms by which the prefence of a ttone is indicated, and
from the difficulty of getting at the kidnies, in confequence
of their pofition, and the great number of parts which co-
verthem. This difficulty is fuch, that James Douglas, a
furgeon at Edinburgh, having attempted the operation upon
the dead body of a calculous patient, aged fifty years,
could not fucceed, and was obliged to open the abdomen,
in order to get at the kidnies, from which he extraGed
two ftones; one of a triangular fhape, weighing half an
ounce; the other of an irregular {quare form, weighing
not more than fixteen grains.

Belides, as Sabatier remarks, {tones may form in differ-
ent parts of the kidney. Frequently they are wedged in
its fubftance, from which it would be impoffible to extract
them, without producing a dangerous degree of laceration.
On the contrary, they often lie in the pelvis of the kidney ;
and occafionally, the upper part of the ureter is filled with
particles of gravel, which cannot be readily taken out.
Latftly, either only one kidney is affeéted, or both are. In
the firft cafe, the patient may live a long time; )m the fe-
cond, it would be ufelefs to operate only on one of thefe
vifcera. But though nephrotomy is impracticable if the
kidnies are entire, it may be undertaken when the {tone has
produced an abfcefs in the loins ; or when, in confequence of
fuch an abfcefs, a fiftula remains, within which the calculus
can be felt witha probe. In thefe circumitances, the ope-
ration fhould be done ; every body concurs upon this point ;
that is to fay, all furgeons agree in regard to the propriety
of opening the abfcefs, and of introducing the finger, and
endeavouring to feel the ftone, or of dilating the filtula, in
order to get at the foreign bedy, and extract it. See Sa-
batier’s Médecine Operatoire, tom. il.

NEPI, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Patrimo-
nio, the fee of a bifhop, united to Sutri, containing fix
churches and five convents ; 20 miles N. of Rome. N. lat,
42° 15’. E.long. 12° 24.

NEPISET, a town of Eaft Greenland. N. lat. 60° 35'.
W. long. 45°.

NEPISiNGES, or Nipistnets, a lake of Upper Ca-
nada, 15 miles broad, and 36 leagues long, encompatied
with rogks. Its fhore is inhabited by the remains of a

-VoL. XXIV.

,

NEP

Chriftian tribe, called “ Nepifinguis,"’ of the Algonquin
nation. This lake difcharges itfelf by the Riviere des
Francois.

NEPISS, a lake of Canada, on the borders of Maine.
N. lat. 45° 40!. W. long. 70° 31’.

NEPOMUK, a town of Bohemia, inthe circle of Pil-
fen ; 9 miles E.N.E. of Klattau.

NEPONSAT, a river of America, in the Maffachu-
fetts, originating chiefly from Muddy and Punkapog
ponds in Stoughton, and Mafhapog pond in Sharon, and after
uniting’ with feveral ftreams, ms i the tide in Milton,
whence it is navigable for veffels of 150 tons burden to
Bofton bay, at the diftance of four miles. There are
fix paper-mills and others of different kinds on this {mall
river.

NEPOS, Cornet ius, in Biography, a Roman hiftorian and
biographer, who flourifhed in the time of Julius Cxfar and Au-
a He was born on the banks of the Po, probably at
Hoftilia, and like fome other of his learned contemporaries, he
fhared the favours, and enjoyed the patronage of the emperor.
He was the intimate friend of Cicero and Atticus. We
have no other account of his life. Asan author, he is known
to every {chool boy by his “ De Vitis Excellentium [mpe-
ratorum,” which is his only work that has reached modern
times. It contifts of twenty-two articles of biography con-
cerning Greek and other foreign generals, with a fragment
of the life of Cato of Utica, and a more detailed memoir
of Atticus. This work long paffed under the name of Emi-
lius Probus, who prefented it to the emperor Theodofius in
the fourth century, but the purity of the ftyle, which is
that of the beft age of the Latin language, afligns them to
their real author. According to fome writers, he compofed
three books of ‘ Chronicles,” alfo a biographical account of
all the moft celebrated kings, generals, and authors of an-
tiquity. The editions of Cornelius Nepos have been ex-
tremely numerous ; the moft valuable are the Variorum, of
which that of 1675 1s faid to be the moft corre. Lem-
priere {peaks in high terms of that of Verheyk, Svo. Lug.
Bat. 1773, and that of Glafgow, 12mo. 1761.

Neros, Fravius Jutius, emperor of the Welt, was a
native of Dalmatia, and having married aniece of Leo I.
he, through the intereft of the emprefs Verina, who was.
{tudious to promote the greatnefs of her own family, fuc-
ceeded his uncle Marcellinus in the fovereignty of Dalmatia,
a more folid pofleffion, fays Gibbon, than the title which
he was perfuaded to accept of «‘ Emperor of the Welt.”
In the empire he fucceeded-Olybrius, who had been placed on
the throne at the time in which Anthemius was maflacred.
Owing to the languid and irrefolute meafures of the court,
it was fome moaths before Nepos could fhew himfelf, with
a refpectable force, to his Italian fubjeéts. During that
interval, Glycerius, an obfcure foldier, was inveited with
the purple by Gundobald, a Burgundian prince, who, how-
ever, was unable, or unwilling, to fupport his nomina-
tion by a civil war: the purfuits of domeftic ambition
recalled him beyond the Alps, and his client was per-
mitted to exchange the Roman fceptre for the bifhopric
of Salena. After extinguifhing futh a competitor, the
emperor Nepos was acknowledged by the fenate, by the
Italians, and by the provincials of Gaul. His moral
virtues and military talents were loudly celebrated, and
thofe who derived, or who expeéted to’ derive any private
benefit from his government, announced in prophetic {trains
the reftoration of puLRE felicity. Their expectations were
confounded in the {pace of a fingle year, and the treaty of
peace, which ceded Auvergne to the Viligoths, is the only
event of his fhort and inglorious reign. The moft faithful

4P fubjects

N ELP

Tubje&s of Gaul were facrificed by the Italian emperor to
the hope of domeftic fecurity, but his repofe was foon in-
vaded by a furious fedition of the barbarian confederates,
who, under the command of Oreftes, their general, were in
full march from Rome to Ravenna. Nepos trembled at their
approach, and retired to his Dalmatian principality, on the
oppofite coaft of the Adriatic. By this abdication, he
protracted his life about five years, ina ftate between an
emperor and an exile, till he was affaflinated at Sartoria
by Glycerius, who was tranflated, perhaps as a reward of
his crime, to the archbifhopric of Milan. This was in the
year 480. Gibbon, vol. vi.

NEPOTISM, a term ufed in Italy, in {peaking of the
authority which the pope’s nephews and relations have in
the adminiftration of affairs; and of the care the popes take
to raife and enrich them.

Many of the popes have endeavoured to reform the abufes
of nepotifm : for fome time paft, nepotifm is faid to have been
abolifhed. Leti has wrote exprefsly on this fubje@, J/ Nepo-
tifmo.

NEPOTSKOI, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Archangel, on the coatt of the White fea ;
24 miles W. of Archangel.

NEPTHTHALITES, a name formed by corruption
from Ephthalites, and derived from the Oxus or Amu; bythe
Perfians ftyled Abtelah, or the river of Gold. This’ was a
denomination given to the people of Great Bucharia by the
Byzantine hiftorians ; who called them White Huns, as all
the weftern Barbarians were denominated Scythians,.or Huns.

NEPTUNALITA, featts held among the ancients, in ho-
nour of Neptune.

The Neptunalia differed from the Con/ualia, in that the
latter were feafts of Neptune, confidered particularly as
prefiding over horfes, and the manege. Whereas the Nep-
tunalia were feafts of Neptune in general, and not confidered
under any particular quality. They were celebrated on
the roth of the calends of Auguft.

NEPTUNE, in Mythology, the fon of Saturn and Rhea,
aod brother of Jupiter and Pluto. He is commonly re-
prefented ftanding with his trident in his right hand, which
was-his peculiar {ceptre, as lord of the Mediterranean feas,
and feems to have been ufed by him chiefly to roufe up the
waters ; for we find fometimes that he lays it afide, when
he is to appeafe them; but he refumes, it, when there is
any occafion for violence. Virgil, /En, ii. v. 162, makes
him fhake Troy from its foundations with it ; and in Ovid,
Met. i. v. 284, it is with the ftroke of this that the waters
are let loofe for the general deluge.
left hand, and he treads on the beak of a fhip, to fhew that
he prefided over the feas, or, more particularly, over the
Mediterranean fea; which was the great, and almoft the
only fcene for navigation, among the old Greeks and
Romans. The poets have defcribed this god as pafling
over the calm furface of the waters, in his chariot drawn by
fea-horfes. The fine original defcription of this is in
Homer; from whom Virgil, An. i. v. 155, and Statius
Achil. i, v. 60, liave copied it. A triton is fometimes re-
prefented on each fide, as guiding thofe that. draw the
chariot of Neptune. His afpeét in all the beft figures of
him is majeltic and ferene. The lower fort of artifts ex-
hibit him fometimes with an angry and difturbed air; and
one may obferve the fame difference in this particular, be-
tween the great and inferior poets, as there is between the
good and bad artifts. Thus Ovid, Met. ii. v. 271, defcribes
Neptune with a fullen look ; whereas Virgil, A%n. i. v. 127,
expre(sly tells us that he has a mild face, i when he is
reprefenting him in a paffion, Neptune had a great number

The dolphin is ia his ,

NER

of temples erected to his honour, as well as feafts and games
eftablifhed in token of refpe&, both in Greece and Italy.
Spence’s Polymetis, p. 65. p. 215, &c.

NEpTuNE’s Cap, a name given by naturalifts toa remark.
able fpecies of marine fungus, which is never found affixed
to any folid body, but always loofe, and rolling about at
the bottom of the fea. Its ufual fize is about five inches in
height, and -fix or feven in diameter at the bafe. It gra-
dually becomes narrower from the bafe to the fummit,
where it terminates in a round end, ornamented with clufters
of a foliaceous fort of fubftances, refembling a cock’s comb,
but of the fame matter with the reft of the fubftance.

Its internal furface is very different from this : it is lightly
furrowed down the fides, and befet with a number of
fmall protuberances, with obtufe points. Some of thefe,
when fmall, are found with a pedicle growing to them.
This is always of a very brittle fubftance, and it is probable
that all thofe found loofe had originally fuch pedicles, by
which they adhered to fome folid body, in the manner of the
corals, and other marine fubttances; but that its extreme
brittlenefs occafions it to be foon broken off by the motion
of the water, after which it rolls loofe about, and takes
in its nourifhment at its feveral pores, by means of the
water, which every way furrounds it. It is not probable
that thefe and the like marine fubftances are nourifhed only
by fea-water ; but that there is in the fea a fort of mud con-
tinually formed out of the decayed particles of animals, and
the fofter vegetables, which may be fuppofed much to
refemble the common vegetable mould in its ufes, as it has
much the fame origin; and this, or at leaft its finer and
lighter parts, may be conveyed by water into the pores of
thefe fuppofed plants, and nourifh them. Mem. Acad. Par.
1700.

NEPTUNINS, in Mythology, were fea-nymphs, fo called,
becaufe they were the defcendants of Neptune.

NEQUITAO, in Geography, a town of South America,
in the province of Venezuela; 20 miles S. of Truxillo.

NEQUONQUIQUA, ariver of New Brunfwick, which
runs into the St. John, N. lat. 46° 6’. W. long. 66° 55/.

NER, atown of Hindooftan, in the circar of Aurun-
gabad ; 38 miles E. of Aurungabad.

NERA, or NeErRA, one of the
Banpa.

NE'RAC, a town of France, and principal place of a
diltrict, in che department of the Lot and Garonne, fituated
on the Blaife, which here becomes navigable; 12 miles
S.W. of Agen. The place contains 5587, and the canton
11,876 inhabitants, on a territory of 185 kiliometres, in 13
communes. N. lat. 44 8’. FE. long. o° 25/.

NERAINSKOI Serebrenoi Zavoid, a town of Ruffia,
in the government of Irkutik, on the Argun, near the bor-
ders of China; 118 miles E.S.E. of Nertchinfk.' N. lat.

o° 28’. E. long. 120°.

NERBA, a town of Saxony, in Thuringia, on the Un-
{trutt ; 15 miles N.W. of Naumburg.

NERBUDDAH, a river of Hindooftan, which, as well
as the Soane, has its nfe in a pond or lake on the fouthern
confines of the Allahabad province. Thefe rivers, flowing
from the fame lake, make conjointly with the Ganges, an
ifland of the northern part of Hindooftan, and purfue their
courfe in oppofite dire&tions 1500 miles. ‘The Nerbuddah
difcharges itfelf inte the gulf of Cambay, 31 miles N. of
Surat.

NERE, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Ellich-
pour; 30 miles E.N.E. of Ellichpour.

NEREALLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Vifiapour;

25 miles E, of Anamfagur,
NERECHTA,

Banda iflands. See

NER

NERECHTA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Koftroma; 16 miles S.W. of Koftroma.

NEREIDS, Neremnes, fea-nymphs, or fabulous deities
of the ancients, fuppofed to inhabit the fea.

The Nereids were fifty in number, all the daughters of
Nereus, by the nymph Doris. Their names and genealogies
are defcribed in Hefiod. Homer gives their names, with
fome variation, and reckons only thirty-two of them. The
ancient monuments, as well as medals, agree in Peeping
the Nereids as young women riding upon dolphins, an
upon fea-horfes, holding commonly in one hand Neptune’s
trident, and in the other a dolphin, and fometimes a victory
and a crown: fometimes we fee them half women and half
fifhes, conformable to this verfe in Horace’s Art. Poet.

* Definit in pifcem mulier formofa fuperne.””

Such we fee them on a medal of Marfeilles, and upon fome
others. It has been a fubje& of inquiry with regard to the
Nereids, whether they are to be confidered as metaphorical
perfonages, as their names fignify, or as real beings. ‘Thofe
whom Hefiod and Homer name are moftly poetical perfons ;
but fome of them had a real exiftence, as Caffiope, the
mother of Andromeda, Pfammathe, the mother of Phoce,
from whom the country into which fhe removed was
called Phocis, Thetis, the mother of Achilles, and fome
others. It muft be obferved, however, that the name of
Nereids was given to princeffes who inhabited either fome
iflands on the fea-coafts, and became famous for the efta-
blifhment of commerce and navigation. It was transferred
afterwards to fome poetical perfonages, who owe their exift-
ence only to etymologies conformable to the qualities im-
plied in their names, and even to certain fifhes, that have the
upper part of their bodies much like that of women. Pliny
fays, in the time of Tiberius, there were feen upon the fea-
fhore a Nereid fuch as the poets reprefent them, ‘“‘ humana
effigie,”’ and that an ambaflador from Gaul had told
Auguftus that upon the fea-coafts feveral dead Nereids had
been feen. See Nympu.

NEREIS, in Zoology, a genus of the clafs and order
Vermes Mollufca, of which the generic charaer is ; body
long, creeping, with numerous lateral peduncles, or fect, ow
each fide. The feelers are fimple, but in certain cafes there
are none. It has fometimes no eyes, fometimes two, and
fometimes four. Of this genus there are twenty-nine {pecies,
divided into three fetions, according as the mouth of the
worm is furnifhed with a claw or forceps ; or with a pro-
bofcis ; or with atube. Moft of the fpecies are found in
the North feas, but three or four are met with on our own
coatts, f

A. Mouth furnifbed with a Claw or Forceps.
Species.

Versicotor. This fpecies is chara&erifed with a body
fubdeprefled ; and with peduncles pointed, and furnifhed
with briftles. It is about four inches long, and is found in
European feas. The body has about eighty-five fegments,
growing flenderer behind ; the colour of the worm is of an
ochre yellow, with a dull red ftreak down the middle; the
tail, and anterior fegments of the body, are of a dirty
greenifh hue, but towards the middle it is fhining, with
various iridefcent colours.

* Nocrizuca. Body blue-green, with twenty-three feg-
ments ; {carcely vifible to the naked eye. This fpecies is
found in moft feas, and the animals are of that kind which
frequently illuminate the water, making it appear as if it
were on fire: the animals are extremely minute, pellucid,
and highly phofphorefcent, giving an uncommonly lucid

NER

fplendour to the waves in an evening: by their extreme
minutenefs they eafily efcape obfervation, but may be
detected by paffing a {mall quantity of the water through
blotting-paper.

Barbut, in {peaking of this fpecies of the Nereis, fays, “ I
have obferved with great attention a fith juft caught out of
the fea, whofe body was almoft covered with them, and have
examined them in the dark: they twift and curl themfelves
with amazing agility, but foon retire out of our contraéted
fight ; probably their glittering dazzles the eye, and their
extreme minutenefs eludes our refearches. It is to be ob-
ferved, that when the unGtuous moifture, which covers the
fcales of fifhes, is exhaufted by the air, thefe animals are not
to be feen, nor are the fifhes then noétilucous, the matter
being, perhaps, their nourifhment when living, as they them-
felves afford food to many marine animals. They do not
fhine in the day-time, becaufe the folar rays are too power-
ful for their light, however aggregate or immenfe their
number.” : . ~

Fiuerrata. The body of this {pecies is fubdepreffed ;
the peduncles are cirrate and glandular. It inhabits the
Baltic, is about three inches long, and linear. The body is
of a fulvous hue, with a blue line down the middle of the
back and belly ; the head is furnifhed with eight feelers ;
and the tail is terminated with two threads.

ArmiLiaris. The body of this alfo is fubdepreffed ;
the peduncles conic, with glandular cirri. This, like the
laft, is found in the North feas, buries itfelf deep in the
fand, and is about an inch anda half long. The body is
filiform, with three moniliform feelers on each fide the head ;
it has about 120 articulations, all armed with a peduncle on
each fide the tail, ending in two long threads.

Mottis. This fpecies has lateral fafcicles of hair above
the peduncles. It is found in the feas about Norway.
Prracica. Body above convex ; peduncles cirrate and

warty. This is found in European feas, among the roots
of ulve, under ftones, and in empty fhells, is about feven
inches long, and has a kind of flexuous motion.

Tusicota. Body fubdepreffed, and peduncles flightly
cirrate and globular. It inhabits ‘the Northern feas. The
body is linear, with five ftraight feelers on the head: it
forms for itfelf a rough tube of the indurated moifture exud-
ing from its pores.

Norwecica.
cles are cirrate and feathered.
Norway, and is the fize of a
120 fegments.

Pinnata. Body convex; peduncles cirrate and pinnate.
This alfo is found in the bays of Norway, on a blueifh clay.
The body is of a chefnut colour, with a blue glofs; the
fegments are from 106 to 122‘in number; the head has
five jointed feelers, and the tail ends in two thick filaments.

CornicuLATa. Body fubdepreffed, pinnate; the pe-
duncles are furnifhed with a cirrus and long fimple briftle.
It inhabits the Norway feas, and is extremely minute and
active. x

Pusttra. Body depreffed; peduncles cirrate, with
jointed filaments. Found alfo in the Norway feas.

Incisa. The body is convex; the fegments diftant ;
and the peduncles are fimple and cirrate. It inhabits the
Greenland feas, far from land, and among the roots of the
larger ulve. It is about two inches and a half long.

Apuropitowwes. The body of this is deprefled, and
not grooved ; the peduncles are cirrate, and furnifhed with
papille. It inhabits the Greenland feas, and is found
among the mud at bottom ; is an inch long.

4P2 B: Mouth

The body of this is convex ; the pedun-
It is found in the bays about
goofe-quill. The body has

NER
B. Mouth furnifhed with a Probofcis.
Species.

* CmruLEA. Smooth, depreffed, blueifh-green, pellucid.
This is found in-the feas about our own coafts. ‘The body
is fhining, about four inches long, with a groove along the
belly. ;

aigeenty The body of this fpecies is depreffed ; the
peduncles have lanceolate lamella, or fcales. This is an

inhabitant of the Northern feas, and has been found at Ten-
by ; and is from two to three inches long. The body

is filiform, and of a grafs-green colour, with 130 equal ”

feements. ‘

Macutara.. Body convex peduncles with heart-fhaped
feales. It inhabits the North feas, and is from two and a
half to four inches long. nas

Crassa. Body depreffed; probofcis cylindrical ; pe-
duncles red, with branched briftles. Inhabits the ocean ;
is feen on floating fucus, and is four inches long.

Srettirera. The body of this fpecies is deprefled ; and
the peduncles furnifhed with elliptic feales._ 1t inhabits the
Northern feas, particularly in the bays of Norway.

Punctata. Body flightly depreffed; the peduncles
furnifhed with very long cirri. This fpecies is likewife
found in the Northern feas, in oyfter-fhells, or under ftones.

Aza. Body convex; front horned; peduncles bifid.
Found in the feas about Norway, onaclayey bottom. The
body of this {pecies is white, annulate, and tapering behind ;
it has no eyes; and the probofcis is membranaceous, very
pellucid, and capable of being inflated to twice the width of
the body ; there are feventy-feven peduncles on each fide.

Frava. Body deprefled; peduncles with oblong-ovate
{cales. It is found in the Northern feas, among the roots
of ulvz, and is about two inches anda halflong. The body
is yellow, and is divided into about 140 fegments.

Lonca. ‘The body of this {pecies is flightly depreffed,
and furnifhed with conic papille inftead of fcales of the
peduncles. It inhabits the fhores of Greenland, with a
clayey or fandy bottom near the mouths of rivers. :

Prismatica. Body triangular; peduncles diftant, with
a fingle fetigerous papilla cirrate above. This is found on
the fhores of Greenland, and is about half an inch long. ‘

Birrons. Body deprefled;+ peduncles with a fingle
fegiterous papilla cirrate above, the middle ones alfo branched.
This alfovis found in the Greenland feas, is an inch long,
has fifty-fix fegments, and is continually moving.

Caca. Body flightly convex; it has two very fhort
feelers, aud the peduncles have double ciliate lamelle. It
inhabits the fandy fhores of Greenland, under ttones, like
the Lumericus, (which fee). It burrows very deep, and
is about eight inches long. The body is divided into from
86 to roo fegments. }

Esrancuiara. Body round, annular, and tapering both
ways; peduncles cylindrical, fhort and double, pinnate on
each fide; it has no feelers, and inhabits the German and
Indian feas. ‘The body is of a blueifh or greyifh-brown,
and is divided into 269 fegments.

Lamecricera. Body flattifh, and tapering both ways ;
probofcis fellate, with four flefh-coloured fpines; the pe-
duncles are comprefled and furnifhed with a femilunar fcale
above, and a larger femiheart-fhaped one beneath. ‘This 1s
found in the Indian, Mediterranean, and alfo in the Northern
feas, among aquatic plants; and is nearly two feet long.
The body of this {pecies is faid to be divided into from 200
to 550 fegments ; the head has four feclers,

Cintata. Body depreffed; mouth cylindrical, retrac-
tile ; the anterior margin ciliate ; it has no feelers.

NER
C. Mouth furnifhed with a Tube.

Species.

ProrirerA. Body deprefled ; peduncles cirrrate ; front
with a fingle feeler. It inhabits the bays of Norway, and
its body is divided into from 32 to 46 fegments. Inltead of
forceps and a probofcis, it hasa thick flexuous pellucid tube.

NERESHEIM, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the principality of Oéttingen, near which is a princely abbey
of the fame name ; 12 miles §.S.W. of Oéttingen. - '

NERESI, a town on the S. fide of the ifland of Brazza,
fo called by Greek derivation from the refervoirs of water
near it. Its fituation is not pleafant, though it is the refi-
dence of the governor and a place of refort, and the only
good lands in the ifland are adjacent. The air is faid to be
intenfely cold. This place was more confiderable in a
former period of piracies; but fince other places near the
fea have been inhabited, it has loft much of its population,
and its deferted houfes are mouldering into ruins.

NERESTBAD, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Kerman; go miles N. of Mattih.

NERETO, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo Ultra; 36
miles N.N.E. of Aquila.

NEREUS, in Mythology, the fon of Pontus and Terra,
who, by Doris, produced the Nereids. The ancients
reckon Nereus among: the fea-gods, and, according to
Hefiod, he was the fon of Oceanus and Tethys. Hefiod
highly celebrates this Nereus as a mild and peaceful old
man, a lover of juftice and moderation. From Apollodorus
we learn, that Nereus‘commonly refided in the AEgean fea,
where he was encircled with Nereids, who diverted him
with their fongs and dances. Accordingly Paufanias takes
the old man who was worfhipped by the Gytheates, and
who according to thet had his palace in the fea, to have
been no other but Nereus, and in proof of it he cites thefe
verfes in Homer:

« Ye Sifter Nereids ! to your deeps defcend,
Hatte, and our Father’s facred feat attend.’’
Pope’s Ihad, 18.177.

Some authors have been of opinion that Nereus was the in-
ventor of hydromancy, or of the fcience of prediction by
water, whence he was reprefented as a great foothfayer :
and this might have been the reafon for ranking him among
the gods of the fea. ait

NERFLING, in Jchihyology, the name of a frefh water
fifh of the leather-mouthed kind, common in fome of the
lakes in Germany, and there called alfo the orffor oorve, and
feeming to be the fame with the common rudd.

There are two kinds of this fifth, the flefh of the one of
which, when dreffed, is white, and that of the other yellowifh
or reddifh. The latter kind is moft valued.

NERFUA, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the gulf of
Finland. N. lat. 60° 12. E. long. 28° 9.

NERHELBENQ, a town of Poland, in the palatinate
or Kiev; 48 miles W.N.W. of Kiev.

NERI, Puri pr, in Biography, an Italian writer, was
born at Florence in the year 1485, of a noble family. In
1532, he was chofen by duke Alemiaet one of the magif-
trates, afterwards denominated fenators. He died at Florence
in 1536. He was author of “ A Hiftory of Florentine
Affairs,” from 1215 to 1237, which was printed at Augf-
burg in 1728.

Neri, Pompeio, a native of Florence, who became pro-
feffor of the law at Pifa, and was employed in ftate affairs
by the duke of Lorraine, and the emprefs Maria Therefa.
He founded the Academy of Botany at Florence, where

he

- ———

NER

he died in 1776 at the age of 69. He wrote obfervations
on the ancient and prefent ftate of the Tufcan nobility ; on
the impofts of Milan; on the legal value of the coin, and the
difficulty of fixing and maintaining the fame. There was
-alfo of this name and family Anthony Neri, well known by
‘a work to which we have had occafion to refer, on the
«© Art of making Glafs.”

NERIABAD, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Guzerat ; 14 miles S. of Mahmoodabad. ;

NERICIA, or Nenitra, a province of Sweden, border-
ing on three remarkable lakes, viz. Wener, tale ek and
Hielmar, and bounded on the N. by Weftmanland, on the
E. by eee the S. by Eaft and Weft Gothland,
and on the W. by Warmeland. It is about 20 leagues in
length, and 15 in breadth, and confifts of mountains, foretts,
mines, lakes and rivers, with fome level and tolerably fertile
tracts. This country has iron and fulphur mines, quarries
of lead-ftone, alum, lime-ftone, with iron-founderies, and
alfo fulphur and lead works. It has been long famous
for its flourifhing manufaétures of all kinds of hard-ware.
Its inhabitants are principally employed in the mines and
forges, in hunting, and in fifhing. Its chief town is
Orebro. 1

NERILKERY, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore;
22 miles E. of Seringapatam.

NERITA, in Natural Hiffory, a genus of the Vermes
Teftacea clafs and order, of which the generic charafter is
this: the animalis a limax ; fhell univalve, fpiral, gibbous,
flattifh at the bottom; the aperture is femiorbicular, or
femilunar ;_ pillar-lip tranfverfely truncate, flattifh. Seventy-
five or fix fpecies are enumerated as beldnging to this ge-
nus, feparated into three divifions, according as they are um-
bilicate ; imperforate with toothlefs lips, or imperforate with
lips that are toothed. The fheils are generally very minute,
feldom exceeding the fize of a pea, ufually polifhed, often
banded, and the colours vary in the different {pecies,

A. Unbilicate.

Species.

cd

Canrena. The fhell of this fpecies is fmooth, with a
flightly pointed fpire, and it has a gibbous bifid umbilicus.
It inhabits India, Africa, and America, in almoft innumer-
» able varieties of fize, colours, and marks, being white, yel-

lowifh, or blueifh, with varioufly difpofed fpots, lines, and
clouds.

CanceLttata. Shell with decuffate ftrie and impreffed
dots; the fpire fubclavate ; umbilicus gibbous and bifid.
This fpecies is found in feveral of the American iflands. The
fhell is White with obfolete fpots, with fometimes a fulvous
band and rays. ©

* Graucina. Shell fmooth, gloffy; fpire rather ob-
tufe ; umbilicus partly clofed by the pillar-hp, which is gib-
bous and two-coloured. It inhabits the coafts of Barbary,
and is fometimes found on our own fhores. It is about two
inches long.

Virettus. Shell fubglobular, with a perforated equal
umbilicus. It inhabits the Indian oceans. The fhell is
yellow, with white fhades, and {pots difpofed in rows, above
with a dufky band, within and round the umbilicus it is
white.

AxsumMen. Shell convex; umbilicus fomewhat heart-
fhaped, with a flattened lobe. This fpecies is found at the
Cape of Good Hope, on the Barbary coaft, and at the Ni-
cobur and Molucca iflands ; it is, however, a very rare fhell,

- but fmooth and broad, of a pale yellow colour, beneath it is
white and flat.

NER

MammiLLa. Shell ovate, glabrous ; umbilicus partly co-
vered ; aperture ovate. ‘There are four different varieties of
this {pecies; found in India, and divers parts of America.
It is more than two inches long. ’

Levcozonias. Shell fubglobular and folid, of a bay
colour, with white bands; the {pire is fomew hat deprefled.
It is more than an inch long.

Spapicea. Shell fubglobular and folid, chefnut colour,

» but beneath white ; the tip is blueith, throat with bands, one

alfo onthe back. Found in the ifland of Mauritius, and
is rather large.

Rura. Shell thin, rufous; umbilicus darker, with a
white border ; the back and bafe of the {pire have a white
band on each, the throat with a reddith band; pillar with a
brown fillet. ,

Furminea. Shell fubglobular, with angular tawny
lines, and flattened lobe. ‘There are three varieties, found,
though but rarely, in Africa. ‘The fhell is white or yel-
lowith.

STERcus-MuscARuM. Shell {mooth, fnowy, with-rufous
{pots and fpecks; the umbilicus is gibbous and bifid. It
inhabits the Mediterranean and American feas; and is -
thought to be a variety of the N. canrena.

OrtenTAatis. Shell fubglobular, polifhed, very finooth,
the bafe of the fpirea little wrinkled; the pillar is {nowy.
It is found in the Eaftern feas. There are two varieties ; the
fhell of the one is of a buff colour on each fide, with a
narrow white band in the middle ; the other is entirely
fnowy.

Cruentara. Shell fubglobular, white, with red {pots
and dots, the lip obtufe and blueifh, within blueifh; umbi-
licus fpiral.

Rueosa. Shell wrinkled, within glabrous, pale telta-
ceous; umbilicus bordered -with white. It inhabits the
American iflands. The fhell is covered with oblong, crowd-
ed wrinkles.

Marocuiensis. Shell fubglobular, fmooth, light green,
within brownifh, and livid at the tip, a little wrinkled at the
angle of the whorls. It is found in Africa. The fhell is
fometimes marked with feathered bands, the younger ones
are thin and pellucid.

Sutcata. Shell fubglobular, obliqucly plaited ; {pire
mucronate ; umbilicus bifid. The {pire has four whorls.

Aracunomea. Shell white, reticulate, with reddifh
lines, and blackifh at the tip ; whorls convex ; umbilicus
nearly covered.

Virrata. Shell fubglobular, brown, with a double
white fillet in the middle, reticulate and denticulate on each
fide. Thisis an African fhell.

Mexanostoma. Shell thin, pellucid, fmooth, oblong ;
the firlt whorl ventricofe, flat, and very large, the others
compreffed ; the umbilicus is half clofed. There are five
varieties of this fpecies. Itinhabits the Indian fea, and is
two inches long.

* Paruiputa. Shell femitranfparent horn-colour, the
whorls rather prominent ; aperture {emilunar, and very pa- -
tulous ; the umbilicus is large. It inhabits the coaft of
Kent and Dorfet.

Papitta. Shell pellucid, thin, oblong, with decuflate
{trie ; of a dirty. yellow colour; the aperture is fuboval ;
the pillar white, and the umbilicus half clofed. It inhabits
the fhores of Tranquebar.

CraTHRATA. Shell depreffed, ovate ; tranfverfely un-
dulate, and longitudinally ribbed, the ribs flat, oblique, and
femilunar ; {pire papillary. Found in a foffile ftate in Cam-
pania.

Vatvara. Shell flattifh, with a circinated aperture.

2 It

NERITA.

Yt inhabits the North feas; the inhabitant of the fhell

has two fetaceous tentacula, bearing the eyes at the pofterior
angle.
Istanpica: Shell globular, fubacute, and rather thick ;

it has four whorls, feparated by very deep grooves. It is
found in the Northern feas. 3

Arrinis. Shell globular, and rather thick, witha fub-
mucronate fpire, and three whorls. It inhabits New Zea-

land, ard is probably a Trocuus ; which fee.
B. Imperforate, with toothle/s Lips.

Species.

Corona. Whorls of the fpire crowned with {pines.
It inhabits Indiaand America, and is minute. The fhell is
fometimes blackifh, with longer and fhorter fpines, thinly
ftriate.

Raputa. Shell grooved, with equal tubercles.
habits the Indian iflands, and is the fize of a walnut.

Cornea. Shell obfoletely ftriate. It inhabits the Red
fea. The fhellis fragile, brown, white, or pale violet, with
longitudinal white or teftaceous bands.

* Fruviaritis. Shell rugged, f{potted, ftreaked, or
reticulate. There are four varieties that inhabit the rivers of
Europe and Barbary; the fhell of this {pecies is not half an
inch long.

* LirToRALIs.

Tt in-

Shell fmooth, with a carious crown,
and four whorls. It inhabits the fea-rocks of Europe, and
is the fize of a horfe-bean. The ‘hell is yellow or ferrugi-
nous, with or without bands, fpots, or dots of various
colours.

* Lacustris. Shell fmoothifh, horny or blackifh, end-
ing in anexquifitely fine point. It inhabits ftill waters, and
the warm fprings of Europe; it very. much refembles the
laft named fpecies, but is horny or blackifh, and fometimes
dotted with white.

MacpaLenz. Shell with wide grooves, black, but
within white, the lip yellowith; the lid is fmooth, and
two-toothed. It inhabits the Magdalena ifland in the
Southern ocean, and is more than half an inch long.

Marornata. Shellthin, with decuflate ftrie, tubercu-
late, black, with ochraceous fpots, fubglobular; aperture
margined outwardly.

Dusia. Shell thin, pellucid, ovate, polifhed, dull yel-
low, varied with black ; outer lip acute, inner glabrous.
ene is a very rare fhell, and its place of refidence is not

nown.

* PeriucipA. Shell fmooth and pellucid, with three

whorls. It is found on the coaft of Pembrokefhire, and is
very minute.
* Aga. Shell fmooth, fubpellucid, with two whorls.

This is found, like the laft, on the Pembrokefhire coaft, and
is very minute. '
C. Imperforate, with Lips toothed.

Species.

Puviicera. Shell fmooth, coarfe, with an excavated
eye-like fmall {pire ; inner-lip f{mooth, crenulated.

Unpuvata. Shell thin, f{mooth, undulate; crown ob-
tufe; outer lip fubftriate and toothlefs ; the inner one is a
little denticulate.

Arerrima. Shellthick, opaque, globular, deep black
with coloured lines, within white; outer lip glabrous, inner
lip tuberculate, and wrinkled,

Larva. Shell fmooth, fubglobular, white, with yel-
lowifh-brown bands; the crown is obtufes and thé lip

flightly denticulate. It is found at Amboina, though it is
very rare.

Pupa. Shell fmooth, roundifh, milk-white, with tranf-
verfe parallel black ftriz on the whorls; the lip is flat, with
hardly vifible teeth. ;

Bivens. Shell {mooth; inner lip two-toothed. The fhell
is the fize of a pea, andis either black or reddifh, obfoletely
{triate, fometimes of a pale yellow, with whitifh clouds, and
three black bands.

Virinis. Shell {mooth and green; the inner lip is crenu-
late in the middle. Itinhabits Minorca and Jamaica.

VireinraTa. Shell fmooth, ovate ; inner lip denticu-
late. This is found in the rivers of India and South Ameri-
ca, and is from two to ten lines long.

Potira. Shell fmooth, with an obliterated crown; the
lip is toothed on each fide. There are four varieties, found
in the Indian and South feas. The fhell is ovate, folid,
polifhed, varioufly ornamented with fpots, clouds, and
bands, or varied with black and white.

Petoronta. Shell ftriate ; lips toothed, the inner one
flattifh and wrinkled. It inhabits the American iflands.
It refembles the N. groffa, but is of a red colour, the
grooves are not fo deep, the outer lip ts not crenate, and the
Inner one not convex. See Groffa farther on.

ALBICILLA. Shell ftriate; lips flightly toothed, the in-
ner one tuberculate. It is found in the Indian ocean, and
onthe fhores of the Cape of Good Hope.

Hisrrio. Shell grooved and tranf{verfely ftriate ; inner
lip toothed. k

PLICATA.
with acute conic teeth on each fide.
parts of India. :

Grossa. Shell grooved ; lips toothed, the inner one con-
vex and wrinkled. It is found about the Molucca iflands.
The fhell is rounded, white, with black and cinereous
veins; the crown is a little prominent; firft whorl has
thirteen or fourteen ribs ; outer lip.crenulate outwardly and
toothed within; inner lip white, with a yellow fpot, and
three or four teeth,

CuHAaMzLEON. Shell with twenty grooves ; lips toothed,
the inner one wrinkled and tuberculate. It inhabits the In-
dian ocean. The fhell is varied with alternate, undulate,
black and white rays, or yellowifh, undulate with black and
white, fubglobular; the ribs are unequal, and crofled by
very fine lines ; the crown is deprefled and lateral.

Unpara. Shell with thirty grooves ; lip toothed, the
inner one wrinkled and tuberculate. It inhabits the Indian
feas.

Exvuvia.

Shell grooved; lips toothed, the outer one
This is found in divers

Shell groved ; lips toothed ; the inner one tu-
berculate. It is found on the {ndian coatts.

Maxima. Shell folid, thick, glabrous, with undulate
black and yellowifh rays; outer lip toothlefs, inner one a
little concave and four-toothed. The fhell is very large,
within and at the aperture {nowy ; inner lip fmooth, and very
broad.

Textitis. ‘The fhell of this {pecies is marked with an-
gular black lines, and fixteen crenate ribs and grooves 5 the
outer lip is crenate without, and toothed within; inner
lip wrinkled above and tuberculate beneath ; the palate is
toothed.

Arrata, Shell deep black, glabrous, and very thinly
ftriate above ; both lips white, the outer one very thinly
grooved, and flightly toothed within, the inner one concave,
wrinkled, andtuberculate, It inhabits the Atlantic, Ame-
rican, and South feas.

Ascensionis. Shell with fixteen grooves ; the ribs are
{potted with white, and the crown is a little prominent ; the
outer

NER

outer lip is glabrous on each fide; and the inner one a little
concave, yellowith, and toothed. It inhabits Afcenfion
ifland, hence its {pecific name ; it isa larger f{pecies; the
crown is generally worn down, rarely black; and the lid is
thin and pellucid.

Lineata. Mouth of the fhell and both lips white;
whorls round, furrounded with black parallel ftrie, the
fpaces between the {trie violet ; outer lip ftriate within. It
is found in the Malacca feas.

Versicotor. Shell with blackifh, blueifh, red and white
fquare f{pots, and bands {potted with red and white; the
inner lip is ftriate within, and toothed on each fide. It in-
habits the Antille iflands. The thell is fet with round whorls;
the crown is a littleprominent ; inner lip wrinkled above,
and four-toothed beneath, the middle teeth larger.

Pica. Shell white, radiate with black without, with
tranfverfe, rounded, {mooth {trie ; inner lip wrinkled, and
four-toothed. ‘This is found in the Indian feas. The
crown is a little prominent; the outer lip crenate without,
and ftriate within.
~ Cosrata. Shell’ yellowifh within, fubglobular, fur-
rounded with thicker {trie ; the inrerftices fnowy; both
lips toothed, the outer one crenate without ; inner one fub-
convex, wrinkled and tuberculate. It inhabits the Nicobar
iflands.

Quapricotor. Shell fubviolet, with a yellowifh tip,

~ within it is white, with eleyated black {trie; both lips

toothed ; the outer one grooved within, inner one wrinkled.
Itinhabits the Red fea. The fhell has fometimes white lips,
and is fometimes white within.

Macaccensis. Shell grooved, yellowifh within ; crown
a little prominent ; outer lin unarmed and crenulate outward-
ly, inner lip yellowith; fmooth. This is found on the coatt
of Malacca.

AnTiLLARuM. Sheil fubglobular, black, within it is
white, gro ved and ltriate ; the crown is obtufe; both
lips are wrinkled and denticulate. This is a very common
fhell in the Antilles. é

FrammMea. Shell fubglobular, with crowded,tranf{verfe
ftrie, white with purplifh undulate rays ; both lips toothed.
There are two other varieties, the one fhaded with red, the
rays inclining to black; the other with bands partly livid,
partly dotted with red. They are found in the American
iflands. -

Fureurans. Shell fubglobular, with crowded tranfverfe
flrie, deep black, with ochraceous rays; both lips flightly
denticulate, the inner one tuberculate in the middle. It 1s
found in the American iflands.

TessELLATA. ohell obtufe, tranfverfely ftriate, the
ftriz are marked with nearly {quare white and black {pots ;
both lips are denticulate. It is found in the feveral iflands
fituated between Africa and America, and is of a middle
fize. :

BrrasciaTa. Shell blackifh, with two grey bands ; the
crown is white. It inhabits India. It is uncertain to what
feétion it belongs.

Litrerata. Shell fubglobular, white, with various cha-
raters ; the inner lip is crenulate andtoothed. A variety
of this fpecies is marked with bands compoled of parallel
lines. It inhabits India.

Vioiacea. Shell ovate, folid, {mooth ; it is of a violet
colour, dotted with white; the inner lip is denticulate be-
neath. A variety is marked with chefnut fpots, varied with
black. The fhell is rarely red ‘or whitifh, fometimes dark
grey or white.

SeneGcaAcensis. Shell ovate, obtufe, folid, and of a
deep black colour, within it is white, grooved; both lips

NER

are toothed. ‘This, as its {pecific name imports, is found
in Senegal ; an inch broad, and about half as wide.

Promontoru. Shell black, ovate, pointed ; with thirty
grooves. This is an African fhell, is twice as broad as
it is long, fometimes varied with white; the crown is com-
poled of three whorls ; the left lip is wrinkled. ,

Tricotor. Shell variegated red, black, and whitifh ;
the firft with fifteen elevated ftriz; both lips toothed. This
is found in A frica.

Perversa. Shell furrounded with belts; {pire con-
trary ; aperture eight-toothed. Hitherto it has been found
in a foffile ftate only.

Turrira. Shell with alternate white and black bands,
within white; crown very much elevated; the outer lip
acute. This inhabits the Antille iflands, in frefh waters.

Acuteata. The fhell is blackifh, tranfverfely ftriate ;
the ttriz are fpinous; the inner hp is flattifh, fmooth, and
flightly toothed. It inhabits the rivers of India, and re-
fembles the N. pulligera above defcribed.

NERIUM, in Botany, the Oleander or Rofebay, is evi-
dently the ynpiov of Dioicorides, whofe defcription cannot be
mitaken. Linn. Gen. 116. Schreb. 164. Willd. Sp. Pl.
v. I. 1234. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 3. Brown. Afclep. in
Mem. of the Wernerian Soc. v. 1.71. Ait. Hort. Kew.
ed..2. v.. 2.67. Jufl. 145. Tourn. t. 374... Lamarck Il-
luitr, t. 174.—Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat.
Ord. Contorte, Linn. Apocinee, Jul. Brown.

Gen. Ch. Ga/. Perianth inferior, minute, in five deep,
acute, permanent fegments, with {mall wternalteeth. Cor.
of one petal, falver-fhaped; tube cylindrical, thorter than
the hmb; mouth inflated, crowned with five leaflets, cut
into feveral narrow fegments; limb large, in five deep,
twilted, inequilateral, obtufe fegments, without any appen-
dage. Stam. Filaments five, awl-fhaped, fhort, inferted
into the middle of the tube; anthers arrow-fhaped, awned
with long threads, cohering over the ftigma.. Pi/?. Germens
two, fuperior, ovate; ityle one, common to both germens,
thread-fhaped, dilated at the top, the iength of the tube;
ttigma abrupt, feated on a {mall circular bafe. eric. Fol-
licles two, cylindrical, ere&t, long, pointed, burfting length-
wife. Seeds uumerous, oblong, imbricated, each with a
tufied crown.

Eff. Ch. Corolla falver-fhaped, contorted; its mouth
crowned with five divided leaflets. Anthers awned, coher-
ing. Follicles two, ere&t. Seeds crowned with down.

1. N. Oleander. Common Rofebay. . Linn. Sp. Pl. 305.
Willd. n.i1, Ait. nx. Miller, Illuftr. t. 12. (Nerium
five Rhododendrum; Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 447. Duham.
Arb. v, 2. t. 12. Ger. em. 1406. )—\Leaves ribbed under-
neath. Segments of the calyx prominent. Crown of the
corolla with two flat cloven fezments.—Native of Spain,
Portugal, Italy, and the Levant, about the banks of ri-
vulets, in low moilt fituations. Oriental travellers have,
with great tafte and probability, fuppofed this to be the
bay-tree, to which the righteous man is compared by the
royal pfalmift. It was early introduced into our gardens,
and is a hardy greenhoufe fhrub, flowering from June to
Oétober. In Italy it ufually decorates court-yards.. The
flem is arborefcent, very much branched. Leaves three
together, on fhort ftalks, linear-lanceolate, acute, entire,
fmooth, coriaceous, evergreen, marked with numerous tran{-
verfe ribs or veins beneath. Flowers numerous, terminal,
corymbofe, large and handfome, but inodorous, ufually
of a rofe-colour, occafionally white. ‘There is alfoa much-
admired double variety. Sved-vefféls fix inches long, ribbed,
almoft woody. One of the moft beautiful of infects,

10 Sphinx

NER

Sphinx Nerii, feeds on this fhrub, and is often taken on the
coaits of Nice and Genoa. ;

2. N. odorum. Sweet-fcented Rofebay. Ait. Hort. Kew.
ed. 1. v. I. 297. ed. 2. v. 2:67. Willd. n. 2. (N. indicum
anguftifolium, floribus odoratis fimplicibus; Herm. Lugd-
Bat. 447. t. 448; fl. plenis; t. 449. Tsjovanna-areli ;
Rheede Hort. Malab. v. g. 1. t. 1.)—Leaves ribbed under-
neath. Segments of the calyx ereét. Crown of the co-
rolla with numerous thread-fhaped fegments.— Native of the
Eaft Indies. Cultivated in Chelfea garden in 1683. Jit.
It is kept in the ftove, flowering from June to Augutt.
During that time it will bear to ftand in the window of a
warm room, though much more tender than the former,
from which it differs in the fweet almond-like fcent, and
paler hue, of its flowers, which have a yellow tinge in the
middle, and a much-divided capillary crown.

3. N. falicinum. Willow-leaved Rofebay. Vahl. Symb.
v.-2.45. Willd. n. 3. (N.n. 18; Forfk. Agypt-Arab.
205.)—Leaves flightly veined beneath, obtufe.—Native of
Arabia Felix——A large tree, whofe eaves are faid by
Forfkall to refemble Salix fragilis.

Thefe are all the fpecies that Mr. Brown retains. WN. zey-
lanicum and antidy/entericum of former authors conftitute his
Wrightia. He judges N. coronarium to be a Tabernemontana,
and divaricatum to be the very fame plant. N. obefum of
Forfkall and Vahl, (fee as above,) is certainly no Nerium ;
perhaps a new genus. :

Nertum, in Gardening, comprehends plants of the ever-
green, flowering, fhrubby kind, of which the fpecies cul-
tivated are, the common rofebay, or oleander (N. oleander) ;
the fweet-fcented rofebay, or oleander (N. odorum); the
oval-leaved rofebay (N. antidyfentericum) ; and the broad-
leaved rofebay (N. coronarium).

It may be remarked, that in warm dry fummers the firtt
fort makes a fine appearance, the flowers then opening in
great plenty; but in cold moift feafons the flowers often
decay without expanding, unlefs the plants are placed in
a greenhoufe, or under a glafs cafe. The variety with
white flowers. is the moft tender; but there are others, as
the ftripe-leaved ; the broad-leaved; double-flowered ; the
ftriped double-flowered, and with different fhades of red,
from purple to crimfon or fcarlet.

The fecond fpecies has a variety with leaves, fix inches
long, and one inch broad in the middle, of a much thinner
texture than thofe of the firft, and their ends are generally
reflexed ; they are of a light green, and irregularly placed
on the branches by pairs, alternately, or by threes; the
flowers are produced in very large bunches at the end of
the branches, upon long peduncles; they have three or four
rows of petals one within another ; they are much larger than
thofe of the common fort, and {mell like thofe of hawthorn ;
the plain flowers are of a foft red or peach colour; but in
moft they are beautifully variegated with a deeper red, and
make a fine appearance: the ufual time of flowering is in
July and Augult, but in a warm ftove it will continue in
flower till Michaelmas: from the flowers being double,
they are not fucceeded by feeds.» They are all fuppofed
to have a poifonous quality.

Method of Gulture—Thefe different {pecies and varieties
of plants may be increafed by layers, and fuckers from the
roots.

It is neceffary that the layers fhould be made in the early
{pring months, as from March till May, but the earlier the
better; the youngeft lower branches being chofen for the
purpofe, which fhould be flit-layed, giving plenty of water
during the fummer, and they will be moft rooted by the au-
tumn following ; but by plunging the pots in which they are

' MER

layed in a bark hot-bed, their rooting may be greatly for.
warded : when they are properly rooted, they may be taken
off, and removed into feparate pots for continuing.

But the cuttings fhould be planted in the f{pring, or the
early part of fummer, taking off the young fhoots, five or
fix inches long, and planting them in large pots of rich
mould, placing them under glaffes, and giving water and
fhade cccafionally : but, if plunged ina bark-bed, it will
greatly promote and forward their rooting.

And the fuckers arifing from the bottom are fometimes
furnifhed with roots; but when this is not the cafe, a {mall
flit fhould be given at the loweft part ; afterwards applying
frefh mould around it, when fibres will be emitted by the
end of fummer; they may then be taken off and potted
feparately in proper pots. With regard to the firft fort
and varieties, they are rather hardy, but fhould be kept
conftantly in pots or tubs, to be -proteéted through fevere
winters when neceflary. :

And the other forts are often placed in the hot-houfe
during winter, but when lefs tenderly treated, and fupplied
more freely with air in mild weather, they are faid by fome
to fucceed better, provided they be carefully fcreened from
every effect of froft or fevere cold.

Thefe are very ornamental among other potted plants of
lefs tender kinds. :

NERLI, Firiero, in Biography, an Italian hiftorian,
was born in 1485, and became a lenator of the city of
Florence. One of the fame’name, and thought by fome
to be the fame perfon, was governor of Modena for the
church in 1526, and, attempting to return to Florence in
1527 with Guicciardini, was excluded fromm that city. He
died in 1556. His work, entitled ‘¢ 1 Commentarti de’
Fatti civili occorfi nelle Citta di Firenze del 1215 fino al

, 15373" remained in manufcript till it was publifhed in _

Florence in 1728.

NERO, Lucius Domitivs, a Roman emperor, the
fon of Cneius Domitius Ahenobarbus, and Agrippina, the
daughter of Germanicus, was born in the 37th year of the
Chriltian era. Both his parents were notorious for the pro-
fligacy of their lives, and of this the father was fo con-
{cious, that he affirmed, at the birth of his fon, that, {pring-
ing from fuch a ftock, he muft be a moniter born for fome
great public calamity. The favour of the people was mani-
fefted to him at his firft appearance in the fecular games,
given by the emperor Claudius in the year 47. This em-
peror, having married Agrippina, adopted Nero, then onl
in his thirteenth year, as his fucceflor, though he had a fon
of his own. On the occafion, he received the names of
Nero Claudius Czefar, and in the following year he aflumed
the foga virilis, was defignated conful, and declared prince
of the’ Roman youth. His marriage with Octavia, the
emperor’s daughter, took place in the year 53, and in
the following year, the reigning emperor having been
poifoned by his abandoned wife, Nero was raifed to the
throne. To Agrippina are to be attributed all the bad aéts of
the early part of his reign. His own condué, as prompted
by his tutor Seneca and governor Burrhus, appears to have
been liberal and laudable, and his aétions correfponded with
the difcourfes that were put into his mouth. Hiftorians
mention feveral aéts of clemency which are highly honourable
to his memory, if they could be fuppofed to proceed from
his own unbiaffed inclination, One of the earlielt irregu-
larities of this prince was an attachment to Acte, a freed-
woman of a debauched character, who obtained a great
afcendancy over him, while he difplayed the utmott averfion
to his wife O@avia. His tutor indulged him in this paflion,
to keep him from more criminal amours, and his mother,

finding

NERO.

finding that her reproaches were of no avail, at length con-
nived at his condué&t. She, indeed, to keep her fon ina
ftate of dependence and fubjeétion, affeéted to countenance
the claims of Britannicus to the fovereignty, which led Nero
to remove him out of his way by poifon. The fatal dofe
was adminiftered as he fat at table with the emperor, his
wife, and mother. Its effeéts were in{ftantaneous; he fell
down fpeechlefs, and being carried out, very foon expired.
After this he made an attack upon his mother’s life. (See
the article Acrirrina.) The levity and turbulence of
Nero’s difpofition were difplayed in the amufement which
he followed, of rambling about the ftreets difguifed, by
night, with a band of diforderly companions, robbing and
abufing all that fell in their way, and carrying off all the
pillage he could lay his hands on, which he fold the follow-
ing day by auétion in his palace. 'There-was, in fhort, no
fpecies of brutality in which he did not delight ; neverthelefs,
the public affairs of the empire were well managed during
the firft few years of his reign, and many falutary regula-
tions took place at home and abroad. The fenate was per-
mitted to aé freely on feveral occafions, and the political
counfellors of the emperor were able and experienced. The
Roman arms were fuccefsful in the Eaft under the command
of Corbulo, who fubdued Armenia, and conferred its crown
upon Tigranes. After the death of his mother, he plunged
into a courfe of diffipated folly, that was highly derogatory
to his rank: he exhibited his fill as a charioteer, and claimed
public applaule as an actor inthe theatre. In the fixth year
of his reign, he inftituted games in imitation of thofe of
Greece, which were at the fame time gymnattical, mutfical,
and equeftrian. He named them Neronian games, and in
his own perfon difputed the prizes of eloquence and poetry,
in which he obtained an eafy victory, none venturing to
give the palm to his competitors. In the year 62 he di-
vorced his wife, whom he banifhed, and afterwards put to
death, and took in her place Poppa, a woman of diftin-
guifhed beauty, but of truly infamous character. From
this time, ads of cruelty and rapacity alone varied the
feenes of indecent folly and abandoned debauchery, which
conftituted the habitual life of Nero. The terrible confla-
gration of Rome in the year 64, is by Suetonius and Dio
pofitively charged upon the emperor ; but ‘Tacitus exprefles
a doubt concerning its origin, and the probability is, that
the fire was accidental. Nero was at Antium when it-hap-
pened, but returned in time to fee the palace in flames.
He now opened his gardens, and caufed fheds to be ereéted
for the multitudes who were deprived of a home, and took
meafures to prevent a {carcity, and fupply the molt prefling
wants of the people. The emperor might have gained credit
upon the whole by this difatter, had not the fufpicion of his
being its author {till maintained its ground in the minds of
the people. The method which he took to divert it has,
perhaps, excited greater deteftation of his memory than all
his other enormities. He caufed the Chriftians to be ac-
cufed as the incendiaries, and, without trial or inquiry, ap-
prehended all whom he could difcover in the city, and put
them to death in the moft horrible manner. ‘This favage
condu&, for which there was not the flighteft pretence, has
branded him moft juftly with the title of the firtt perfecutor
of the Chriftian church: In the re-edification of Rome,
much attention was paid to order and convenience in the
arrangement of ftreets, &c.; but, of all the new edifices,
none could bear comparifon with that which Nero con-
ftruéted for his own refidence, and which he denominated
the ‘ Golden Palace.’’? This building was not more re-
markable for the immenfe quantity of gold and other pre-
cious materials employed in its decoration, than for its

Vou. XXIV.

magnitude. Nero, whofe: tafte was entirely turned to the
gigantic, and who enjoyed nothing but in proportion to its
coll, faid, when it was finifhed, that he now began to be
lodged like a man. His profufion of every kind rendered
him always needy, and confequently rapacious: he plun-
dered, without fhame or remorfe, every body, and the tem-
ples themfelves were not facred when his wants required
their wealth. In the year 65, the people feemed weary of
fubjeétion to fuch a monfter, ‘and a confpiracy was formed
againft him; but it was difcovered before the plan was
executed, and much of the beft blood in Rome was fhed’on
the occafion, From this period Nero became fufpicious of
every human being, and placed no bounds to his cruelty:
he mounted the public theatre at Rome, difputed for the
prizes of mufician and aétor, and infliéted cruel punifhments
on thofe who were tardy or carelefs in their applaufes.
The death of his wife Poppa was dccafioned by a kick
which fhe received from her hufband while in a ftate of preg-
nancy. When his paflion had fubfided, his grief was ex-
ceffive, of which he gave every demonttration in his power :
he caufed her body to be embalmed in the Eaftern manner,
pronounced a funeral oration over her dead body, and burnt
more perfumes at her obfequies than the annual produce of
Arabia. A long and bloody lift of executions, in which
the victims were the beft and greateft men of Rome, diftin-
guifhes the annals of his fubfequent years. Thefe fan-
guinary fcenes were contrafted by the fplendid cerefionial
of Nero’s conferring the crown of Armenia on Tiridates,
in the prefence of the Roman people, in which Oriental fer-
vility and Roman pride were equally con{picuous.

The Greeks, about this period, fent a deputation to com-
pliment Nero on his mufical attainments, who gave him fo
favourable an idea of their countrymen, that he determined
on a tour into Greece. Carrying with him an immenfe
train of perfons attached to his theatrical eftablifhment,
he embarked for that country in the year 67, and
before he left it folemnly proclaimed Greece free. This
favour, as he wifhed it to be underftood, was counterba-
lanced by ‘the pillages, confifcations, and murders, of
which his vifit was productive. To perpetuate his name,
he undertook a projeét, often before conceived, but de-
ferted through fuperttitious motives, viz. that. of cutting
acrofs the ifthmus which joins the Peloponnefus to the
reft of Greece. The work had proceeded fome length,
when Nero was haftily recalled by the alarm of new con-
{piracies. On his return to Italy, he made triumphal entries
into feveral towns, and a very fplendid one into Rome, in
which he is faid to have difplayed the moft abfurd vanity,
although tottering on his throne, through the revolts of
Vindex in Gaul, and of Galba in Spain. The latter, when
he was made acquainted with its extent, particularly alarmed
him, and though he was willing to make relfiftance, yet
defpair feems from the firft to have taken poffeflion of his
mind. Of all the reproaches heaped upon him, none made
fo deep an impreffion on his mind, as the title of a “ paltry
and contemptible mufician,’? which Vindex beftowed on
him. Upon entering the city, he convened a few of his
creatures among the fenate, and entertained them with a
mufical exhibition, inftead of confulting them on the means
of faving the ftate.

At length the pretorian cohorts were detached from their
allegiance by the perfuafions of their prefe@t, and they pro-
claimed Galba emperor. Nero fled from Rome, and took
refuge in the country-houfe of one of his freedmen. After
his flight was known, he was declared a public enemy by
the fenate, and condemned to an ignominious end, fuch as was
inflicted only on the vileft maletaétors, viz. to be dragged

naked

4Q

NER

naked through the ftreets of Rome, and whipped to death ;
afterwards his body was to be thrown down from the Tar-
peianrock. The execution of this fentence he prevented by
avoiuntary death. He pierced his throat with a poniard,
but, being too irrefolute effectually to perform the deed,
his hand was aided ‘by his fecretary. As he was expiring,
he begged that his head might not be cut off from his body,
and expofed to the populace, but that the whole might be
burnt on a funeral pile. This requeft was granted by one of
Galba’s freedmen, who performed the obfequies in the ufual
manner. This was in the 68th year of the Chriitian era, when
he had attained to the age of 32, and after a reign of almoft
fourteen years. Rome was filled with acclamations at the in-
telligence. Their vengeance was not only exercifed againit
the ftatues of the dead tyrant; but his friends were the
ebjects of the public refentment. In him terminated the
line of Auguftus. Detefted as his memory has been in all
ages, there were not wanting many in Rome among the
people and foldiery, who, having benefited by his prodi-
gality for feveral years, crowned his tomb with flowers, and
cherifhed his name with fond regret. But fuch an attach-
ment will not entitle him to credit for virtuous feelings, fince
it was the offspring of that lavifh p-ofufion which is always
a vice in princes, and not unfrequently the parent of every
other vice. In finifhing the character of this emperor, it
may be obferved, that the name of Nero is even now, and
will “continue (fo long as the faéts of Roman _hiltory
exift) to be ufed, to exprefs a barbarous and unfeeling op-
preffor. Pliny calls him the common enemy of mankind,
and in this he has been followed by all writers, who exhibit
the favage tyrant asa pattern of the molt execrable barbarity
and unpardonable wantonnefs, Univer. Hift.

In the 63d year A. C. he mounted the ftage himfelf at
Naples asa public finger. This was his firft appearance as
a ftrolling minftrel. His fecond was in Greece, in 66, where,
as we have feen, he pretended, in imitation of Flaminius,
to reftore to the Grecian ftates their ancient liberties. After
entering the lifts with common muficians at the Olympic
games, and acquiring the prize of mufic by corrupting the
judges or his competitors, he travelled through Greece,
not prompted by the laudable curiofity of vifiting the anti-
quities of that once celebrated country, but by the low
ambition of difplaying his fkill in finging and playing upon
the cithara. He every where challenged the belt performers,
and, as may be imagined, was always declared vitor. And
that there might remain no memorials of other victors, he
commanded all their ftatues to be pulled down, dragged
through the ftreets, and to be either broken in pieces, or
thrown into the common fewers.

At his return from Greece, he entered Naples, Antium,
Albanum, and Rome, through a breach in the wall of each
city, as an Olympic victor, carrying with him in triumph,
like {poils of an enemy, the prizes which he had extorted
from the judges in mufical contefts: in the fame car in
which kings ufed to be brought in triumph, who had been
vanquifhed by Roman generals, and with the fame {plendour,
pomp, and folemnity, was Diodorus, a celebrated Greek
performer on the cithara, with other eminent muficians,
brought through the {treets of Rome, leaving it doubtful
which was the greatelt, the vanity of Nero in imagining
himfelf fuperior to thefe profelfed muficians, or their adula-
tion in confefling themfelves to have been vanquifhed by Nero.

The folicitude with which this emperor attended to his
voice, as related by hiltorians, is curious, and will throw
fome light upon the practices of fingers in ancient times.
Suetonius informs us, that to preferve his voice, he ufed to
lie upon his back, with a thin plate of lead upon his ftomach ;

is

NER

took frequent emetics and cathartics ; and abftained from
all kinds of fruit, and fuch meats as were thought to be
prejudicial to fingers ; and, at length, from the apprehen-
fion of hurting his yoice, he ceafed to harangue the foldiery
or fenate, contenting himfelf with iffluing his orders in writ-
ing, or by the mouth of fome of his friends or freedmen.
Afier his return from Greece, he eftablifhed about his
perfon a phona/cus, or officer, to take care of his voice; he
would never {peak but in the prefence of this vocal governor,
who was firft to admonifh him, when he fpoke too loud, or
{trained his voice ; and afterwards, if the emperor, tranf-
ported by fome fudden emotion, did not liften to his re-
monftrances, he was to ftop his mouth with a napkin. The
moft effe€tual means of acquiring his favour was to com-
mend his voice, which, according to Suetonius, was both
thin and hufky ; to pretend raptures while he fung, and to
appear dejected and very importunate, if, like many other
fingers, through caprice he defifted from doing what he him-
felf molt ardently defired.

Encouraged by the applaufe of the multitude, he ap-
peared almoft every day on the ftage, inviting not only the
fenators and knights, but the whole populace and rabble
of Rome, to hear him, generally in the theatre which he
had built in his owa palace. He frequently detained the
audience not only the whole day, but the whole night: for
till he was tired himfelf and defifted, no one was on any
account fuffered to depart; fo that women are faid to have
been delivered in the theatre, and feveral perfons were fo
tired and difgufted with the performance, that, finding the
gates of the palace fhut, they either leaped over the walls
at the hazard of their lives, or counterfeited death, in order
to be carried out to their funeral. Some, by continuing
night and day in the fame pofture, were feized with mortal
diftempers; thefe, however, they dreaded lefs than the
refentment of the prince, ‘which they would have unavoid-
ably incurred by their abfence. Befides ‘the great number
of fecret obfervers employed to watch the countenances and
behaviour of the audience, there were many open fpies,
who publicly fet down the names of fuch as difcovered the
leaft fymptoms of diffatisfa€tion : the vulgar were inftantly
punifhed by the foldiery for the lea{t inattention ; and upon
perfons of rank, the vengeance of the emperor was vented
in a ftill more dreadful manner. Vefpafian, afterwards em-
peror, greatly provoked the anger of Nero, by efcaping
from the theatre during the time of performance: how-
ever, fearing the confequences of the offence which he had
given, he returned, in order to make reparation ; but, un-
fortunately falling afleep while the emperor was tinging,
this male firen was fo enraged at his inattention, that it
would have coft him his life, if his friends, men of the highelt
rank and merit, had not employed their prayers and media-
tions in his behalf.

NERONDE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the
diltri& of Roanne. The place contains 1094, and the can-
ton 8140 inhabitants, on a territory of 170 kiliometres, in
10 communes.

NERONDES, a town of France, in the department
of the Cher, and chief place of a canton, in the diltri&t of
St. Amand; 17 miles E.S.E. of Bourges. The place con-
tains 1417, and the canton 8265 inhabitants, on a territory
of 2074 kiliometres, in 13 communes.

NERPIS, a town of Sweden, in Ealt Bothnia; 10 miles
N. of Chriltianftadt.

NERSHINSK. See Nerrcutnsk.

NERSTEN, a town of the duchy of Courland; 18 miles
S.S.W. of Saalburg.

NERTCHA,

ee

NER
" NERTCHA, or Nertswa, a river of Ruffia, which

runs into the Amoor, near Nertchinfk.

NERTCHINSK, or Nerrsuinsk, a city of Ruffia, in
the government of Irkutfk, feated on the Nertcha, at its
junction with the Amur or Amoor, built in the year 1658,
on the borders of China. It took its rife from a fort, and
contains, befides fome public edifices, 150 houfes of mean
ftructure. ‘The Chinefe caravans formerly pafled through
this town, but they have of late taken a different road.
However, the Ruffian envoys are {till received and enter-
tained by the Chinefe, and thofe of China are treated in the
fame manner by the Ruffians, in this town. The adjacent
country, though mountainous, yields excellent pafture for
cattle. In the vicinity of this town are confiderable mines.
N. lat. 51° 12'.. E. long. 116° 44/.

NERTERIA, in Botany, derived from veglegos, inferior,
or /ewly, in allufion to the humble and proftrate growth of
the plant. This genus was fent by Mutis to Linnzus, under
the name of Gomezia ; but the latter, from an error in read-
ing the manufcript, called it, in his Supplementum, Gomozia.
The claffical appellation therefore, beltowed on it by So-
lander and Gertner, is of courfe to be preferred. Indeed
Gomezia would be hardly allowable, fince no mention is made
of its derivation in the manufcripts of Mutis, nor is any
botanift of that name known. The genus is nearly allied to
Manertia. Sm. Plant. Jc. v. 2. t. 28. Willd. Sp. PI.
v. 1. 705. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 3. (Nertera; Soland.
MSS. Gertn. t. 26. Schreb. 821. Gomezia; Mutis.
MSS. Gomozia; Linn. Suppl. 17. Juff. 198. Lamarck
Illuttr. t. 87.)—Clafs and order, Tetrandria Monogynia.
Nat. Ord. Rubiaceae, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth none, according to Mutis, ex-
cept avery fmall, flightly four-toothed border to the germen.
Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhaped ; tube gradually enlarging,
fhort ; limb cloven into four, acute, reflexed fegments,
fhorter than the ‘tube. Stam. Filaments four, equal, in-
ferted at the bafe of the tube, thread-fhaped, nearly ere&,
the length of thecorolla; anthers oblong, two-lobed, ereét,
yellow. Pi. Germen inferior, oval, flightly comprefled,
{mooth ; ftyles two, adhering at the bafe, thread-fhaped,
{mooth, as long asthe ftamens; fligmas acute, reflexed, di-
varicated. eric. Berry globofe, umbilicated with a {mall
dot at the top, of two cells, fucculent, very {mooth, red,
the fize of a pea. Seeds two, oblong, flat on one fide, con-
vex on the other.

Eff. Ch. Corolla funnel-fhaped, four-cleft, fuperior.
Berry of twocells. Seeds folitary.

1. N. deprefa. Sm. Plant. Ic. t. 28. Willd. (Gomo-
zia Granadentis; Linn. Suppl. 129.)—Mutis obferved this
plant very frequently in wet and marfhy fituations at New
Granada. It is alfo a native of New Zealand, according
to Forit. Prod. 89. Root fibrous, annual. Stems herba-
ceous, procumbent, throwing out roots at the joints,
branched, leafy, thread-fhaped, fomewhat angular, {mooth.
Branches axillary, oppofite, ereét, fingle-flowered, fhort.
Leaves oppofite, ftalked, heart-fhaped, roundifh, rather ob-
tufe, entire, fmooth; thofe of the ftem fpreading, thofe of
the branches more ereé&, or clofe-preffed; ftalks roundifh,
furrowed above, nearly as long as the leaves. Flowers fo-
litary, at the tops of the branches, feffile, pale-coloured.
Bra&eas two, oppofite, acute, very {mall.

NERTSHINSKOI Mountains, otherwile called the
mountains of Daouria, mountains of Ruffia, which extend
from the Baikal and the fources of the Selenga andthe Amoor,
down the two fides of thefe rivers ; on the one fide as far as
where the Argoon falls into the Amoor, and on the other
fide up to the heads of the Niufa and the Oldekon, where

NER

it annexes itfelf to the fpurious range of Okhotz, or Krebet
Stanovi. It confequently includes the whole fpace between
the Selenga and the Argoon, takes the fame dire¢tion with the
courfe af the Amoor and thie Ingoda from W. to N.E. and
runs downto usfrom the Mongoley under the name of Yablo-
noi-Krebet, or Apple-mountain. It has its greateft elevations
about the origin of the Amoor and the “— where it con-
fits of very rugged granite tops, high and fteep. Between
the courfe of the Ingoda and the fources of the Khilok and
Vitim it is much fmaller, notwithftanding which it feems to
ftand very high. It here forms a ridge, partly uniform in its
progrefs, woody, and well-watered, and confifts for the mo
part of pure crumbled granite. The part of this range in-
clofed by the Amoor and Argoon is properly called the
Nertfhinfkoi chain of ore-mountains, and is found to be the
richeft in minerals of any of the mountains hitherto explored
in thefe regions. It produces beautiful kinds of granite,
porphyry, ja/per, a great quantity of chalcedonies, carneli-
ans, onyx, agate, hornftone, large fmoky topazes, aqua
marine, hyacinth, and topaz-coloured fchorl, genuine topaz
and beryl, &c., granites, fine feldfpar glandules, ferpentine,
afbeftus, nephrites, chalk-ftone, flate, gypfum, excellent
river {par; falt-lakes, vitriol-pyrites, alum-ore, native ful-
phur, coals, warm fprings; zinc, iron, copper, and a re-
markable quantity of lead-ore, containing filver and gold,
of which, fince the commencement of the laft sie a
great many mines have been opened, and of which feveral are
ftill in full work. Thefe regions alfo prefent numerous
forefts, The trees are pinus fylveftris, larch, birch, firs,
cedars, &c. The principal rivers here are the Selenga,
the Khilok, the Vitim, the Olekma, the Karenga, the
Niufa, the Oldekon, the Onon, the Ingoda, the Amoor,
the Argoon, &c. &c. Tooke’s View of the Ruff. Emp:
vol. i.

NERVA, Coccetus, in Biography, 2 Roman emperor,
defcended from a Cretan family, that had become Roman in
the time of Auguftus, was born in the year 26 of the
Chriftian era, and being fon, grandfon, and great-grandfon
of confuls, entered with great fuccefs the career of civil
dignities. He was pretor when Nero conferred upon
him triumphal honours. He was conful for the firft time in
the year 71, with the emperor Vefpafian, and afterwards with
Domitian in 90. Theconfpirators who had formed their
plans for freeing the empire from the tyranny of Domitian
applied to Nerva, who was at that time at Rome, to under-
take the duties and office of emperor: to this he confented,
and was accordingly raifed to the imperial purple in the year
96. The przxtorian bands had been fecured in his favour,
and the fenate was happy to confirm the elevation of one of
their own body, whom they highly refpected. He foon
rendered himfelf extremely popular by the mildnefs of his
manners, and by the aétivity which he exhibited in the ma-
nagement of public affairs. The firft cares of his government
were to repair the evils of the late tyranny ; he abolifhed
the odious law of treafon, and recalled the exiles, among
whom were fome of the moft virtuous perfons of the age.
He reftored to the enjoyment of their property thofe wha
had been the objeéts of unjuft confifcations, and punithed
with death the freedmen and flaves whofe informations had
caufed the ruin of their mafters. He {nffered no ftatues to
be raifed to his own honour, and he applied to the ufe of the
government all the gold and filver ftatues which had been
erected to his predeceflur. In himfelf he was the example
as well as the patron of morals and ftri@t virtue. He forbad
the mutilation of male children. He made a folema decla-
ration that no fenator fhould be put to death during his
reign, which he obferved with fuch fan&ity, that, when two

4Q2 members

NER ,

members of the fenate had confpired againtt his own life, he
was fatisfied to tell them he was well acquainted with their
evil intentions. He alfo conduéted thefe very men to the
public fpeétacles, and feated himfelf between them, and when
a. {word was offered to him according to the ufual cuftoms,
he defired the confpirators to try it upon his body. Such
confidence in the uprightnefs of his own intentions, and

. juftice of his government, and fuch reliance upon the confe-

quences of his lenity and indulgence, conciliated the affeétion
of allhis fubjeéts.. It was the fpirit of his adminiftration,
fo to govern that he might render a good account of his
actions, and return without apprehenfion to a private ftation.
In fome inftances it muft be admitted that his lenity, or
perhaps timidity, forced him into difgraceful compliances.
One of thefe was the reitoration of licentious pantomimes,
which Domitian had abolifhed, but which the people de-
manded with tumultuous fhouts : another was the giving up
the authors of the death of Domitian, who were, in fa&, the
inftruments of his own elevation. Jt was in vain that he

prefented his own bare neck to the enraged foldiers, arid en- _

treated them rather to fatiate their vengeance on himfelf; he
was obliged to confent to the facrifice, and even to feem to
approve it. The mortifying incident, however, was the
caufe of a great public benefit, for it produced the adoption
of Trajan. Made fenfible of the neceffity of a firm fupport
to the throne, he paffed by his own kindred, and feleGted
for his fon, and fucceffor, the man, in all the empire, beft
fitted for the high office. Had this choice been the only a&
of his reign, it would have entitled him to the remem-
brance of his fubjects. (See Trasan.} He died in the
year 98, after a reign of fixteen months, and at the.age of
72. Nerva has been charged with an intemperate love and
ufe of wine, and, perhaps, to have enjoyed the favour of
Nero and Domitian may lead to a fufpicion of the regularity
of his morals, but his public virtues have defervedly placed
him in the feries of thofe good princes who have been re-
fpeGted and honoured by potterity, Tacitus fpeaks of
Nerva as being the firft perfon who allied two things
before thought to be incompatible, viz. monarchy and
liberty.

NERVE, in Anatomy and Phyfiology, is afolid chord of
a round or flattened figure, fometimes fibrous ; compofed
of a foft white or medullary fub{tance, and a peculiar mem-
brane ; conneéted either immediately or remotely with the
brain, fpinal marrow, or certain {mall bodies called ganglia ;
and forming the inftrument by which external objects act on
the brain, by which the latter organ influences the voluntary
mu(cles, and by which the involuntary organs and the brain
or ganglia exert whatever influence they may poffefs on each
other. The fame term was applied by the older anatomitts
to the ligaments and tendons. See Nervous. Sy/lem.

Nerve, Capillaments of the. See CAPILLAMENT.

Nerves, Ganglion of the. See GANGLION.

Nerves Microfeopically examined. Mr. Leeuwenhoeck
endeavoured by his microfcope to difcover the ftru€ture of
the nerves in the fpinal marrow of an ox ; he faw there with
great delight, minute hollow veffels of an inconceivable
firmnefs, invefted with their proper membrane, and running
out in’ length parallel to one another; and making up their
compofition ; and though fome hundreds of thefe veflels go

to the formation of the leaft nerve that can"be examined, he
not only difcerned the cavities in them, which he computed
to be three times lefs than their diameters, but in fome per-
ceived the orifices ae plainly as the holes in a pricked paper

are to be feen when looked at agrainit the fun. It requires,
however, great dexterity and expedition to make this exa-
mination with fuccefs; for after a thin flice of the fpinal

NER

marrow is placed before the microfcope, in lefs than a mi-
nute’s time it becomes dry, and the whole appearance vanifhes.
Baker’s Microfcope, p. 145.

NerVEs, in rchitedure, denote the mouldings of projeét-
ing arches of vaults, orthofe arifing from the branches of
ogives, and croffing each other diagonally in Gothic vaults ;
ferving to feparate the pendentives.

NERVES, in Bofany, are long tough ftrings, running either
acrofs, or lengthwife of the leaves of plants. ,

NERVI, in Geography, a town of Genoa; five miles
E.S.E. of Genoa. &

NERVINES. See Neunrirics.

NERUKA, in Geography, a port in the ifland of Cape
Breton, where the French had a fettlement.

NERVOSA Corpora, in Anatomy. See CAVERNOSA
Corpora. a

NERVOSUM Fotium, in Botany, a leaf furnifhed
with more than one longitudinal nerve, or rib; fee Costa
and CosTaTuM. ’

NERVOUS Corie. See Corte.

Nervous Diftafes, are thofe difeafes which appear to arife
independently of any organic change of ftruéture, and are,
therefore, afcribed to fome indefinite derangement of the
fenfible and irritable powers of the animal frame, of which
the brain and nervous fyftem are the feat and channels of
communication. Hence the epithet nervous is applied to
all cramps and fpafmodic pains, which, in fa@, confift of
inordinate and involuntary contractions of mufcular parts 5
to all uneafy fenfations, efpecially when they move from
part to part, and’have no determinate feat ; to great depref—
fion or remarkable variations of the fpirit; and efpecially to
the tremors, fears, and anxieties, which accompany that de-
preffion of mind. Now thefe-varions fymptoms, together
with certain partial or general convulfive paroxyfms, flatu-
lence, globus hyftericus, &c. which are commonly prefent,
in perfons of delicate conftitution, in different degrees and
combinations, when the ftomach, or bowels, or the fecretion of
bile, happen to be difordered, of when fome other import-
ant vifcera are ina ftate of debility, as the uterus in women,
have been moftly claffed together under the appellation of
Hysrerta, Hypocnonpriasis, INDIGESTION, &c. under
which articles an ample account of their nature and method
of cure will be found.

It is worthy of obfervation, however, that this term,
nervous difeafe, ought not to be taken in a literal fenfe ; in-
afmuch as the nerves are not in faét the feat of any difeafe in
thefe cafes: onthe contrary, there is ufually fome local dif-
order, mott frequently in the organs of digettion, with which
thefe general or nervous fymptoms are connected. Hence it
has been the fafhion with fome medical men to denominate
them, with almolt equal impropriety, dilious difeafes. The
treatment, however, which is fuggelted by the latter appel-
lation, namely, the regulation of the bowels, is efeful-and
proper; while the nervous or nervine medicines, as they have
been called, which confilt chiefly of ftimulating and {pirituous
drugs, although they afford a temporary relief to the fenfa-
tions of the patient, contribute nothing to the ultimate cure ;
but, on the contrary, undermine the ftrength of the confti-
tution, and of the digeftive organs in particular, and thus
rivet, asit were, in the habit, the very evils which they are
expected to cure. ©The “nervous cordials,”” and other em-
pirical noftrums, which are fold under various names, are all
{pirituous liquors, tin@tured with fome grateful aromatic ;
in other words medicated drams, which have not only contri-
buted to injure the health, which they were taken with a
view to improve, but alfo to convert many perfons who were
fober into dram-drinkers, by feducing them to take, under

the

=~" bd * Sl

#

NER

the name of medicine, what they would have been afhamed

to {wallow if undifguifed. Too much caution cannot be re-
commended, in cals of nervous diforder, againft the habitual
ufe of what are called cordials.

Nervous Fever. See Fever, Nervous.

Nervous Fluid, Spirits, or Juices, hypothetical terms em-
ployed by the older pathologifts, in order to exprefs the
medium of motion and: fenfation, as fuppofed to exift in
the nervous fyftem. It has been a common and almott uni-
verfal error among philofophers, when they had traced cer-
tain phenomena up to certain material agents, the mode of
action of which they were unable to comprehend, to invent
fome intermediate invifible agent, (generally a fpirit, ether,
or other fluid,) which they imagined was the organ of com-
munication and connection between the vifible agents. © Thus
the principle of gravitation, of electricity, &c. has been
fuppofed to be an etherial fluid, the framers of thefe hypo-
thefes falfely imagining that they had Sua ae fome new
knowledge, when they had merely interpofed fome unmean-
ing words. A fimilar hypothetical fluid was reforted to,
when the nervous chords and fibres, every where diftributed
through the animal frame, were difcovered to be the chan-
nels of communication between the common fenforium and
the extreme parts, the meffengers of volition to the mufcles,
and the conveyers of fenfation to the brain. We are
obliged, from the poverty of language, to ufe thefe me-
chanical terms in {peaking of the nervous fyftem. But the
mode of communication 1s peculiar and infcrutable ; and we
are concerned only with the fa&. A more accurate anatomy
has demontftrated that the nerves are not tubes and hollow
canals, and therefore are not calculated for the tranfmiffion
of any fluid ; and amore accurate philofophy has taught us,
not to interpofe an imaginary agent, where we have no evi-
dence of its exiftence, and where, if it were prefent, it
could not enable us to underitand, or to explain more fatis-
faétorily, the phenomena which we obferve. All confidera-
tions refpecting a nervous fluid are, therefore, juftly dif-
carded by modern phytiologifts and pathologifts. See
Nervous Sy/em.

_ Nervous Parts, Confent of the. See Consent.

Nervous Spirit, or Juice, denotes a pure, fubtile, vola-
tile humour, better known by the name of animal /pirits ;
fecreted from the arterious blood in the cortical part of the
brain, collected in the medulla oblongata, and thence driven
by the force of the heart into the cavities of the nerves ;
to be conveyed by them throughout the body, for the pur-
pofes of fenfation and animal motion.

Gliffon, Wharton, and Willis, firft mentioned the nervous
juice ; but many of our modern phyficians deny the exiftence
of this juice. See ANIMAL Spirits.

Nervous Sy/lem, in Anatomy and Phyfiolgy. Under this
expreffion are included the organs contained in the cavity
of the cranium, or, in common language, the brain; the
medulla fpinalis; and the nerves, whether of the kind
that are conneéted to either of the two organs juft men-
tioned, or thofe which are furnifhed with ganglia. A
fhort account of the {tru€ture and funétions of thefe parts is
given under the word Brain: it will be the object of the
prefent article to fupply what has not been inferted ‘there
concerning the ftructure and functions of the nervous
fy{tem, and to give a defcription of the ramifications of ‘the
nerves:

“© The ufe of the fenfes in making us acquainted with the
external world, volition and its effeéts on the mufcles, all
the operations of the mind, our inftin&s, propenfities, and
paffion’, and even the diitinguifhing characters of humanity,
depend entirely on the nervous fy{tem, fo that without it all

3

NER

nature would be in a manner dead and incapable of enjoyment,
becaufe we could not conceive the exiftence of an ercep-
tion or idea under fuch a ftate. Without the phyfio ogy of
the nervous fyftem, neither pfychology, nor any kind
of philofophy can exilt. If we confider further, that
teachers, moralifts, legiflators, and judges cannot, without
falling into error, overlook the influence o organifation on our
propenfities, paffions, talents, and aétions, we thall foon be
convinced that there can be no object of greater, more general
and permanent intere(t to all the educated clafles of fecitey
In animals of complicated organifation almoft all the fun@tions
are more or lefs influenced by the nerves. Digeftion, nutri-
tion, the fecretions and excretions, circulation, refpiration,
&c. are difordered or ftopped when the nerves belonging to
the different organs are compreffed, injured, or divided. If
the fpinal marrow, or the nerves, which are the eonduGtors
of fenfation and voluntary motion, are comprefled or di-
vided, all motion and fenfation ceafes in the parts below the
injury. A fluid extravafated in the brain, or any kind of
preflure on that organ, paralyfes more or lefs completely the
whole body, or the oppofite fide of the body to that on
which the brain has been injured, and extinguifhes in various
degrees confcioufnefs and the faculty of thiaking. The more
the influence of the nerves is weakened, the more eafily are
chemical and phyfical changes carried on in the body.”
Gall, Anat. et Phyfiol. du Syft. Nerveux, p. 12.

The brain has been regarded, in all ages, as thie material
inftrument of the fentient and thinking principle ; and the
nerves are undoubtedly the medium through which the mind
and external objeéts reciprocally influence each other. The
anatomilt and phyfiologift have always beftowed on the ner-
vous fyftem a degree of attention proportioned to the im-
portance of the funétions which it executes. The brain, in
particular, has been their favourite itudy. By diflecting
this part, they have hoped to folve the interefting problem
of the conneétion between our organifation and the imagi-
nary immaterial principle fuppofed to regulate its motions ;
and to develope the myfteries of fenfation and of the various
mental operations. Hitherto thefe expeétations have not
been realifed. The extremely complicated ftru€ture of the
encephalon has been reprefented with unrivalled beauty and
accuracy, and deferibed moft clearly and elegantly by Vicq
d’Azyr. His work, which isa {plendid monument of the arts,
confilts entirely of anatomical details. The fize, figure,
conneétion, and ftruéture of all parts in’ the brain, are un-
folded with the greatelt fidelity ; but their ufes receive no
illuftration. The labours of Soemmerring, the moft accom-
plifhed of modern anatomilts, who, like Vicq d’Azyr, has
chiefly employed himfelf in inveftigating the contents of the
cranium, have not been more fuccefsful in determining the
ufes of the different parts of the brain. Undifmayed by the
repeated failures of their predeceffors, two German anato-

‘milts, Meffrs. Gall and Spurzheim, have applied with in-

creafed ardour to this intereiting fubje&. They claim the
merit of many new difcoveries in the anatomy of the brain ;
they have founded certain phyfiological opinions on thefe;
and -have even attempted to fhew a conneétion between cer
tain points of ftruéture and the mora) and intelle&tual dif=
pofitions of individuals. The firft of thefe gentlemen has
attracted much notice of late years by the opinions delivered
in his le€tures in the principal cities of Europe. (See the ar-
ticle Craniotocy.) After confining himfelf for along time
to the oral promulgation of his doctrines, he at laft fubmitted
his alleged ‘difcoveries coyicerning the anatomy of the brain,
to the firft fcienufie tribunal in Europe; the French Na-
tional Inftitute ; and as they involve much intricate anato-

mical detail, the account was very properly referred, for ex-
amination,

NERVOUS

amination, by this learned body, to five of their own mem-
bers, the moft diftinguifhed for their proficiency in anatomi-
calfcience. Gall and Spurzheim diffeéted the brain in the
prefence of the commiffioners of the National Inftitute,
Mefirs. Tenon, Portal, Sabatier, Pinel, and Cuvier, and
gave the moft ample explanations of their peculiar opinions.
The diffeSions were repeated by thefe gentlemen, and the
refult of their inveftigations is contained ina report, of
which an Englifh tranflation was publifhed inthe Edinburgh
Medical and Surgical Journal, January 1809, under the fol-
lowing title, «‘ Report on a Memoir of Drs. Gall and
Spurzheim, relative to the anatomy of the brain, by Mefirs.
Tenon, Portal, Sabatier, Pinel, and Cuvier, prefented to,
and adopted by, the clafs of mathematical and phyfical
{ciences of the National Inftitute.””_ The German anatomifts
have fince publifhed, on the fame fubje&, ‘ Recherches fur
le fyfteme nerveux en general, et fur celui du cerveau en
particulier; mémoire prefenté a l’Inftitut de France, le 14
Mars, 1808; fuivi d’obfervations fur le rapport qui en a
été fait a cette compagnie par fes commifflaires, 4to. 1809.”
This work was not defigned to contain a developement
of all Gall’s opinions: it is occupied almoft entirely with
anatomical details. He propofes to deliver the refult of all
his refearches into the ftru€ture and functions of the nervous
fyftem in all animals, in a large work, with very numerous
plates, of which one volume has been already completed,
under the title ** Anatomie et phyfiologie du fyfteme nerveux
en general, et du cerveau en particulier, avec des obferva-
tions fur la poffibilité de reconnoitre plufieurs difpofitions
intelleGtuelles et morales de l'homme, et des animaux, par
la configuration de leurs tétes. Premier volume, Anat.
et phyfiol. du fyft. nerveux en general, et du cerveau en par-
ticulier,’’ Paris 4to. with atlas in folio. As all thefe pub-
lications are fubfequent in date to the time when the article
Brain of this Cyclopedia was written, the doétrines deli-
vered in them could not be then noticed.

The opinions of Gall with regard to the ftructure of the
nervous fy{tem, and more particularly of the brain, totally
change the common ideas and modes of inveftigating the fub-
je&. We fhould obferve here, however, that he does not
pretend to have difcovered many new fa&ts; the chief meri:
that he claims, confifts in the conneétion that he has been the
firft to eftabafh between known facts, and in the general
conclufions which he has deduced from them. His dotrines
concerning the fpecial funétions of different parts of the
brain is in many refpeéts new, ingenious, and important.
Its intent is to prove, that there are in man and animals
innate qualities and difpofitions, conneéted with certain
organs fituated in the brain; that the brain is not fo much the
general organ of animal life, as the place in which the
individual organs are colleéted, each innate quality having
its {pecial organ: that thefe organs fhew themfelves on the
f{urface of the brain, and form eminences marked by corre-
{ponding rifings in the cranium ; and that, from an obfervance
of thefe laft, we may, under certain limitations, determine the
exiftence of fuch organs, ina greater or lefs degree of de-
velopement, anfwering to the greater or lefs degree of
energy, in the intelle€tual or moral difpofition with which
they are conneéted. Its merit muft reft on the number and
importance of the faéts which can be brought forwards for its
fupport. We cannot enter on this part of the fubjeét, as
the volume which is to contain Gall’s detailed account of
thefe matters is not yet before the public.

Opinions of Gall and Spurzheim concerning the medullary and
cortical Subftances.—OFf the two fubilances, which compofe
the nervous fy{tem, commonly called the cortical and me-
dullary, Galland Spurzheim have taken a view fomewhat

‘and accompany the medullary bundle.

SYSTEM.

different from the eommon one.. They objeét very ftrongly
to the term medullary, as implying a foft and pulpy tex-
ture in what they confider to be effentially fibrous. They
regard the cineritious fubftance as the fource or origin of
the white or fibrous matter. Their opinions on this fub-
je& may be colle&ted from a feries of anatomical corolla-
ries appended to the fecond fe€tion of their great work.
1. The whole of the nervous fyftem prefents only two fub-
ftances: one of thefe is pulpy or gelatinous, and generally
grey-coloured, but it may be reddifh, yellowifh, &c. ; the
other is white and fibrous: confequently there is no fuch
thing as a medullary matter. 2. The grey gelatinous mat-
ter engenders or produces the nervous filaments: it is the
matrix of thefe filaments. Wherever it exifts, they are pro-
duced ; and it exifts, wherever they are produced. When-
ever a medullary bundle croffes cineritious matter, it is en-
larged by filaments received from the latter; and none of
thefe bundles enlarge without the concurrence of this mat-
ter, whether it form a fenfible enlargement, or only follow
3- The more abun-
dant the gelatinous fub{tance, the more nervous filaments
are produced: confequently, the grey matter and the num-
ber of nerves are in a dire€t and reciprocal ratio to each
other. 4. No nerve arifes from another nerve; but each
has its origin in a peculiar mafs of gelatinous fubftance :
confequently the nervous fyftems of the cheft and abdomen
cannot be derived frem each other, nor from the brain, nor
the f{pinal marrow. Thefe anatomifts regard the cortical
matter as the fame on the outfide of the cerebrum and ce-
rebellum, in the interior of thefe organs, and of the me-
dulla fpinalis, and in the ganglia and plexufes of nerves.
They extend the analogy ftill farther, and obferve that
‘the cineritious matter, and confequently the ganglia, may
be compared to the mucous expanfion, which covers all the
extremities of the nerves of the fkin, of the inteftines, and
even the pulp of the labyrinth, and the fort of mucous var-
nifh which covers the retina.” That the maffes of cineri-
tious matter, difperfed in the interior of the encephalon and
{pinal marrow, poffefs an identity of properties and fun&tions
with that which covers the furface of the cerebrum and cere-
bellum, is poffible, nay perhaps even probable; for the fenfible
chara@ters of the fubitances are nearly the fame. But we
fee no dire&t argument in proof of this point. We fhould
hefitate ftill more in admitting the comparifon between the
parts juft mentioned and the nervous ganglia. Anatomy
dete&ts great differences in their texture ; and we are equally
ignorant of the properties and funétions of both. If we
cannot acquiefce in thofe propofitions, what fhall we fay
when the cortical matter of the brain, and the fubftance of
nervous ganglia, are pronounced to be the fame in ftruéture
and office with the retina and membrane of the labyrinth,
with the rete mucofum of the fkin, and the lining of the
alimentary canal? ‘Here, it has been juftly obferved,
there can only be with refpe& to ftru€ture, texture, in
fhort, phyfical nature, a refemblance purely hypothetical.
In the abfence of proofs derived from direct examination,
this comparifon could only be juftified by fome refemblance
in the fun@ions and mode of exiftence during life: but
where do thefe appear ?”” The fun¢tion affigned to the cor-
tical matter, as BP as we can underftand the meaning of
the phrafes in which it is conveyed, does not feem to differ
effentially from the old opinion, which fuppofes the medulla
to be fecreted from the cortex. Befides caliing the latter
the matrix of the medullary fibres, thefe are faid to arife
from and to be increafed or reinforced (renforcé) by the
cortical matter. If the origin of the medulla from the cor-
tex mean any thing more than the fa& of connection, we ob-

je

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

je& to it on the grounds already ftated. Thenotion of one
ne being produced by the other, is not fupported by one
act or argument, and is not more probable, in our opinion,
than that the fkin fhould fecrete the fubjacent cellular fub-
ftance or mufcles. Our obfervations on the brain, in the
early ftages of fetal exiftence, fhew that the two fubftances
are coeval, and that the cortex enjoys no priority of formation
to the medulla. Why fhould the latter poffefs numerous
veflels, but for the purpofes of its own growth and nutri-
tion? And by what poflible {tretch of {uppofition can it be
even imagined, that the medullary matter of the nerves in
general is fecreted, or in any way produced by the cortex ?

General Summary of the Opinions of Gall and Spurzheim.—
The commiffioners of the Inftitute reduced to ten articles
what they conceived to be the peculiar views of thefe ana-
tomifts, who acknowledged that they contain a true ex-
preffion of their doétrine. We extract thefe as the moft
certain way to avoid mifreprefentation.

«1. The cineritious matter is the matrix of the medullary
filaments; wherever it exifts, thefe filaments are produced ;
it exifts, wherever they are produced. Whenever a medul-
lary bundle croffes cineritious matter, it is enlarged by fila-
ments received from the latter ; and none of thofe bundles
enlarge without the concurrence of this matter, whether it
form a fenfible enlargement, or only follow and accompany
the medullary bundle.

“2, The fpinal marrow is not a bundle of nerves defcend-
ing from the brain. The fpinal nerves arife by filaments,
fome of which afcend, others defcend ; this is obferved efpe-
cially in brute animals. The cineritious matter of the in-
ternal part of the {pinal marrow is the matrix of their fila-
ments; the fpinal marrow {wells whenever it gives off a pair
of nerves ; and the more, the larger thefe nerves are. Thus
the fpinal marrow of the larger animals, as well as that
of infe&ts and worms with red blood, is only a feries of
ganglia, which give off nerves; but all thofe ganglia com-
municate with each other.

«« 3, The nerves commonly called cerebral, and which
arife from the under part of the encephalon, and chiefly
from the medulla oblongata, do not come from the brain any
more than the others: on the contrary, when we follow fe-
parately the roots of each of them into the fub{tance of
the medulla oblongata, we fee that they re-afcend from the
medulla towards the point where they appear externally, and
that they do not defcend from the brain, to pafs through
the medulla oblongata.

«4, The brain and cerebellum are themfelves only de-
velopements of bundles, which have come from the medulla
oblongata in the fame manner as the nerves proceed from
it. The brain, in particular, arifes principally from the
bundles called pyramidal eminences, which crofs each other
in paffing out of the medulla oblongata, each going to the
oppofite fide to that from which it comes. They {well out
firft in croffing the pons Varolii, again in pafling through
the tubercles called thalami optici, and a third time in the
corpora ftriata ; always fromthe addition of medullary fila-
ments, which the cineritious matter, contained in thefe three
parts, adds to thofe they originally confifted of. The ce-
rebellum comes from bundles called preceffus cerebelli ad
medullam, or corpora reftiformia, which receive an addition
of filaments once only from the cineritious matter of what is
called the corpus ciliare.

«5. Each of thefe two pairs of bundles, after receiving
the additions juft defcribed, and having confequently af-
famed a diverging direction, terminates in two large expan-
fions, covered externally by cineritious matter, which only
here deferves the name of cortical fubftance; and- thefe

expanfions, folded in various ways, form what are called the
hemifpheres of the brain, the lobes, and the vermiform pro-
ceffes of the cerebellum.

« 6. From the whole extent of thefe expanfions other
medullary filaments are produced, which converge from the
two fides of the brain and cerebellum towards the middle
line, where the filaments of one fide unite with thofe of the
other, and form what are called the commiflures. The
corpus callofum, the fornix and its appendages, form the
largeft of the commiffures of the brain; the anterior com-
miffure is that which joins the middle lobes. The commif-
fure of the cerebellum is compofed of the tranfverfe layers of
the pons Varolii.

«7. When we remove or lacerate the converging fibres
which go to the corpus callofum, and which ferve as ceil-
ing to the lateral ventricles, there only remains, under the
cineritious fubftance, a medullary part, lining it, and follow-
ing all its folds. Each convolution of the brain and ce-
rebellum, inftead of forming a folid mafs, as anatomilts have
hitherto fuppofed, contains in its middle a folution of con-
tinuity ; and, by employing proper care, we may unfold
this portion of the medulla, as we might unfo!d the cineri-
tious fub{tance, if it were alone. In a word, each convo-
lution is a kind of {mall purfe or canal, clofed externally by a
double layer of cineritious and medullary matter, and to-
wards the ventricle by the converging medullary fibres.

«© §. Asthe pairs of bundles forming the brain and cere-
bellum have their commiffures, thofe which form the nerves
have often theirs alfo, which may very eafily be demon-
{trated in the fecond, fourth, fifth, and feventh pairs, and very
probably in the others.

“« g. The ganglia fpread over the whole body a-e {mall
mafles of cineritious matter, which certain nerves pafs
through, and by which they are ftrengthened, as the pe-
adicull of the brain are increafed in the thalami optici and
corpora ftriata. Thefe two pairs of tubercles, then, are
true ganglia to thefe pedunculi. The cineritious matter of
the cortical part of the brain and cerebellum may likewife
be regarded as a ganglion of the commiffures or converging
fibres. That of the inner part of the fpinal marrow forms,
in like manner, the primary ganglia of the fpinal nerves.
The cerebral nerves have probably each of them a particular
ganglion, and it is ealy to demontitrate it in feveral of them.
The cineritious matter, and confequently the ganglia, may
therefore be compared to the mucous expanfion, which co-
vers all the extremities of the nerves of the fkin, of the
inteftines, and even the pulp of the labyrinth, and the fort
of mucous varnifh which covers the retina.

“© jo. From thefe nine articles, all merely anatomical, all
more or lefs fufceptible of being verified, a tenth refults, which
completes and is the effential character of the doctrine of Gall
and Spurzheim ; viz. that each pair ef nerves forms a par-
ticular fyftem ; that all thefe fy {tems communicate ee
and reunite in the great chord of the meduila oblongata and
fpinal marrow ; and, laftly, that the brain and cerebellum,
far from being the origin and fource of this chord, are, on
the contrary, an appendix or fort of diverticulum, referved
for certain fuiGions, but receiving an mfluence from all the
parts of the chord, and exerciling one upon them by means
of their communications.” Edin. Med. and Surg. Journal,
vol. v. ps 4345-7 ;

The notions entert ined by thefe anatomifts on the ner-
vous fyltem in general, are at variance with thofe commonly
received ; and more particularly with the common opinions
concerning the identity of origi: and action of all the nerves.
“ We believe, fay they, that this fyftem is compofed of fe-
veral particular fyitems, differing from each other in thelr

intimate

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

intimate ftruéture, as well as in their refpective funtions :
that the funétions or faculties are in a dire@ ratio to the
developement of the organs to which they belong ; and that
the various apparatufes have more or lefs conneétion with
each other, and confequently reciprocal influence. We have
taken care to diftinguifh the properties common to all the
fyftems from the {pecific funétions of each: as we know
that feeling is an attribute of all the nerves, and fenfation
of all the fenfes, although the fenfation of found belongs
exclufively to the ear, &c. What would be the condition of
the naturalift, who fhould confine himfelf to inveftigating
the general properties of the phyfical world, fuch as gra-
vity, cryftallifation, &c. without endeavouring to compre-
hend the relations and differences of each kind of objeéts ?
It is only by fubjeCting the nervous fy{items to a more {cru-
pulous and particular examination, than had been hitherto
undertaken, that we flatter ourfelves with having made a
very important ftep in anatomy and phyfiology. Without
confining ourfelves to the nervous fyftems of the thorax and
abdomen, the fpinal marrow, medulla oblongata, and brain
in general, we find that the brain itfelf is made up of as
many particular fyftems, as it exercifes diftinét funétions ;
in the fame way the fenfes are diftributed into as many ap-
paratufes or perfect fyftems, as there are eflentially diitinct
fenfations.’’ Recherches, p. 229.

Their Opinion about the Sympathetic Nerve.—They begin their
view of the nervous fyftem, with the examination of the in-
tercoftal or great fympathetic nerve, becaufe, in the more
perfec claffes of animals, the ganglions and plexufes of the
abdomen and thorax may be confidered as forming the
fyftem of an inferior order of funtions. Their notions on
the origins of this nerve will wear no appearance of novelty
to fuch as are acquainted with the writings of later phyfio-
logitts. The opinion, which regarded the brain as the origin
and point of departure of all the nerves of the body, either
immediately, or by means of the f{pinal marrow, has been
gradually departed from, in proportion as a better acquaint-
ance with comparative anatomy, and a more accurate mode
of reafoning in phyfiology, have fhewn its inconfiftency.
Many anatomilts have remarked, in particular, the impro-
priety of deriving the great fympathetic nerve. from the
brain, and have confidered the ganglions as fo many feparate
origins of it. _ Bichat has entered more at large on the fame
fubje&, and in eftablifhing the ganglions as fo many nervous
centres, poflefling each an independent a¢tion or influence,
exerted on the nervous filaments pafling from them to dif-
ferent parts, has given us occafion to admire the clearnefs of
his conceptions, and the expreflive language by which his
theory is at once fupported and adorned. To {ftrengthen
thefe opinions, our authors remark, that in afcending
through a fcale of animated beings from below ‘after the
zoophytes, all animals properly fo called have an inteftinal
canal, and a heart, or at leatt diltin& veffels. Here we fee
the gelatinous fubttance colleéted into particular maffes, and
nervous filaments arifing in them, and expanded over the dif-
ferent parts of the body ; thefe colle¢tions and filaments are
more or lefs numerous, according to the number of the vif-
cera. Sometimes there are only two or three. In the cut-
tlefith, the nerves of the abdominal vifcera, feet, &c. arife
each from a particular colleétion of gelatinous fubftances.
Thefe nervous fy{tems, in animals of a lower order, are ana-
logous to the correfponding parts in thofe of the higher
elaffes ; in fact they are the nervous plexufes of the abdo-
men and chelt, and the more or lefs interrupted feries of
ganglia of the fympathetic nerve. As thefe nervous ap-
paratufes exilt already in certain animals, which haye no
Spinal marrow or brain, the queftion whether they arife from

that marrow, or from the fuppofed cerebral nerves, is de-
cided. Hence Winflow, Soemmerring, Cuvier, &c., and
particularly Bichat, judged very correétly, when they re-
garded the nervous filaments, conneéting thefe fy {tems to the
nerves of the brain and f{pinal marrow, as fimple branches
of communication. When the Bee fyftems exift alone,
they act in an infulated manner; but as foon as feveral organs
are found in one individual, they muft have a reciprocal in-
fluence, eftablifhed by branches of communication: to ac-
complifh this, nervous filaments pafs from one fyftem to
another, and form a net-work of communications. "Thus
the plexufes of the vifcera firft communicate with each other,
then with the other fyftems of the fympathetic nerve, and,
by means of the latter, with the fpinal marrow and fome
cerebral nerves. It follows from thefe confiderations, that
the nervous fyftems of the thoracic and abdominal vifcera
cannot all execute the fame fun€tions, and, confequently,
ought not to be compared to’a net-work. They are rather
compofed of as many particular fyftems, each exercifing a
different funtion, as there are different origins of nerves ;
confequently, the fympathetic nerve cannot be regarded as
a fingle pair.”’ Anat. et Phyfiol. du Syft. Nerveux, fect, 1.
Towards the conclufion of this fe€tion, the authors giye
us the following ftatement of their opinions, on the nature
and ufe of the ganglions. This we have extraéted as ex-
preffive of their opinions, on the origin of the nervous or
medullary fibres, a very leading and important part of their
doGtrines. <‘ We have obferved, in the lower claffes of ani-
mals, two fubftances compofing the nervous fyftem; the
greyifh gelatinous matter, and the nervous filaments. The
former feems to compofe the polypi almolt entirely, and to
charaéterife the commencement of the animal kingdom, al-
though nervous filaments have net yet been demonftrated in
thefe creatures. In the next ftep, the vifcera are provided
with particular colle€tions of the gelatinous fubftance, and
we can plainly perceive the nervous filaments arifing in
them ; the latter are diftributed in their refpeGtive organs.
As thefe colleétions of gelatinous fubftance form knots or
{wellings with the nerves that arife from them, they are
called ganglia. The larger the colleétions, the larger and
more numerous are the nervous filaments. We do not fee
the latter arifing immediately from the lymph, nor by a
transformation of veffels; but they are produced wherever
there is gelatinous fubftance. We afcribe, therefore, the
origin and nutrition of the white filaments to the latter. As
fimilar arrangements are found in the plexufes and ganglia of
the higher orders of animals, we muft equally regard them
as the origin of the nerves. They are always interwoven
with numerous veffels, and contain throughout an abundance
of a reddifh-grey, gelatinous, pulpy, unétuous fubftance.
They contain more or lefs cellular tiffue, and are fofter or
firmer in proportion to the ftruGture of the coverings of the
nervous filaments. Often the gelatinous fubttance is dif-
perfed in a loofe cellular tiffue, fo that the nerves goin
from it forma kind of plexus. Sometimes it is colleé&e
into {mall mafles in thefe plexufes; between which and the
ganglia there is no eflential difference. ‘Che diftinétians of
number, form, confiltence, and colour, obferved in the dif-
ferent {pecies of animals, or in different individuals, are not
effential conditions, influencing the ufes of the organs ; they
are merely modilications of ftructure.’’ Ibid. p. 44, 45.
The Spinal Marrow.—The common language, in whic
the fpinal marrow is fpoken of as a prolongation, or conti-
nuation of the medullary fubftance of the brain and cere-
bellum, and the common opinion, which regards this organ
as a dependence of the encephalon, are entirely rejected by

Gall and Spurzheim. ‘The acephalous monfters fhew, that
it

NERVOUS SYSTEM:

it is formed and exifts independently ; and they endeavour to
prove by comparative anatomy, that it is a feries of ganglia,
clofely approximated, giving origin to the {pinal nerves, as
the ganglia of the cheft and abdomen produce the refpeGtive
nerves of thofe parts. Further particulars of their opinions
on this fubje& will be given in our defeription of the fpinai
marrow, prefixed to that of the {pinal nerves,

Nerves of the Head.—The part immediately above the
fpinal marrow increafes confiderably in fize, as foon as it
enters the great occipital foramen; and this increafe is more
particularly diftin& in the mammalia, becaufe moft of the
nervous fyitems arifing at this point are much larger than in
man. It has generally been regarded as a continuation of
the white fubitance of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and tuber-
culum annulare, and, therefore, named medulla oblongata,
the inferior edge of the tuberculum being confidered as its
fuperior boundary. Other anatomitts comprife under the
medulla oblongata, the pons, crura cerebri and cerebelli,
corpora {triata, and optic thalami. Thefe anatomitts refer
the origins of all the nerves to the medulla oblongata, in-
cluding under that term parts really belonging to the cere-
brum: Soemmerring conceives, that all the nerves arife
from the medulla of the brain; and derives them from the
fides of the ventricles. All the proofs; fay Gall and Spurz-
heim, that we have employed to fhew that the medulla fpi-
nalis and oblongata are not prolongations of the brain and
cerebellum, may be applied to the latter part in particular.
They will alfo ferve to refute the opinion, that the nerves
called cerebral have their origins in the brain. They bear
no proportion to the brain, which they would do, if they
arofe from it. In the calf, the pig, the horfe, &c. they
are generally much larger than in man, though the brain of
thefe animals is much fmailer than ours. Thefe nerves,
(called by Gall nerves of the head,) as well as the parts
from which they arife, are found in acephalous feetufes,
which have not originally poffeffed any brain; laftly, their
direction from below upwards, or towards the openings,
by which they go out of the cranium, proves manifettly,
that they cannot be regarded as prolongations of the nervous
fubftance of the brain. We muit, on the contrary, confider
them as nervous fyitems, not found in animals of a lower
order, as not formed until after the fyftems of the fympa-
thetic nerve and medulla {pinalis, and as deftined to the im-
mediate fun¢tions of the fenfes, as well as to the organs of
motion, and their acceflory organs. Anat. et Phyfiol. du
Syft. Nerveux, p. 95.

Thefe anatomifts refer to this part the firft vifible origins
of moft of the nerves of the fenfes, of the fifth, fixth, and
feventh pairs, as well as of the cerebrum and cerebellum.
It has, in common with the medulla fpinalis, (fee our de-
feription of that organ in a fubfequent part of this article, )
the anterior and poiterior fiflures, the commiffure or tran{-
verfe layer of union, the internal ftratum of cineritious fub-
ftance, and the canals that are demonttrable by inflation.
Although it casnot be regarded as a continuation of the
{pinal marrow, its particular nervous fyftems have an im-
mediate connection, by communicating chords, with the
nervous fyftems of the vertebral columns.

In the fympathetic and fpinal fyftems, the nerves are de-
tached, at their very origins, from the common mafs; but
here the nervous filaments are collected into fafciculi, which
continue united to the mafs for a longer or fhorter extent.
We mutt, therefore, be careful not to confound the point
of origin with that of departure from the mafs. As long
as a nervous bundle remains connected to the mafs, it is con-
tinually receiving augmentation from the cineritious matter
contained init. Frequently the latter is collected into a

Vou. XXIV.

ganglion, in order ftill farther to reinforce the nervous fibres.
How far thefe gentlemen have been fuccefsful in their en-
deavours to trace all the nerves commonly called cerebral to
the medulla oblongata, will appear in our defcriptions of the
origins of the nerves. We may ftate here, that they prove
tolerably clearly, that the olfaétory is the only one that can
with any probability be derived from the brain.

In the conclufion of this feétion, they obferve, that all
thefe nervous fyftems originate in cineritious fubftance, and
by no means in what is called the medullary matter of the
brain. That they are not perfect in the firft inftance, but
{trengthened and completed in their courfe. They are fome-
times accompanied throughout by cineritious matter, as is
the cafe of the olfactory nerve, and thus go on conftantly
increafing. Sometimes they meet in their courfe with col-
le&tions of grey matter, either in flattened ftrata, as above
the decuflation of the optic nerves, or in the form of ganglia,
as the tubercula quadrigemina, corpora geniculata, &c. In
both cafes, the grey fubftance produces new nervous fila-
ments, and the latter unite to what exifted before, until each
fyftem is perfeted. ‘The ganglions and plexules of thefe
fyftems are alfo to be contlidered as the fource of new
fyftems, or as apparatufes defigned to ftrengthen them. The
peripheral extremities of the nerves are not naked in the
external organs of their funétions ; but are all covered with
mucous fubftance of various colours. Of this kind is the
mucous fub{tance between the mufcular fibres; the corpus
mucofum of the fkin; the pulpy fubftance in the nervous
papiliz of the tongue; the mucous membrane of the nofe ;
the foft covering of the retina and the labyrinth.

Gall and Spurzheim are very earneft in their objeCtions to
an opinion, entertained by moft modern phyfiologifts, that
the nerves are all originally alike, and that the differences of
their functions arife from the external organs connected with
them. As a polype may be divided into feveral pieces, of
which each may become an animal like the original one, we
may infer that all the parts of the polype are perfedtly alike.
But it was an inftance of bad logic to apply this conclufion,
drawn from animals in whom no nerves have yet been dif-
covered, to the complicated nervous fy{ftems of the more
perfe& animals. ** Since it has been proved, that the dif-
ferent nerves are not derived from one fource, from a com-
mon trunk, the opinion of their ation being the fame in all
cannot be fupported by any anatomical demonitration.
There is a ftriking difference between the foft and whitifh-
red ‘nerves of the great fympathetic fyftem, and the hard
white fpinal nerves; again, the delicate fibres of the cere-
brum and cerebellum are diltinguifhed by their whitenefs
and foftnefs, from thofe of the vertebral column. The dif-
ferent nerves of the fenfes bear no refemblance to each other
in colour, confiftence, form, and texture. Often the dif-
ferent filaments of the fame nerve are vifibly diffimilar. Not
only the different nervous fyftems, but alfo the filaments of
the fame nerve arife from different colle¢tions of the grey
fubftance. The ganglions of the different fyftems are more
or lefs numerous, according as their form, confiftence, colour,
and texture, vary. All thefe points are the fame in the
fame nerves; they mutt, therefore, arife from fome original
difference of internal ftru€ture, and be neceflarily connected
with the diverfity of funétions. Phyfiological principles
fuppert the anatomical faéts, on which the differences of the
nerves are grounded. It is allowed, that the external organs
communicate different irritations to the nerves; but, if all
thefe are of one nature, how comes it to pafs, that the dif-
ferent impreffions of their peripheral extremities are tran{-
mitted to the brain unaltered. Should not the impreffions
of the optic be,tranfported differently from thofe of the

4R auditory

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

auditory or olfactory nerve ?””
Nerveux, fect. 5.

We mutt obferve, that this fa& of the differences in
firu€ture of the particular nerves, has been already tated
by Soemmerring and Bichat. :

After a fhort phyfiological account of the different fenfes,
Gall prefents us with the following general obfervations re-
lative to all the nerves of fenfe.

Anatomical Pofitions.—1. Tach nerve of fenfe has its pe-
euliar origin. None arifes from the brain, nor from any
cther nerve; but the filaments of each are produced from
peculiar colleétions of grey fubftance.

», Each differs from all others in fize, ftruéture, colour,
and confiftence. :

3. The apparatufes of the fame nerve are more or lefs
numerous and complicated in the different kinds of animals.

4. There is no dire& or conftantly uniform proportion
between the fize of the brain and that of the zerves.

5. There isno determined proportion between the nerves
of the fenfes in the different {pecies of animals, nor in the
iadividuals of the fame {pecies. Sometimes one, fometimes
another nerve is the molt developed.

6. The nerves of the fenfes cannot be faid to be larger
or fmaller in the female than in the male.

>. They are developed and decay at very different
epechas in the different kinds of animals, and in individuals
ef the fame kind.

8. Hitherto we know of no decuffation in the nerves of
the fenfes, excepting the optic, and this does not exilt in all
animals.

g- The correfponding nerves of the two fides (les nerfs
congéngres des fens de chaque cdté) communicate together
by their commiffures, and with the neighbouring parts of
the brain by communicating branches.

Phyfiological Pofitions.—1. The funétions of the fenfes
can ouly be executed by material inftraments (ne font ren-
dues poffibles que par des in{trumens materiels).

2. The nerves of the fenfes are only employed in com-
municating the impreffions of the external world to the
brain, that it may modify them.

3. Each is capable of receiving only certain impreffions :
and the funtion of no fenfe can be executed by another
nerve of fenfe,

4. The power (faculté) of each fenfe, in refped to its
acutenefs (finefle), is, in the ordinary ttate, in a direct
ratio to the perfection and developement of the apparatufes,
and probably to the greater or {maller number of them.

5. The particular fun¢tions have not the fame degree of
energy in the different f{vecies of animals, nor in the dif-
ferent individuals of the fame fpecies; acutenels of fight
may be combined with dull hearing, &c.

6. The nervous fyftems of the fenfes, like others, may
acquire unufual aétivity from extraordinary irritation, as in
feyer, inflammations, &c.

7. Whren the funétions of the fenfes are deranged from
injury of the brain, as in paralyfis arifing from lefions of

Anats et Phyfiol. du Syft.

the {pital fyflem, the effect does nor take place on the op-
polite fide of the body.

8. The powers of the different fenfes are manifefted at
different periods, according to the developement of their
organs. From what caufe, and for what end are fome ani-

mals born with the fenfes fully developed, or at leaft with
the ears and eyes open, while others have them (hut? This
diltinction pot always bear a relation to the power of
ufing the extremities more early ; for the newly-born child
is a3 incapable of locomotion as the dog.

9. All the functions of the fenfes are gradually weakened

in old age. We cannot afcribe this to the effects of habit,
nor cenfider it analogous to our want of confcioufnels
of what paffes in the organic life. Nature feems to have
purpofely deprived us of the power of perceiving the au-
tomatic proceffes; and to have accomplifhed this end by
the flendernefs of the commuricating threads, which con-
neét the thoracic and abdominal nervous fyltems to thofe of
the fpine, fenfes, and brain. The funétions of the fenfes
are weakened in old age, becaufe the organs are changed
in ftru€ture, and the nerves are diminithed in fize. But the
change is not fimultaneous in the whole fyflem, {o that the
funétions are gradually extinguifhed.

to. The double organs of each fenfe do nct interfere
with the finglenefs of the fenfation; as our confcioufnels 1s
fimple although the organs of fenfe are five in number.

Impreffions, whether derived from the external world
through the medium of the fenfes, cr from the interior of
our bodies by the general organs of feeling, are to be re-
garded as indifpenfable conditions, without which no percep-
tion nor thought can take place. But no impreffion from
without, ner any irritation from within, can become a fenfa-
tion or idea without the concurrence of the brain. The
power of perceiving impreMons, of retaining and comparing
ideas, bears no relation to the fenfes in man or animals, as is
proved by idiots. Confequently, if it fhould Le proved, that
man has the moft perfeét fenfes of all animals, it would by no
means explain, why he furpafles them all in intelleGtval facul-
ties. Hence Condillae has been obliged to acknowledge
“that the fenfes are not fufficient to acquaint us with the
objects ia nature, ince the fame fenfes are common to us all,
though we have not all the fame knowledge.”” The author
of the treatife on the fenfes is therefore wrong in the fol-
lowing pafface: ‘* Tous les fens ont de méme enfante des
arts pour fe fatisfaire, ou fe perfectionner, ou fe garantir
des impreffions facheufes. Quels arts n’a pas produit le
fens du toucher? Ces habits, ces palais, ces voitures com-
modes font les enfans de fa délicateffe."” Le Cat, p. 39.
Helvetius has a much more judicicus obfervation on this
fubje&. « L’experience ne démontre point que l’efprit
foit toujours en nous proportionné a la fineffe plus ou moins
grande de ces-mémes fens. Les femmes, par exemple, dont
la peau plus délicate que celle des hommes, leur donne plus
de fineffe dans le fens du toucher, n’ont pas plus d’efprit
qu'un Voltaire, &c. Homere et Milton furent aveugles
de bonne heure, cependant quelle imagination plus forte et
plus brillante! Parmi ceux dont le fens de l’ouie eft le plus
fin, en eftul de fupérieurs aux St. Lambert, aux Saurin,
aux Nivernois, &c. Ceux dont le fens du gout et de
Y'odorat {cnt les plus exquis, ont ils plus de génie que Di-
derot, Roufleau, Marmontel, Duclos, &c. ? De quelle ma-
niére qn’on interroge lexpérience, elle répond toujours que
la plus ou moins grande {upériorité des efprits elt indépend-
ante de la plus ou moins grande perfection des organes des
fens.” De Homme, ‘&c. t. i. p. 185.

Bacon, Locke, Hume, Helvetius, Condillac found them-
felves obliged, in order to comprehend, in fome degree,
the poflibility of the fun@ions of the underftanding, to
have recourfe not only to the fenfes, which fome of thefe
authors had fo much exalted, but alfo to a knowledge of
the relations of the fenfations, or to attention, or experience,
reflection, induction. Although they often very much
contradicted themfelves, they were aware that none of the
faculties, which we have enumerated, could belong to any
of the fenfes. But if no faculty in this life can be exerted
without a material condition, as we fhall afterwards prove
moft inconteftibly, we mutt neceffarily fuppofe the exiltence
of fome material organifation for the exercife of the intel-

4 ; lectual

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

JeGtual powers. At all times a high degree of importance
has been attached to the refearches concerning the organs
by which man and the animals receive the material impreffions
of the external world. Will it be a lefs noble or lefs interett-
ing taf to attempt difcovering the organs of the higher
faculties of the mind? We afk whether the five fenfes, and
the properties, of which we have jult {poken, are fufficient
to explain the various propenfities, and the different inftin@-
ive indultries of animals, as well as the propenfities and
faculties of man? How {hall we be able to explain on this
principle, why the feal, the chamois, and the wild goofe
place fentinels to alarm them in cafe of danger?) Why
birds, the beaver, the rabbit, the ant, conltru& their abodes
with fuch admirable artifice? Why the quail and the {tork
emigrate, and return to the fame places? Who will ex-
plain the attachment of females to their offspring, and the
carelefsnefs of the males; while in other fpecies the males
participate in this charge with the females?) Why the crows
are fo ttrongly inclined to live in fociety, and the magpies
alone? Why the cock and the bull are fo jealous of their
exclufive rights, the hen and the cow fo impartial in dif-
tributing their favours? Who will fhew us the meaning of
what we call acutenefs, courage, pride, reitude, &c.? Is
it experience? But all thefe fentiments precede experience :
the {pider {pins, the beaver builds, before they have ex-
perience. Isit attention, refleAion, induétion? Why then
does each {pecies beftow attention on a particular object?
Why do all individuals of the fame fpecies fix on the fame
object ? Why is it even out of the power of man in many
cafes to beltow'great attention, or exercife highly the fa-
culty of induction on certain objets? Mutt we not per-
ceive, that it is almott the fame cafe throughout nature, as
in the example of the monkey, who is careful to fill his
cheeks with fruite, but does not know how to keep upa
fire?” Anat. et Phyfiol. du Syit. Nervenx. fect. 6.

The Brain.—Gall and Spurzheim regard the brain as an
affemblage of “ nervous fyftems, which, at leaft in the more
perfe& animals, are the particular organs of confcioufnefs
(confcience), inftinétive indultries, propenfities, faculties
of the mind and foul. Confequently the brain, like any
other fyftem, is a particular and independent fyitem, in a
ftate of communication with, and of reciprocal a€tion and
re-aCtion on, the other nervous fyftems, either immediately,
or through the medium of communicating branches. It
no more arifes from the nervous mafs of the fpine, than that
does from it. As we fomctimes find the fpinal fyftem with-
out a brain, fo it is poffible for the brain to exift without
{pinal marrow. This mutt have been the cafe with the child
borr with a fecond head placed in an inverted pofition on the
natural one. All the arguments again{t the common opinion
concerning the origin of the nerves of the fenfes, the medulla
oblongata, and fpinalis from the brain, militate equally again{t
deriving the brain from the fpinal fyftem."’ (Ibid. feét. 7.)
They proceed to fhew, that the brain, like other parts of the
nervous fyftem, is made up of the two fubjftances already
fpecified; the cineritious matter, and the nervous fibres,
The details of their anatomical defcriptions will be given in
a fubfequent part of this article.

“If we admit, fay they, all the grofs ideas that have
been formed of the brain; that it is the fource of all the
nerves, and compofed of all their extremities ; how can we
alcribe to it any other funétions than thofe which belong
to the nerves of the fenfes, of motion, and of the organs
of nutrition? Since it will prefent merely an union of the
serebral extremities of all thefe nerves.’”? Recherches,
p- 230.

« The hiftory of opinions concerning the fun€tions of the

brain prefents us only. with a fucceffion of errors, Many of
the notions did not even afcribe to it the operations of the
mind. What conneétion could fubfift between a fpongy
fubftance or mafs of impure humours, and the fpiritual
faculties? To the end of the 16th and even in great patt
of the 17th century, anatomitts ftill adhered faithfully to the
old doétrine of Galen refpecting the vital {pirits fecreted in
the cavities of the brain, and diltributed to its various parts
by the arteries. Such were the notions of Berengar, Spr-
gelius, Vefling, Willis, Vieuffens, and moft phyfologite:
After the beautiful difcoveries of the lymphatic fyftem and
the itru@ure of glands, an analogy of organifation was
fancied to exiit between the brain and glands; and fimilar
funétions were afligned to them. A nervous fluid was then
fought for, inftead of vital {pirits. Gliffon even fancied, that
he had feee this fuid diltinétly tranfude from injured nerves
Malpighi thought the cortical fubftance like a colleGtion of
{mall oval glands. Pacchioni, Baglivi, Lancifi, F. Hoff-
man, Boerhaave, &c. defended the nervous fluid. The or-
ganifation of the nerves was a point not lefs difputed: whe-
ther they are hollow or folid; whether they act by vibra-
tion or ofcillation, &c. The feat of the foul.was equaliy
the fubje& of different opinions. For a long time it was
conceived to be generally expanded through the body, and
to refide principally in the nervous fyftem at large; but
this notion being at vatiance with the dogmas of the meta-
phyficians, the feat of the foul was confined to the brain,
and even te fome fingle point of the organ.’’—* The meta-
phyficians believed in the fimplicity of thought, and confe-
quently held that the organ of the fou] mutt be fingle: with
iuch views it was ufelefs to inquire into the funétions of
parts of the brain, or to inveftigate the organs of particular
faculties of the foul. They ought to have looked to ana-
tomiits and phyfiologilts for proofs in fupport of their
principles ; inflead of which the latter allowed the meta-
phyficians to diétate laws to them. Already there were
ifolated faéts favouring the plurality of organs for the furre~
tions of the foul, but no means of re&tifying them, or de-
monitrating their exiftence in the organifation itfelf; and
the unity of confcioufnefs formed an objection to this plu-
rality. The multiplicity of the vital organs, and of thofe
of the fenfes, which does not diminifh the unity of life or
confcioufnefs, ought to have fhewn that the want of power
to explain a phenomenon does not deftroy either the pheno-
menon or its caufe. Philofophers were very unwilling to
make the fuperior funétions of the foul, fuch as thought,
underftanding, judgment, reafon, imagination depend on
material organs. ‘The examples of idiots, cretins, hydro.
cephalic patients, the deranged, and injuries of the brain,
were loft on thefe men. ‘Vhey willingly fet down feveral
intelleQual faculties in animals, {uch as memory, which they
could no longer difpute the exiftence of, as merely mecha-
nical faculties.”"—** Enftead of fimply endeavouring to col-
le& a fuflicient number of phenomena, they gave themfelves
up to philofophical fubtilties with the view of finding hypo-
thefes and explanations. They endeavoured to difcover how
the body and foul were united; whether immediately, or
by the intervention of fome fub{tance. Even the nature of
this fubftance, half body and half foul, was examined.
Inquiries were inftituted into the reciprocal ation of the
mind and body, the brain and nerves; whether fenfations
and ideas are the refult of impreffions on the brain; whe-
ther veftiges of thefe are left behind, how they are renewed,
&e.”” Anat. et Phyfiol. du Syit. Nerveux. | Intro-
duétion. ;
The infufficiency or abfurdity of moft of tlic notions that
have hitherto prevailed: concerning the phyfiolegy of the

Ackea nervous

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

nérvous fyitem, mult make any extenfive refearches into its
ftructure and functions peculiarly acceptable: we fhould re-
ceive with pleafure even an imperfect attempt to explain
them, if it were grounded, like that of Gall, on aétual
obfervation. He has exarained the anatomical {truéture
moft minutely in man and the various animals: he has at-
tended to the organifation of individuals, as connected with
their talents, and has colleéted facts in the great eftablifh-
ments for education, in the hofpitals for tarmac and
idiots, in the houfes of correétion and in prifons, in courts
of juftice, and at the feaffold. We regret that the phyfio-
logical part of his labours is not yet before the public: we
fhall prefent however fome extraéts to enable our readers to
form a judgment on the kind of views which he takes of
thefe moft interefting fubjeéts. And we confefs, that fo
far as the anatomical defcriptions go, they feem to us to
poffefs a very decided advantage, in their clear exhibition
of the organifation and relative connections of the organs
compofing the encephalon, to the ordinary unfatisfa&ory
exhibitions of horizontal fections and thin flices of the cere-
bral mafs. It will be feen, however, from the following
paflage, that Gall does not pretend to derive his phyfiology
of the brain from merely anatomical principles: he refts on
obfervation of phenomena in animals and men for the former,
as on the ufe of the knife in the dead body for the latter.
«« There are few inftances in which the ftru€ture of parts,
as that of the bones, ligaments, &c. difplays to the anato-
mift the fun€tions depending on it: and when this happens,
the ideas are only conjeftural. The form of the mufcles
does not fhew us that they poffefs the power of contra€tion ;
and we only know this after feeing the motion they produce.
There are neither mufcles nor levers in the brain and different
nervous fyftems; we can difcern no excretory tubes, no ex-
tenfion, no relaxation, no ofcillation, no refraGtion of lumi-
nous rays, uo liquid in motion. If the medullary fibres ex-
hibit various degrees of confiitence and whitenefs, various
direétions, &c. we could fcarcely conceive the poffibikity of
differences in the intimate nature and funétions of thefe in-
numerable fibres, if we did not refleét that the millions of
fibres of fimilar appearance in animals and in vegetables, are
neverthelefs proved to differ from each other by the diverfity
of their effects. Even if we faw any change in the arrange-
ment of the elementary parts, what could we infer? To
what conclufions would a knowledge of the ftructure of the
eye and ear lead us, were not thefe organs conneéted with
nerves, which alone are fufceptible of impreffions from light
and found in a manner altogether incomprehenfible to us?
Would the moft acute obferver have been able a priori to
aferibe the power of {melling to the pituitary membrane, and
the perception of taltes to the nervous papilla of the tongue?
Generally the knowledge of functions has preceded that of
the organs: that the power of vifion refides in the eye was
known before its mechanifm or the optic nerve was under-
itood. Indeed, for a long time the nerves were not fup-
pofed neceflary to the funétions of the fenfes, becaufe it
was believed that the blood-veffels carried impreflions to the
heart, the imagined feat of the foul. In the fame way moft
of our own phyfiological difcoveries have been independent
of anatomical inveftigations. If we fuppofe a knowledge
of organifation to precede that of funétions, it could at beit
only give rife to conjetures, that would have borne the
marks of the prejudices of the time. ‘Thus the heart was
formerly made the feat of courage, love, fympathy, cruelty ;
the liver of anger and fenfuality ; and in modern times intel-
leétual and moral qualities have been fuppofed to refult from
the mixture of humours or temperaments, and the paffions
to refide in the abdomen, about the folar plexus, If ana-

tomy were a fure guide to the ufes of parts, would Willis
have imagined that the vital {pirits concerned in motion were
fecreted in the cerebellum? Would Galen have placed the
organ of fmelling in the anterior ventricles? Would the
foul, after being fucceffively diflodged from the pineal
gland, corpus callofum, tuberculum annulare, &c. have
been feated by Soemmerring in the fluid of the ventricles,
and by Ackermann in the medullary fubftance lining thefe
cavities? Would athoufand other errors have been com-
mitted, fuch as placing memory in the cortical matter,
judgment in the medullary fubftance of the hemifpheres? &c.

It might have been expected that anatomifts, feeing the
great variety of parts in the brain, would have been the firlt
to deduce from this circumftance the diverfity, and confe-
quently the plurality of organs for the intelle¢tual and moral
qualities. But when we fee Vicq d’Azyr, after gradually
compofing the human brain by afcending from the infeé& to
man, and decompofing it by the oppofite courfe, {till ac-
knowledging a fingle organ of the foul, we find how in-
fufficient the mere knowledge of the mechanical arrangement :
is to enlighten the phyfiologift and philofopher. It is only
by attending clofely to natural phenomena, without paying
any regard to metaphyfical dogmas, that we can arrive at
jutter notions concerning the ftruéture of the brain, than
molt anatomifts themfelves have heen able to form, even by
the aid of the, minutelt diffe€tion. Herder, ftruck by the
intelle&ual phenomena. of various animals and individuals,
conceives the idea of a plurality of intelle€tual organs, and
even the hope of being able to difcover them by an attentive
comparifon of the brains and the various qualities. Bonnet
regards the brain as a collection of fibres, each having a
particular funétion, and looks to the poffibility of difcovering
thefe funétions.

We have been employed, for many years, in collecting
anatomical and phyfiological fa&s, before we formed any
reafonable induction concerning the nature:of the brain and
neryons fyftem. But this colleétion would have been of no
ufe to us, had we not previoufly fuppofed a clofe and necef-
fary connection of them with their material conditions.
When thus prepared in phyfiology and pathology, we foon
made difeoveries, which the fcalpel alone would never have
unfolded. If we have gained an anatomy of the brain,
which time cannot overturn, we owe it almoft entirely to
our phyfiological and pathological conceptions; and it is
the perfe& accordance of the intellectual phenomena with
the material conditions of their exiftence, that affures to us
the permanence of our anatomical and phyfiological do&rine .
of the brain and nerves.

To fay that the functions of the brain have been dif-
covered, independently of the knowledge of its ftruCture,
is very different from afferting that the funétions have no im-
mediate and neceflary connection with the ftru&ture. Would
any one advance, for example, that motion and fecretion have
no, conneétion with the organifation of the mufcles and
vifcera, and that digeltion and circulation are not infeparably
conneéted with the ftomach and heart? Can we fail to refer
the teeth and claws to the wants and inftin& of animals ?
Is it to be believed that the hand of man has no relation to
his brain, or the foot of the horfe to his? Have the organs
of the fenfes no neceflary and immediate influence on the
fun&tions which depend on them? Are we to make an ex-
ception for the functions of the brain only, becaufe its or-
ganifation and taculties are different from thofe of the fenfes
and of the organs of organic life? We fhould then afk if
feeing is not altogether different from {melling and hearing,
and if feeing, {melling and hearing are not different from
moving, digefting, &e,? If it fhould be an{wered a a

thele

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

thefe phenomena require only one general vital principle, we
fhall then inquire how this one principle produces contrac-
tion in tke mufcles, fecretion of bile in the liver, fets the
heart in motion, and prefides over the fenfations of talte and
f{melling ?

If the diverfity of funtion in the fenfes be explained by
the variety of the external organs, and the different parts of
the brain be alleged to have no difference in funétion be-
caufe they have no fuch external organs, we afk what be-
comes of the external organ when deprived of the partial
internal ones? Is vifion kept up after the paralyfis or
atrophy of the optic nerve? Whence come the fentiments
and ideas that agitate a man in a dream, or when he is re-
membering what is paft? Since, then, all the nervous fy{tems
exercife their funétions in the interior of the organifation,
why fhould the faculties of the brain be excited and limited
by the fenfes and external objets? What fenfes give us
the notions of benevolence and vengeance, love and hatred,
pride, duty, juitice, art and fcience? The dog and monkey
have the fame fenfes as man; are they therefore in the fame
rank with him, in moral and intelleétual qualities ?

In vain do we attempt to explain the {uperiority of man,
by a higher degree of noblenefs and perfeétion in the human
foul, fince this foul is young in infancy, dull in old age, in-
aGtive or nearly fo in hydrocephalus, furious or fenfelefs in
certain difeafes and injuries of the brain, impotent or out-
rageous in drunkennets and the effervefcence of the paffions.
From the confideration of thefe phenomena then, we cannot
help inferring the reality of a particular organifation for the
faculties of the foul, an apparatus that emancipates the
mind from the flavery cf the fenfes, gives to every animated
being a fpecific chara¢ter, and meafures out the world in
which each fpecies is inclofed.

If any do&rine concerning the funGtions of the brain
were in contradiGtion with its ftru€ture, it would neceflarily
be falfe. Let it be fhewn that the brain is compofed of
glands, and is an organ of fecretion or excretion, it is then
fhut cut from all higher funétions, and reduced to the clafs
of vifcera. If a central point of termination of all the me-
dullary fibres be fhewn; if there be pointed out in all ani-
mals, in fpite of their varying faculties, a cerebral ma{s con-
ftantly the fame, the plurality and diverfity of organs are
annihilated. Whoever proves that the brain is only the
central origin and termination of all the nervous fyitems,
will have fhewn that its funétions are thofe of other nerves.
If a conttant identity of the con{tituent parts be fhewn in
the different individuzls of the fame fpecies, in {pite of the
differences of their common faculties, it will then be impofli-
ble to affign the feats of the organs by comparing the pre-
dominance of their phyfical developement with that of their
pfychological energy.

But if it is an invariable truth, that animals without in-
telle& have alfo no brain, and are provided only with in-
ferior nervous fyftems; that thefe fyftems are more nume-
rous, when the vegetative or organic life is more compli-
cated ; that any faculty of the animal life, inftinét, ralent,
or aptitude of whatfoever kind is never perceived, except
in conjundtion with a brain; that the conitituent parts of
the brain, from the worm to man, are multiplied and diverfi-
fied in a direét ratio to the faculties; that all faéts concur
in proving that extraordinary energy of any faculty, always
correfponds with extraordinary excitement and particularly
developement of fome part of the brain; that the a
ment of any faculty is conneéted with injury or difeafe of a
part of the brain, as any affeétion or the lofs of fenfe fol-
lows injury or difeafe of its phyfical apparatus; if, laftly,
it be invariably true, that the brain confilts of a nervous

fyftem different from all others, and divided into feveral
other fy {tems fo diftiné from each other, that the differences
of their origins, fafciculi, direGtions, points of union, &c.
can be elaurly demonttrated, then there is no doubt that the
anatomy of the brain has an immediate conneétion and
perfect accordance with our doétrine of its funétions; and
the metaphyfician can no longer be juttified for lofing him-
felf in the dark void of f{peculation, by faying that the
operations of the foul are too deeply hidden to allow of our
difcovering their organs or material conditions.’ Recherches,
&e. p. 244, et feq.

On the generally received opinions concerning the com-
mon origin and identity of the aétion of the nerves, Gall
and Spurzheim obferve ; ‘* by fubftituting, on all occafions,
the metaphytical ideas of the {chools, in place of the data
furnifhed by the obfervation of nature, phyfiologifts and
even anatomifts have f{upported thefe fabrics of error, which
have been regarded almolt as facred objeéts. The foul, fay
the fchoolmen, is fimple: its inaitevial refidence muft then
be fimple alfo, and all the nerves muft end in one fpot.
Arittotle, and feveral peripatetics of the 16th century,
having fixed the feat of the foul in the heart, derived all the
nerves from that organ: +‘ Thefe, fays Czfalpinus, can
have but one origin, becaufe each individual has but one
foul.” Bonnet, Haller and others, having extended its feat
to the whole fub{tance of the brain, were contradi€&ted by
the metaphyficians; who thought it too confiderable; not
confidering that a little more or lefs room would not enable
them to explain the nature of the foul any better, nor that,
according to the remark of Van Swieten, Tiedemann, and
others, the fimplicity of a material point, in which all fen-
fations and ideas fhould centre, is inconceivable, in confe-
quence of the confufion and diforder which would refult
from fuch a concourfe. Nothing appears to us more ridicu-
lous, than that the naturalift, to whom all nature lies open,
fhould direét his refearches and indu@ticns by the guidance
of {uch frivolous {peculations. I£ the metaphyfician would
employ himfelf in the obfervation of faéts, and in afcertain-
ing the conditions on which they depend, his notions would
no longer .be at variance with the inferences drawn from
anatomy, and one f{cience would not arrogate the right of
fetting bounds to the progrefs of another. The doétrine
of a fingle origin and centre for all the nerves is neither true
nor poffible. As this point can be verified by examination,
it can no longer give rife to vague difcuffion. If, after this,
the inetaritfpfieian cannot comprehend the unity of his indi-
vidual confcioufnefs (l’unité de fon moi), we afk him, if
he underftands, in the organic life, how fuch different appa-
ratufes concur, by their varied funétions, in forming one
whole? if he can reconcile, in the animal life, the cir-
cumitance of double organs with unity of funétions, and
fimplicity of confeioufnefs ? if he knows what lite is, or in
general, if he can comprehend any fingle power in the ma-
terial world? Thefe enigmas, which prove that our know-
ledge is limited, fhould not prevent us from ufing our fenfes
and mental powers in inveftigating the acceflible fecrets of
nature.’’ Recherches, p. 231—233.

In fumming up their peculiar views concerning the func-
tions belonging to different portions of the brain, they con-
clude ; “* Henceforward we may confider, ina much more
exalted point of view, that molt important part of the ani-
mal organifation, the aflemblage of the nervous fyftems.
The laws refpecting their origin, fucceflive increafe, and
final expanfion, are in part difcovered and reduced to a ge-
neral principle. The nerve prefiding over fenfation and mo-
tion arifes and is developed according to the fame laws
which regulate the organ, by means of which the mind per-

6 ceives,

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

ceives, wills, and refleéts. The brain will become an in-
terefting fubject, when it is no longer mechanically cut up,
without any views, like a mafs of inorganic matter. We
fhall now feein it difpofitions for certain ends. All the old
mechanical forms and conneétions will now be transformed
into a wonderful colleétion of material apparatufee for the
faculties of the foul. As the a@ions of the varicus vifcera,
and the fenfations of our fenfitive organs, are regulated by
particular nervous organifation; fo each inftin€t, and each
intelletual faculty, in man and animals, will be found fub-
ordinate to fome part of the brain. If, then, the mind
eludes our grafp, we may at leaft retrace it in its organs,
which indicate the degree of intelligence poffeffed by each
fpecies and individual. They not only form the line of de-
marcation between man and the brute, but, by fhewing the
developement of the faculties, teach us how nature qualifies
different men for wifdom or folly, for command or obe-
dience. .

«¢ The time is not far diftant when philofophers will agree
with Bonnet, Condillac, Herder; Cabanis, Prochafka, &c.
that all the phenomena of animated nature are founded on
organifation in general ; and that all intelle€tual phenome-
na flow from the ftruéture of the brain in particular. A few
drops of blood effufed in the ventricles, a few grains of
opium will prove fufficiently that volition and thought de-
pend on the material conditions of the organs. Whoever
wifhes to underftand completely the powers by which his ma-
chine is fet in motion, to comprehend the nature of man and
animals, and their relations to external objeGs, to ettablifh
a rational dottrine concerning the intellectual and moral
funGtions, and the diforders of the mind, will find it indif-
penfable to ftudy the organifation of the brain, together
with its fun@tions. In this way the naturaliit, the teacher,
the moralift, and the legiflator, may reétify their vague
notions concerning human propenfities and paflions, and con-
vince themfelves, by fenfible and evident proofs, that the
human organifation is adapted to a fuperior order of intel-
Jeétual and moral qualities ; confequently that education, le-
giflation, morality, and religion, are effentially conneéted
with the nature of man ; and, inftead of being merely ufeful,
are infeparable from his happinefs: becaufe they furnifh mo-
tives to counterbalance his evil propentities, and increafe
more and more the moral freedom of his agency.’ Ibid:
py 272—274.

Membranes of the Brain.—We thall place under this head
what is either omitted, or too curforily mentioned in the ar-
ticle Brain. : :

Dura Mater —Although the dura mater adheres clofely
to the bone of the cranium, and numerous veffels pafs from
it to the latter, the facility with which it can be detached,
fo as to be exhibited entire, its thicknefs, its peculiar ttruc-
ture, and its nearly complete infulation in the vertebral caval,
form a broad line of demarcation between it and the pe-
riofteum.

Over the whole bony arch of the cranium, this mem-
brane correfponds to broad bones, with few and inconfider-
able eminences. Its adhefion is weak, except at the fu-
tures; it can therefore be eafily detached from the frontal,
parietal, upper part of the occipital, and fquamous portion
of the temporal bones. More or lefs difficulty is experienced
im feparating it from the futures, the intervals of which
give paflage to numerous fibrous elongations, eltablifhing
continuity between it and the perieranium : thefe are mott
abundant in the fagittal future. The inequalities of the ex-
ternal or cranial furface of the membrane, are moft confpi-
enous in the courfe of the futures, ‘Vhrough the fagittal,

which ig the only opening in the vault of the cranium, the

dura mater fends a {mall canal, inclofimg a vein, and conti-
nued with the pericranium.

On account of the numerous inequalities and foramina;
the difpofition cf the dura mater is much more complicated
in the bafis of the fkull. It fills and adheres clofely to the
foramen cxcum, and is alfo firmly attached to the crifta Galli,
which it inclofes. It lines the openings of the cribriform la-
mella; and the canals thus formed are continuous in the
nofe with the external or fibrous furface of the pituitary
membrane. It fends {mall canais into the internal orbicary
foramina. Its adhefion to the convextties of the orbits is
but flight. In the {phenoidal region it lines and adheres
very clofely to the common channel of the optic nerves:
then forms at the foramen opticum a canal accompanying
the nerve into the orbit. This canal {plits, at the orbital
opening of the foramen, into two layers; one of which is
continuous with the lining of the orbit; the other formsa
fheath, including the optic nerve as far as the ‘clerotica,
and not adhering to it very clofely. Behmd the optic
nerve, the membrane has a circular opening for the carotid
artery, to which it adheres clofely, and it forms a {mall fe~
parate canal for the paflage of the ophthalmic artery.

The dura mater then lines the fella Turcica, where tt Is co-
vered by the pituitary gland: on each fide of this hollow
it divides into two laminz, which form the cavernous finufes.
The internal thinner layer lines the hollow of the bone behind
the orbit, ferving for its perioftenm, the outer forms the
exterior fide of the finus. On the fides of the {phenoidal
region, the dura mater paffes over the lefler ale of the
fphenoid, and lines the middle foffz of the bafis cranii. It
fhuts up the fuperior orbital fiflure, but fends into the orbit
a thick and broad expanfion, continuous with the periof-
teum of that cavity, which thus appears to be an extenfion
of the dura mater, It can be feen beft by breaking the
upper part of the orbit with a hammer; the lining of the
cavity remains entire: it is perforated for the paffage of the
veflels and nerves which enter the orbit. The adhefion of
the dura mater to the cerebral furfaces of the temporal and
fphenoid bones is but flight. ‘Towards the fide of the latter
bone it forms remarkable {heaths for the nerves of the third,
fourth, and fifth pairs. Each of thefe nerves is contained at
firft ina diftinét fibrous canal, lined by the arachnoid coat,
reflected from the nerve in the form of acul-de-fac: it then
lies on the cavernous finus, from which it is feparated by a
thin cellular flratum, being covered externally by the dura
mater, and, la(tly, penetrates that portion of the membrane
which clofes the fuperior orbital fiflure. The fuperior and
inferior maxillary nerves are both accompanied bya fibrous
prolongation of the dura mater. A cylindrical canal alfo
lines the foramen fpinofum, and is continuous with the ex-
ternal perioftcum.

After this defcription it is eafy to underftand the difpofi-
tion of the dura mater at the cavernous finus. One layer
of the membrane is expofed, when the bafis cranii is laid
bare, and it hasno attachment to the bone; the other forms
a periofteum for the bony hollow at the fide of the fella Tur-
cica, and behind the orbit. The lower and internal part
of the interval between thefe is occupied by the cavernous
finus properly fo called, containing the internal caro«
tid artery, and the nerve of the fixth pair: the upper
and outer by the third, fourth, and fifth nerves, feparated
fromeach other, and from the finus by cellular fepta. At
the upper and back part of this interval, the canals tranf-
mitting the above-named nerves end; while other fibrous
tubes, through which they enter the orbit, the foramen ros
tundum and ovale, commence from the lower and front
part. ie
The

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

The dura mater covers the upper furface of the petrous
portion, as well as the upper branch of the Vidian nerve, from
which it is eafily detached. It adheres clofely to the edge
of the petrous portion, and then is continued towards the
occipital region. In the middle and front of thisit adheres
very firmly to the channel of the bafilary procefs, from
which it is continued into the vertebral canal. Behind the
foramen magnum its connections are comparatively loofe.
It has a fimple fibrous opening for the paflage of the nervus
motor externus; it lines the meatus auditorius internus, at
the bottom of which it is very thin, and the aqueductus
Fallopii, at the termination of which it is continuous with the
periotteum. It forms two canals at the foramen lacerum in
bafi cranii; one for the jugular vein behind, the other for
the neryes in front: there is another fimilar canal at the fo-
ramen condyloideum anterius.

‘he internal or cerebral {urface of the dura mater owes
its fmoothnefs, in the opinion of Bichat, to its being lined
by arefieGion of the tunica arachnoidea.

Proceffes of the Dura Mater.—The falx cerebri is placéd
in the middle line of the cranium: broad behind, and grow-
ing gradually narrower in front. Its upper convex edge
correfponds to the frontal {pine, to the middle of the frontal
bone, to the fagittal future, and to the upper divifion of
the internal perpendicular ridge of the occiput ; its under
concave edge is unattached, and correfponds to the corpus
callofum without touching it. The anterior narrow extre-
mity is fixed to the crifta Galli, which it inclofes ; the pofte-
rior broader end is continuous with the tentorium in its
whole breadth. At the upper or convex edge of this pro-
cefs, there are three diftin&t portions of dura mater, one
hes the cranium; two others, fenarate from this, are di-
xreted obliquely downwards and inwards, and unite into one,
after leaving between them a triangular feparation forming
the fuperior longitudinal finus. The fingle layer, which
compoies the greater part of the falx, is again divided below
to form the inferior longitudinal finus. It is alfo divided at
the poiterior end of the procefs, to form the torcular Hero-
paili.

Yhe tentorium cerebelli bounds the pofterior fofle of the
balis cranii, and feparates them, in great meafure, from the
rett of the cranium, It is broader behind than before ; its
upper furface fupports the back lobes of the brain, and the
under covers the cerebellum,

A layer of dura mater lines the great tranfverfe groove of
the occipital bone ; two others, a fuperior and an inferior
one, are detached from this, have a triangular interval for the
lateral finufes, and then unite into a fingle nearly horizontal
layer: There is a fimilar arrangement in the anterior part
of the production, the interval forming the fuperior petro-
fal fans

The internal is mech {maller than the external circumfer-
ence of the tentorium, and has a form nearly oval. This
edge is loofe, and circum{eribes the pofterior and lateral parts
of the opening, at which the potterior ‘occipital hollows
communicate with the relt of the cranium. The opening in
queition, which may be cailed that of the tentorium cerebelli,
is not parallel to the great occipital hole. It is completed
in front by the plate of the {phenoid bone; and entirely
occupied by the tuberculum annulare. It is rounded behind,
and terminated by a ftraight line in front; the membrane
forming its fides ends in two elongated extremitiess!attached
tothe correfponding clinoid procefies. At thefe extremities,
the outer and idner circumferences of the tentorium are con-
tinuous,

The connection of the falx ané tentorium maintains both
thefe proceffes in a itute of tention, which is deftroyed by cut-

ting either of them. From this circumftance, anatotnifte hae
generally conceived that their ufe is to {upport the weight of
the different parts of the encephalon, in the various attitudes
of the body: wiz. that the tentorium bears the pofterior
lobes of the cerebrum, and prevents them from prefling on
the cerebellum, and thatthe falx fupports the right or left
hemifphere of the brain in the recumbent pofture. The
polition and attachments of thefe procefles certainly enable
them to perform the office alluded to; but we have fome
doubts whether this mechanical explanation is very juft, be-
caufe the falx has been entirely deficient (fee a cafe quoted
in the article Brain), and often is imperfeét in front, with-
out any inconvenience refulting to the funétions of the brain.
The falx cerebelli is a fmall but thick triangular procefs of
dura mater, placed under the tentorium, and in front of the
perpendicular occipital ridge. Its front edge is loofe, and cor-
refponds to the interval between the two lobes of the cerebel-
lum; the bafis is continuous with the tentorium ; the apex
is placed downwards, and divided into two {mall fecondary
folds, which are infenfibly loft at the foramen magnum.

Organi/ation of the Dura Mater.—Is it formed throughout
of two lamine? Many anatomifts have maintained this opi-
nion, chiefly from the feparations in many parts of the mem-
brane for receiving the cerebral veins., In thefe, which are
commonly called finufes, we may dittin@ly fee two, and fome-
times three feparate layers; but in other parts it is not pof-
fible to demonttrate two naturally diftin& laminz, although
we might artificially feparate the membrane into feveral
itrata. No membrane has a more manifeft fibrous texture :
and the fibres are particularly numerous and well marked in
the folds, as the falx and tentorium; they decuflate each
other in every direction ; and are arranged in whitifh irre-
gular bundles, fometimes flightly prominent. There is no-
thing mufcular about them ; the only foundation for afcribing
fuch a'nature to them was the motion obferved when the
membrane is laid bare during life; this arifes entirely from
the impulfe of blood into the veffels of the brain.

The ftrength of the dura mater is very confiderable ; hence
it is very eafy to break the cranium with a hammer, leaving
the membrane uninjured. This mode of removing the fkull
cap, in examinations of the brain, is recommended by Bi-
chat in preference to the ufe of the faw. After expofing the
bone in the ufual way, you ftrike it fmartly with the thin
edge of a tolerably heavy hammer, all round. Very rarely
is the dura mater injured, even where confiderable force is
ufed, and the bone confequently much beaten in. In dif-
feéting the nerves of the head, where they are pafling through
canals or foramina of the bone, this way of procceding i
very advantageous ; you break the bone into pieces, which
are ealily removed, the periofleum remaining entire.

It has no nerves, but numerous blood-veffels.. Yet the
capillaries, as in all the fibrous organs, are few in number.

Its extenfibility is proved by what happens in cafes of
hydrocephalus; we have no faéts to fhew its contra¢tility,
although there is little doubt that the membrane enjoys
this power. It has no animal fenfibility in the natural ftate ;
hence it may be cut, or excited by chemical ftimult in living
animals, without their giving figns of pain.

The pia mater delongs not suly to the external furface of
the brain, as the dura mater does; not only to that furface
and-to the great cavities, like the arachnoid coat ; but alfo
to the fmalleft depreffions in the organ. Hence it is conti-
guous, and intimately adherent to the latter membranes by
its external f{urface, at all the exterior prominences; but
difting& at the depreffions, particularly ct the bafis. ~ Be-
tween the brain and the pons Varoln, the latter and the. me-
dulla fpinalis, and between the two lobes of the'cerébellum,

the

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

the arachnoid is quite infulated, and may be elevated alone,
leaving the pia mater entire below.

. The internal furface of the pia mater corre{ponds every
where:to the fubftance of the brain, adhering to it by innu-
merable very fine veflels eafily torn, fo that the membrane
may be detached without injuring the organ.

The external portion of pia mater covers the. convexities
of the hemifpheres, their oppofed flat furfaces, and the cor-
pus ¢callofum. If it be detached from the former parts,
loofe folded proceffes are drawn up from the intervals of
all the convolutions, correfponding exaétly in depth to
the fulci.of the braia. In front of the corpus callofum
it is refle&ted to the under furface of the organ; behind it

is continued into the lateral ventricies, and then prolonged .

over the cerebellum, entering into the intervals of its
plates, as it does between the cerebral convolutions. Below
it covers the anterior lobes, then enters deeply into the fiffura
Sylvii, where.it is feen alone, the arachnoid paffing like a
bridge from the front to the middle lobe ; it afterwards
covers the middle and pofterior, lobes. In the middle it pe-
netrates in front between the two hemifpheres, which it covers
as far as the under furface of the corpus callofum, quite
diftiné from the arachnoid, which pafies from one to the
other like a bridge. From the corpus callofum it paffes to
the union of the optic nerves, to the grey matter behind that
union, the pons Varolii, and the medulla {pinalis, entering
deeply mto the groove between the two latter parts. It
covers the under furface of the cerebellum in the fame man-
ner as the upper; and enters between the two lobes, where it
is very diftinét from the arachnoid. AS

The internal pia mater, or that which lines the cavities, is
continuous with the former. Under the corpus callofum
and fornix there is a large tranfverfe flit, at which the pia
mater, from the upper furface of the cerebellum, enters the
brain to form the yelum; this middle flit is continuous, on
each fide, with another, placed between the thalamus op-
ticus and corpus fimbriatum, at which the pia mater enters
from the bafis of the brain to communicate with the cho-
roid plexus. At the openings juft defcribed there would
be. a free communication between the furface and the in-
terior of the brain, were they not occupied by the pia
mater, and clofed by the arachnoid coat.

The internal pia mater forms firft the velum, and then the
choroid plexufes. The velum (toile choroidienne, Vicg
d’Azyr) arifes from the pia mater entering under the cor-
pus callofum and fornix, lining exactly the under furface
of the latter. It reprefents a triangle with a broad batis
placed. backwards, and correfponds in figure exaétly to
the fornix, It adheres to the under furface of the latter
and of the corpus callofum by numerous fine veffels; be-
low it adheres in the fame way to the optic tha-
lami, pofterior commiflure and tubercula quadrigemina ;
but in the middle it has no attachment, correfponding to
the 3d ventricle, and exhibiting behind this part the termi-
nation ofthe arachnoid foramen, which will be prefently
deferibed, and which is bordered by a feries of fmall granu-
lations on each fide. The velum ends in front near the
origin of the fornix, where it is continuous on each fide
with the extremity of the choroid plexus, through a {mall
flit, by which the lateral communicates with the third ven-
tricle (foramen of Monro). Behind the velum. is con-
tinuous with the pia mater; here it embraces the pineal

land, and defcends along its fides to join the folds at the
Bate of the brain, covering alfo the back of the optic tha-
lami. Its margins pafs between the edges of the fornix and
the optic thalami, and give origin to the choroid plexufes.

The organs la{t-mentioned are feen in the Pash ventricles,

and lie along the edges of the fornix, and of the corpora
fimbriata. Arifing in front at the foramen of Monro, they
go obliquely backwards, continuous in their whole length
under the edge of the fornix with the velum; they turn for-
wards with the ventricles, and reach to the anterior ends of
thefe cavities. In the latter part of their courfe they com-
municate diretly with the external pia mater between the
corpus fimbriatum and the thalamus. They are thick and
large behind, and gradually grow {maller towards the front.
They confiit merely of pia mater folded on itfelf, initead of
being extended into the form of a membrane.

Strudure of the Pia Mater.—This organ very little deferves
the name of membrane, under which it is commonly: de-
{cribed, although it refembleS membranes in its form, and
convenience in defcription is confulted in confidering it as
one. If weexamine it carefully, where it is not conneéted
with the arachnoid, we difcoyer in it merely a multitude of
veflels conneCted by a loefe tranfparent cellular tiflue, with-
out any of that confitence which conftitutes a continuous
membranous organ. The cellular tiffue is fufceptible of
ferous effufions, which caufe an elevation of the arachnoid
coat ; it unites the pia mater to the latter, when they are
in contact, The pia mater, on the other hand, is conne@ted
to the brain by very fine vafcular ramifications entering its
fubltance; thefe are vifible in vaft number when the organ
has been detached from the brain, particularly after fine
injections, and give the whole internal furface a villous ap-
pearance. le

Hence we may form the following notion of the cerebral:
vafcular fyftem. The great trunks, that is the bafilary and
carotid arteries, lie at the balis between the brain and the
cranium ; the principal branches are lodged in the great di-
vifions of the encephalon ; tne fecondary divifions rua inthe
{mailer depreffions of the organ. The. minute fubdivifions
form over the whole organ an extremely extenfive vafcular
network, of which the interftices are filled with a fine deli-
cate cellular tiflue never containing fat. From the combi-
nation of the vafcular network and the celluiar fubftance a
{tratum of a membranous form refults, the pia mater. The
effeét of this arrangement is to produce a very minute divifion
of the cerebral veffels, fo that they enter into the tiffue of
the brain only in the form of very fine capillaries. And this
is a ftriking difference between the brain and other vifcera 5
for in the latter the vafcular trunks enter the organ imme-
diately, and are divided in it.

Thefe obfervations are equally applicable to the velum and
choroid plexus. In the latter, however, fome of the’ granu-
lations are feen, and {mall ferous veticles are often obferved:

Arachnoid Coat.—The views entertained concerning this
membrane by Bichat are in fome refpeéts new, and his ac-
count of it is minute and accurate. ‘* Allimportant organs,
fays this anatomitt,, all fuch as are fubjected to habitual mo-
tion, are furrounded by a ferous membrane, which circum-
{cribes them, infulates them from the neighbouring parts, and
favours their alternate expanfion and relaxation by the fluid
which lubricates its, polifhed furface. This arrangement is
univerfal; the lung, heart, ftomach, and other abdominal
organs, and the telticle afford examples of it. This uni-
formity had long led me to fufpeé that the brain ought not
to form an exception to the general rule, and that it ought -
to poffefs an inveitment analogous to the ferous membranes
of the great cavities. This fufpicion will be realized if I
can fhew plaitly that the external difpofition and relations,
the internal {tructure, the funétions and affections of the
arachnoid, are exa¢ily the fame with thofe of the ferous mem-
branes.’? Anatomie Defcriptive, t. ili. p. 32.

The extreme tenuity of the membrane renders it difficult

to

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

to decide on its nature by dire&t examination ; we mutt there-
fore have recourfe to analogy. In poffeffing a {mooth, po-
lifhed, ‘and fhining furface, moiftened by ferous fluid, conti-
guous to, and never continuous with, the furrounding or-
gans, in the {mall number of blood-veffels, and abundance of
exhalants and abforbents, in the effential bafis ofits texture,
which is cellular, and in its tranfparence, when detached, the
arachnoid refembles the ferous membranes. Its tenuity is
not more remarkable than that of the omentum. ‘The
vital properties of this membrane are exactly the fame with
thofe of the ferous organs. ;

In forming to the brain a membranous limit, which infu-
lates it from the furrounding parts; in conftantly exhaling a
ferous fluid to moilten its furface, and abforbing it again, the
arachnoid clofely refembles ferous membranes. When its
furface is taid bare in a living animal, and wiped dry, moif-
ture is quickly reproduced. It ae be alleged that the dura
mater is concerned in the exhalatidn and abforption of this
fluid; but Bichat confiders that its {mooth furface is a re-
fleG&tion of the arachnoid. The proper tiflue of the mem-

brane cannot with any thew of reafon be fuppofed to exercife-

fuch a function. The fibrous membranes, to which it be-
longs, are never employed in that way, nor does the dura
mater itfelf, where it lines the orbit, exercife fuch a func-
tion.’ We cannot fuppofe that the dura mater is concerned
with the arachnoid coat in producing the fluid, as thefe fe-
cretions are in all inftances furnifhed by one membrane only ;
and the arachnoid alone produces it in the ventricles.

The arachnoid, particularly in the ventricles, like the
ferous membranes, is liable to ferous effufions or dropfies ;
it alfo exhibits adhefions in confequence of inflammation, and
becomes white and opaque like thofe membranes.

From this view of the organifation, vital properties, func-
tions, and difeafes of the arachnoid, we may fafely draw the
inference, that it belongs to the clafs of ferous membranes.

Difpofition of the external Arachnoid.—Every {erous mem-
brane forms a bag without any opening, covering the organs
to which it belongs, and lining the cavity on which they are
contained, affording fheaths to the veffels, and not pene-
trated by them; fo that nothing is contained in its cavity,
which would remain entire, were it poffible to remove it by
difleG@tion. In this way the arachnoid covers the brain, its
nerves and veflels, and lines the dura mater, none of thefe
parts being contaiued in its cavity, which holds only the
fluid that lubricates it.

It may be rendered evident by inflation on the convexities
of the hemifpheres; here it affords a fheath to each vein
entering the fuperior longitudinal finus, and includes, in the
fame way, the granular bodies in this fituation: thefe fheaths
are continued on the furface of the dura mater; confe-
quently, it adheres to that membrane in numerous points
along the courfe of the finus. It covers the oppofed flat
faces of the hemifpheres, and the corpus callofum, feparated
from the latter by its arteries, and gives fheaths to the veins
of the inferior longitudinal finus. It is then extended over
the pofterior lobes, and paffes to the upper furface of the
cerebellum, which it covers in the fame way that it does the
cerebrum. In this courfe it furnifhes fheaths to the veins of
the lateral and fourth finufes. In pafling from the cerebrum
tothe cerebellum, it may be feen diftin&t from the pia mater
on both its furfaces; and a large portion is infulated in the
fame way at the fiflure between the two lobes of the cere-

“bellum.

It enters into the fiffure between the two anterior lobes,
at the front of thcir under furface, but paffes direétly over
behind, fo as to unite them clofely. It covers the olfactory
nerve, and forms a fheath for the optic ; it inclofes the infun-

Vor. XXIV. ;

didulum, is extended over the furface of the pituitary gland,
and furrounds the internal earotid at its entrance into the
cavity of the cranium. The arachnoid then goes under the
pons Varolii, lying quite detached from the furface, in a con-
fiderable extent between the union of the optic nerves, and
the front edge of the pons. It is alfo completely infulated
over the whole furface of the pons. It is extended to the
fides of the cerebellum, and the commencement of the me-
dulla {pinalis, being quite loofe and unattached at all the
grooves about thefe parts. It furnifhes fheaths to the various
nerves in thefe parts, and to the vertebral arteries, and is
continued into the vertebral canal.

Thefe folds of the membrane may be feen moft advan-
tageoufly by lifting up the brain cautioufly, for they are
very eafily torn, particularly thofe of the olfa€tory and
optic nerves; they are loofe, broader towards the brain, and
narrower towards the nerve, and are refleéted generally from
the latter to the dura mater, fo as to allow the nerve to pafs
on alone to its dettination.

It will appear from the preceding defcription, that the
whole mafs of the encephalon is enveloped by the arachnoid,
as the heart, lung, &c. are by their refpective membranes,
with this difference only, that the refle€tions are more nume-
rous, on account of the greater number of nerves and veffels.
To complete the analogy, it remains for us to prove, that it
lines the internal furface of the dura mater. Bichat de-
{cribes the fheaths of the nerves and veffels as continued to
the points where they penetrate the dura mater, then united
together and forming a general lining to thé dura mater and
its proceffes, correfponding to the pleura and peritoneum
lining the thorax and abdomen. Thus we fhall have a
cranial and a cerebral divifion of this membrane, as we have
a pleura coftalis and pulmonalis.

It mult be acknowledged, that this view of the fubjeé is
fuggefted rather by analogy, than by the direé& evidence of
diffeGtion. Yet Bichat fays, that fhreds of arachnoid may
be detached from the dura mater, and are thin and tranf-
parent, inftead of exhibiting the fibrous texture of the ex-
terior ftrata; and that this detachment is eafier in the foetus
and child, than in the adult. He fays alfo, that the conti-
nuity of the two parts may be eafily traced at the fheaths
which have been mentioned. The polifhed furfaces of organs
in all other fituations are owing to ferous membranes, which
adhere fometimes very clofely, as in joints, the fheaths of
tendons, &c. We cannot detach the conjun@iva from the
cornea, although no anatomift doubts of its being extended
over that organ.

Internal Arachnoid.—1t is the opinion of Bichat, that this
membrane lines the cavities of the brain, and that the pia
mater only produces the choroid plexufes. He acknow-
ledges, that it is fo extremely thin, where it covers the cere-
bral fubftance, that it cannot be raifed and exhibited diftin@;
its exiftence mutt, therefore, be inferred from analogy. He
obferves, that the furface has the fame polifh as that of the
arachnoid ; that it is the feat of an analogous ferous exha-
lation and abforption ; and that it is fubjeét to dropfy, like
ferous membranes. He confiders, that the water in hydro-
cephalus could not be confined to the ventricles, were they
not lined by a membrane, but that it would efcape where
the choroid plexufes enter. He defcribes a continuity be-
tween the internal and external arachnoids, by means of an
opening about the vena magna Galeni.

This opening includes the yein and its ramifications, and
is formed in the procefs of pia mater that conftitutes the
velum ; it paffes between the veins and the pineal gland,
and opens in the third ventricle. By it the arachnoid enters
the ventricles. It appears, from his fubfequent account,

48 that

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

that a {mall probe may fometimes be introduced along the
canal, but that this is not always praéticable. In order to
difcover it, the cranium fhould be carefully fawn, and the
falx removed without any violence, that the parts may not
be difturbed. The pofterior lobes fhould be raifed, and
gently feparated, and the vein of Galen will be feen emerg-
ing from the opening which furrounds it. The internal
aperture may be found by turning back the velum and pineal
gland; on the under furface of the former is a triangular
arrangement of granulations in front of, and over the latter.
At the bafis of this triangle, and juft above the pineal gland,
the opening will be found. Bichat conceives, that the in-
ternal arachnoid covers the choroid plexus, befides lining the
ventricles.

Glandule Pacchioni, (granulations cerebrales, Bichat.)
—Small whitifh granular bodies, of unknown function, but
fuppofed by Pacchioni, whofe name they bear, to be glands,
are found in clufters in different fituations about the mem-
branes of the brain. They are tolerably firm in their tex-
ture, and in fize about equal to large pins’ heads; they occur
chiefly in the finufes, and the pia mater.

They are moft abundant about the middle and pofterior
portions of the fuperior longitudinal finus, and appear naked
in the cavity when the veffel is lit open. They are placed
principally round the orifices of the veins, and are fo con-
neéted to each other, in the bundles which they form, that
they cannot be feparated without rupture. Some are found
in the lateral finufes, at their pofterior portion correfpond-
ing to the occipital bone; and thefe are alfo placed at the
orifices of the veins. The other finufes do not poffefs them,
excepting the fourth, where they are occafionally feen at
the opening of the vena Galeni. The granulations of the
finufes are larger and lefs denfe than thote of the pia mater;
their texture and ufe is uaknown. ‘They are very rarely
affeéted by difeafe ; Bichat mentions offification as a change
eccafionally exhibited in them.

Thefe bodies are juft the fame in the pia mater as in the
finufes, excepting their fize. They are placed at the fides
of the fuperior longitudinal finus, and about the venous
trunks, and are continuous with thofe of the finus. They
lie in the fubftance of the pia mater, and the dura mater
adheres clofely to them on the outfide, being elevated by
them into {mall protuberances on each fide of the fuperior
longitudinal finus. They are only feen along the coutfe of
the latter veffel; they are whiter, {maller, and more firm
than thofe in the finus.

The chorcid plexufes contain feveral reddifh or greyifh
granular bodies, which are fofter than thofe juft defcribed ;
and there are fome on the under furface of the velum, juit
in front of the pineal gland. They form two lateral rows,
converging fo as to form a triangle, at the bafe of which
Bichat defcribes his arachnoid foramen to open. ‘lowards
the lower part and fide of the fourth ventricle, there are
{mall folds of dura mater, containing fimilar grannlations.

Gall’s’ Defcription of the Brain.—He conceives this organ
to be compoled of two fub{tances, exaétly fimilar to thofe in
other parts of the nervous fyftem; wiz. of grey, gelati-
nous, or pulpy matter (the cortex), varying in its colour
and confiftence; and of white nervous fibres (the medulla.)
The opinions of anatomilts concerning thefe con{tituent ele-
ments of the cerebral fabric have been very various, and

have agreed only in one point, that of being altogether un-
fatisfa‘tory. Malpighi and his contemporaries generally re-
garded the cortex as compofed of glands, deftined to fecrete
the nervous fluid ; fome affign to it the latter office, without

undertaking to determine the nature of its compofition.

Ruyfch, followed by Haller and moft phyfiologilts of that

time, regarded it as a tiflue of fine veffels; and others have
pleafed themfelves by imagining, that it was a very atte-
nuated prolongation of the blood-veffels entering into the
very fubftance of the nerves. Such trafh is beneath ani-
madverfion. Although the cortex contains many veflels,
Albinus and Soemmerring have fhewn that there is in it
fomething befides them. Equally numerous and profound
opinions have been held concersing the medulla. ~ Some
affirmed, that it had no blood-veflels.; others, that it was
entirely compofed of them; fome held it to be folid, others
tubular. | Many conceived it to be made up altogether of
globules. Leeuwenhveck, Vieuflens, and Steno thought it
fibrous ;- but they, as well as Soemmerring, Cuvier, and
others, who recognifed fibrous ftructure in many parts,
never went fo tar as to declare the whole to be fibrous.
Many modern anatomiits and phyfiologifts {till maintain,
that it is equally pulpy throughout, and fibrous in no part ;
that it is, in fhort, a foft medullary matter.

Gall and Spurzheim view in the cortex of the brain, as
in the analogous fubftances in other parts of the nervous
fy{tem, the origin or fource, and the organ of enlargement
or ftrengthening of the white nervous fibres. And they
regard the medulla as being every where fibrous. The fibres
are vifible when the fubftance is torn, or gently fcraped with
the handle or back of a knife. They never appear in the —
common difleGtions, becaufe fmooth cuts are entirely unfit
for exhibiting the texture of a fine and foft mafs. To the
objeGtion, that the fibrous appearance is made by the f{erap-
ing, they reply, that it cannot be exhibited by {craping
acrofs the courfe of the fibres. ‘In hydrocephalus, the
fibres are feen very diftin@ly. They may be rendered vifible
by blowing air, or injeéting water on the furface, fo as to
feparate the flrata from each other. For the fame purpofe,
we may boil the brain, either altogether, or in parts; or
macerate it in nitric or muriatic acid, diluted with water or
fpirit of wine. Jf the white fubftance be fcraped in the di-
rection of the fibres, they may be followed with the naked
eye into the cortical matter of the convolutions; but if we
fcrape acrofs the fibres, or obliquely, they are difplaced or
torn.”? (Anat. et Phyf. du Syft. Nerveux, t. i. p. 236.)
Confidering that the expreflions medulla, and medullary
{ubttance, are likely to recall the old, and in their judgment
erroneous notions of the pulpy itruCture of the brain, and
to draw away our attention from its fibrous nature, thefe
anatomilts lay them afide altogether.

They blame very feverely the ordinary methods of pro-
ceeding in the diffection and demonftration of the brain, and
we cannot help regarding their complaints as well-founded.
Nothing can be worfe calculated to fhew the natural con-
netions and dependences of the various organs, than the
ordinary exhibition of vertical feftions. What notions
fhould we gain of the eye, the heart, or any other part, by
contemplating them when cut up into horizontal flices? A
perfeverance in the ufe of fuch methods can only tend to
perpetuate our ignorance, and to keep us for ever in the
dark, as to the itru€ture and funétions of thefe important
parts. Gall and Spurzheim proceed ona plan poimted out
by their views of the relations between the cortex and me-
dulla. “We have fhewn, fay they, that the grey matter
and the nervous fibres are the conttituent, parts of all nervous
fyftems, and that the latter. every where arife from the
former, Can we affign to thefe fubflances a different detti-
nation in the brain, from what they have every where elfe ?
As we place the origin of the abdominal and_ thoracic
{y{tems in the ganglia, of the {pinal nerves in the grey fub-
{tance of the medulla {pinalis, &c., we refer the commences
ment of the white fibres in the brain to the cortical matter,

We

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

We have proved alfo, that the nervous fyftems are not
formed, nor brought to perfeétion at once ; but that, incon-
fiderable at their origin, they acquire acceffions in the grey
fubftance and the ganglia, until they are completed. How
then can we adopt a method more conformable to the courfe
of Nature, than to begin our refearches where fhe commences
her work, to trace the various degrees of developement, and
to conclude them where the organ is completed? Can we
expect by a contrary courfe, or by the violent feparation of
parts, to gain an exact knowledge of the means, by which
Nature has attempted to arrive at a common end?”’ «In con-
formity with thefe views, they endeavour to follow the courfe
of the nervous fibres from their origin to their termination,
and employ only fuch fections as are calculated to illultrate
this point? The texture of the brain renders the edge of
the knife a very inconvenient means of accomplifhing their
purpofe; they rather employ a blunt inftrument, as the
handle or back of the knife, and proceed by feraping.

Cerebellum. —Gall and Spurzheim begin with this organ, as
it immediately follows the fyftems of the fpine and of the
fenfes. They refer its origin to the grey fubitance contained
in the great {welling above the cervical nerves (medulla ob-
longata) ; the fame point to which they trace the beginning
of moft of the nerves of fenfe, of the facial, trochlearis, and
trigeminus. The origins of the cerebellum form two large
bands, one en each fide of the meduila oblongata, behind the
corpora olivaria, hitherto known by the name of corpora
reftiformia, or crura cerebelli ad medullam. © This band in-
creafes in fize as it afcends, and the grey fubftance, or gan-
glion of the auditory nerve, lies upon it. When that is re-
moved, its fibres may be eafily traced into the interior of the
hemifphere of the cerebellum. After penetrating a few lines,
it meets a collection of grey fubftance (corpus dentatum,
ciliare, or rhomboideum, zigzag) with which the white
fibres are fo clofely interwoven, that they cannot be followed.
This is the ganglion of the cerebellum, and the point of
origin and increafe of molt of the nervous mafs of the organ.
Many new fafciculi arife here, and branch out into the va-
rious fubdivifions of the cerebellum; wherever a principal
branch comes off, the cineritious matter rifes into an emi-
nence ; and hence the dentated or fringe-like prominences of
the ganglion. As this body is a principal origin of the ce-
rebellum, its fize is in proportion to that of the Jatter organ.
In moft mammalia the cerebellum is much fmaller than in
man, and this ganglion is much fmaller and lefs diftin&. The
corpus reftiforme is alfo {maller in the fame proportion.

The medullary fafciculi pafling from the corpus ciliare
ramify into the various fubdivifions of the cerebellum; a
principal one paffes towards the median line, and concurs,
with the correfponding one of the oppofite fide, in forming
the middle part of the cerebellum (proceffus vermiformis).
This is the fundamental part (partie primitive ou fonda-

mentale) found in all animals, whatever be the difpofition of.

the brain in other refpeéts. The lateral parts are fuperadded
in different animals in yarious proportions. T'he band, which
produces this middle portion, generally divides into feven
principal branches, which are diftin&tly feen by a vertical
feGtion ; the further divifions vary innumber and length. In
animals of the lower orders, and even in birds, this compofes
nearly the whole of the cerebellum; but in the mammalia
lateral portions are added, fo that the part firft mentioned
becomes the middle piece (piece mediane of Reil). The
other fafciculi go out of the ganglion backwards, upwards,
downwards, and outwards, expanding into their horizontal
ftrata. The external furface of all thefe ftrata, as well as
that of the fimilar layers compofing the fundamental piece,
is covered by cineritious matter. A vertical feétion fhews

here, as in the middle piece, trunks of white fubftance di-
viding into {maller and {maller branches (arbor vite). A
fection carried through the middle of the ganglion enerally
difcovers eleven principal branches: as we deviate ao this
middle line towards either fide, the number diminithes. There
is confiderable variety in the further branchings and fubdi-
vifions, A tranfverfe feGtion exhibits merely a fimple
{tratum of white fubftance bordered by the grey matter.

In order to exhibit thefe appearances, nothing more is ne-
ceflary than to make a vertical fection, in the direétion of
the primitive band, fo as to divide the ganglion into two
equal parts.

Thus far we have feen the nervous fibres of the cerebellum
diverging from each other, expanding into the lamine which
compofe that organ, and always occupying a larger circum-
ference, But there is another order of fibres, arifing from
the cineritions matter of the furface, pafling in the intervals
of thofe firft defcribed, which they crofs, always converging
towards the anterior margin, where they form a broad and
thick fibrous layer. The pofterior and middle filaments pafs
tran{verfely through the longitudinal bands of the medulla
oblongata, which go to diverge in the hemifpheres of the
brain. The anterior filaments lie in front of thefe bands in
the form of a broad fibrous layer in man. They all unite in

‘the middle line with their fellows of the oppoiite fide, there-

by joining the two hemifpheres of the cerebellum, after the
fame manner as the hemifpheres of the brain are united by the
corpus callofum, &c. his part, which now goes under the
name of the pons Varolii, or tuberculum annulare, is really
then the great commiffure of the cerebellum ; and is always
in a direst ratio to the fize of the hemifpheres, as the pri-
mitive bands are to that of the ganglion. The mammalia,
having {maller cerebella, have alfo this commiffure {maller.
In man, where the cerebellum is fo large and fo fully deve-
loped, the commiffure is particularly broad, covering the
origins of many of the nerves, which are expofed in other
animals. In fifhes, reptiles, and birds, this commiffure is
not found, or, in common language, there is no pons; for
thefe animals have no lateral parts to their cerebellum, and
confequently nc converging fibres to form it. But all ani-
mals have a commiffure of the fundamental part, independent
of the commiffure of the lateral parts, or pons. This com-
miffure is formed by the foft and fine fibrous layers from the
fuperior and inferior parts of the middle or fundamental per-
tion, commonly called the fuperior and inferior valves.

The two orders of nervous fibres defcribed above are dif-
tinguithed by the following names ; in reference to their ana-
tomical arrangement, the firft, or thofe produced by the cor-
pora reftiformia, are called ¢ filets fortans ou divergens;”’ and
the fecond, or thofe of the commiflures, *¢ filets rentrans
ou convergens:” in a phyfiological point of view, the firft
are called ‘appareils de formation ;’’ and the fecond, “ ap-
pareils de reunion.”?

The ordinary opinion, that the cerebellum contains more
cineritious fubitance, in proportion to its fize, than the
brain, is erroneous; the miltake arifes from our generally
making horizontal feGions of the brain, and vertical ones of
the cerebellum. The fize and developement of the cere-
bellum do not obferve any determinate proportion to thofe
of the brain; it may be {mall when the brain is large, and
wvice verfa. Malacarne has found it to vary from the {ixth to
the eleventh part of the weight of the brain; and in a child
he fates that it is th, th, 71th, or even ,,d part of the
whole weight of the brain,

Generally the cerebellum is {maller in the male than in the
female, both in man and in animals: but this obfervation is
not invariably true, f

45 2 Tt

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

It will appear from the preceding defcription that the cere-
bellum is a fymmetrical organ, or that it is divifible into a
right and left correfponding half; although thefe do not
always refemble each other ftriétly. The fame parts are not
invariably alike in different individuals. Reil has already
fhewn that the length and breadth of the medullary ramifi-
cations, and the number, form, and directicn of the plates
in which they end, vary infinitely in different individuals.

Cerebrum—Iin deferibing this part, Gall and Spurzheim
confine themfelves principally to man, becaufe the organi-
fation is moit perfeét, and the various parts can be repre-
fented in the moft intelligible manner: ‘They ftate that there
is no faculty, no mode of aGtion depending on the brain, in
animals, of which the type is net difcoverable in the human
fubjeé&t ; hence the brains of animals may be regarded as
fragments of the human brain, and we find united in the
latter, all the parts that are fcattered through the different
claffes of animals. If we could remove fome organs from
the human brain, we fhould reduce it to the brain of animals ;
and by adding to the latter, it would be elevated to the rank
of a human brain.

As the cerebrum confifts of many divifions, the funétions
of which are totally different, there are many primitive bands
contributing by their developement to form it. All thefe
are compofed gradually by fibres produced in the cineritious
fubftance of the medulla oblongata (le grand renflement).
They are to be confidered as the firft vifible rudiments or
commencement of the brain, having communication and re-
ciprocal aétions with the furrounding fyftems.. Among
thefe primitive bands are placed the anterior and pofterior
pyramidal eminences, the bands which proceed from the
corpora olivaria, the longitudinal nervous bands, which con-
tribute to form the fourth ventricle, and fome others which
are concealed in the body of the medulla oblongata. The
bands pafs into the hemifpheres on the fame fide in which they
originate, with one exception ; this is in the anterior pyra-
midal eminences, Here the fibres which arife on the right
fide, unite in the firft inftance into a few cords, which pafs
obliquely over to the left, inthe fame manner they pafs from
left to right ; each cord gbing over one and under another of
the oppolite fide, fo as to form a kind of interweaving, like
bafket work. This decuffation occupies a fpace of four or
five lines at the lower extremity of the medulla oblongata.
The bands afterwards pafs up on the anterior furface of the
medulla, gradually acquiring the pyramidal form. This ap-
pearance is very eafily demonftrated, and is totally difting&
from the tranfverfe layer or commiffure, vifible both above
and below this part in the anterior fiffure of the medulla.
The authors hint, that as the fibres of the anterior pyramids
are the only ones which decuffate, fo it is only an injury of
that part of the brain which is a continuation or developement
of thofe bodies, which affeéts in its confequences the oppofite
fide of the body. Injuries of the cerebellum, of the pofte-
rior lobe, and of part of the middle convolutions of the
brain, would affeét the fare fide; thefe parts being conti-
nuations of fibres that do not crofs.

The pyramids, as foon as they enter the tuberculum annu-
Jare, divide into many bands, which lie ina confiderable mafs
of cineritious fubltance; from this many new fibres arife
and join them. The bands are fo muchenlarged, when they
pa{s out from the upper part of the pons, as to form nearly
two-thirds of the crura cerebri (les grands faifceaux fibreux).
The pons then is to be regarded as a true ganglion, in which
the corpora pyramidalia are ftrengthened and enlarged fo
as to form the crura cerebri. The tranfverfe nervous bands
of the pons are, as was before mentioned, the commiflure of
the cerebellum. This courfe of the pyramids may be ‘een

5

by making an incifion of about a line in depth in the pons,
from the pyramid to the crus cerebri, and then turning afide
a layer of the tranfverfe fibres of the pons, of the depth al.
ready mentioned, with the handle of the knife.

The great fibrous bands compofing the crura cerebri are
then a continuation and further developement of the pyra-
midal eminences. They contain in their interior much cine-
ritious fub{tance, from which they are conftantly ftrengthened
by new fibres. They receive the greateft acceffions at their
upper end, where the optic nerve turns round their external
furface. The nervous threads and fafciculi formed at this
part are prolonged into the hemifpheres, and end at laft in
compofing ftrata, of which the furface is covered by grey
fubftance (the convolutions of the brain).

Thus the pyramidal bands may be traced from their
origin until they are perfeéted and terminated in the inferior
anterior and external convolutions of the front and middle
lobes. The pyramids and their ganglion in the pons, the »
crura cerebri, and the convolutions which thefe form, are
always in proportion to each other; the latter are much
{mailer in the mammaliathan in man, and all the parts firft
mentioned are confequently {maller. gr

The fame principle of {tru¢ture is followed in the formation
of the pofterior lobe, and of the convolutions fituated at the
upper and internal edge of each hemifphere. The corpora
Olivaria are ganglia: a ftrong fafciculus proceeds from them
on each fide, and joins the pofterior bands of the medulla
oblongata. Thefe crofs the tuberculum annulare through the
tranfverfe fibres of the commiflure of the cerebellum, and
form the polterior and inner third part of each crus cerebri.
They receive but little addition until they enter a thick mafs
of cineritious matter, known generally by the name of tha-
lamus opticus. In this ganglion there is a large quantity of
nervous filaments, which afcend, and unite at their exit from
the upper part of the ganglion into bands that diverge in a
radiating form (en maniere de flammes ou de rayons).
They then traverfe another large mafs of cineritious fub-
ftance, the corpus itriatum, where they receive frefh ac-
ceffions, fo that they are fufficient in number to form the
convolutions of the pofterior lobe, and thofe placed inter-
nally at the upper part of each hemifphere. ;

The thalami optici and corpora ftriata are in this view con-
fidered as true ganglia, in which the nervous fibres are in-
creafed in number and fize, and are prepared by degrees to
form their refpeétive convolutions.

«Tn examining under a general point of view the manner
in which nature proceeds to the primary formation of the
two hemifpheres of the brain, we fee that the original bands
are produced in the cineritious fub{tance of the medulla ~
oblongata, and reinforced in different places by particular
mafles of the fame matter, and that the fame: jaws prevail
here as in the nervous fyftems of the abdomen, thorax, fpine,
nerves of the head and cerebellum. As all the precedin
{yftems are gradually expanded in the internal and externa
organs of their funétions, and then reach their final dettina-
tion, the fafciculi of the brain undergo a fimilar fucceffive
expanfion, and become tbe organs of the moil noble and im-,
portant functions."” Anat. et Phyf. du Sy{t. Nerveux, t.i.
p. 824.

The two fides of the brain communicate together by
tranfverfe fibres (filets convergens ou appareils de réunion),
as the fyftems of the {pine, cerebellum, &c. have their two
halves brought into reciprocal aétion. The afcending or
diverging fibres have been followed into the cortical or cine-
ritious fubftance, which they penetrate to fome depth,
making the internal part of a lighter grey than the ex-
ternal. How they finally terminate is not pofitively a

NERVOUS SYSTEM. .

. Gall and Spurzheim think it probable that new nervous

fibres are produced in the cineritious matter, intimately con-
' netted with thofe whofe courfe we have been following.
The exiltence of the converging fibres may be more readily
demonftrated than even that of the diverging: they may be
feen at the bottom of every convolution decuflating the
latter, with which they are intermingled. In this way the
two fyftems form a very firm tiflue at the bottom of the
convolutions, and at the circumference of the cavities. As
the converging fibres draw near to the middle, they form
diftin& fafciculi and layers, which advance to the median
line, and are there continuous with the correfponding parts
of the oppofite hemifphere forming the different unions or
commiflures. Thefe fibres are fofter and whiter than the
others ; the two orders decuflate each other, and form par-
' ticular ftrata lining the interior of the cavities. The corpus
callofum, with its dependencies, the fornix, lyra, &c. the
anterior and pofterior commiffures, are formed by thefe con-
verging fibres. The fornix, lyra, pofterior edge of the
corpus callofum, and the anterior commiffure, unite the in-
ferior convolutions of the two hemifpheres: the corpus cal-
Jofum joins all the upper convolutions, and its two extremi-
ties are thicker than the middle, becaufe they contain the
converging fibres belonging to thofe portions of the hemi-
{pheres which entered in front and behind beyond the
boundaries of this body. The fize of thefe bands of union
is always proportionate in animals to that of the parts
which they join. As certain parts are very {mall in birds,
the commiflures, corpus callofum, _&e, are allo infignificant
in fize, and have commonly been faid to be deficient. }

Gall and Spurzheim proceed to deferibe the different
cavities of the brain, and the ftru¢ture of the convolutions.
As foon as the diverging fibres have decuflated with the
converging ones at the outer fide of the great cavities, the
former begin to feparate from each other, and are prolonged,
like all the other nervous fyitems, into a fibrous expantion.
But thefe fibres are not all of the fame length: fome end
near the fide of the ventricles; others are prolonged con-
fiderably further: thus the convolutions and their intervals
are formed. They are all covered on their furface by a

m of grey matter.
peels fatto of a conyolution fhews the white fibrous
fubftance broader at the bafis of conneétion to the hemi-
{phere and narrower at the oppofite end ; becaufe the lateral
fibres are gradually loft in the grey fubltance, while the
middle ones only reach the end. ‘ Yet the fibres of each

convolution are not united into a fingle fafciculus, but they -

form two {trata touching each other in the median line, and
flightly agglutinated by a mucous neurilema, or very fine
cellular tiffue."’ The fame principle is obferved in the
plates of the cerebellum. At the fame time each conyolu-
tion contains fibres arifing from the grey fubftance and pro-
ceeding towards the commiffures ; confequently each is
compoted of 1, pina es fibres; 2, of very fine converg-
ing fibres; and 3, of an exterior cortical covering. On
this {tru€ture is founded the poffibility of feparating the two
{trata without injuring them, and of extending the convolu-
tions into a horizontal layer, fo that the hemifphere may
exhibit a continuous plane furface (le déploiement ou dé-
pliffement des circonvolutions).

This unfolding of the convolutions is a point of the new
opinions which has been very ftrongly contefted, and on
which we fhould conceive, from the data now before us,
that it is not eafy to decide certainly. The commiffioners
appointed by the National Inftitute did not admit the correét-
nefs of the reprefentations made by Gall and his aflociate :
the latter gentlemen argue the quettion at confiderable length

in their remarks on the report
206.), as well as in the oth
P- 297, et feq.

The following paragraph appears to exhibit moft pre-
cifely the opinions of the authors. “ Let it be obferved,
on this fubjeét, that, in advancing that the two layers of a
convolution are in contaét (adoflées ), we did not affert that
they are fimply in contaé. Moreover, we admitted between
them an adhefion of contiguity, maintained perhaps by cel-
lular fubftance; but not a conneétion of continuity pro-
duced by confufion of fubftance. In our Opinion, then,
the union is of that kind which might be denominated ag-
glutination oe anes Germ.) but not concretion (verwach-
fung).”’ echerches, p. 200.

They fay, that if a piece of the hemifphere be taken, the
pia mater removed, and the tiffue that forms the fides of the
ventricle deftroyed, a very flight force is fufficient to unfold
or extend the whole into a membranous expanfion, without
any deftruction of fibres: the internal furface of this ex-
panfion is white, fmooth and uninjured (intaéte), the ex-
ternal is cortical. An analogous procefs takes place in hy-
drocephalus: the tiffue compofing the fides of the ventricles
is diltended into an enormous bag, by which the convolu-
tions are gradually unfolded: their fibres, which in the
natural ftate are vertical from the bafis to the apex, are now
extended horizontally with refpe&t to the contour of the
cavities, fo that the bag holding the water is compofed of a
continuous flat ftratum of the white fibres, covered bya
fimilar layer of grey fub{tance. It was the obfervation of
what occurs in this difeafe, and particularly of the integrity
of the intellectual fun@ions in a remarkable cafe, indicatin
that the brain undergoes no effential injury, or isnot de-
ftroyed, that led Gail to notice this fa@ in the ftruGture of
the coavolutions.

If the convolutions are cut off on the outfide of the cavi-
ties, they may be extended into a plane furface, without any
injury of fubftance. If fimilar portions are hardened in al-
cohol, or in a mixture of nitric or muriatic acid and alcohol,
or if they are boiled for a few minutes in oil, the two ftrata
feparate very eafily, and only in the median line ; no veltige
of torn nervous fibres can be feen on the internal furfaces,
although the fibrous expanfion is very vifible. When air is
impelled on the cut furface of a convolution, or when a
ttream of water is direéted on it from a fyringe, a fimilar
feparation in the middle line takes place from the bafis to
the apex. If an opening be made on the fide of a convolu-
tion from without, and fluid injected into the aperture, it
produces a feparation in the middle line for one or two
inches on each fide.

Gall acknowledges that there are fome parts of the brain,
as the pineal and pituitary glands, &c. of which he cannot
hitherto affign the conneétions and obje& in his fyftem. He
terminates his view of the organ by a feries of general pro-
pofitions, embracing the points, which we have already de-
tailed, under the title of ‘ thefes générales anatomiques,”’
which conclude the tenth fection of the firft volume of his
large work.

Phyfiology of the Brain. Its Motion.—When this organ
is expofed in a living animal, its furface alternately rifes and
finks: the elevation is fynchronous with the pulfation of
the arteries, and the fubfidence with the diaftole of the heart.
In the young fubje&, while the fontanell is ftill membra-
nous, a pulfation can be felt at that part, coinciding with
that of the arteries, and arifing from this motion of the
brain. This phenomenon is owing to the projection of
blood into the arteries of the brain. Some phyfiologifts,
as Senac, Bordeu, and Bichat, confider that it arifes ne

the

Recherches, &c. p. 165—
ection of their great work,

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

the great arterial trunks being placed at the bafis of the
brain, between the latter organ and the bone; as their dif-
tention is refifted by the fkuil below, it elevates the brain
above, juft as a tumour placed over a large artery is raifed
by the pulfation of the veffel, and as the whole lower limb
is elevated by the influx of blood into the popliteal artery,
when a perfon fits with one knee acrofs the other.

It is an opinion of Bichat, that the impulfe eommuni-
cated to the brain by this motion of the arteries, is effential
to the funétions of the former; and he explains the death,
confequent on tying all the four arteries of the brain, by the
interruption of this impulfe. See Hearr; fixth column
from the end. -

This motion of the brain was afcribed, about the be-
ginning of the laft ceutury, to a contraction and relaxation
of the dura mater, to the fibres of which a power of con-
traGtion was granted for this purpofe. If the faé& of the in-
timate and univerfal adhefion of this membrane to the cra-
nium had not been fufficient to fhew them the abfurdity of the
opinion, it might have been refuted by the no lefs obvious
circumftance that the motion in queftion is exhibited juift
the fame when the dura mater is removed from the furface.
It muft greatly diminifh our confidence in names, when we
learn that an hypothefis, fo contrary to all the facts, was
received with great and almoft unanimous applaufe ; and
fupported by Baglivi, Pacchioni, Miftichelli, Lancifi, Fred.
Hoffmann, Santorini, Valfalva, and the fchool of Stahl.

Another kind of motion has been obferved in the brain,
not conftant like the former, but occafional, and fynchro-
nous with the refpirations. When we interrupt our breath-
ing, as in ftraining, or any violent efforts, the blood is col-
leGted in the venous fyftem, ahd produces rednefs and venous
diftention over the head and neck. The internal veffels are
affeGted in the fame way as the external. Haller afferts that
the brain rifes at each exfpiration, and fubfides at the fol-
lowing infpiration; and that this motion may be perceived
in the infant before the fontanell is clofed, or in man or
animals, in whom the brain has been expofed. ‘There is fo
little fign of venous diftention in natural refpiration, that
we can hardly expeét what has been juft deferibed to be a
conftant phenomenon; although it is eafily conceivable that
in coughing, crying loudly, holding the breath for fome
time, &c. a vifible elevation fhould occur ; that the finufes
fhould fwell, blood or matter be forced out from a wound
of the brain, &c.

Senfibility of the Brain.—The cortical fubftance of the
organ may be cut, pricked, or irritated by chemical ftimuli,
without the animal giving any figns of pain. Yet the
preflure of a little blood, pus, or f{plinter of bone, on the
furface of the brain, and other caufes of that defcription,
often produce very fevere fufferings. The refult of experi-
ments on animals has led phy fiologifts to confider the cortex
infenfible. Haller Elem. Phyfiol. t. iv. p. 314.

If the inftrument reach the white fubftance of the brain,
figns of pain are obferved; but thefe are very obfcure on
the convexities of the hemifpheres. When you penetrate
deeper, the animal cries and is convulfed ; and thefe figns are
increafed in degree, in proportion to the depth of the injury.
The pain is never fo acute as when the medullary fub{tance
of a nerve is irritated. The confequences of injury or dif
eafe of the medullary fubftance in man are analogous to
thefe effeéts of violence in animals. We find that tumours,
abfceffes, effufions of blood, pus or water, fungufes, &e.
excite the moft excruciating pains.

A confiderable quantity of the fubftance of the brain,
including. both cortical and medullary matter, has often been
loft in confequence of injury; yet the individual has re-

covered perfe& health, and complete enjoyment of all his
intelleGtual faculties. In experiments on animals, where the
quantity of brain deftroyed exceeds a certain limit, the op-
pofite fide of the body is paralyfed; and fheep with hydatids
in the brain exhibit the fame phenomenon. Dogs of a
middling ftature may lofe from 50 to 70 grains of cerebral
fubftance and recover; rabbits hardly 6, fowls and pigeons
12. After fuch wounds convulfions take place, difficult
breathing with widely opened mouth, confiderable fecretion
of faliva, and indications of great pain. If the wound reach
the ventricles, death quickly enfues. Where an animal fur-
vives the lofs of a portion of the brain, a yellowifh foft fub-
ftance rifes up, and fills the vacancy ; a limit can be eafily
perceived, diftinguifhing this from the proper fubftance of
the brain. The ventricle at the fame time is expanded to-
wards the wound. Soemmerring, de Corp. Hum. Fab. t. iv.
Pp: 113; note 7.

The brain is the feat of fenfation, or the point to which
all impreffions, whether external or internal, are conveyed :
it is the organ of the mind, or the place in which the intel-
leGtual operations are carried on; and it is the fource
of volition, or the part from which the determinations
of the will are fent to the voluntary mufcles. If the brain
be found, any part of the body, any limb, any inteftine,
any organ of fenfe, even the fpinal marrow, may be injured
or difeafed, without the power of perception, thinking,
remembering, willing, &c. being affeGted. On the con-
trary, injuries and difeafes of the brain fufpend or entirely
deftroy the powers juft mentioned. Preffure on its furface,
as by effufed blood or pus, by depreffed bone, by the finger
of an experimenter, by tumours, &c. make the individual
infenfible to all external objeéts, and incapable of motion,
although the organs of fenfe, the mufcles, and the nerves are
all found. After a blow on the head, or a ftroke of apo-
plexy, you may pinch or cut the fkin, bring-a light to the eye,
or make a loud noife, and nothing is perceived: the limbs
and trunk are motionlefs, like thofe of a dead body. Irri-
tation of the organ, as by inflammation, generally increafes the
fenfibility ; allimpreffions on the fenfes produce a more lively
effect: but the mental operations are generally fufpended.

The preceding obfervations apply principally to caufes
affeting the organ fuddenly, as in injuries or apoplexy.
When the preflure comes on more flowly, as in hydrocephalus,
or in tumours or abfceffes produced very gradually, the
functions are often not difturbed, although the difeafe be
confiderable. Again, the brain has a great power of ac-
commodation ; fo that fenfation and volition, which are at
firit fufpended in apoplexy, gradually return, although the
effufed blood ftill remains. When the preflure is removed,
when the blood or pus is evacuated, the depreffed bone re-
ftored to its former level, or the difeafed ttate of the organ
remedied, the fun&tions of the fenfes, the mind, and the will
are recovered.

In fome cafes, injury or difeafe of the brain is followed by
more partial lofs of its powers : as lofs of {peech, fight,
hearing, memory, &c. Concuffion of the organs has been
followed by fatuity, although fenfation and volition were
perfect: Haller mentions a man, who remained an idiot
for eighteen months, from depreffion’of the parietal bone,
and recovered when this was removed. (Loc. cit. p. 317.)
The inftances of particular fenfes being deftroyed, when the
brain is comprefled or difeafed near the origins of their re-
{peétive nerves, are numerous,

We have thewn, that the impreffions of external objeéts on
the organs of fenfe are conveyed to the brain, and that the
caufe of motion paffes from that organ through the nerves
to all the mufcles of the body. Some have fufpected that

all

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

all parts of the organ are not equally concerned in thefe
funétions, and that the whole brain is not neceflary in the
butfinefs of fenfation: they found that extenfive injuries and
difeafes were fuffered, and the individuals neverthelefs reco-
vered with entire poffeffion of their fenfes, memory, intellec-
tual faculties, and volition. This point is moft fully efta-
blifhed by an immenfe collection of examples in Haller’s
great work. (lib. x. fe&. 7. § 32.) Hence different phyfi-
ologilts have endeavoured to fix the feat of the foul to fome
particular fpot of the brain: but there is no part, which has
not been often found either greatly injured or deftroyed by
difeafe, without material affection of the powers of fenfation,
&e. Thus the corpus callofum, which feveral anatomifts
fixed on as the part effential to the funétions of the brain,
was wounded in animals by Zinn, with no other effeéts
than fuch as wounds of the brain in general produce: the
power of fenfation and voluntary motion remained for many
hours and days after fuch injuries. (Haller, loc. cit. § 33
and 34.) Nor is there any more fatisfa@tory proof that the
cerebellum ought to be regarded as the organ of the foul, or
as eflentially neceffary to life. ‘The common notion of the
greater danger attending injuries and difeafes, of this part is
unfounded ; and Haller fhews clearly, that both in it, and
in the cerebrum, the flighter injuries are not very dangerous,
while more ferious ones are ufually fatal. (Ibid. § 35 and 36.)
The pretenfions of the pineal gland, centrum ovale, &c.
to the honour of lodging the foul, are not more clearly made
eut.

Preffure or difeafe on one fide of the brain deftroys the
power of motion inthe oppofite fide of the body, and this
kind of paralytis, which attends apoplexy, as well as various
Injuries and difeafes of the brain, is called hemiplegia. The
nerves of fenfation are not in general affected in thefe exam-
ples, like. thofe of motion: the eye, the ear, the nofe, and
the tongue ufually retain their powers, although the vo-
luntary mufcles of the fame fide are completely paralyfed.
The fkin, too, which is fupplied by the fame nerves as the
mufcles, is ftill more or lefs fenfible. . Even thofe nerves,
which are concerned in mere motion, as the 3d, 4th, and
6th pairs, which go to the mufcles of the eyes, have their
powers but little affe€ted ; and this is more remarkable in
the fixth or abductors, which originate from the upper part
of the medulla oblongata, and therefore may be regarded as
fimilarly fituated with the gloflopharyngeal and the hypo-
gloffal nerves, both which are affeéted by preffure on the op-
pofite fide of the brain. As all the voluntary mufcles of the
fide are paralyfed in hemiplegia, the nerves implicated are
‘thofe of the {pinal marrow, the hypogloffal, acceflory, glof-
fopharyngeal, facial, and trigeminus.

In experiments on living animals, the mufcles are con-
vulfed on the fide which is injured, and paralyfed on the op-
pofite fide. Sometimes, however, it happens that the para-
lyfis occurs on the fame fide, and the convulfions on the
oppofite.

“ Denique,”’ fays Haller, ‘ etfi plerumque utique in decuf-
fim paralyfis poft cerebri vitia fuccedit, non tamen perpetua
eft alcernatio, et ex{tant exempla non rariffima, in quibus in
affe&to utique latere mufculi refoluti fuerunt, tum in cerebelli
abfceffu. A fraétura cranii paralyfis lateris affecti et more.
Poft hemiplegium crus medullofum lateris refoluti flaccidum
fuit. Ab ulcere cerebri, et abfceffu, hemiplegia lateris
affeGti, tum ex fungo cerebri delapfo. et cerebro confumpto.
A finu cerebri convulfio lateris alterni, affeéti vero paralytis.””
Loc. cit. p. 333-

It niay be inquired whether this paralyfis of the oppofite
fide bea circumftance belonging to affections of all parts of
the encephalon, The effeéts of preflure on either hemifphere

in producing paralyfis of the oppofite fide of the body have
been noticed by almoft every pathological writer fince the
time of Hippocrates ; and hence has been deduced the gene-
ral law as to the whole encephalon. The preceding quota-
tion from Haller makes it doubtful whether this {ee
happens.

Injuries and morbid changes of the cerebellum: are fo much
lefs ees the fubjeéts of obfervation, than thofe of the
cerebrum, that we cannot fpeak with much certainty on this
point. Morgagni has cafes, in which the paralyfis. was
on the oppofite fide; but Bianchi faw the fame fide af-
fected.

In the firft vol. of the Medico-chirurgical TranfaGtions,
Dr. Yelloly has related a cafe, in which a tumour preffing on
the tuberculum annulare caufed paralyfis of the oppolite
fide of the body, and of the abdutor mufcle of the eye of
the fame fide, the nerve of which it alfo compreffed.

We cannot explain how this phenomenon takes place : the
decuffation of the corpora pyramidalia is inadequate to the
folution, becaufe a very {mall part of the chord is involved
in that decuffation; and, even if this were otherwife,
it would only account for the phenomenon in the nerves
below the decuffation, whereas thofe above it are equally
concerned.

The lofs of motion is fometimes partial : the face may be
affe&ted, when the limbs are not, and vice veil, This,
as wellas many other phenomena, in which the funétions of
fenfation and motion are difturbed, is quite inexplicable.

For an account of the influence which the brain exerts
over the mufeles, both of the voluntary and involuntary
kinds, fee Muscre.

A though the fenfations, and the voluntary motions are
fubjeG& to the influence of the brain, and cannot be carried
on without that influence, the involuntary organs are very
differently circumftanced. When the aétion of the brain has
fuffered a complete intermiffion, asin fleep, and when, confe-
quently, the fenfes and voluntary mufcles are quite inert, the
heart ftill contraéts, the motions of the alimentary canal go
on, all the fecretions and exhalatidns, and the bufinefs of
nutrition, are not at all interrupted. Again, whena {troke of
apoplexy or depreffion of the fkull has fuddenly annihilated
the power of fenfation and motion, and thus has cut off
the connection with the external world, the procefles of the
internal life {till continue, refpiration, circulation, digeftion,
abforption, &c. go on, and fupport life until the brain has
recovered from the mifchief. The independence of the heart
upon the brain has been placed in the cieareft point of view
by Mr, Brodie, in the papers which, we fhall quote prefently.
This geotleman found that when an animal was pithed,
by dividing the fpinal marrow in the upper part of the neck,
ref{piration was immediately deftroyed, but the heart ftill con-
tinued to contraét circulating dark-coloured blood, and that
in fome inftances from ten to fifteen minutes elapfed before
its aétion had entirely ceafed. When the head was removed,
the divided veflels being fecured by aligature, the circulation
{till continued, apparently unaffected by the entire feparation
of the brain. When refpiration was artificially maintained,
by a pipe introduced into the trachea, after the head had
been cut off, the contractions of the heart were main-
tained for one and two hours, and even longer. The
acephalous foetufes, which attain their full growth in
the uterus, and poffefs all. their other organs in perfect fize
and ftruéture, without a brain, fhew that nutrition, fe-
cretion, and abforption, are not under the influence of this
organ,

The generation of animal heat, which hitherto has been

referred to re{piration, is,very much influenced by the Peat
ter

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

After dividing the medulla fpinalis under the occiput, and
the nerves of the neck, or after cutting off the head entirely,

Mr. Brodie maintained artificial re{piration by means of a tube

tied in the trachea. The action of the heart was continued,
and the blood underwent its ufual change from the venous
to the arterial ftate, and vice verfé. ‘The air employed in
refpiration alfo exhibited the change that occurs in common
breathing; viz. the removal of its oxygenous portion, and
the fubftitution of carbonic acid gas in its place. Yet the
animals on whom thefe experiments were performed, cooled
falter than thofe which were killed, and expofed to the fame
temperature. In an experiment on two rabbjts of the fame
fize, in which they both had the medulla quinalia divided,
and artificial refpiration was afterwards maintained in one,
while the other was merely left to cool, the thermometer in
the reGtum ftood, at 30 minutes after the operation, at 97;
at 60 min. at 943 at gomin. at gr; and at roo min. at
go}, in the former: in the latter, the temperatures at thefe
periods were refpettively, 99, 964, 94, and 93.

See the Croopian leéture on fome phyfiological refearches
re{peGting the influence of the brain on the a@tion of the
heart, and on the generation of animal heat ; Philof, Tranf-
1811, pt. 1, And further experiments and obfervations
on the influence of the brain on the generation of animal
heat; Philof. Tranf. 1812, pt. 2.

Towards the end of the latter paper, this gentleman ob-
ferves, that his experiments “ warrant the conclufion, that
in an animal in which the brain has ceafed to exercife its
funGions, although refpiration continues to be performed,
and the circulation of the blood is kept up to the natural
ftandard, although the ufual changes in the fenfible qualities
of the blood take place in the two capillary fyftems, and

the fame quantity of carbonic acid is formed, as under ordi-

nary circumftances, no heat is generated, and (in confe-
quence of the cold air thrown into the lungs) the animal
cools more rapidly than one which is aGtually dead.”? Mr.
Brodie’s experiments tend to eftablifh the conclufion, ‘ that
the influence of the nervous fyftem is not neceffary to the
produétion of the chemical changes, which the blood under-
goes in confequence of expofure to the air in the lungs.
He notices fome experiments of Mr. Dupuytren, which lead
to a different refult. After dividing the nerves of the par
vagum, this phyfiologift found “ that the blood returned
from the lungs had a darker colour than natural, and that
the animals on whom this operation is performed, die fooner
or later with fymptoms of afphyxia, notwithftanding the air
continues to enter the lungs; and hence he concludes, that
the changes which are produced on the blood in refpiration,
are not the refult of a mere chemical procefs, but are de-
pendent on the nervous influence, and ceafe to take place
when the communication between the lungs and the brain is
dettroyed. Mr, Provengal, in profecuting this inquiry, afcer-
tained that the animals fubje¢ted to this experiment give out
lefs carbonic acid than before. Mr. Blainville obferved,
that the frequency of the infpirations is much diminifhed ;
and Mr. Dumas reftored the fearlet colour of the arterial
blood by artificially inflating the lungs ; and from thefe and
other circumftances, he has arrived at conclufions very dif-
ferent from thofe of Mr. Dupuytren. My own obfervations
(fays Mr. Brodie) exa&ly correfpond with thofe of M. M.
Dumas and Blainville. After the nerves of the par vagum
are divided, a lefs quantity of carbonic acid is evolved, the
infpirations are much diminifhed in frequency, and the blood
in the arteries of the general fyftem affumes a darker hue ;
but its natural colour may be reftored by artificially inflating
the lungs, fo as to furnifh a greater fupply of air to the
blood circulating through them, We may fuppofe, that on

the divifion of thefe nerves, the fenfibility of the lungs is
either extremely impaired, or altogether deftroyed, fo that
the animal does not feel the fame defire to draw in frefh air;
in confequence, his infpirations become lefs frequent than
natural, and hence arife the phenomena produced by this
operation.

The faéts contained in the two papers, Mr. Brodie con-
tinues, ‘go far towards proving, that the temperature of
warm-blooded animals is confiderably under the influence of
the nervous fyftem; but what is the nature of the connec-
tion between them? Is the brain directly or indire@ly ne-
ceffary to the produétion of heat? Thefe are queftions, to
which no anfwers can be given, except {uch as are purely
hypothetical. At prefent we muft be content with the
knowledge of the infulated fa&t; future obfervations may,
perhaps, enable us to refer it to fome more general principle.
We have evidence, that when the brain ceafes to exercife its
funétions, although thofe of the heart and lungs continue to
be performed, the animal lofes the power of generating heat.
It would, however, be abfurd to argue from this fact, that
the chemical changes of the blood in the lungs, are in no
way neceflary to the preduétion of heat, fince we know of
no inftance in which it continues to take place, after refpira-
tion has ceafed.”’

Concerning the mode in which the brain operates in per-
ceiving, refleGting, and willing, as about the manner in which
the nerves convey the impreflions made on the fenies to the
brain, and the commands of the will from the brain to the
mufcles, we are profoundly ignorant ; not indeed for want
of attempts at explanation, for they have been abundant in
all ages of phyfiology; but becaufe the operations are not
cognifable by our fenfes, any more than thofe which take
place in matter, when it exhibits the phenomena of gravita-
tion, eleétricity, magnetifm, &c. We refer thofe, who are
inclined to look over the hypothetic dreams about thefe
matters, to the Elementa Phyfiologie of Haller. He has
wifely feparated them, under the title of “* conjeGture,” from
the “‘ phenomena vivi cerebri;’? and he introduces them
with the following obfervation; ‘non perinde facile fuerit,
ab errore fibi in iis cavere, que nunc dicenda fuperfunt.
Eorum pars minima fenfibus patet, reliquam ex colle¢tis nu-
dique probabilibus argumentis eruere oportet, quorum tanta
fit vis, ut nobis fpem faciat ruri, non ea vero conftantia, ut
ad alium convincendum fufficiat. A nervis facimus hujus
dubti fermonis initium.’? Lib. x. fe&. 8.

From the experiments of Mr. Brodie, which we have re-
lated above, it appears clearly, that the brain exerts no im-
mediate influence on the heart and lungs; but that thofe
organs continue to execute their funétions, when artificial
refpiration is employed, for fome hours after the brain has
been removed. ‘The brain, howeyer, has the means of in-
fluencing the lungs, as it is néceffary to the aétion of the
mufcles employed in refpiration ; and through the lungs it
affe@ts the heart. For a particular account of the mode in
which thefe three important organs aét on each other,
in producing death, fee Dreatu, Hearr, and Lunes.
We have only to add here, the manner in which, according
to Bichat, the phenomena of general death fucceed, when
it begins in the brain, , 1. Annihilation of the action of
the brain. 2. Sudden ceffation of the fenfations and vo-
luntary motions. 3. Paralyfis of the diaphragm and inter-
coftal mufcles. 4. Interruption of the mechanical pheno-
mena of refpiration, and confequently of the voice. 5. In-
terruption of the chemical phenomena, 6. Paflage of black
blood into the fy{tem of red blood. 7. Retardation of the
circulation by the contaé of this blood with the heart and
arteries, and by the abfolute immobility of all the parts, par-

ticularly

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

ticularly of the cheft. 8. Death of the heart, and ceffation
of the general circulation. 9. Interruption of the organic
life, particularly in thofe parts which are habitually pene-
trated by black blood. ro. Abolition of animal heat, which
is the produce of all the funétions, 11. Termination of the
aGtion of the white organs, which die more flowly than other
parts, becaufe their fluids are more independent of the gene-
ral circulation.

The application to the ftomach, or re&tum, or to the fur-
face of a wound, of various poifons, caufes death by their
ation on the brain. Opium, alcohol, effential oil of bitter
almonds, empyreumatic oil of tobacco, and juice of aconite,
are of this number, and probably many others. Life may
be prolonged by keeping up refpiration artificially in thefe
cafes; and in fome inftances this procefs has enabled the
animal to recover from the effe&ts produced on the brain.
OF mineral poifons, arfenic, emetic tartar, and muriate of
barytes, aét on the brain, but they at alfo on other organs.
For further particulars on thefe fubje&s, and efpecially for
an account of the very interefting refearches of Mr, Brodie,
contained in the Philofophical T'ranfaGtions for 1811 and
1812, fee Porsons.

Of the Nerves——Thefe organs have generally been re-
garded by anatomifts as all of one kind, both in ftru€ture
and funGtions ; they have been confidered every where as
defigned to eftablifh a communication, for the purpofes of
fenfation and volition, between the brain and the organs of
our body. More accurate inquiry fhews, that there are nu-
merous differences of colour, ftrength, form, and interior
organifation between the particular nerves; and the analo-
gies furnifhed by the lower orders of the animal kingdom,
lead us to doubt whether fome of them depend at all on the
brain in the execution of their fun@ions. Thefe circum-
ftances are contidered at greater length in the preceding re-
view of the dottrines of Gall. We have to notice here, the
arrangement of Bichat, which, although not rigoroufly
correét, points out a broad general diftin@ion of the
nervous fyftem, in refpeét to fome of its leading phenomena.
He divides it into two parts, having for their refpective
centres; one, the brain and its dependences ; the other, the
ganglia. The former, belonging to the animal life, confifts
of the encephalon, medulla fpinalis, and nerves conneéted
with thofe organs, and is the agent by which external im-
preflions, deitined to produce fenfations, are tran{mitted to
tke brain, and by which the volitions Pra from the
latter organ are conveyed to the voluntary mufcles. The
latter, including the ganglia and the nerves belonging to
them, is almoft every where diftributed to the organs of di-
geftion, circulation, refpiration, and the fecretions, belongs
to the organic life, and executes a much more obfcure office
than the other. He calls the firft the nervous fyftem of the
animal, and the latter, that of the organic life. The cere-
bral nerves, however, fend fome branches to the glands, in-
voluntary mufcles, &c. ; while filaments from the ganglia
proceed fometimes to voluntary mufcles. Again, the nume-
rous nerves included under each of thefe claffes differ from
each other in many refpeéts.

The nervous fyftem of the animal life is fymmetrical, like
all the organs of this life; but the correfpondence of the
two fides is not always rigoroufly exa&. A line drawn
through the middle of the brain and f{pinal marrow, would
divide them into right and left fimilar halves, and correfpond-
ing nerves would be conneéted with each of them. Hence
arifes the expreffion “ pair of nerves,”” which denotes the
correfponding trunks of the right and left fides; an expreffion,
which, in general, is inapplicable to the nerves of the gan-
glia. We may {tate then that there are two animal nervous

Vor. XXIV.

fyftems; a right and a left, feparated by the median line.
The diftin€tion is rendered apparent, not only by diffeétion,
but by difeafes: one half of the body may be paralyfed, or
fubjeéted to convulfions, while the other is unaffeGed.

General Account of the Origins, Courfe, and Diftribution of
the Nerves. —When we fteak of a nerve arifing or deriving
its origin from the brain and {pinal marrow, running, pafling,
or proceeding through various parts, dividing into branches,
being continued, prolonged, or feparated, having a ferpen-
tine courfe, &c. thefe expreflions are employed merely for
the purpofe of defcribing pofition and conne¢tion, of point.
ting out the mechanical arrangement of the parts; and not
to exprefs any fucceffion in the formation, or any dependence
of one organ on another. There would be juft as much
propriety in defcribing the olfactory nerve to arife or begin
at the pituitary membrane, and to end in the brain, as in the
ordinary method, in which this order is inverted. That the
nerves, which are conneCted both to the brain and medulla
fpinalis, are formed quite independently of thofe parts, is
evinced by the inftances of monftrous fatufes, in which thefe
organs are wanting, yet the different nerves are perfeét.
See Monster.

The origins of the nerves are very different; and the
nerves themfelves exhibit very different appearances in their
commencements. The third, fourth, fifth, and facial nerves
adhere fo flightly to the brain at their conneétion with its
furface, that a very little force detaches them; the other
cerebral nerves are more ftrongly conne&ted, and thofe of the
{pinal marrow are firmly attached to that organ. Some
arife hy numerous threads, which may either come off fepa-
rately, or in one body; others by one mafs of white fub-
ftance. Some are very foft, others firm, &c. The dura
mater lines the foramina, through which they proceed from
the fkull; the arachnoid forms a procefs furrounding each
nerve, and is then reflected to the dura mater. The length
of the nerves within the cranium and the vertebral canal,
and their dire€tion, are various. All thefe points will be
more minutely confidered in the defcription of the particu-
lar nerves.

Some of the nerves of the brain proceed to their refpe@-
ive organs without communicating with any other nerve; ¢. g,
the olfactory, optic, auditory, trochlearis. The par va-
gum, gloflopharyngeal, acceffory, and hypogloffal nerves
are joined, immediately on leaving the head, to the furround-
ing trunks. But thefe communications are the moft re-
markable in the fpinal nerves; the cervical, brachial, lumbar,
and fciatic plexufes refult from thefe unions. A fimilar
kind of plexus is formed by the conftituent nervous filaments
of each trunk. If you examine the cords that make up a
large fpinal nerve, and feparate them, you will find that
they are not fimply applied laterally to each other, but that
they frequently interchange branches. Each cord of a
nervous trunk confifts of filaments, fome of which are fre-
quently detached from one cord and goto another. Inboth
the kinds of communication now defcribed, there is fimply
juxtapofition of the nervous trunks or filaments, and not con-
fufion of them.

After forming the communications juft defcribed, the
nervous trunks Pirate from each other, and proceed to
their refpective organs, pafling through the cellular inter-
ftices in a longer or fhorter courfe. Their form is gene-
rally round ; but it may be flattened, as in the fciatic. This
does not feem to influence their funétions; as a naturally
round nervé flattened by a tumour performs its funétions in
the ufual way. The trunks vary in length, according to
the diftance of the parts to which they are diftributed:
fometimes they go with the arteries and veins; fometimes

Pies by alone.

NERVOUS

alone. As they proceed, they fend off branches, which
produce others, and fo on until they are reduced to
very fine twigs, that can hardly be traced by the naked
eye. The angles of thefe divifions are very various ;
but the acute is the moft common. At thefe branch-
ings a certain number of cords or twigs is feparated
from the trunk: hence the former are longer or fhorter in
proportion as they arife later or fooner from the nerve,
Tn the limbs moft of the nervous branches are accempanied
by an artery and a vein: but there are many exceptions to
this rule in the head and trunk: fo that we cannot attach
any importance, in the funéticns, to this juxtapofition.

The {mall branches end in two different ways: they com-
municate with other nerves, or are loft in the organs.

The communications already noticed are fimple juxta-
pofitions: the filaments of one nerve join another, and con-
cur with them in conftituting the trunk. This is the moft
common kind of conneétion. But there is another, analo-
gous to the anaftomofes of blood-veflels, in which two
branches from two diftin@ nerves meet and join together.
This is feen in the union of the hypogloffal and cervical, of
the facial and infraorbitary. Here the nervous filaments
are continued into each other. The different branches of
the fame nerve may communicate together, as in the trige-
minus. It is faid that the right and left pairs are joined at
the median line in the chin and neck; but it is not eafy to
demontftrate this.

The nerves of the animal communicate with thofe of the
erganic fyftem. .

The terminations of the nerves in the organs prefent con-
fiderable varieties: the fkin, mufcles, and mucous fy{tems
have many nerves; the cellular and glandular fyftems fewer.
In the ferous, medullary, and part of the fibrous fyftem,
we know little of them. Tendons, cartilage, hair, epider-
mis, &c. have none.

We do not know what form the nerves aflume at their
terminations; whether they lay afide the neurilema, fo as
to form a pulpy expanfion, or not. The former is evi-
dently the cafe with the optic and auditory nerves.

Organifation of the Nerves of the Animal Life.—We have
only a few points to add to the general account in the ar-
ticle Brai. :

The threads compofing a nervous trunk differ in fize
in the different nerves: in the fciatic and crural they are
more flender than in the brachial nerves. Some, as the
nervus vagus, confift of a fingle cord marked with grooves,
‘The cords may be of uniform or of different fize. ‘The optic
does not exhibit that interior intertexture which we have
mentioned above. Thefe, and many other circumftances,
which have been chiefly noticed by Reil, fhew that there
are great differences in the internal arrangement of the
nerves ; that each hath fomething peculiar, and, confequently,
that they cannot be compared to arteries or veins, which
are alike every where.

‘The ‘neurilema, fays Bichat, forms to each nervous
filament a true canal containing the medullary {ubftance, as
the veins and arteries contain blood, with this difference,
that the former ftagnates, while the latter circulates.”

This membrane 13 continuous with that covering of the
medulla fpinalis which is called its pia mater. Hence,
if the medulla be f{queezed out of the fpinal marrow, the
nerves remain conneéted to its pia mater. A fimilar con-
ne¢tion feems to fubfift in the head; for the nerves are ge-
nerally torn away when the pia mater is detached. he
optic before itsjuntion and the olfactory have no neurilema ;
the former acquires the covering after the union; the canals
are bieticdlarty large in it, and the medullary fub{tance

SYSTEM.

therefore abundant. The neurilema bears confiderable ana-
logy to the pia mater. Arifing in the way we have men-
tioned, it accompanies the nerves in their paflage through
the foramina of the head and vertebral canal. It is of the
fame nature on the outfide as within, but it is here fur-
rounded by cellular fubftance.

The. neurilema exhibits the phenomenon of crifpation or
corrugation in a very remarkable degree, particularly on im-
merting a nerve in tolerably ftrong fulphuric or nitric acid.
The nerve is immediately contracted in fize, and twilted in
different direétions. Boiling water has an analogous effec.
But continued ebullition or immerfion in acid foftens it and
produces a yellowifh tint; at laft it is almoft diffolved.
Water hardens it at firft, and this effe& lafts for a month
and a half: the nerve is afterwards foftened, like all other
animal tiflues.

The denfity of its tiffue renders it very ftrong: hence,
a flender nerve will bear a great weight, becaufe this mem-
brane compofes aconfiderable part of the whele cord.

The meduliary fubftance is very abundant in the optic
nerve ; alfo in the auditory. It compofes the whole of the
optic behind the junétion, as well as the entire olfaéto
nerve within the cranium. In the latter cavity, the medulla
of the nerves in general feems to predominate over the neu-
rilema; while on the outfide thefe proportions are reverfed.
Hence the nerves are weaker within the fkull than with-
out.

The great power of the nerves to refift gangrene during
life, and putrefaGtion after death, feems to be owing to the
neurilema. The water, in which they are macerated, has
very little fetor; while that of the brain is very offenfive,

The medullary fubftance of the nerves or brain is not
fufceptible of corrugation by acids or hot water; but, ‘in
confequence of the contra¢tion of the neurilema, the me-
dulla is expreffed from the cut end, fo as to form a {mall
rounded tubercle.

Bichat enters at confiderable length into a parallel be-
tween the medullary fubftance of the nerves and of the
brain; and expofes, in a comparative view, the effects of
different chemical agents on each. ‘The refult of the’ whole
is, that there is great general refemblance; but the great
proportion of neurilema in moft of the nerves occations
them to exhibit very different phenomena from the brain
under the application of chemical agents.

The nerves have no cellular fubftance on the infide of the
cranium and f{pine; but contain much of it in other parts.
A copious ftratum ufually conneéts them to the furround-
ing parts. The fame tiffue joins together the different
cords of the nerve; and this generally contains fat in the
large nerves, always in the fciatic, as may be fhewn by dry-
ing them. A finer kind of tiflue conneéts together the
minute filaments.

We have no remarks on the blood-veflels of the nerves
to add to what is flated in the article Brain. The func-
tion of nutrition proves the exiftence of exhalants and ab-
forbents. Bichat doubts the correétnefs of the opinion,
which afligns to the neurilema the office of fecreting the
medulla of the nerves. He conceives that this membrane
fupports and proteéts the medullary part; that the veffels
are firft minutely ramified in it, and then enter the latter
fubftance, as thofe of the brain are difpofed on the pia
mater before they go into its fubftance: and that thefe in-
terior veflels in both cafes depofit the materials of the organ.
He obferves, that the olfactory, and a part of the optic
nerve within the cranium have no neurilema.

Properties of the Nervous Syftem of the Animal Life. —A
nerve poffeffes very little extenfibility ; when force is Re

2 plie

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

plied to it in a living animal, it can hardly be ftretched be-
yond its natural ftate. This is probably owing to the neu-
tilema, for the medullary fubftance undergoes a great ex-
tenfion in hydrocephalus. When a large nervous trunk is
preffled on by a tumour, its fibres are feparated, and it af-
fumes a flattened form; in which ftate, according to the
degree of preffure, it either continues or ceafes to tranf{mit
fenfations and volitions. Sudden diftention a&ts much more
efficacioufly in interrupting thefe fun&tions, than that which
comes on gradually. Thus the preffure of the head of the
bone in diflocation of the humerus caufes numbnefs of the
limb, when a much more confiderable tumour in the axilla
has no fuch effect. A flight depreffion of the cranium
from a fra€ture difturbs all the funGtions of the brain, when
large {wellings, fungufes, &c. of flow growth hardly exert
any fenfible operation. A fimilar contra{t is feen in the
fudden effufion of a little fluid in the ventricles, and the
enormous colleétions of chronic hydrocephalus.

There is ftill lefs contraétility : when a nerve is cut tranf-
verfely, the two ends are hardly feparated.

The fenfibility of the nerves is to be confidered under two
points of view: rft, that which is inherent in them; 2dly,
their concern in the fenfibility of other organs.

The effe& produced in the mind, when any foreign body
ats on our organs of fenfe, or on any parts of the frame

‘poffeffing nerves; or when certain internal changes of an
unknown nature are produced in our organs, is called a
fenfation. The nature of the mind being unknown to us,
as well as the impreffions, ations, motions, or whatever
they may be, of the nervous fyftem, which produce mental
phenomena, we cannot arrive at a more clofe definition or
defcription of fenfation than what we have juft given.
« Sentire hic dicimus,”’ fays Haller, ‘ populari omnino fignifi-
catione ejus vocis ufi, quamcunque mentis noftre muta-
tionem, que ex corporis humani cum mente connexi con-
ta&tu oritur.’’—‘‘Sentit adeo nervus, nempe fi a corpore
quocungue contingatur, nafcitur in anima mutatio, per quam
ejas contaétus confcia redditur.’’ (Elem. Phyfiol. lib. x.
fe&.6. §, 1.) This effeét is caufed not only by the conta&
of the groffer kinds of matter, but alfo by thofe, of which
the exiftence is not immediately obvious to the fenfes: fuch
as light, eleCtric fluid, the air and its modifications produc-
ing found, &c. According to the violence of the impreffion,
the ftate of the organ, &c. fenfations may be pleafurable,
painful or indifferent.

Generally, the body caufing a fenfation is not in imme-
diate contact with the nerve. The furface of the body has
an infenfible external covering. The nerves of the teeth
feel through the fubftance of thefe organs. In the eye and
ear there is a large apparatus between the nerve and the
part impreffed : in the nofe and mouth the furface is covered
by mucus. Thefe media are neceffary to fome kind of fen-
fation: when the cuticle is removed, acute pain is felt by
the conta& of foreign bodies, but their properties are not
difeerned. If the tongue be made quite dry, taftes are not
perceived. Again, different alterations in the condition of
the organ modify the fenfation: the flighteft conta&
is acutely painful, when a part is inflamed; the ftream
of water is not felt in the healthy urethra, but is intolerably
painful when that canal is inflamed, &c.

The different nerves are affeéted by different kinds of
impreffions ; and each is infenfible to thofe which aé& on
others. Light is perceived only by the optic; it affe&ts no
other nerve in any form. The loudeft found produces no
fenfation in the nerves of the eyes, tongue, fkin, &c.

Animal fenfibility is the moft ftrongly marked property

in thefe organs: the acuteft pain is produced, when they
are expofed and irritated, as on a bliftered furface, or by
tying, ftretching, pricking, cauterifing, er applying che-
mical ftimuli to denuded nerves. We cannot hefitate much
in referring this fenfibility to the medulla of the norves;
for fimple contaé, without any preffure, is hardly painful,
and the filaments may be actually feparated in a large nerve,
by very careful diffection, with little pain to the animal.
But the moment that the inftrument penetrates, acute pain
is produced.

This property of animal fenfibility is gradually exhautted
by repeated excitement in experiments; and ‘then is re-
newed after fome interval of reft. The animal fenfibility of
the nerves is different in its kind from that of other organs ;
at leaft, the feelings produced when thefe organs are the
fource of diforder are altogether peculiar, ‘This is feen
in the tic douleureux; in the fciatica, as compared with
rheumatifm ; and in the tingling and numbnefs caufed by
preflure on nervous trunks, as in the familiar example of
the foot going to fleep when the great {ciatic is compreffed,
&e.

Another peculiarity in the nerves is, that local irritation
of a trunk often affeéts all the branches; if the ulnar nerve
is ftruck or compreffed at the elbow, we feel it in the
fingers, and the whole leg and foot are affected when the
{ciatic is compreffed in fitting. When a fuperficial nerve is
injured, the whole lower part of the limb frequently fwells
and becomes painful. A ligature has not the fame effect ;
for that intercepts the communication with the brain. Why
is this difturbance always propagated downwards, and never
towards the brain, which is the ordinary courfe of fenfation ?
In the arterial, venous, abforbing, mucous fyftems, &c,
we have no examples of this propagation of irritation.

The nerves are effential to the animal fenfibility of the
other organs; external impreflions, whether of that general
kind common to all the external furface of the body, or
the particular ones confined exclufively to the organs of
fenfe, produce no effeét, unlefs the nerves are found and
communicating with the brain. If the optic, auditory, or
any other nerve be compreffed, tied, divided, or in any
way confiderably injured, light or found will caufe no fen-
fation, although the organ and the brain may both be in a
perfeétly natural ftate. If all the nerves of a limb be cut
or tied, the {kin may be pinched, pricked, burned, or ir-
ritated in any way without fenfation being produced. No-
thing is more acutely painful than the irritation of a nerve;
let the trunk be cut through or firmly tied, and you may
irritate it beyond the point of divifion or ligature (that is, in
the portion of which the continuity with the brain is inter-
rupted) without the animal feeling whatis done. If a di-
vided nerve fhould unite again, or the ligature be removed
from a tied nerve (fuppofing it fhould not have deranged
too much the texture of the part) the power of feeling is
reftored.

The organs of the fenfes poffefs the general power of
feeling, as well as the particular faculty of receiving and
tranf{mitting the impreflions from their refpective external
agents. Nive the latter may be loft, while the former con-
tinues unimpaired; the eye may be infenfible to light from
injury or difeafe of the optic nerve ; yet it is ftill fntceptitle,
like the external furface of the body in general, of the im-
preffions of heat and cold, hardnefs and foftnefs, &c. The
fenfe of {melling is loft in a cold, while the general feeling
remains, &c.

We may then lay it down as a general pofition, that the
nerves are neceflary to all the external fenfations, of what-

qt *s ever

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

ever kind they may be. All the organs, with which ex-
ternal objects can come in conta&t, as the fkin, the begin-
nings of the mucous furfaces, and the organs of fenfe, are
more or lefs abundantly fupplied with cerebral nerves.
None derive any nerves from the ganglia. This divifion of
the nervous fy{tem of the animal life is very confiderable :
when to this we add what is employed in fupplying the
voluntary mufcles, there is very little left.

Whether the impreffions producing internal fenfations are
all conveyed to the brain by the nerves, is a more doubtful
point: the phenomena here are more obfcure. We find
alfo, that parts with few nerves have acute fenfibility, that
ethers with a confiderable portion of cerebral nerves have
little er no feeling in the natural ftate ; we mult, therefore,
hefitate in admitting that the nerves are the only media by
which impreffions producing fenfations can be conveyed, and
that the acutenefs of feeling is always proportioned to their
sumber and fize.

The concurrence of the brain is effential in thefe internal
fenfations, as well as in the exterior ones. However the
internal organs may be affected, the a€tion of opium, wine,
&c. on the brain, will fufpend all fenfation.

Some organs have the moft exquifite fenfibility, yet pof-
fefs hardly any perceptible nerves: fuch is the medullary
membrane of the long bones. The liver and lung, which
receive nerves from the brain, may be irritated in living
animals, without figns of pain being produced. The volun-
tary mufcles, which have fo many and large nerves, may be
cut or irritated with very little pain, if the atual nervous
ramifications are avoided. Ligaments, which have no
nerves, when twifted or diftended caufe confiderable pain.
Tendons, aponeurofes, ligaments, and all other organs,
which receive no vifible nerves, are acutely fenfible when
inflamed.

This queftion concerning fenfibility engaged Haller ina
long and laborious controverfy. He fubjected the different
textures and organs of the body to experiment in living ani-
mals: he cut, pricked, compreffed them, applied chemical
ftimuli, as acids, alkaliesy &c.; and inferred that the parts
were infenfible, when the animals gave no figns of pain. In
this way he determined that tendons and aponeurofes, liga-
ments, bones, membranes of all kinds, as the periofteum,
pleura, peritoneum, &c. are infenfible; and that the vifcera
have only an obfcure fenfibility. This, however, is too h-
mited a view of the fubjet: difeafe often developes in thefe
fuppofed infenfible organs the moft exquifite power of feel-
ing. The epidermis, hair, and nails, and the fubftance of
the teeth, are the only parts which can be {tated with cer-
tainty to be infenfible; but we cannot trace any nerves into
the following organs, viz. the bones, cartilages, tendons,
ligaments, membranes, fat, and the medulla of bones, the
fecundines, the cornea, cryftalline lens and humours.

The nerves have no perceptible motion, but they are ef-
fential agents in thofe movements of the voluntary muicles,
which depend on volition. When they are cut, tied, or fe-
verely injured in any way, the mufcles no longer obey the
will. See the article Muscxe.

How do the nerves tranfmit impreffions and the deter-
minations of the will? What is the manner in which their
influence is exerted? “ The opinions of phyfiologitts,’’
fays Bichat, “have been much divided on thefe points.
Some have admitted a kind of vibration in the nerve, fome
talk of impulfe, fome of aétion, fome {peak of a fluid con-
tained in tubes in the nerve, others of an infenfible fluid not
held in any vifible canals. ‘The latter hypothefis is ftill
very generally upheld; and long difcuflions are maintained

whether it be of an albuminous, eleétric, magnetic nature,
&c. In moft treatifes of phyfiology, the chapter on the
nerves is principally occupied with fuch difcuflions, which
I fhall not enter into here, becaufe we have no data con-
cerning it founded on experience. Moreover, cannot we
ftudy and analyfe the phenomena conneéted with the nerves,
without knowing their mode of ation? All the cld phy-
fiologifts committed the error of wifhing to begin at the
point, in which fome day or other we may be able to end.
The f{cience was {till in its cradle, when all the difcuffions
were dire€ted to the primary caufes of the vital phenomena.
What was the refult? Long trains of unfubitantial rea-
foning, and a necefflity to come at laft to the rigorous ftudy
of phenomena, leaving that of their caufes, until we have
colleGed obfervations enough to form the bafis of theories.
In the fame way, the nature of light, fire, heat, cold, &c.
was difcuffed for centuries, until at laft philofophers found
out that they wanted bafes for their reafonings, and thus
created experimental philofophy. Endlefs difputes agitated
the {chools about the foul, the judgment, &c. before meta-
phyficians difcovered, that inftead of attempting to difcover
the effence of the intellectual faculties, they ought to employ
themfelves in analyfing their operations, Each of the na-
tural fciences has had two periods: the firft, in which firft
caufes were almoit the only object of inveftigation ; the fe-
cond, when experience and obfervation were relied on for
difclofing the phenomena. Phyfiolegy has ftill one foot in
the former, while fhe has placed the other in the latter:
the phyfiologifts of the prefent day muf make her complete
the ftep.”?. Anat. Gener. t.1. p. 175.

The organic properties exift in the nerves in a low degree :
they are merely fubfervient to their nutrition. Hence all
the principal difeafes of thefe organs affe@ their animal
fenfibility: tumours, fungufes, ulcerations, &c. are very
rare.

When the power of tranfmittiag fenfations and motion is
loft, nutrition ftill goes on, and the nerves remain as large
in a paralyfed as ina healthy limb. Perhaps they may be
diminifhed in fize, when the whole limb begins to be re-
duced. We know nothing of any changes in thefe organs,
after long continued painful difeafes, as cancers, &c. Bi-
chat has examined them in cancer of the ftomach and uterus,
without finding any change.

The cerebral nerves do not feem to exert any influence
over the organic properties of other parts: and hence the
leading diftinctions between the animal and the organic fen-
fibilities. In the capillary circulation, in fecretion, exhala-
tion, abforption, nutrition, the fluids make on the folids an
impreflion, of which we are not confcious, and by virtue of
which the latter re-a&. ‘lhe influence of the cerebral
nerves does not feem to be effential in any of thefe cafes.

Capillary circulation goes on in cartilages, tendons, liga-
ments, which poffefs no nerves. ‘Thefe parts are as much
liable to inflammation, as thofe which have large or numerous
cerebral nerves. Indeed the tongue and the retina are parts
feldom inflamed ; while in the cellular tiffue and ferous mem-
branes, which have very {mall nerves, the capillary circula-
tion is brought into increafed activity very frequently. In
paralytic limbs, as in animals where the nerves have been
cut, the capillary circulation goes on as ufual; inflamma-
tion, ulceration, &c, may take place.

That the exhalation from the fkin is independent of the
cerebral nerves, is proved under the article INTEGUMENTS.
In the fynovial and ferous membranes, and in the cellular
tiffue, exhalation conftantly goes on; but the nerves are
very few, if any. Irritation of the nerves, braig, or me-

dulla

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

dulla fpinalis, has no influence on the exhalations. The
fame obfervations hold good of abforption, which, as well as
the exhalations and fecretions, goes on in fleep, when the ac-
tion of the brain and voluntary nerves is intermitted. On
the fubje& of the fecretions, fee GLanp.

Nutrition is carried on in parts that have no cerebral
nerves ; and it goes on in limbs completely paralyfed.

The nerves have fome influence, of a kind and degree not
yet clearly afcertained, on the production of aaimal heat.
The ligature of a nerve, in an operation, will produce a
general fenfe of cold in the limb: the little finger and ring-
finger remained con{tantly colder than the others, after the
ulnar nerve had been divided at the pifiform bone. Com-
preffion of the nerves, as by the head of the bone in luxa-
tion, produces analogous effects. The temperature of the
affeGted limb in hemiplegia is below that of the found one,
although there is no perceptible difference in the pulfe. Yet
the heat is not always increafed, when the activity of the
nervous fyftem is augmented; nor, vice verfd, does it ex-
perience decreafe, when that is diminifhed. The cafes in
whith it feems independent of that fy{tem are as numerous
as the others. .

Sympathies —We have to confider here the relations of the
nerves to each other, and the fhare which they have in the
fympathies of other organs.

1. Sometimes the two nerves of one pair fympathife ; that
is, when one is affeGted from any caufe, the other becomes
difturbed without any obvious reafon. This is feen in the
eye frequently. Or, an injury of one nerve may be at-
tended with diforder of another on the fame fide of the body,
either belonging to the fame trunk, or to one entirely dif-
tind.

The nerves, when difturbed, may affe€&t other organs :
thus, in tic douleureux, there are pains in the head and
other parts. When a nerve is irritated, many mufcles are
thrown into convulfion, befides thofe which receive their
fupply from the irritated trunk. Vomiting and increafed
action of the heart often attend attacks of nervous pains ;
and irritation of the nerves, in living animals, may caufe
vomiting. Again, thefe parts may be fympathetically
aéted on by various organs: hence the pains, particularly
of the limbs, in various acute and chronic affections.

2. Authors have been much divided in opinion concerning
the caufes which produce fympathies. How can an organ,
which has no obvious relation or conne@ion to another, aét
on it, fo as to produce in it very ferious difturbance, for no
other reafon than becaule it is affeéted? This fingular phe-
nomenon often occurs in health; but the inftances are fo
numerous in difeafe, that, if we take from every affection
what does not depend immediately on the diforder of the
funGtion particularly difturbed, difeafes would be reduced
to a ftate of fimplicity very favourable to their ftudy and
treatment. But no fooner is one organ affected, than many
or all the others feem to feel the attack. Moft authors
have regarded the nerves as the general medium of communi-
cation in thefe cafes; and the communications have been
confidered as an arrangement connected with this object.
Some confider that the brain is always affected in an inter-
mediate manner; others do not fee the neceflity of this.
The communications of organs by means of the blood-
veflels, or by the cellular tiflue, or the continuity of mucous
furfaces, have all been adduced in explanation of the phe-
nomenon. None of thefe are fupported by fufficiently
ftrong arguments, to induce us to confider them at length ;
and they are all expofed to the objection of placing the fub-
je& in too general a point of view.

Bichat obferves that fympathies may be divided into as

many kinds as there are different vital properties, and that
thefe may be excitéd in different ways. When the animal
fenfibility of an organ is fympathetically excited, this does
not always depend on nervous communications: for the
part, in which the primary affeCtion occurs, may be one not
{upplied with nerves, as a tendon, cartilage, &c. and con-
fequently cannot communicate with that in which the pain
is felt by means of nerves. Again, it is uncertain whether
the nerves are the only media for conveying internal fenfa-
tions. This author confiders that the brain produces thefe
fympathies; that the power of perception is difturbed ; that
there is an “ aberration of the internal fentient principle,
referring to one part a fenfation of which the caufe exifts ia
another.”” Thus, when the end of the nerve is irritated in
a ftump, pain is felt in the amputated limb; a ftone in the
bladder caufes fuffering in the glans penis. Perception is
fubje& to numerons irregularities, which haye not yet been
analyfed with fufficient accuracy.

When the voluntary mufcles are thrown into convulfions
in fympathies, we conceive that the nerves are effentially im-
plicated, according to the views which we have prefented
of the dependence of the animad contractility on thofe or-
gans. (See Muscre.) The affeéted organ muft a& on
the brain, which re-aéts through the nerves. If the latter
are divided in the limb of an animal, the mufcles are not
thrown into convulfion by irritations, that would otherwife
certainly produce this effeé.

The brain and nerves cannot be the agents of communica-
tion in fympathies, where irritability, or, according to Bi-
chat, the fenfible organic contra¢tility, is concerned; be-
caufe the former has no power over the involuntary mufcles.
In cafes, then, where the heart, ftomach, or other internal
organs, are fympathetically affeGted, we muft acknow-
ledge our ignorance of the mode in which this is brought
about.

The iame obfervation may be applied to the fympathies of
the organic fenfibility and infenfible contraétility. The
nerves have no influence over thefe properties ; by aGting on
thefe organs, you neither increafe nor diminifh the functions
over which they prefide ; and thefe are equally free from
difturbance in difeafes of the nervous fyitem. Hence the
fympathetic exhalations, as phthifical {weats and ferous
depofitions ; the fecretions and abforptions of a fimilar na-
ture, which occur frequently in difeafe, are evidently out of
the influence of the nervous fyftem of animal life. The
cellular and vyafcular influences are equally inadequate to a
folution of the phenomenon. What pofitive datum can we
rely on, in explaining, by thefe means of communication,
why {weats occur when the lung is difeafed, why faliva is
poured into the mouth when the membrane of the palate is
irritated, &c.

“ The refult to be colleGted from the preceding obferva-
tions,”’ fays Bichat, is, 1ft, that the fympathies of the
animal fenfibility are, in moft cafes, an aberration of that
principle in us, which perceives, and which is deceived con-
cerning the place in which the caufes of our fenfations ad.
2dly. That the fympathies of the animal contractility re-
quire the intervention of the brain; and that we do not
know how. the part affected ats upon that organ, although
it is clear that the nerves are the media by which it re-adts on
the mufeles. gdly. That the caufes of the two kinds of or-
ganic fympathy are abfolutely unknown.”

We mutt obferve here, not to confound the natural con-
nection of phenomena with fympathies. In fyncope, apo-
plexy, and afphyxia, the heart, brain, aad lung are refpect-
ively affe&ted, and their funétions fufpended. This pro-
duces, asa natural confequence, fufpenfion of action in all

9 other

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

other parts. But the cafe is quite different in fympathies.
When the funétions of the fkin are interrupted, the lungs,
ftomach, or inteftines may be affected. ‘The fympathetic
phenomena either may or may not be exhibited ; whereas,
in the preceding cafes, the fufpenfion of all other a¢tions
follows inevitably that of either the heart, brain, or
lungs. On the reproduétion of the nerves, fee the article
Brain.

Progreffive Developement of the Nervous Sy/tem of the Animal
Life.—The brain is of a very large fize, in comparifon to
the reft of the body, from the earlieft periods of geftation.
Its fize, indeed, in the firft months, is monftrous, in com-
parifon with its relative bulk in an adult. Itis foft, and
even femifluid at this time; and the two component matters
are much lefs diftin@ than they will be afterwards. The
nerves are alfo very large. The latter organs prefeat an
appearance juft the reverfe of what takes place in the arte-
ries. The fize of thofe veflels is in proportion to that of the
organs; while, on the contrary, the {mall organs of the
foetus have very large nerves.

There is every reafon to fuppofe that the brain and the
nerves of the animal life, although fo large, are quite in-
ative in the foetus. ‘The body may be completely formed,
and arrive at its full fize, although the brain be deficient.

At the time of birth, the brain is excited by the circula-
tion of red blood in its arteries, as well as by the impref-
fions of furrounding objets on the organs of fenfe. The
former circumftance is effential to the performance of its
fun&tions, which either do not begin at all, or -only in an
extremely feeble manner, and for a very fhort time, unlefs
the lungs begin to act, and thus caufe the proper change in
the blood. Long after birth, and even during the whole
period of growth, the nervous fy{ftem, and the brain, which
is the centre of it, predominate in their developement over
the other parts. But this predominance is gradually dimi-
nifhed until the time of puberty, when the generative or-

ns aflume the primary importance in the fy{tem.

The novelty of every thing which furrounds the infant,
keeps his nervous fy{tem in conftant a¢tion ; and hence it
requires longer, and more frequently repeated intervals of
repofe. The numerous fenfations of the child lead to fre-
quency of motion. The great developement, and conftant
exercife of the nervous fyftem in the child, expofe it to the
a¢tion of caufes that produce difeafe. Slight pain will pro-
duce convulfions, and difturbances of this fyftem are the
predominant affeGtions of thisage. The ftruéture of the
brain is frequently affected, as well as its funétions; as the
occurrence of fungufes, hydrocephalus, fpina bifida, &c.
demonftrate.

When the growth is completed, the brain and nerves have
arrived at their juft proportion to the other fyftems, and their
funtions are then in equilibrium with thofe of the other
organs.

Asold age advances, the funétions of the nervous fyftem
are paiatly diminifhed. The fenfations are lefs lively,
both becaufe long habit has rendered them familiar, and be-
caufe the perceptive power of the nerves is blunted. As
the nerves tran{mit fewer and lefs acute fenfations, the brain
has lefs to perceive; and the motions are confequently dimi-
nifhed. Changes of ftruéture coincide with thefe changes
in the funétions. The brain, which was fo foft in the foetus,
is very firmin the old fubje&; itis lefs red, and has a more
tawny colour. The nerves alfo grow harder; but the dif-
proportion in point of firmnefs between the two ages is not
fo remarkable in thefe asin the brain. It follows from thefe
circumftances, that pain is lefs acutely felt bythe old. As
age advances, partial loffes of power often occur in the nervous

fyftem ; and hence hemiplegie, which are very common ia the
aged.

- Syflem of the Organic Life.—There is an obvious
difference in itru€ture between the nerves juft defcribed and
thofe which belong to the prefent divifion ; and there are no
lefs ftriking differences in the funétions of the parts to which
the two kinds of nerves belong. The arrangement of Bi-
chat is}well calculated to fhew thefe diftin@ions ; although,
as we have already obferved, they cannot be applied rigor-
oufly and fatisfaGtorily throughout the nervous fyftem.
The ganglia of the fpinalnerves, which belong to organs of
animal life; and the branches of organic nerves, diltributed
in fome cafes to parts of voluntary motion, interfere with
the arrangement,

Bichat regards each ganglion asa particular centre, inde-
pendent of the others in its aétion, furnifhing or receiving its
particular nerves, as the brain furnifhes or receives its
nerves, and only conneéted with the animal nerves by com-
munications. Hence, while the brain is the common centre
in the animal life, to which all fenfations are conveyed, and
from which’all motions proceed ; there are as many particular
centres, and as many fmall fecondary nervous fy{tems in the
organic life, as there are ganglia. He obferves that all ana-
tomifts, even thofe who, without attributing any precife
meaning to the expreffion, have called the ganglia {mall
brains, have regarded thefe bodies as dependencies, or
{wellings of the nerves, in the courfe of which they are
found ; and, as they moftly occupy the great fympathetic,
they have been reprefented as a diltinguifhing character of
that nerve. But that nerve cannot be faid to exift, accord-
ing to the view which he gives of the ganglia; and the
continued cord, which may be traced from the neck to the
pelvis, can only be regarded as a feries of communications
between the ganglia.

The following were the confiderations that firft induced
him not to regard the fympathetic as a nerve like others, but
merely as a feries of anattomofes. 1. The continuity is
fometimes interrupted, particularly between ‘the lait tho-
racic and firft lumbar ganglion; fometimes two adjoining
ganglia in the loins or facrum have no communication.
2. Cuvier has found that the fuperior cervical ganglion is
always infulated in birds: and in many other animals there
are interruptions in the feries of ganglia compofing what is
called the great fympathetic neryes. 3. The ganglia fome-
times communicate by two or more branches, which is a
different difpofition from that of the cerebral nerves.
4. What can be called the origin of this nerve? is it the
fixth pair? But the cerebral nerves decreafe in fize as they
become more diftant from the brain, and the cafe would be
reverfed in the fympathetic on this fuppofition. Does it
arife from the fpinal marrow? then the branches produced
in one region would come from the branches furnifhed by
che f{pinal marrow in that region. But tke {planchnic nerves
are much larger than the branches from which they mult
be {uppofed to arife on this fuppofition.

The properties of thefe are alfo different from thofe of
the cerebral nerves; they do not tranf{mit fenfations, nor
have they any concern in voluntary motion; they are diftri-
buted only on the organs of the internal life. Hence they
are concentrated in the trunk, particularly in the cheft and
abdomen; hardly any are found in the head, where nearly
all the organs belong to the animal life; and none in the
limbs, which belong exclufively to this life.

As the ganglia and their nerves are diftributed generally
to the organs of the internal life, they partake with them
in their want of fymmetry, and they are expofed to numer,
ous varieties in number, form, &c. This, indeed, isnot

a very

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

2 very rigorous diftinétion between the two nervous fyftems ;
there is as great a want of fymmetry in the par vagum as in
the fympathetic.

From the view which we have given of the opinions of
Gall, it will be feen that that anatomilt nearly coincides with
Bichat in his notions about the ganglia and the great fym-
pathetic nerve.

Ganglia.—A general account of thefe bodies is given
under the article Brain, and in the view of Gall’s doGtrines.
We have fome particulars to add.

The greateft number of thefe bodies is found along the
vertebral column, where we fee, in regular fucceffion from
above downwards, the cervical, dorfal, lumbar, and facral
ganglia, which, with their communicating nervous branches,
form the great fympathetic nerve of moft anatomifts. Be-
fides thefe, the head contains the ophthalmic or lenticular,
the {pheno-palatine, and the maxillary ; the oval {welling of
the olfactory nerve, and the ganglion Glaferi of the nervus
trigeminus, both placed within the cranium, do not refem-
bie the other ganglia in many points. There are the caliac
or {planchnic ganglia in the abdomen ; and fometimesva {mall
one at the bafis of the heart in the cheft. The pofterior
root of each fpinal nerve {wells into a ganglion as it is pafling
out of the vertebral canal. ‘The bodies thus formed are ac-
knowledged by Bichat to have the greateft analogy to the
other ganglia, yet they are fituated on nerves of the animal
life

Some ganglia are found conftantly, others are only acci-
dental ; in the hypogaftric plexus, and in the middle of the
neck, there is fometimes a {mall ganglion. The maxillary,
or fome of the lumbar or facral ganglia, fometimes do not
exift.

They are generally deeply feated, fo as to be protected by
their fituation from external injury ; this circumftance ren-
ders it difficult to make experiments on them, and will there-
fore prevent us from clearing up the obfcurity in which
their funGtions are enveloped. ‘They poffefs all kinds of
figures; and the individual ones vary greatly in this refpect
in different fubje&s.

Very different views have been given by anatomilts of the
internal ftru€ture of the ganglia; this may have arifen in
fome degree from aCtually exilting differences in the organs.
In the oval {welling of the olfactory nerve, we can diftin@ly
fee medullary fibres involved in and feparated by cortical
matter. The fibres of the nervus trigeminus are expanded
and feparated, and mixed with many blood-veffels, in the
gangliform {welling of that nerve. Neither of thefe has any
firm general exterior inveftment. In the other ganglia we
find a loofe cellular fub{tance round them, and this feems to
be condenfed into a clofer ftratum, which is foft, thin, and
tolerably fmooth on the furface; it has no analogy to the
neurilema. ‘his covering is thicker in the f{pinal ganglia,
and thofe of the neck, than in other fituations. Scarpa
and Soemmerring confider the gangliato be formed by an
expanfion of the nervous filaments, which are feparated into
very {mall threads, interwoven and mixed with a peculiar
vafcular fub{tance ; and affert that the ftruéture becomes ma-
nifelt, by diffeCting thefe bodies after they have been mace-
rated forfome time. ‘¢ Filis nervorum, noti plicati habitus,
in ipfis gangliis maffa quedam mollis, fucculenta, purpurea,
lutea, vel cinerea, vafif{que plena, tele cellulofe filis, in
ganglio nervi olfaétus vero mafla cerebri conftans interponi-
tur.’’ (De Corp. Hum. Fab. t. iv. p. 148.) Thefe anatomitts
ftate, that the nervous filaments pafs dire&tly through the
ganglia, although feparated from each other, and mixed
with others; that the different nerves conneéted with a gan-
glion have their component fibres fo intermixed, that they

may be all faid to communicate with each other; that the
nervous fibres may fometimes be feen running over the fur-
face without mixing with the mafs; and that the nerves go-
ing from a ganglion are generally larger than thofe which
come to it, as if they derived fome acceffion in it. Gan-
glia igitur,’’ fays Soemmerring, “ arétiores plexus, tenero-
rum filorum pofitu atque mollitie, maffa quadam vafis divite
interpofita fervatis reprefentant.”? Ibid. p. 149.

Bichat finds in the interior of the nglia a foft, fpongy,
homogeneous tiffue, not at all anaes A either the fubftance
of the brain, or that of the nerves. He cannot difcern
in them that expanfion of the nervous fibres, which is de-
fcribed by Scarpa. He ftates that chemical re-agents have
a different operation on the nerves and on the ganglia; and
that the difference of colour, confiftence, and properties tend
{till further to eftablifh the diftin@ion. If the ganglia are
merely expanded nerves, why do the fpinal branches, after
forming one of thefe bodies, never tran{mit fenfation and
voluntary motion? Why do not the branches coming in
and going out correfpond in fize: why is there not acon-
{tant proportion between the nerves and the anglia? We
have already fhewn that Gall regards the ganglia as maffes of
Cineritious matter, giving origin to nervous fibres.

Scarpa afferts that the ganglia contain cellular tiffue and
fat: but Bichat fays that they have very little of the former,
and none of the latter.

The ganglia are curled up by the aétion of boiling water ;
and a continuance of the ebullition afterwards foftens them.
Alkalies, when ftrong, aét upon them, and have a flight
folvent effe&: but this is much lefs confiderablé an rapid
than their action on the brain. They refift putrefa@tion
even longer than the nerves.

Properties of the Ganglia.—Thefe are very obfeure. Bi-
chat ftates that he has opened the abdomen of an animal,
and expofed the femilunar ganglion, after allowing him to
recover from the firft alarm of the operation; that he has
then irritated the ganglion without the animal becoming at
all agitated, while the irritation of a lumbar nerve, as a
point of comparifon, caufed howling and violent ftruggles.

This author confiders it probable that hyfteria, hypochon-
driafis, melancholia, and the long train of nervous diforders,
may probably be feated in the ganglia: the feelings and
pains attendant on thefe have a very different charaGter from
thofe which arife from affections of the animal nervous
fyftem.

We may ftate that the mode of a@ion of thefe organs,
and the effects they produce on parts which derive their
nerves from them, are entirely unknown. We agree with
Soemmerring, who, after enumerating the opinions on this
fubje&t, concludes; «* Ergo genuinus gangliorum ufus ad-
huc in obfcuro latet.’? (Neurologia, § 161.) A very copious
enumeration of opinions concerning the ftru@ture and func-
tions of the ganglia may be feen in the firft {eGion of Gall’s
large work.

Developement of the Ganglia.—They are not more advanced
than the other organs in the foetus; and in this refpeét are
remarkably diftinguifhed from the brain. In the young
fubject, thofe affe&tions which are fuppofed to refide in the
ganglia hardly exift. They are as firm in their texture in
the foetus or young perfon as in the adult. Our want of
knowledge of the funétions of thefe organs prevents us from
ftating any thing further concerning their changes at dif-
ferent periods of life.

Nerves of the Organic Life—Each ganglion is a centre,
from which nervous branches go off in different direGtions.
The conneétion of the ganglia and the nerves is different
from what we obferve in the brain and fpinal marrow. The

adhefion

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

adhefion is very firm, fo that if force be applied, the nerve
will give way in any fituation rather than at the point of
conneétion. Sometimes the nerves coming from the ganglia
remain diftina; fometimes two or more unite into one
trunk.

After leaving the ganglia, the nerves are difpofed in
various ways.~ 1. Some communicate with thofe of the
animal life: and fuch exift in every ganglion. 2. Each
ganglion communicates with the two neighbouring ones,
with that above, and that below it; the ophthalmic, maxil-
lary, and {pheno-palatine are however excepted from this
rule; and there may be exceptions in other fituations.
3. Several go to voluntary mufcles. All the nerves hitherto
enumerated agree entirely with the cerebral nerves in ftruc-
ture. 4. Moit of the nerves, arifing from the ganglia by
feparate filaments, are interwoven fo as to form plexufes
with thofe of the contiguous ganglia, in the neighbourhood
or upon the large veflels. ‘The moft remarkable of thefe
are in the abdomen. The nerves of the animal life are
generally found in {mall proportion inthem. Thefe plexufes
compofe a tolerably clofe network, altogether unlike any
thing in the nerves of the animal life, imbedded in cellular
tiffue, and accommodated to the form of the furrounding
organs: the number of {mall nervous filaments entering into
their compofition is very confiderable. Thefe nerves have a
reddifh or greyith colour, fofter texture, and often a knotted
appearance. The plexufes divide into fubdivifions, which
go to the various organs, particularly of the internal life.
Thefe fubdivifions confift of numerous {mall filaments,
which communicate moft frequently, fo as to form networks,
but never unite into large cords, and furround the arteries
of the organ to which they are diftributed. Some of them
merely accompany the veffel, without lying clofe to it:
others adhere firmly to the arterial coats, communicate very
repeatedly with each other, and feem to form almoft an ad-
ditional covering to the veffel.

When the artery is fhort, thefe two orders of branches
continue diftin@ from each other, until they have arrived at
the organ: but if the veffel be longer, the exterior filaments
gradually join, and are loft in the internal plexus. This
plexus may be followed in the large trunks: it divides at
the origin of branches, but the filaments become fo minute
that it is not poffible to trace them far. ‘They may be fol-
lowed further on the fpermatic than on any other artery.
When we fet afide thofe branches of the ganglia, which
communicate with each other, and with the nerves of the
animal life, the remainder are diftributed almoft entirely on
the arteries. This circumftance, together with the clofe
and almoft infeparable adhefion of the nerves to the arterial
trunks, indicates fome influence of thofe parts on the fecre-
tions, exhalations, nutrition, &c. of which thefe veflels con-
vey the materials: the nature of this influence is entirely
unknown to us.

Neither the veins, nor the abforbing veffels, are accom-
panied by fuch an apparatus of nerves.

The nerves of the ganglia may be divided into two kinds,
with refpet to their organifation: 1, thofe which in ap-
pearance and texture end the cerebral nerves ; and
z, the foft reddifh or greyifh filaments fo abundant in the
plexufes. The nature of thefe has not been particularly
examined: we do not know whether they have neurilema
and medullary fubftance.

Properties of the Organic Nerves. —They poffefs much lefs
animal fenfibility than the other kind of nerves. Bichat has
irritated them in animals, after opening the abdomen, and
has alfo irritated the cellular ftratum on the outfide of the
mucous membrane of the inteltine ; yet the animal gave very

flight figns of pain. The proceffes carried on in the organs,
to which thefe nerves are diftributed, do not excite fenfa-
tions. Every thing,’ fays Gall, ‘is carried on in thefe
fyftems without confcioufnefs, by a blind neceffity, and
under the direétion of laws, which they cannot either obey
or oppofe voluntarily. The vifcera have motion: they feleé&
the nutriment that is fuitable to their nature, and reject
what is heterogeneous; fecretions and excretions go on in
them. But plants exhibit fimilar phenomena. We know
that the fame funtions take place in acephalous monfters ;
that the re-a€tion of am organ does not prove that it is the
feat of true fenfation, which is effentially charaéterifed by
perception, or the confcioufnefs of an impreffion; and that
no irritation is felt without the co-operation of the brain :
confequently, that we can no more afcribe the property of
fenfation to the nervous fyftems of the abdomen and cheft,
than admit its exiftence in acephalous monfters and plants.
Again, the fuperior and inferior fyftems exert their recipro-
cal influence without confcioufnefs, and without the partici-
pation of the will: the affections and paffions operate on the
vifcera, aud derangement of the functions of the vifcera dif-
turbs the faculties of the mind and of the foul; yet it is
equally beyond our power to difcover how this mutual in-
fluence is exerted, or to arreft its operation.”” Anat. et
Phyf. du Syft. Nerveux, t. i. p. 37. aig

Under certain circumftances, however, the nerves of the
ganglia appear to tranfmit impreflions to the brain: at leaft
the organs, to which they are fent, are the feat of the moft
acute pains in various difeafes. Independently of the fuffer-
ings caufed by the more obvious derangements of thefe
organs, they are the feat of various indefcribable internal
feelings, when not vifibly difeafed. ‘* I conceive,’’ fays
Bichat, ‘that the fenfibility of the organic nerves is much
exalted in difeafe. It can hardly be doubted that the czliac
plexus performs an important part in the various fenfations
which we experience in the epigattrium: the acute pains
often accompanying the formation of aneurifms probably
arife in part from the diftention of the nervous filaments
that furround the artery ; and the organic nerves are pro-
bably much concerned in the fenfations experienced in cer-
tain nervous difeafes.’” Anat. Generale, t.i. p. 241.

The motions of the organs, to which the nerves of the
ganglia are diftributed, are never fubjeét to the will: they
may probably be difturbed by the influence of the brain in
cafes where the organs of the internal life have their func-
tions affeGted by the condition of that organ.

It is natural to inquire how far the organic nerves are
concerned in the phenomena of the internal life. Are the
internal fenfations referred to thefe parts, or the pains pro-
duced by their difeafes, fufpended when the nerves are tied
or divided? How are the motions of the organs affected
by fuch operations on the nerves? The deep fituation of
the ganglia, the great number and {mall fize of the nerves,
have hitherto oppofed infuperable obftacles to the experi-
mental inveftigation of thefe points.

We mutt not forget that the preceding obfervations are
not applicable to all the ganglia: that the f{pinal nerves
and fome nerves of the head have thefe bodies, and yet
convey fenfations and voluntary motion in their ordinary
ftate.

Defeription of the Cerebral Nerves.—The olfadory nerve 3 or
nerve of the firft pair.

The origin of this nerve has been generally afligned to
the corpus ftriatum, which Chauflier has accordingly named
couche du nerf ethmoidal. Soemmerring obferved that
there was no proportion in animals between the nerve and
this eminence; and Cuvier fhewed that the cetagea (as the

dolphin

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

dolphin and porpoife), in whom there are no olfactory nerves,
nor organs of fmelling, have neverthelefs corpora ftriata.
It is the only nerve which can be aflerted, with any proba-
bility, to arife from the hemifpheres of the brain: and even
if this be allowed, it has no connection with the white fub-
ftance. It proceeds from the grey fubftance on the under
furface of the organ, and its firft filaments are perceived
towards the front of the inner cenvolutions of the middle
lobes. They are foft, and appear for fome time-enveloped
in the grey matter: they ceme together and form three
principal roots, an outer longer, and two internal fhorter
ones. The external may be followed to the bottom of the
fiffura Sylvii.

Gall and Spurzheim are inclined to refer the origin of
this nerve to a fafciculus, arifing at the fide of the corpora
pyramidalia, paffing through the pons Varolii to the teltis,
continued thence to the corpus geniculatum internum, and
then pafling under the optic nerve, beyond which they can-
Rot trace it. Recherches, p. 99

The three origins, of which the middle is cortical and the
two exterior medullary, unite into’a very foft nervous chord
of a triangular prifmatic figure, which runs in a longitudinal
groove of the under furface of the anterior lobe, confined
by the tunica arachnoidea. It advances from behind for-
wards, inclining more and more towards the nerve of the
oppofite fide, and increafing gradually in fize, until it arrives
on the upper furface of the cribriform plate of the ethmoid
bone: here it quits the groove of the anterior lobe, and
{wells into an oval ball of a greyifh colour and very foft con-
fiftence, in which the medullary fibres appear feparated by
cortical matter, as ina ganglion. For a defcription of the
remaining courfe of this nerve, fee Nose.

When a feétion of the olfatory nerve is made at right
angles to its courfe, cineritious fub{tance is obferved in its
middle, and fometimes towards the fide: and it may be alfo
partially feen on the external furface. The latter has a
peculiar laminated and ftriated appearance, compared by
Soemmerring to the viftil of the lily: this is beft feen by im-
merfing the recent nerve in fpirits of wine.

Befides its origin, the olfactory nerve has the following
peculiarities: 1, folded and ftriated external appearance ;
2, foftnefs, in which we can hardly diftinguifi any thing
fibrous ; 3, triangular prifmatic figure; 4, pofition in a
groove of the brain; 5, approximation of the right and
left nerves before they penetrate the dura mater: in all
other cafes the correfponding nerves diverge ; 6, the cineri-
tious bulb; 7, the cineritious fubflance within the nerve ;
8, paflage through the fkull by numerous foramina.

It is the Jargeft nerve of the brain in an embryo of three
«months, and hollow: in the foetus at full time it has a cine-
ritions appearance and rounded figure ; it is fhorter, fofter
and fibrous, and large in comparifon with the other nerves.

The nerve of one fide is fometimes larger than the other:
but an appearance of this kind may arife from its lying
deeper in the groove of the anterior lobe.

Optic Nerve; or nerve of the fecond pair.—The large
hemifpherical eminences of the lateral ventricles have been
generally regarded as the origin of thefe nerves; and hence
the names thalami nervorum opticorum, couches des nerfs
optiques, &c. applied to thefe parts. The optic nerve, fays
Soemmerring, arifes by very minute roots er fibres from the
pofterior and inferior part of the thalamus, from the cor-
pora geniculata, and the corpora bigemina: and thefe ori-
gins are vifible when the parts are merely expofed by open-
ing the ventricle, without any further diffection.

Gall obferved that there is no proportion between the fize
of the thalamus and of the nerve arifing from it; that the

Vou. XXIV.

former is much fimaller in the horfe, the cow, the deer
than in man, while the latter is much larger : hence he
doubted the juttice of the common opinion, and further
anatomical inveltigation juftified his fulpicion. A broad
band,”’ fays he, “compofed of nervous filaments, is feen in
man and animals, but more diflin@ly in the latter, as in
the horfe, cow, theep, pig, dog, &c. to proceed from
the upper or anterior pair of the corpora quadrigemina
(nates). It turns round the outer edge of the optic tha
lami, then joins a confiderable colleétion of grey fubftance,
called the corpus geniculatum externum, in which it is in.
creafed. Hitherto the whole band adheres to the optic tha-
lami, but afterwards it fimply lies on the crus inate where
it is no longer attached, except by its external anterior
edge, which is conneéted to the neighbouring fubftance of
the brain.” Anat. et Phyfiol. du Sytt. Nerveux, p. 112

In fupport of this opinion concerning the origin of the
optic nerve, Gall obferves, that in animals it bears a pro
portion in its fize to that of the natis, although there ey wis
{uch proportion obferved between it and the thalamus. He
alfo found the nerve unaffeéted, where an ulcer had deftroyed
pee ee as : while, on the contrary, when the an

‘ 4 :
sal ae fae in fize, the natis has experienced an

~ When it is difengaged from the thalamus, the i
makes an extenfive {weep (tra@tus opticus) ome ste iickaeae
the crus cerebri, advancing towards the nerve of the oppofite
fide. In this courfe it has a flattened figure, is uncenne@ed
with the crus on its igner edge, but receives filaments on
the outer, and is enveloped in the vafcular ramifications
about this part. Towards the front it grows rounder, be.
comes adherent to the cineritious pyramidal prominence
(tuber cinereum) that clofes the front of the third ven-
tricle, and joins the nerve of the oppofite fide, the fub-
flance of the two appearing completely mixed. Several
filaments are received from the tuber, fo that the nerves are
larger after than before their union. The united portion
lies on the fmooth {pace in front of the fella Turcica be-
tween the two anterior clinoid procefles. From this point
the nerves, vifibly enlarged, again feparate to proceed re-
{pectively through the right and left foramina optica. Their
courfe in the orbits is de{cribed under the article Eye.

The degree, of union between the two nerves at their ap-
parent conjunGtion has been a matter confiderably difputed.
(See ae) Apparently the right and left have
their fubftance completely confounded in the middle portion.
The following is the account given by Soemmerring, who
has beftowed much attention on the fubje&. « The right
and left nerves decuflate, which can fometimes, but aot ok
ways, be obferved, when one is difeafed or confiderabl
{maller than the other: for the nerve of the cppofite fide
is found difeafed, difcoloured, or {maller before the junc-
tion. Sometimes, but not always, the thalamus of the op-
polite fide, and fometimes the thalamus of the fame fide 13
changed in ftruClure, or {maller. For examplee of the lett
ter, fee Meckel’s note to Soemmerring’s Verfion of Haller’s
Prime Linew, § 509, and Michaelis, iiber die Durchkreuzung
der Sehenerven, Haile 1790. The optic nerve may be al-
tered as far as the union, and no change perceptible behind
that point. Therefore we cannot determine whether all the
fibres, or fome only decuffate.”’—« The mode of decufla.
tion,” he adds in a nete, “can be beft obferved in animals, as
the horfe, dog, pig, cat, racoon, {quirrel, birds, amphi-
bia, &c. In the fkate, one nerve penetrates the other: in
fifhes one lies on the other ; and they are conneéted mere]
by loofe cellular fubftance. In difeafe the nerve is file:
times altered from the affeéted eye to the junction, and ne

4U further,

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

further. Noéthig has adduced in his Differtatio de Decuf-
fatione Nervorum Opticorum,” various cafes and authorities
which cannot be detailed here. The fpecimens mentioned
in that diflertation are in my pofleffion, Several anato-
mi{ts, as Ackermann, Billmann, Leveling, Michaelis, Rouge-
mont, Walter, Wenzel, and Cloffius and Ebel in the horfe,
have adopted my opinion.” (De Corp. Hum. Fab. t. iv.
§ 273.) Cuvier and Gall adopt the fame view: “ Cuvier
has the brain of a horfe, in which one optic nerve is di-
minifhed in fize (atrophie), and the fame change is conti-
nued behind the union on the oppofite fide. All our ob-
fervations on the human fubjeét, the horfe, hare, and fox,
confirm this fa&, and make us doubt the authenticity of
the cafes alleged on the oppofite fide, which we cannot
admit without attributing inconfiftency to nature.”” Anat.
et Phyfiol. du Cerveau, &c. p. 114.

The optic is firmer than the olfa€tory or auditory nerve,
but fofter than the reft: it is the largeft cerebral nerve after
the fifth.

It is peculiar to the optic nerve, 1, to arife from a diftine&t
eminence of the brain; 2, the junétion or decuffation with
the oppofite nerve; 3, the furrounding fheath of dura mater
in the orbit; 4, the contraGtion in its paflage through the
coats of the,eye, before it expands into the retina; 5, its
expanfion into a membrane, inadherent on all fides, and the
foramen in that membrane. From their origin to the point
of their union the optic nerves are foft and pulpy: they
contain no cineritious matter internally, nor are they ftriated
on the furface, like the olfatory. They are covered by the
middle lobes throughout all the firft part of their courfe.
They become firmer about their junétion, but have no
neurilema within the cranium, being made up entirely of
medullary fubftance. The orbital portion, befides its co-
vering of dura mater, has a denfe neurilema, forming a ge-
neral external inveftment, fo that the nerve reprefents a
fingle thread, and is not divifible, like other nerves, into
fecondary filaments: this neurilema fends produtions from
its inner furface, forming feveral canals, in which the medul-
lary fubftance is contained.

Nervus Oculo-motorius; or nerve of the third pair.—It
arifes from the crus cerebri, or its inner or anterior edge,
where the divergence of thefe two procefles leaves a va-
cancy, named by Vicq d’Azyr la fofle des nerfs oculo-
mufculaires, juft in front of the pons Varolii. Its filaments
may be followed in firmer brains to the under furface of the
pons: they come through the black fubftance of the crus
cerebri, and are increafed, according to Gall, in their paf-
fage. The threads, coming out of the crus cerebri, are
collected together into a roundifh nerve by the pia mater:
it feparates from the oppofite nerve, pafles between the
profunda cerebri and fuperior cerebelli arteries, and is fome-
times perforated by the trunk or by a large branch of the
former. It feparates very eafily from the crus cerebri, when
the furrounding pia mater or veflels are torn off from the
brain: fo that cautious difleétion is neceflary, when we with
to demonttrate its origin, This foft part, however, is very
{mall, as the nerve immediately becomes covered with neu-
rilema, and acquires confiderable firmnefs. It goes ob-
liquely forwards and outwards, unconnected to the furround-
ing parts, and therefore eafily brought into view near the
edge of the tentorium by elevating the brain, Juft at the
point formed by the anterior termination of the tentorium
cerebelli, it enters a canal of the dura mater, which fur-

rounds it as far as the foramen lacerum orbitale. This
canal is formed. on the outlide by that portion of dura
mater which conftitutes the cavernous finus: onthe infide,

a thin ftratum of cellular tiffue feparates it from the carotid

artery. Arriving in a direétion flightly oblique at the level
of the foramen lacerum, it divides into two branches be-
fore penetrating that opening. In molt of its courfe un-
der the dura mater it is fituated more internally and higher
than the trochlearis and ophthalmic nerves : but when it has
arrived under the anterior clinoid procefs, and has divided,
its fuperior branch 1s covered by thofe two nerves, which
crofs it obliquely, and become fituated on its inner fide. OF
the two branches, one 1s fuperior, the other inferior: both
enter the orbit by the broadett part of the foramen lacerum,
and penetrate, togéther with the nervus motor externus and
the ophthalmic nerve, between the two origins of the external
ftraight mufcle.

I. The fuperior and fmaller branch mounts over the optic,
the nafal, and the ophthalmic’ nerves to the under furface of
the retus fuperior mufcle, in which it is diftributed, with
the exception of a {mall branch fent to the levator palpe-
bre fuperioris.

II. The inferior branch, much larger than the preceding,
paffes under the optic nerve, and divides into, 1, an internal
branch, which fupplies the reétus internus mufcle; 2, a
middle fhorter one for the re€tus inferior; and 3, an exter-
nal, the longeft and flendereft of the three, which fende a
{mall branch to the outer fide of the optic nerve, where it
joins the ophthalmic ganglion, and then terminates on the
obliquus oculi inferior.

We notice nothing peculiar in its ftru€ture; it has a firm
neurilema, both in the cranium and orbit. The peculiarities
of the nerve are, that the origins of the right and left are
very near together; that it fupplies five mufcles of the
globe; and, through the ophthalmic ganglion, gives branches
to the iris.

Nervus Trochlearis ; nerve of the fourth pair: n. patheti-
cus.—This nerve is the fmalleft of thofe which arife from
the brain, and has the longeit courfe within the cranium.
It arifes, under the tubercula quadrigemina, from the valve
of the brain, by a fingle, double, or triple rcot; and is
fometimes joined, by a tranfverfe communication, to the
oppolite nerve. The origin, foft and unprovided with neu-
rilema, may be torn very eafily : but the nerve foon acquires
greater firmnefs. Tt runs round the crus cerebri, between
the cerebrum and cerebellum, covered by the arachnoid
coat, which muft be cut in order to expofe it: it then con-
tinues its courfe along the edge of the tentorium 'cerebelli
to the polterior clinoid procefs. There it enters a canal of
the dura mater, feparated from the cavernous finus by a
peculiar denfe tiffue. It goes horizontally forwards be-
tween the oculo-motorius, and .the ophthalmic, and crofles
the former obliquely, as it approaches the orbit, which it
enters at the broad part of the foramen lacerun, through a
fibrous hole in the lining of dura mater. In this cavity it
paffes over the two elevator mufcles, and immedia‘ely under
the membranous lining of the orbit, to the fuperior oblique
mufcle, in which it ends.

It is the flendereft nerve of the brain, almoft equalling in
fize a large fewing thread: it has the higheit origin ; and
purfues the longeit courfe within the dura mater: laftly, it
fupplies only a fingle mufele.

Nervus Trigeminus ; nerve of the fifth pair: pair mixte of
Gall.—This is the largeft nerve of the brain, particularly
in individuals who have a large face: at all events, it is
equal in fize to the optic. Its origin has generally been
referred to the fide of the pons Varolii, from which it is de-
tached jutt at the front of the crus cerebellt. Gall traces
its roots backwards from this part, through the pons to the
outer edge of the corpus olivare : it is divided, within the
pons, into three principal fafciculi, and its fibres arife from

the

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

the ery fubftance in various places. When it is difen-
gaged from the crus cerebelli, it forms a thick flattened
cord made up of numerous (from 70 to 100) diftin& pa-
rallel threads, loofely united. Each of thefe is denfe and
firm, on account of the neurilema covering it: but they
are feebly conneéted to the medullary fubftance, and juft at
the point of conneétion the nerve is firmer than in its fub-
fequent courfe. It confiits of two portions conneéted by
loofe cellular tiffue, and fometimes feparated by the paflage
of blood-veffels; viz. a larger pofterior and exterior, a
fmaller anterior compofed of fewer, fofter, and whiter, but
larger threads. It.goes forwards and outwards, furrounded
by the arachnoid coat, paffes under the front of the tento-
rium cerebelli, and enters a peculiar canal of the dura mater
by an oval aperture towards the anterior and upper part of
the petrous portion of the temporal bone. This canal is
fituated on the outfide of the cavernous finus: asthe nerve
enters it, it becomes broader and flatter; the filaments of the
larger portion are feparated from each other, divided, and
formed into a plexus, fo that the whole trunk undergoes a
kind of conical enlargement, and prefents a flattened band
inftead of a round cord. After a fhort courfe, it {wells
into a knot or ganglion (ganglion Glaferi), concave above,
where the filaments enter, and convex below, where they
depart, havjng a reddifh colour from the diftribution of nu-
merous veflels in it, and prefenting a kind of middle ap-
pearance between that of a ganglion and a plexus. The
dura mater has a very clofe adhefion to this knot ; in which
the nerve is more than fix times its original thicknefs. The
ganglion is fofter than thofe of the fpinal nerves; but
firmer than the bulb of the olfa€tory: although the con-
nection of the dura mater is fo clofe, that it hardly admits
of feparation without injury, it has been afcertained that
no filaments enter that membrane to be diftributed on it.
After the ganglion, the nerve refumes its original appear-
ance, and divides into three branches, furrounded by the
dura mater, and pafling out of the cranium by diftin@ fora-
mina: the nervous fibres are however fo completely inter-
woven in the ganglion, that the continuity between the
threads of the trunk and of its three branches is completely
interrupted.

_ When the nerve and its ganglion are raifed from the fur-
face of the cranium, and turned over, we perceive that the
whiter filaments, which form the anterior or {maller divifion
of the nerve, go along the under furface of the {welling
without being at all concerned in its formation. Their fize,
whitenefs, and want of connection with the ganglion, imme-
diately ftrike us: they join the inferior maxillary nerve, and
conftitute the crotaphitic and buccinator branches of that
nerve: Palletta, therefore, divides the trigeminus into five
branches, adding the two laft mentioned to the three ordina-
rily defcribed.

The three branches of the trigeminus feparate from the
ganglion as follows: the ophthalmic is the {mallelt, and the firft
towards the front : it feparates from the others from its ori-
gin, and goes obliquely forwards and upwards towards the
outer fide of the cavernous finus. The fecond, which is
larger, arifes below this, and is called the fuperior maxil-
lary: it goes horizontally forwards, and after -a paflage of
fome length enters the foramen rotundum. The third and
hindermoit is the largeft, and defcends almoft perpendicu-
larly into the foramen ovale. ;

I. The ophthalmic nerve, covered by the dura mater, is
feparated from the cavernous finus by cellular tiflue, and
retains the fibrous charaéter of the trunk. Placed at firft be-
low the oculo-motorius and the trochlearis, it rifes with the

latter above the former, and divides, before it enters, or as it
enters the orbit by the foramen lacerum, into three branches):
an external fmall one, the lacrymal nerve; afuperior, which
is the largeft, the frontal nerve ; and a middle one in fitua-
tien and fize, the nafal nerve.

1. The lacrymal nerve runs along the outer fide of the
orbit between the periofteum and the abductor mufele : it
is divided into feveral filaments accompanying the lacrymai
artery, andentering the gland. It is difficult to determine
whether thefe end in the fubftance of the gland: but feveral
manifeftly terminate on the integuments cf the eyelid
ot forehead. It hasa communication with the fubcutaneus
male.

2. The frontal nerve, which by its fize would be regarded
as the continuation of the trunk, enters the orbit between
its fuperior furface and the correfponding extremity of the
reGtus fuperior: it goes obliquely forwards and inwards,
over all the contents of the cavity, and immediately under
the bony arch, and divides fooner or later into two branches,
which vary in their relative fize. 1. The internal, or fupra-
trechlearis, is commonly the fmalleft, and quits the orbit
between the fuperciliary notch and the cartilaginous pulley,
to diltribute its branches on the fuperior eyelid, the internal
part of the forehead, the corrugator fupercilii, orbicularis
palpebrarum, epicranius, andinteguments. A flender fila-
ment of this nerve joins the infratrochlearis, and gives a
twig to the frontal finus. Its branches on the forehead lie
rather deeper than thole of the following branch. 2. The
external or proper frontal branch quits the cavity by the
fuperciliary notch either in one or two branches, and fends
flenderer fuperficial, and larger deep-feated ramifications to
the epicranius, orbicularis, and integuments of the up-
per eyelid, eyebrow, forehead, temple, and top of the
head. It may be diffeéted moft conveniently by detaching
all the foft parts from behind forwards, towards the fuper-
ciliary arch, and thus making it ont from below; we find its
ramifications of two orders, deep-feated mufcular, and fuper-
ficial cutaneous. Some unite with afcending branches of
the facial nerve, others forma minute network round the
frontal arteries. They may be traced almott to the occiput.
As the trunk and ramifications of the frontal nerve lie fo
near the fkin, and are placed again{t the bone on the other
fide, they muft be expofed to external preffure : the painful
fenfations caufed by wearing a tight hat is afcribed by Bi-
chat to this caufe. _

3. The nafal branch, nafo-ocularis, the loweft and moft
interior of the three, divides from its very origin into two.
(a) A {mall twig, the lowett in fituation produced from the
ophthalmic, joining the ophthalmic or lenticular ganglion,
but previoufly communicating with the fmaller branch of the
oculo-motorius. The ganglion formed by the conjun@ic;
of this with the branch already defcribed of the oculo-mo-
torius, is very {mal!, of a nearly {quare figure, placed on the
outer fide of the optic nerve among the fat. . The root of
the ganglion from the nerve of the third pair is fhort and
thick, that from the ophthalmic long and flender, and fome-
times detached from the trunk before it enters the orbit:
fometimes the latter does not exift. Two fafciculiof ciliary
nerves are produced from the ganglion, and feparated from
each other more widely as they.come nearer to the globe, The
fuperior and {maller fafciculus, lying clofe on the optic nerve,
conli(ts firft of three, and then of fix twigs of different fize :
the inferior larger bundle is made up of eight or ten {mall fila-
ments, lefs clofely adhering to the nerve ; one leaves the reft,
and enters the {clerotica about its middle, under the rectus

externus.
4U2 The

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

The ciliary nerves, thus produced, differ in fize, do not
communicate together, but proceed in a tortuous direCtion
to the back of the fclerotica, where, increafed in magnitude
and connected with the ciliary arteries, they obliquely per-
forate the membrane, running for fome length within, it.
They then follow a ftraight and nearly parallel courfe, be-
tween the fclerotica and choroid, giving no branches to
either of thefe, to the iris. They are very rarely united
to each other by tranfverfe threads. At the orbiculus ci-
liaris they divide into {maller branches, which are again fub-
divided, and the minuteft threads, having a ferpentine’ di-
rection, are interpofed between the ciliary veflels like white
radiated fibres. When the-veflels are well injeGed, and
the part examined in water, a feries of white points is ob-
ferved in the orbiculus ciliaris, receiving the ciliary nerves
on one fide, and fending twigs towards the pupil on the other,
thus refembling ganglia.

6. The nafal branch lies clofe on the fheath of the optic

nerve, which it crofles, under the rectus fuperiot and levator
palpebre ; it produces one or two ciliary branches, which
refemble in their diftribution thofe juft defcribed, and then is
divided into two branches. One of thefe paffes through the
foramen orbitarium internum anterius to the cavity of the
cranium, where it is covered by the dura mater: it goes out
of the fkull through the front of the cribriform lamella, and is
diftributed towards the anterior part of the feptum nafi, and
of the guter fide of the cavity. The other, fometimes called
infratrochlearis, goes to the inner corner of the eye, below
the trochlea, and diftributes feveral very {mall twigs to
the integuments of the forehead, and the neighbouring
mufcles, communiccting with the facial and infraorbital
nerves.
Il. The fuperior maxillary nerve holds a middle place in
refpect to fize between the other two branches of the tri-
geminus. It goes forwards and rather outwards from the
middle of the ganglion, preferving at firft its greyifh hue
and fibrous appearance: after afhort courfe it enters the
fordmen rotundum, lofing thofe charaéters and becoming
more round in its figure. After penetrating that foramen,
it runs horizontally through much cellular tiflue, in the fpace
between the maxillary and {phenoid bones, fometimes called
the pterygo-maxillary foffa. It then enters the infraorbital
canal, and paffes through that to its termination on the
face.

1. In paffing through the foramen rotundum, the fuperior
maxillary nerve fends off a {mall branch, the fubcutaneus
mal, which enters the orbit by the fpheno-maxillary fiffore,
paffes along the outer fide of the cavity, externally to the
periofteum, and then penetrates the canal of the malar bone
to appear on the cheek, where it is diftributed fuperficrally,
communicating fometimes with the facial and infraorbital
nerves. It produces a twig running towards the lacrymal
glands, and communicating with the nerves of that gland :
and another, which enters the temporal fofla by a foramen
of the malar bone, and communicates with the deep-feated
temporal nerves,

In the pterygo-maxillary fofla the nerve produces one or two
branches, which go downwards and inwards, furrounded by
much fat: if there is only one, it is larger; when there are
two, they are united again ina kind of ganglion, named
the f{pheno-palatine, and firlt defceribed by Meckel. This
does not refemble the ganglia on the nerves of the vifcera,
and fometimes it is not perceptible at all. When there is one
branch, it fwells a little, and produces from the enlargement
the numerous branches of the neighbouring parts: if there
are two, they unite together, and this union gives the ap-

pearance of a ganglion, placed juft on the internal fide of
the {pheno-palatine foramen. From this point, whether it
exhibits a ganglion-lhke {welling or not, the numerous fol-
lowing branches proceed. :

a. Spheno-palatine or nafal branches, (nervi nafales priores)
pafling through the foramen of the fame name, in variable
numbers, into the nofe. Some of thefe are diflributed on the
two fuperior turbinated bones, particularly on their concave
furface; but the largeit, difgovered by Cotunni, and fince ealled
nafo-palatine, goes in front of the fphenoidal finufes along
the upper furface of the nafal cavity to the back of the
feptum, along which it runs obliquely forwards and down-
wards to the foramen incifivum. It .pafles to the palate
through a {mall peculiar canal immediately behind the fora-
men incifivum, and is diftributed on the neighbouring part
of the palatine membrane.

b. Three palatine nerves, one large and two fmaller. The
former enters the pterygo-palatine canal, formed between the
maxillary, palatine, and {phenoid bones, and pafles through
it. The different filaments are often feparate at this part,
and conneéted only by a loofe tiffue. The great palatine
nerve fends off two branches (nervi nafales inferiores); a
{maller to the middle, anda larger to the inferior turbinated
bone; the ramifications of the latter pais from behind for-
wards in grooves of the convex furface. It produces alfo a
branch, which defcends in a peculiar canal of the palate bone
to the foft palate. The trunk of the nerve quits the pte-
rygo-palatine canal by the foramen palatinum pofterius,
bends forwards in an irregular groove of the palatine arch,
and divides into feveral branches, which fupply the whole of.
the palatine membrane and gums of the upper teeth. The
middle palatine nerve (n. palati minor pofterior), placed be-
hind the former, runs along a feparate canal nearly parallel
to the pterygo-palatine, and comes out of it behind the
curved procefs of the pterygoid plate to be diftributed on
the amygdala and in the fubftance of the palate. ‘Phe
{mall palatine nerve (n. palatinus minimus exterior), which
is not con{tant, goes through a fhort canal, which termi-
nates between the maxillary tubercle and the pyramidal
procefs of the os palati; itis loft on the tonfil, uvula, and
palate.

c. The pterygoid or Vidian nerve goes off horizontally
backwards from the fpheno-palatine ganglion, andimmediately
enters the bony canal at the bafis of the pterygoid procefs,
having firft given two extremely {mall branches to the {phe-
noidal finufes. In the canal it produces two or three nafal
branches (nafales fuperiores polteriores) diftributed on the
upper and back part of the feptum, the neighbouring arch
of the pharynx and orifice of the Euftachian tube. The
trunk then quits the pterygoid canal by its pofterior aper-
ture, paffes through the cartilaginous fubftance that occu-
pies the irregular deficiency at the fide of the body of the
{phenoid, and clofe to the fecond turn of the carotid artery
divides into two branches, a {uperficial, petrofal or cranial,
and a deep-feated or carotid. ‘The former exters the cranium
between the petrous portion and the neighbouring edge of the
fohenoid bore; pafles over the furface ef the former in
a peculiar groove of the bone, covered by dura mater, and
enters the aquedudctus Fallopii by a broken aperture on the
furface of the bone, to join the trunk of the facial nerve.
The’latter runs clofe upon the internal carotid artery, ac-
companies that veffel in its paffage through the cranium, and
joins in the carotid canal a branch of the abdutor nerve ; the
trunk formed by this union joins the upper extremity of the
fuperior cervical ganglion, Sometimes the two branches
enter the ganglion feparately, ahd feveral other varieties are

obferved

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

obferved in the diftribution and connections of this branch,
and that of the abduor nerve.

Having produced the nerves above defcribed, from the
{pheno-palatine ganglion, in the pterygo-maxillary foffa, the
fuperior maxiliary nerve advances horizontally to the {pheno-
maxillary fifflure, and entérs the infraorbital canal, at the
fame time taking that name. Jult before it paffes in, it
gives off one or two branches to the teeth; d, nervus alveolaris,
or dentalis pofterior, which defcends on the maxillary tu-
bercle, and enters a bony canal above the molar teeth. It
communicates wiih the anterior dental nerve, fupplies the
three grinders, the membrane of the maxillary finus, and
part of the buccinator.

e. The anterior dental branch (alveolaris or dentalis ante-
rior) entersacanal of the fuperior maxillary bone, commu-
nicates with the pofterior branch, and fends filaments to
the incifor, canine, and bicufpid teeth.

The infraorbital nerve divides in its canal into feveral
branches, which continue parallel; when they emerge at
the infraorbital foramen, they immediately feparate, like
radii from a centre, and are {pread over all that part of the
face, which is bounded by the eye above, by the mouth
below, the nofe on the infide, and the mafleter on the out-
fide. he multiplicity of thefe ramifications, many of
which are very large, would render it very tedious to enter
into a detailed account of them. ‘They may be divided into
«, the fuperior or palpebral branches, diltributed to the lower
eyelid, the integuments of the cheek, and mufcles at the
root of the nofe, and communicating with the facial nerve,
the infratrochlearis, and fometimes. with the lacrymal :
€, inferior or labial branches, which are large, expanded on
the mufcles avd {kin of the upper lip, and communicate very
freely with the facial: y, internal or nafal branches, to the ale,
feptem, and muicles of the externa! ncfe ; and 0, external
branches to the zygomaticus major, levator anguli, and
commiffure of the lips, joining branches of the facial.

ILI.. Inferior maxillary nerve ; nervus guftatorius. This
is comp:fed cf two. diltin@ portions, an external and
larger, which is the moft confiderable of the three branches
pr-duced from the ganglion Glaferi, and hasa very fhort
courfe before it arrives at the foramen ovale ; an internal and
_fmailer, already defcribed as not having any fhare in com-
pofing the ganglion... Both thefe go together through the
foramen ovale, where the fibrous plexiform arrangement of
the former diftinguithes it very clearly from the latter. As
the nerve quits the foramen ovale, the fmaller portion gets
in front ; the two are fometimes intimately united, at others
diftin&, in which cafe the {maller part produces the buccina-
tor and one of the temporal nerves. Below the foramen
ovale, the trunk of the nerve is placed between the zygomatic
fofla, and the external pterygoid mutfcle; there it divides
into two portions, a fuperior and external, an inferior and
internal. From the former proceed the temporal, mafleteric,
buccinator and pterygoid nerves; from the latter, which is
the largelt, the inferior maxillary, lingual, and auricular.

a. The external and internal deep temporal nerves pals at
firft horizontally between the external pterygoid mufcle and
the bone, then turn upwards and outwards into the fubitance
of the temporal mufcles in which they are diftributed, com-
rounicating with the neighbouring {uperficial ramifications.

c. The mafleteric nerve is a confiderable branch pafling
between the pterygoideus externus and the bone, clofe on
the articulation of the lower jaw: it then goes between the
condyle and the coronoid proce{s, and enters the internal
furface of the mafleter, in which it terminates.

ad. The buccinator nerve, or nerve of the cheek, proceeds
forwards and downwards between the two pterygoidei, to

“fmaller than the dental.

the external of which, and to the temporal mufcle, it gives
branches ; it then comes on the buccinator, and [plits into
feveral filaments, which reach as far as the corner of the
mouth, aud communicate with the facial nerves.

e. The pterygoid nerve is the fmalleft branch of the fupe-
rior divifion ; it fupplies the pterygoideus internus and cir-
cumflexus palati. ,

Ff. The lingual or guftatory nerve, is commonly rather
It receives the chorda tympani a
little below the fiffura Glaferi, and a very acute angle point-
ing downwards is formed by their union. The nerve then
defcends between the pterygoideus internus and the jaw,
goes between the fubmaxillary gland and the membrane of
the mouth, accompanies the excretory duct of this gland,
between the upper furface of the mylo-hyoideus and hyo-
gloffus, and pafles very clofe upon and above the fublingual
gland, to the fide of the tongue, where it lies between the
hyogloffus and the lingualis. It runs along the fide to the
very point of the tongue. It gives a branch to the ptery-
goideus internus, and two or three very flender ones to the
back part of the gums; feveral branches, which either form
a {mall ganglion (ganglion maxillare), or are united into a
plexus, to the fubmaxillary gland and neighbouring parts ;
branches of communication with the hypogloffal nerve; four
or five twigs to the fublingual gland and neighbouring part
of the gums. At the level of the latter gland, confiderable
branches begin to be detached from the trunk for the tiffue
of the tongue, and continue to arife, to the number of ten
or twelve, until the whole nerve is confumed. Thefe pene-
trate between the geniogloflus and lingualis, and are diftri-
buted in the proper tiffue of the organ; they may be traced,
through the mufcular fibres, to the membrane covering the
back, fides, and apex of the part, and even into the papille
of the membrane in which the fenfe of tafte refides. Thus
this nerve conftitutes the organ of the fenfe of tafting, while
the hypogloflal belongs to the motions of the part: that
thefe two funétions belong to diftinét nerves, is rendered
probable by the pathological cafes, in which the fenfe or the
motion of the organ is feparately deftroyed.

g. The inferior maxillary or dental nerve (mandibulo-
labialis, or maxillaris inferior) is a very large nerve, defcends
by the fide, of the former, firft between the two pterygoid
mufcles, and then between the internal and the lower jaw,
correfpondinz on the infide to the internal dateral ligament
of this bone. Near the orifice of the inferior maxillary .
canal, it produces the nervus mylo-hyoideus, which runs
along a groove or even an entire canal of the lower jaw from
behind forwards, is diftributed principally on the mylo-
hyoideus muftle, but gives alfo fome branches to the fub-
maxillary gland, genio-hyoideus, and digaftricus. The trunk
of the inferior maxillary nerve then enters the canal of the
lower jaw, in company with an artery anda vein, and runs
completely through it, giving branches to the molares and
bicufpides. At the-foramen mentale it divides into two
portions; a {maller, which pafles forwards in a canal under
the canine and incifor teeth, and fupplies thofe teeth ; anda
much larger, which comes out of the foramen mentale, and
divides immediately into numerous filaments, communicating
freely with thofe of the facial.

The twigs fent to the teeth are very {mall; they can be
followed with confiderable difficulty to the pores at the ex-
tremities of the fangs, and are loft on the pulpy fubftance
filling the cavities; whether they fend any branches to the
bone of the tooth, and whether that part poffefles any fen-
fibikty, are queftions confidered in the defcription of the
teeth, under the article Cranium. The fize of the trunk
is very little dimizifhed in its paffage through the jaw:

+12 “ egreffus

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

“‘ egreflus foramine, vix exilior,’? Soemmerring: yet in the
Anatomie Defcriptive of Bichat, t. iii, p. 188, it is faid to
be diminifhed by one half.

The branch that comes out at the foramen mentale, fome-
times called nervus mentalis, may be moft advantageoufly
obferved by dividing the membrane of the mouth, and dif-
fe&ting from within. . It either comes out in two branches,
or divides very foon after its exit into an exterior {maller, and
an interior larger branch. Thefe are again very foon fub-
divided in a radiated manner; the branches firft afcend be-
tween the membrane and the mufcles, fupplying the de-
preffor anguli oris and labii inferioris proprius, the levator
menti, orbicularis and buccinator, and then enter into the
fubftance of thefe mufcles. They afcend to the very edge
of the lips, and terminate in the orbicularis, the mucous
glands and the fkin. In a careful diffeGtion, the whole
margin of the mouth is found to receive numerous filaments,
which are diftributed abundantly on the intepuments, where
they exhibit the beautiful papillary ftruéture ; thefe nerves
come from the mental in the lower lip, and from the fuperior
maxillary in the upper.

4. Thefuperficial temporal or auricular nerve turns horizon-
tally along the back part of the neck of the condyle, between
it and the meatus auditorius externus, produces in this fitua-
tion branches that communicate with the factal, then afcends
in front of the meatus, covered by the parotid gland, giving
branches co both thofe parts, and to the concha, and arrives
at the bafis of the zygomatic procefs. It paffes through
the parotid towards the temple, and is diftributed fuper-
ficially, communicating with the facial and fubcutancus
malz.

It appears from this defcription, that the nervus trigeminus
fupplies all the mufcles of the face, the forehead and its
mutcles, the eye-lids and their mufcles; the external and
internal parts of the nofe; the iris; the external ear, fkin
of the cheeks, lips and their mufcles; the mucous furface
and the mufcles of the tongue ; the falivary glands and the
teeth. Its various branches are not only united by commu-
nications to each other, but are alfo joined to the third,
fourth, and fixth cerebral nerves; to the facial both in the
full and face, to the great fympathetic, and the fecond and
third cervical. ‘

The abdu@or nerve, motor externus, abducens, nerve of
the fixth pair, is of a middle fize, between the third and
fourth, and extends from the upper part of the medulla
fpinalis to the reétus externus oculi. It comes out of the
groove that feparates the pons from the medulla fpinalis, and
its origin is referred, fometimes to the pons, fometimes to
the corpora pyramidalia. “If we examine it,” fays Gall,
«in the calf, deer, and particularly in the horfe, its origin can-
not be miflaken. It appears as a {mall fafciculus, lying by
the corpus pyramidale, and generally dividing behind the
pons into two {maller, which are feparately difengaged from
the furface. The pons being much larger in man than in
animals, fome {mall tranfverfe fibres cover the origin of this
nerve, and caufe an appearance, as if the nerve arofe from
this part, although its origin may in faé& be traced to the
fame point as in the animals already named.” (Anat. et
Phyf. du Sylt. Nervenx, p. 103.) "This nerve has a fibrous
texture atits origin, and confilts ufually of a larger exterior,
and a fmaller internal portion, which fometimes penetrate
the dura mater feparately, and are not joined until they
arrive in the cavernous finus.

It goes from behind forwards, upwards, and outwards,
between the pons and the bafilary excavation of the cranium,
prefenting a flattened form, and adhering clofely to the

former. It penetrates the dura mater below the pofterior

elinoid procefs, and enters the cavernous finus, in which it
lies on the outfide of, and is clofely conneéted to the carotid
artery ; it goes through the finus, in conta, as well as the
artery juft mentioned, with the blood in its cavity, and
hence prefents a red colour after death. Oppofite the in-
ternal orifice of the carotid canal, one, two, or more flender
and reddifh filaments are conneéted to it, at an angle rather
acute forwards, and obtufe backwards. Thefe filaments
pafs with the internal carotid through the cranium, commu-
nicate with the Vidian nerve, and join the fuperior cervical
ganglion. The abduétor nerve is larger in fize in front of
this conneétion than behind it. It enters the orbit at the
foramen lacerum, in company with the oculo-motorius, and
the nafal branch of the ophthalmic, between the two origins
of the re€tus externus, and proceeds between this mufcle
and the optic nerve, dividing into feveral filaments, which
are entirely loft in the mufcle. It appears, therefore, that
the abduétor nerve, and the filaments produced from the
cervical ganglion, are confumed in that fingle mufcle of the
eye.

All the nerves diftributed on parts contained in the orbit,
and the ganglion of the fifth nerve, are reprefented in the
plates illuftrating the anatomy of the eye. See Plate III.
Jigs: 3> 4, 11, and 12. The defeription is contained in the
article Eyr.

The facial nerve, with the auditory, which follows it, have
generally been clafled together as compofing a fingle nerve
of the feventh pair; the former was called portio dura, and
the latter portio mollis cf the feventh cerebral nerve. The
two nerves, although lying for fome part of their courfe in -
contaét, are perfeCtly diftin& throughout: in a numerical
arrangement the former will be the feventh, and the latter
the eighth. j

The facial nerve is detached from the brain behind the
crus cerebelli, and its origin has been generally referred to
the pofterior and lateral part of the pons. Gall ftates, that
its origin has no conneétion with the pons; that in animals
its commencement is feen under the appearance of a broad
fafciculus between the corpus olivare and the gloffo-pha-
ryngeal nerve; that it afcends towards a tranfverfe band
placed at the lower edge of the pons, paffes under it, and
then comes out by the fide of the auditory nerve; if it ap-
pears in the human fubjeét to come from the pons, it is be-
caufe fome portion of that organ is placed over it. Anat.
et Phyf. &c. p. 104.

Two or three filaments are placed between the facial and
auditory nerves; but they join the former fooner or later.

Ic is very foft at the fituation of its conneétion with the
brain, but it foon becomes covered by neurilema, and ac-
quires a firmer confiftence. It enters the internal auditory
meatus, in company with the auditory nerve, and goes with
it to the bottom of that paflage; it enters and pafles through
the aquedudtus Fallopii, which is lined by a thin fibrous
layer, and filled completely by the nerve, which, however,
as in the cafe of all’nerves traverfing bony paflages, is loofe
ard unconfined in the tube. It quits the aqueduct at the _
foramen ftylo-maftoideum, pafles outwards and forwards
under the parotid gland, and divides into two branches,
which will be defcribed prefently.

In the aqueduét it produces no branch until it has arrived
at the hiatus Fullopii, and there it is joined by the fuperficial
or petrofal branch of the Vidian nerve ; it afterwards gives a
branch to the internal mufele of the malleus, and another
very {mall twig to the ftapideus. It then gives rife to the
chorda tympani, a confiderable nerve, of which the paflage
acrofs the tympanum is defcribed in the article Earn. This
gocs out of the cavity at the fiffura Glaferi, and joins the

lingual

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

lingual branch of the inferior maxillary nerve ata very acute
angle; the latter nerve is obvioufly larger after the junétion.

As foon as-the facial nerve has quitted the aqueduét, it
fends off, 1, the pofterior auricular nerve (nervus auris
pofterior, or occipitalis, or externus profundus), which
mounts in front of the maltoid procefs, and is diftributed on
the convexity of the concha, and the neighbouring part of
the occipital region; 2, a branch to the ftyloid mufcles
(nervus {tylo-hyoideus) communicating with filaments from
the fuperior cervical ganglion ; and 3, another to the back
of the digaftricus, communicating with the gloffo-pharyn-
geal, and the laryngeal branch of the par vagum.

After giving thefe branches, which can only be diffeted
well from behind, after having removed the vertebral column,
the facial nerve enters the parotid gland, and is at firlt very
deeply buried init, but defcends obliquely and comes nearer
to the furface. About the lower third part of the gland,
that is, nearer to the angle of the jaw than to the maitoid
procefs, it divides into two branches, which may be called
temporo-facial (ramus major, fuperior, or afcendens), and

» cervico-facial, (ramus minor, inferior, or defcendens. ) Some-
times there are three branches, or even more, but the various
fubdivifions correfpond always to the arrangement jult in-
dicated.

1. Temporo-facial branch. Concealed, like the trunk
from which it arifes, in the parotid gland, it pafles forwards
and upwards towards the neck of the maxillary condyle,
which it croffes at an acute angle. A twig or two in this
fituation penetrate behind the condyle, to communicate with
the auricular branch of the inferior maxillary nerve. Very
foon after the trunk divides into feven or eight diverging
branches, which are fpread out on the face and temple, and
may be diftinguifhed into fuperficial temporal, malar, and
nerves of the cheek.

a. The fuperficial temporal are generally two in number;
give fome twigs to the parotid, and then mount over the
aygoma; they are diftributed very extenfively to the inte-
guments of this region, and communicate with the auricular,
deep temporal, and lacrymal nerves.

&. There are commonly two malar nerves, which go to-
wards the os male, and divide into numerous filaments
diftributed on the furrounding mufcles, and communicating
freely with the lacrymal, fubcutaneus “male, and particu-
larly the infraorbital.

c. Three branches generally pafs tranfverfely over the
mafleter to the cheek, communicate with each other, and
with the filaments of the cervico-facial branch. The upper
one goes towards the root of the nofe; the fecond, which is
the largeft of this divifion of the facial nerve, pafles over the
buccinator nearly to the corver of the mouth, communi-

. cating very freely with the infraorbital; the third is often
only a branch of the latter.

All thefe ramifications are -fuperficial in the fituation of
the maffeter, and become deeper feated towards the front of
the face, where they are covered by the mufcle.

Bichat ftates, that he could never difcover any communi-
cations between the right and left nerves; and that he finds
the fame remark applicable to the nervous fyitem in general.

2. The cervico-facial branch goes obliquely downwards
in the fubftance of the parotid gland, and concealed by the
ramus of the lower jaw; at the angle of the bone it comes
forwards, lies under the latiffimus colli, and divides into
branches, which communicate with the fuperficial cervical
nerves, and of which fome are diltributed above, others
below the bafis of the jaw. The former, generally two in
number, pafs over the edge of the bone, come through the
parotid gland, run direétly acrofs the mafleter, and proceed

+ 11

towards the lower lip, diftributing numerous filaments to the
{kin and mufcles, communicating with the other branches of
the facial, and with the mental nerve. ‘There may be one
or more branches running under the bafis of the jaw, and
reaching the front of the neck ; they communicate with the
mental, and with the {perficial ceryical ; the latiffimus colli
and fkin of the neck’are the parts principally fupplied by
them.

Soemmerring enumerates and defcribes the following
branches of the portio dura: 1. Of the afcending branch ;
a, zygomaticus, or jugalis primus, or temporalis pofterior ;
4, temporalis, or jugalis fecundus; c, temporalis prior, or
jugalis tertius; d, orbitalis fuperior, or jugalis quartus;
e, Orbitalis inferior, or jugalis quintus; /, facialis fuperior ;
g, facialis medius, or magnus; 4, facialis inferior. 2. Of
the defcending branch; a, nervus prior facialis infimus ;
4, nervus marginis maxille inferioris, dividing into a fupe-
rior and an inferior branch; c, d, e, nervi polteriores et {u-
periores fubcutanei colli, primus, alter, tertius.

Thus it appears that the facial nerve is diftributed over
the whole face, ina {pace beginning with the temples above
and extending to the upper part of the neck below: the ear
and a part of the occiput are alfo included. In the cra-
nium it is much firmer than the auditory nerve; but it is
confiderably firmer in the aquedu&, and in its diftribution
on the face, than in the cranium. Its multiplied anaftomofes
are a very remarkable feature in its anatomy : it is not only
joined to the neighbouring nerves, as the three branches of
the fifth, the nervus, vagus, gloflo-pharyngeal, and acceflory
nerves, third cervical and great fympatlLetic, but its branches
frequently commiunicate with each other, and thus form a
network of nervous communications on the face, which, al-
though in reality very confiderable, has been rather exag-
gerated in fome plates, as in that of Meckel, Mem. im
P Acad. des Sciences de Berlin, tom. vii. In nonerve of the
animal life are the communications between the different fila- .
ments fo numerous.

The auditory or eighth nerve ; nervus auditorius or acutti-
cus; portio mollis of the feventh pair.

Several white medullary itriz may be feen in the anterior
furface of the fourth ventricle, where their colour diftin-
guifhes them from the cineritious matter in which they lie.
They are fometimes almoft imperceptible, and at others very
ftrongly marked ; they vary in number from one to fix or
feven. They are fometimes radiated, fometimes parallel,
and fometimes in the form of a pencil: they may form fmall
bands, or be rounded and prominent. Often they are dif-
ferent on the two fides; being higher or more numerous
on one than on the other. Modern anatomifts have generally
regarded thefe itria as the origin of the auditory nerves,
and, in fact, fome of them ufually join thefe nerves ; but,
as Prochafka aud Soemmerring have remarked, they have
often no conneétion with them, being loft in the crura ce-
rebelli. In the mammalia,’’ fays Gall, ‘even when they
have an auditory nerve much more confiderable than that
of the human fubje@, the medullary {trie are entirely de-
ficient. The filaments of the nerve derive their origin in
great meafure from the cineritious matter fo abundant in the
fourth ventricle: this matter is more thinly depofited in
man, and forms the grey band (ruban gris) placed towards
the middle and outer part of the ventricle, and forming
in the fheep, pig, horfe, &c. an elevation of the fize of a
pea. Confequently this is a true {welling (renflement), place
of origin, or ganglion for the auditory nerve, which there
rectives its moft confiderable enlargement. This ganglion
is placed precifely at the fpot where the auditory nerve
turns round the corpus reftiforme of the cerebellum, aa

ize

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

fize is always proportioned to that of the nerve. Mott
anatomifts, fuch as Cuvier, Portal, Sabatier, Bichat, are
contented with afligning the origin of this nerve to the me-
dullary ftriz of the fourth ventricle, without even mentioning
_the ‘ ruban gris,” or the oblong elevation in animals. In
animals a broad band extends immediately behind the pons
from one auditory nerve to the other, and paffes over all
the afcending nervous fafciculi, excepting thofe of the cor-
pora pyramidalia. We confider that it confilts of commu-
nicating fibres from one nerve to the other, and that it
forms a commiflure between them. It is covered in man
by the pofterior part of the pons.”’ Anat. et Phyf. du
Syft. Nerveux, p. 105.

The filaments of the nerve are colle&ted together, from
the origin juft mentioned, into a foft and roundifh band,
which turns forwards and outwards round the back edge
of the corpus reftiforme, and comes in conta with the
facial nerve. It then goes more dire€tly outwards, being
in fize about equal to the third, firmer than the olfactory,
but fofter than all the others, aflumes a more fibrous appear-
ance, and forms a kind of grovve, in which the facial is
lodged. It enters the meatus auditorius internus, in com-
pany with a blood-veffel, and is much fmaller than that
eanal, fo that it is contained quite loofely. The reit of
its defcription will be found in the article Ear; and its
eourfe and diftribution are reprefented in the plates of the
‘ear. It has two very different diftributions; one to the
eochlea, the other to the femicircular canals and velti-
bolum. The latter is analogous to the retina formed by
the optic nerve; the expanfions of the veltibular branch
very much refembling that membrane. The diftribution on
the cochlea may be rather compared to that of the olfac-
tory nerve; yet the foftnefs and fhortnefs of the ramifica-
tions are points in which it differs from thofe of the ol-
fa@ory, which have a very firm neurilema, and a long
courfe.

This nerve is diftributed exclufively to the organ of hear-
ing ; and has no communication with any other nerve.

The four following pairs of nerves, although they arife
within the cranium, have much analogy to the fpinal nerves ;
they feparate from the general mafs, like them, by feveral
diltin@ threads, and pafs by one or more openings in the
dura mater. Their origin is referred by Gall to the cine-
ritious fubftance placed within the part from which they
go off ; confequently they cannot be regarded as prolonga-
tions or produétions of the cerebral mafs. The nerves,
which we have hitherto defcribed, have the threads, pro-
duced in the grey fubftance, united into one fafciculus before
they are detached.

The gloffo-pharyngeal, or ninth cerebral nerve, arifes by fe-
veral more or lefs diftin@ threads immediately below the
pons, and below the corpora olivaria. Girardi and Soem-
merring have mentioned that filaments may fometimes be
traced from the fourth ventricle: but Gall has not been
able to difcover them. An artery or a vein, or both are
generally interpofed between it and the nervus vagus. It
goes under the fmaller lobe of the cerebellum and the cho-
roid plexus, with which it is flightly conne¢ted, feparates
more and more from the nervus vagus, and enters a peculiar
canal of the dura mater. It quits the ‘cranium by a mem-
branous canal in females, and a bony one in males, placed
under the meatus auditorius internus, and above the jugular
foffa; being feparated from the nervus vagus by the internal
jugular vein. Some anatomifts (Auderfch and Huber,

noted by Soemmerring Neurologia, § 268.) deferibe a
Boal ganglion formed jult after the nerve has quitted the
head, and contained in a groove of the bore; but Bichat

has never met with this. (Anat. Defcriptive, t. iii. p. 207.)
It then goes downwards and forwards over the internal ca-
rotid and under the ftylo-pharyngeus; afterwards between
that mufcle and the ftylo-gloflus. It is conneSted pretty
clofely by cellular fubltance to the former of thefe two
mufcles, of which it follows the direGtion to the pofterior
part of the tongue.

In this courfe it produces the following branches. 1. Fi-
laments communicating with the ftylo-hyoideal branch of the
facial, and with the nervus vagus. 2. A branch or two de-
fcending over the internal carotid, and united with the pha-
ryngeal branch of the nervus vagus, with the nervi molles
of the great fympathetic, and the nerves of the heart.
3. One or two branches to the ftylo-pharyngeus. 4. Two
pharyngeal nerves to the upper conftri€tors cf the pharynx,
the tontil, and the furface of the pofterior lateral part of
the tongue. 5. Branches forming a plexus about the pharynx,
and fending ramifications over the branches of the external
carotid.

At the bafis of the tengue the gloffo-pharyngeal nerve
paffes unde the ftylo-gloffus, and on the infide of the hyo-
gloffus, and is divided into, 1, fuperior filaments going in-
wards to the lingualis, where its fibres are united to thofe of
the conitri&tcr iflhmi faucium, and to the mucous glands
about this part; 2, inferior ones to the hyo-gloffus, and to
the mucous membrane continued from the back of the
tongue to the epiglottis; 3, middle ones diftributed prin-
cipally on the mucous glands. The mufcular fibres of the
tongue receive very little from this nerve, of which the rami-
fications become fuperficial, and fupply the mucous furface
behind as the guftatory nerve does in front.

The nervus vagus, tenth nerve, though commonly called
the eighth or par vagum, nerf vocal of Gall, arifes immedi-
ately below the gloflo-pharyngeal between the corpus refti-
forme and olivare, but nearer to the former than to the latter,
by many feparate threads, of which the number faries,
placed in a perpendicular line. Soemmerring and Santorini
{peak of its deriving fibres from the fourth ventricle ; but
Gall denies the exiftence of thefe. Sometimes, according
to Soemmerring, its origins are arranged in a double fe-
ries, (anterior and pofterior,) like thofe of the medulla
{pinalis ; fometimes it arifes in one mafs, like the fifth nerve.
The minute threads, by which it arifes from the medulla fpi-
nalis, are collected into fix, eight, or ten larger filaments,
which form a thin and flat band, without communicating
together, placed under the cerebellum, and going outwards
and. forwards to a peculiar canal of the dura mater, of
which the opening is placed under that of the gloffo-pha-
ryngeal nerve, and feparated from it by a diftin& fibrous
feptum. It goes out of the cranium by a peculiar notch in
the foffa of the jugular vein; it approaches to the gloffo-
pharyngeal nerve in its courfe, but leaves it again, and
paffes outwards and forwards clofe to the jugular vein.
The filaments of the nerve remain rather diitin& in their
paflage through the cranium, but they unite at their exit into
a fingle rounded cord, which is fometimes rather fwollen and
grey, fo as to have been taken for a ganglion. It is always
clofely united, after leaving the fkull, to the hypo-gloffal,
acceflory, and gloffo-pharyngeal nerves, by a denfe cellular
tiffue containing no fat, and including allo the afcending
filaments of the fuperior cervical ganglion. It is at firit
fituated in front of the hypo-gloffal, but foon becomes pof-
terior to that nerve, and quits it to defcend along the neck,
between and behind the carotid artery and internal jugular
vein. A loofe but tolerably firm cellular tiffue, never con-
taining fat, joins the artery, vein, and nerve together; they
are lefs clofely conne&ed to the great fympathetic nerve.

At

NERVOUS, SYSTEM.

Atithe lower part of the neck, the nervus vagus. leaves its
fituation between the artery and vein, enters the cheft, and
oes backwards to the pofterior part of the bronchi, de-
Sevding immediately in front of the fubclavian artery on
the right, and along the back of the arch of the aorta on
the left fide, and manifeltly increafing in fize. It goes
along the back of the root! of the lung, between the bron-
chus and the pleura, and becomes attached, lower down,
to the cefophagus.. The left nerve is. found towards the
front, and the right at the back, of this tube, in company
with which they penetrate the fuperior or cardiac orifice of
the diaphragm, to be diftributed on the ftomach in the man-
ner which we fhall prefently deferibe.

Its branches may be conveniently arranged under the divi-
fions cervical, thoracic, and abdominal.

Cervical Branches.—It communicates with the acceffory
and gloffo-pharyngeal nerves, and then produces the pha-
ryngeal branch, which defcends obliquely, inwards, crofling
the carotid, communicates with the gloffo-pharyngeal, and
feparates about the upper part of the middle conitri€tor into
feveral filaments, which form the pharyngeal plexus; the
latter is augmented by twigs from the fuperior cervical gan-
glion, the laryngeal, and gloflo-pharyngeal nerves. The
branches compofing this plexus are tortuous, of a greyith
colour, and communicate frequently; they are diftributed
on the mutcles of the pharynx.

The fuperiorlaryngeal nerve is larger than the preceding,
and arifes under it; goes behind the internal carotid, and
along the outer fide of the fuperior cervical ganglion, pro-
ducing fome) twigs of communication with that ganglion,
the hypo-gloffal nerve and the plexus juft deferibed, and then
dividing into two branches. The external (nervus laryn-
geus externus) defcends to the lower conftri@tor, the crico-
thyroideus, thyroid, gland, &c. ; the internal (nervus laryn-
geus intérnus) enters the larynx-between the os hyoides
and the thyroid cartilage; is dittributed on the membrane
and glands and fome ofthe mufcles of the larynx, and com-
municates with the inferior laryngeal nerve.

After; producing the:fuperior laryngeal, the nervus vagus
defcends along the neck without giving off any other, untalit
reaches the confines of the cheft : \it then fends off branches,
which; join the cardiac’ plexus, two, three, or more on the
right, and generally one on the left fide.

. The inferior laryngeal or recurrent nerve arifes in, the
cheft, but is diftributed principally in the neck : it is rather
different in the two fides of the body. On the right it arifes
at an acute angle below the fubclavian artery, and turns im-
mediately round that veflel, fo as to include it in a kind of
loop ;»it then goes inwards and upwards, under the carotid
and inferior thyroid arteries, and afcends in the depreffion
between the trachea and cefophagus to the larynx. From
the convexity of the loop two or three cardiac nerves come
oft, and join the filaments from the inferior cervical .gan-
glion and the nervus vagus, forming a remarkable plexus
between the fubclavian. and the trachea. » Some pulmonary
twigs arethen produced, defcending in front of the trachea
to the pulmonaryartery, and following its ramificatiéns in the
lung. :

a it afcends by the fide of the trachea, the nerve fends
off twigs to the efophagus, thyroid gland, and. trachea,
At the lower part of, the Liki it goes under the inferior
conttri&tor, after giving it fome filaments, and often divides
here into two or three principal branches, which are {pread
out on the mucous ‘membrane of the pharynx, and of
the larynx, and particularly on the mufcles of the aryte-
noid cartilages, communicating with the branches of the fu-
perior laryngeal.

Vou. XXIV.

The left inferior laryngeal nerve arifes lower down than
the right, bends under the arch of the aorta, and confe«
quently forms amore confiderable loop. It then afeends ina
more perpendicular courfe, and lies more immediately on
the celophagus, as that tube in the neck is placed rather
to the left of the trachea. Its cardiac and pulmonary
filaments go towards the back of the heart and pulmo-
nary artery, of which the front is fupplied by the right
branch.

Thoracic. Branches. —A fter the origin of the recurrent, the
nervus vagus .goes behind the root of the lung, and lies in
clofe conta& with the polterior furface of the bronchus.

_Here its filaments are loofened and feparated from each

other, fo that the nerve feems confiderably increafed in fize -
they put on a plexiform appearance, and there are fometimes
intervals between them occupied by cellular fubftance and
veffels : oppofite to the lower end of the trachea feveral fila-
ments arife, forming a plexus in front of the bronchus and
trachea, and pulmonary veflels, (plexus prior nervorum
pulmonalium,) and communicating with the branches of the
recurrent, and of the inferior cervical ganglion. Some
branches go to the back of the trachea, and neighbouring
part of the cefophagus, and communicate with the other
pulmonary plexus. Behind the bronchus feveral branches
come from the enlarged part of the nerve, and form a con-
fiderable plexus, named the pulmonary (plexus pofterior
nervorum pulmonalium), which receives filaments from the
inferior cervical ganglion, and fends numerous branches fur-
rounding the pulmonary and bronchial veffels, and diftri-
buted more particularly on the air-tube and its ramifications.
Bichat confiders that thefe nerves are diftributed entirely
on the mucous membrane and glands of the lungs, and not
in the proper tiffue of the organ; and that they may eafily
be traced penetrating the pofterior membrane of the air-
tubes.

The right nervus vagus, while it is producing the pul-
monary plexus, and afterwards, divides into four or five large
branches, which defcend along the fide and back part of
the cefophagus, communicate and divide again, fo as to con-
ftitute a plexus (plexus nervorum gulz pofterior), and
unite again below into a fingle branch pafling behind the
cefophagus into the abdomen. On the left fide the nerve
divides into two or three branches (plexus nervorum gulz
prior), which are united again below, and penetrate the
diapbragm on the front of the efophagus. The two trunks
communicate freely on the cefophagus, and fend feveral fila-
ments to that tube, and fome to the defcending aorta.

Abdominal Branches.—The right trunk enters the abdo-
men on the fide and back part of the cefophagus, and foon
divides into numerous filaments, which form a confiderable
plexus on the fuperior orifice of the ftomach, and are ther
diftributed) to that organ and to the neighbouring parts.
The ftomachic branches are ramified firft on the back of
the cardia, where they are continuous with the cefoph
filaments produced in the cheft, then on the potterior fur-
face of the organ. Near the {mall curvature they are near
together, lie immediately under the ferous membrane, and
are confequently very vifible: they diverge towards the
great arch, and penetrate the mufcular fibres as they defcend.
Several branches go behind the coronary ‘{tomachic artery,
communicate with branches of the left nerve, and pafs be-
yond the pylorus to terminate in the neighbouring parts.

Other branches behind thefe go to the hepatic and gaftro-
epiploic arteries : to the right czliac ganglion, the pancreas,
duodenum, vena portarum, gall-bladder, and liver, conne@ed
with various filaments from the celiac ganglia; others go
to the ewliac plexus.

4X The

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

-The left nerve enters in front of the cefophagus, divides on
the cardia into feveral filaments, which are at firit fituated fu-
perficially under the ferous membrane, and go along the {mall
curvature in front of the coronary {tomachic artery.
Branches from thefe defcend obliquely over the anterior
furface of the organ, being firft fituated fuperficially, and
then penetrating the mufcular fibres. They communicate,
at the pylorus, with thofe of the oppofite fide, and pafs on
towards the liver, joining the hepatic plexus.

The nervus vagus, therefore, fupplies the pharynx and
cefophagus; the larynx, trachea, and thyroid gland; the
arteries of the neck, large veflels of the heart, and the lungs ;
the ftomach, duodenum, liver, gall-bladder, and fpleen. It
communicates freely with the oppofite nerve, with the gloffo-
pharyngeal, hypogloffal, acceflory, great fympathetic, and
firft cervical nerves.

Acceffory, or eleventh cerebral nerve, nervus ad par va-
gum accefforius, nerf {pinal. This, and the two preceding,
compofe the eighth pair, or par vagum of moft authors.

The acceffory nerve arifes from the upper part of the
medulla fpinalis, between the anterior and pofterior fafciculi
of the upper cervical nerves. The point of its commence-
ment is uncertain, and varies from the third to the feventh
cervical nerve : it may be different in length on the two fides.
It arifes by a fmall point on the fide of the medulla, and

afcends between the ligamentum denticulatum and the polte-

rior roots of the eervical nerves, receiving at each interval be-
tween two nerves an additional branch, arifing by three roots,
and thereby increafing in fize. Sometimes it communicates
with the pofterior root of the firft cervical nerve. As it
afcends, it is direéted obliquely outwards, and enters the
cranium at the foramen magnum: at this part it receives
four longer twigs, each of which arifes by feveral minute
threads, and then turns outwards to the opening which re-
ceives the nervus vagus, under which it quits the cranium,
fometimes by a common fibrous canal with that nerve, fome-
times by a feparate one. It communicates, towards the
lower end of the canal, with the nervus vagus, to which
it adheres fo clofely, that they might be taken fora fingle
trunk. As it quits the canal, it feparates from the nervus
vagus, becomes conneéted by a denfe cellular tiffue to the
hypogloffus, then leaves it to go behind the internal jugular
vein, and afterwards turns outward under the fterno-maf-
toideus. It traverfes the fibres of the polterior part of this
mufcle, at about one-third from its upper end, becomes
more fuperficial, and then runs along the anterior furface of
the trapezius, on which it is loft. Its branches are not very
numerous: in its paflage through the cranium it divides into
an exterior and an interior branch.

The interior (rameau acceffoire du nerf vague) gives off
a fuperior and an inferior branch, which unite together above
the ramifications of the nervus vagus, and there receive
a confiderable branch from that nerve. The union of thele
three compofes the pharyngeal nerve, which is, therefore,
formed between the nervus vagus and acceflorius, and which
is already defcribed in the account of the former. The
trunk then goes behind the nervus vagus, clofely conneéted
to it, and augmented by two branches from it. Below
the origin of the fuperior laryngeal nerve it divides into
{everal filaments, joining the trunk of the neryus vagus,
which affumes here a very manifelt plexiform arrangement
for the reception of thefe threads: Sometimes it communi-
cates with the hypoglofial.

The exterior branch penetrates the fibres of the fterno-
maftoideus, fends two or three branches to that mu(cle,
and communicates here by one or more twigs with the cer-

5

vical plexus. The remainder of the trunk is loft on the
trapezius.

Thus, befides the pharynx, two mufcles only, the fterno-
maftoideus dnd trapezius, have branches from the neryus
acceflorius } and thefe mufcles derive branches from other
quarters.

The hypoglaffal nerve, or ‘twelfth, nervus lingualis me-
dius, commonly called nerve of the ninth pair, has its origin
placed in front of that of the nervus vagus and gloffo-pharyn-
geus: it comes from the groove between the corpus olivare
and pyramidale, and arifes by ten or twelve flender threads,
generally united into three or four fafciculi placed in a ver-
tical line, one under the other, in front of the vertebral
artery. They converge towards the anterior condyloid
foramen, and penetrate the dura mater by one, two, or three
openings; but unite in the canal of the foramen, which is
fometimes double. When it quits the cranium, the hypo-
gloffal nerve is conneéted by a denfe cellular tiffie to the
nervus vagus, and placed on its outfide: it foon quits this
fituation to pafs obliquely forwards and downwards, be-
coming conftantly more fuperficial. It lies at firft on the
internal carotid and the fuperior cervical ganglion, and
afterwards goes over the external carotid and its branches:
it is covered by the ftylo-hyoideus, the pofterior portion of
the digaftric and the occipital artery, and foon appears be-
tween the branches of the internal jugular vein. In this
place it forms a remarkable turn, {weeping forwards and
upwards under the tendon of the digaftric.

Immediately under the cranium it fends a twig to com- .
municate with the arch formed by the junétion of the firft
and fecond cervical nerves ; and it communicates, by one or
two filaments, with the nervus vagus and accefforius. When
it begins to bend forwards, a confiderable branch arifes
from its convexity, (ramus defcendens, branche cervieale
defcendante,) defcends perpendicularly in the neck, along
the internal jugular vein, and, about the middle of the part,
turns outwards to communicate, by a confiderable arch,
with a fimilar branch formed by two twigs of the two firft
cervical nerves. There is a {mall plexus at the point of
communication. Juft before this communication, the de-
{cending cervical nerve fends off two twigs to the omo-
hyoideus and fterno-hyoideus. The branches of the plexus
are long and flender, and are loft on the omo-hyoideus,
fterno-hyoideus, and fterno-thyroideus: it communicates
with the third’and fourth cervical, and the phrenic nerves.

The hypogloffal nerve lies nearly in company with the
lingual artery, where it begins to turn forwards: it pene-
trates between the mylohyoideus and hyogloflus, and is after-
wards feparated by the latter mufcle from the artery, and
enters the fub{tance of the tongue, in which it terminates.
It fends a fmall twig to the thyro-hyoideus, and has fome
communication with the nervi molles. When it has arrived
under the mylo-hyoideus, its filaments are feparated, fo that
it feems to increafe in fize, and it gives off a great number
of branches in a radiated form. 1. A few go to the fu-
perior conftriétor of the pharynx and the ftylo-pharyngeus.
2. Five or fix very flender, but eafily difcernible ones, afcend
on the external furface of the hyogloffus, and communicate
freely with each other, as well as with branches of the guf-
tatory nerve. 3. Inferior filaments to the genio-hyoideus,
genio-gloffus, and mylo-hyoideus. The trunk afterwards
penetrates the genio-gloflus, diftributes its filaments in its
pofterior part, and follows the courfe of ite infertion into
the mufcular fibres of the tongue, diftributing fucceflively
to it, as well as to thefe fibres, other filaments, almott to
the point of the organ, but having no concern with the
papilla. In this paflage, along the middle of the tongue,

the

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

the hypogloffal nerve lies very near that of the oppofite
fide.

The hypogloffal nerve fupplies all the mnfcles of the
os hyoides, the glenio-gloffus, and fterno-thyroideus, and
the mufcles of the tongue. It is conneéted with the fifth
cerebral nerve, with the vagus, the accefforius, the fympa-
thetic, the phrenic, and »fome cervical nerves. It belongs
to the motions of the tongue, and feems to have no connec-
tion with the bufinefs of tafte.

Anatomy of the Spinal Marrow, and of the Parts connefed
with it.—The membranes covering this organ are continu-
ations of thofe which belong to the brain, and they enter the
vertebral canal through the great occipital foramen.

Dura Mater.—The cuhalas lined in the firft place by a
production of dura mater prolonged to its inferior extremity.
This produ€tion forms a membranous canal, differing in its
form from the bony canal: it is rounded, while the latter
is triangular, and confequently broader. Independently,
too, of this difference in form, the membranous canal is
{maller than the bony one, and confequently unattached to
it in the greater part of its furface. A fimilar difpropor-
tion is obferved between the membranous canal and the in-
cluded organ; the latter appearing quite loofe in its fheath.
Yet there is not more fluid obferved here than in the brain.

The outer furface of the fheath correfponds to the canal,
but does not adhere to it, as the dura mater does to the
cranium: the front of the plates, that meet to form the
fpinous proceffes, is covered by periofteum, and the front of
the canal is covered by the polterior ligament of the ver-
tebre. A loofe cellular tiffue intervenes between the canal
and the fheath, except in front, where the latter adheres
clofely to the ligament. In the facrum this tiflue contains
fat.
On each fide of the fheath there is a feries of {mall canals
furrounding the fpinal nerves as they pafs through the cor-
refponding foramina. Thefe vary in fize, length, and direc-
tion, according to the differences of the nerves. They are
manifeftly enlarged at the foramina, on account of the gan-
glia formed on the nerves in that fituation. They are
gradually loft in the cellular membrane on the furface of the
nerve, inftead of being continuous, as in the head, with the
periofteum. The internal furface of the membrane is po-
lifhed, as in the head, and every where contiguous to the
arachnoid. Bichat conceives the polifhed furface to be
owing to a reflection of the arachnoid. Each fide offers a
feries of openings, which are the beginnings of the canals
for the nerves; and in the intervals of thefe, the points of
attachment of the ligamentum denticulatum. At the upper
end, the fheath is continuous with the dura mater of the
cranium: it is perforated, immediately below the occipital
foramen, for the paflage of the vertebral artery. It ter-
minates below in forming fibrous fheaths for the facral
nerves.

The ftru€@ture of the membrane is the fame as in the brain :
yet the fibres are lefs difliné, and the thicknefs is not fo
confiderable. The latter diminifhes gradually to the end of
the canals that contain the nerves.

Pia Mater—The organs contained in the cranium are
furrounded by a vafcular network, to which the appellation
of membrane can hardly be given with propriety. The
medulla fpinalis, on the contrary, is moft clofely enveloped
by a firm membrane forming with it one fubftance ; and to
this, in fpite of the differences of texture between the two
parts, anatomifts give the name of pia mater. _ If this cover-
ing be flit up lengthwife, and the medullary fubftance be
then {craped away, the former is left alone, under the ap-

pearance of a denfe femitran{parent membrane; or if, after
dividing the medulla fpinalis, we prefs it towarde the cut
furface, the medulla may be fqueezed out, and the mem-
brane is left. Its external furface correfponds to the arach-
noid, which does not adhere to it, but may be feparated
throughout by inflation. The fpinal arteries lie on it, and
diftribute their branches over it. At the fides it is con-
tinuous with the neurilema of the nerves, and gives attach-
ment to the ligamentum denticulatum. The internal furface
correfponds every where to the medullary fubftance, and
feems to be continuous with it, fo that the two form one
organ. It confifts of a thick, folid, and very firm tiflue,
with an appearance, towards the fides, of diftinét fibres.
Its denfity is greater in the lower than in the upper part of
the organ. But few veflels belong to the fubftance of the
membrane; a great number, after being firft minutely fub-
divided, enter the medulla, and this probably contributes
to its very firm adhefion. It has a yellowifh-white colour,
different from the pure white of the medulla, which is feen
when the membrane is divided.

Immerfion in cold water for a few days makes it rather
harder ; but prolonged maceration foftens it. It contraéts
and curls up confiderably under the ation of boiling water,
and thereby {queezes out the medulla from its cutend. If
openings are previoufly made in it, a fimilar phenomenon
is exhibited at thefe. It refifts putrefaction for a long time ;
and affumes a yellowifh colour when dried. Acids and heat
corrugate it; and the former afterwards reduce it to a fluid
ftate.

It feems to be analogous to the neurilema of the nerves,
It does not commence abruptly ; the pia mater acquires on
the pons a greater confiftence than it has in other parts of the
cerebral organ: this increafes on the corpora olivaria and
pyramidalia, where it feems to have nothing in common with
the pia mater, except its continuity.

The ligamentum denticulatum is a oarrow, whitifh, and denfe
layer, affixed to the fide of the medulla fpinalis ; and ap-
parently continuous with its proper membrane. It lies be-
tween the anterior and pofterior origins of the fpinal nerves
throughout the whole length of the organ. The outer
edge prefents a feries of {mall pointed proceffes, from which
the name denticulatum was derived, attached to the dura
mater. ‘Thefe are narrow rounded cords, very denfe, and
are fixed at the intervals between the exits of the nerves.
They are fhort above, and longer below. The outer edge
of the ligament prefents a feries of concavities hetween thefe.
Bichat contends, that this organ is diftin& both from the
arachnoid and the proper membrane of the medulla; indeed
its denfity and firmnefs fufficiently diltinguifh it from the
former ; and it is conneéted to the latter, according to the
anatomift juft mentioned, by a cellular tiffue. At the point
of adhefion to the medullary membrane it is very thin, and
becomes gradually thicker towards its outer edge. It is
not eafy to ftate any thing pofitive about its nature ; its tex-
ture is very clofe, but not manifeftly fibrous. It has the
effe& of fixing the medulla fpinalis in its fituation.

The Arachnoid—This membrane paffes from the Mull
at the occipital foramen, and defcends into the vertebral
canal. '

It is almoft unattached on its internal furface: a {mall
number of cellular threads form its only conneétion to the
proper membrane of the fpinal marrow. Hence, if the
fpinal marrow with its coverings be carefully taken out of
the canal, the dura mater laid open, and air impelled under
the arachnoid, the latter will be raifed throughout and form

a tube interrupted only at the points where it furnifhes pro-
4X2 longations

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

Jongations to the nerves. This want of adhefion on the in-
ternal furface diftinguifhes it effentially from the cranial
portion of the membrane. Its external furface is free, like
that of the arachnoid in the head, and in conta& with the’
dura mater. It affords at the fides a conical covering to
each of the fpinal nerves, accompanying the nerve to its
fibrous canal, and then refle¢ted to the dura mater.

The Medulla Spinalis.—The term fpinal marrow, by the
import of the words, denotes the nervous mafs contained in
the vertebral column from the foramen occipitale down-
wards; but anatomilts have differed in refpect to its fu-
perior boundary. Varoli, Willis, Bartholin and others, in-
clude under this expreffion the meduila oblongata, pons, crura
cerebri, and even higher parts ; Haller makes the occipital
foramen the boundary. Soemmerring, Bichat, and Chauffier
make it extend to the back edge of the pons, and confe-
quently include the corpora pyramidalia and olivaria, and the
origins of the three lait cerebral nerves. The latter anato-
milt calls the part fituated within the cranium < le bulbe
fupéricur du prolongement rachidien.’’ This divifion is an
arbitrary one; the groove forming the feparation is ‘not
made by any interruption of the afcending fafciculi, but by
the thicknefs of the tranverfe {trata of the pons and does
not exift on the pofterior furface; it is much lefs ftrongly
marked in the mammalia than in man, and, as thefe tran{-
verfe ftrata are wanting in birds, amphibia, and fifhes, the
feparation alfo does not exift. We think, therefore, with
Gall, that the foramen of the occiput is the beft diftinGion.
«© We cannot indeed fay, that the organifation of the part
is changed immediately on its becoming contained in the
cranium. Some pairs of nerves are ftill detached from it,
in a manner fimilar to the origin of the cervical; the line
of demarcation occupying the middle of the organ is con-
tinued beyond this point on the pofterior furface, but in-
terrupted in front by the decuffation of the corpora pyra-
midalia. The fpinal marrow is intimately conneéted to the
parts, which begin at the foramen magnum. But in this
part the anterior fiffure is interrupted, the nervous mafs be-
comes {wollen in a very vifible manner in man, and full
more fo inthe mammalia. The firft rudiments of the nerves
called cerebral, of the brain, and of the cerebellum, are
very diftin€&ly perceived at this part. Thefe reafons feem
fufficient for making the fpinal marrow end above at the
beginning of the great fwelling or of the pyramids.”
Anat. et Phyf. du Syft. Nerv. p. 48.

It were to he wifhed, as this author ftates, that the term
marrow (medulla or medullary fubftance) were entirely
difcarded, as there is no more analogy in ftridturey than in
fun@ions, between the medullary texture and the two mat-
ters that compofe the neryous fyftem. In the medulla fpi-
nalis, as in other parts of this fyftem, we meet (only with
the grey gelatinous matter, occupying the middle of its
whole length, and nervous fibres comprifing the white ex-
terior part.

The nervous cord terminates’ below about the firft or
fecond lumbar vertebra. In common language the fpinal
marrow is f{poken of as a prolongation or continuation of
the medullary. fubftance of the cerebrum and cerebellum ; if
it is meant by fuch expreflions to denote any attual forma-
tion of the one part from the other, any dependence of one
on the other, or any thing further than the fimple fa& of
connection, we entirely agree with Gall in confidering them
as incorrect. ‘The fpinal marrow does not become {maller
in proportion a8 mone nerves are fent from it; on the con-
trary, it is largeft in the fituations where the largeft nerves
come from it, as at the origins of the nerves of the extre-

mities; and this faé is particularly obfervable in birds.
Again, in animals, it has been often noticed that the f{pinal
marrow is larger in proportion to the brain than in man.
In the fame way the nerves are much more confiderable in
their relative fize to the brain in animals, than inman. All
thefe faéts fhew the independence of the various organs on
each other, although anatomifts have ftill continued to de-
{cribe the large and {mall {pinal marrow and nerves of man
and animals equally as prolongations of the brain. Whence
comes the {pinal marrow of -acephalous monfters 2. Further
proofs of the independent exiftence of thefe organs are af-
forded by comparative anatomy. In the lower claffes of
animals, as worms and caterpillars, there are as many. origins
of nerves or ganglions, as there are rings or fegments; thefe
knots of cineritious matter are joined together by nervous
branches ; and form anervous cord ftudded at intervals with
{mall tumours of various form ‘and fize, but all divided
into two parts, fo that allis double. The number and fize
of the nervous threads proceeding from thefe.{wellings are
always in a dire ratio to the fize of the latter. .In_fifhes,
amphibia, and birds, the principle is the fame; there isno
effential difference ; only the ganglions are in general clofer
to each other, forming with their uniting bands a cord
nearly uniform in fize, but {welling out in diftin& knots,
wherever large nerves pafs off; and if clofely examined,
we may perceive throughout alternate {wellings and contrac+
tions. This is very vifible in the fowl, each pair arifing
from cineritious fubftances, and communicating with thole
on each fide by conneéting branches. The fame law. ob-
tains in the mammalia and in man, although the fas are not
fo immediately evident. Where the large nerves of the extre-
mities arife, the ganglia are: larger and more abundantly
fupplied with the grey pulpy fubitance. But, befides thefe
principal {wellings, there are others at the origins of the
articular nerves (one for each nerve), lefs manifeft than in
infeéts, but ftill fufficiently perceptible.. Galland Spurz-
heim demonftrated thefe {wellings in the calf, and affert;
that they are alfo very. perceptible in the human fubjeéts
particularly at the back part,: from which the largeft fai-
ciculi arife. If the dura mater and arachnoid coats are re-
moved, and the fide of the fpinal:marrow viewed in profile,
the outline is diftin@ly undulated.

A very diftiné fiffure runs along both the anterior an
the polterior furface of the’ {pinal marrow in their whole
extent; the anterior is broader and more confpicuous, the
pofterior deeper. Into both of thefe the vafcular membrane
defcends. The former is interrupted, at the beginning .of
the medulla oblongata, by therdecuffation of the pyramids.
The two halves of the {pinal marrow are united at. the bottom
of the fiffures by a nervous layery which confifts behind of two
fafciculi direéted longitudinally ; on ‘the; front the fafeiculi
are tranfverfe, and direéted from.each fide towards. the
middle line, but they do not come oppofite to each others
thofe of one fide ending at the intervals between the op-
nofite ones. Gall and his aflociate confider thefe nervous
livre asthe apparatus, by means of which the two halves
of this part of the nervous fy{tem communicate with»and
act on each other, in the fame manner as takes place in the
brain and cerebellum by: their feveral commiffures,

Some authors have admitted the éxiltence of two lateral
grooves; but we reject thefe, with Gall and all other cor-
reét modern anatomitts.

The production of the fpinal nerves has been generally
reprefented, as if the medulla were only amedinm. through
which they are derived trom the brains | This reprefentation
is quite ungrounded ; there 18 a quantity of cineritions matter

in

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

in each lateral half of the medulla {pinalis, from which the
nervous filaments are produced: when a tranfverfe fection
is made of the medulla fpinalis, this cineritious matter re-
prefents on each fide an arch, of which the convexity is
turned towards the median line.

The exiftence of a canal in the middle of the fpinal
marrow has been cafually mentioned by feveral writers.
Gall and Spurzheim give the following account of it.
They firft obferved it in examining a cafe of {pina bifida,
attended with hydrocephalus. In order to know pofi-
tively if there exilted any communication between the fac
and the internal part of the fpinal marrow, we divided the
latter tranfverfely in the neck ; it exhibited its natural ap-
ne ein Blowing gently through a pipe on the cut fur-

ace, we perceived an opening as large as that of a common

quill in each half of the fpinal marrow, feparated by the
commiffure. They were the openings of two canals, which,
by dividing lower and lower down, were found to terminate
about three inches above the end of the {pirial marrow,
having no communication whatever with the fac. Doubt-
ful whether this appearance might be the effeét of dileafe,
we examined the part in children and adults. We found
the fame ftruéture, with this difference only, that in the
adult and older children thefe canals did not open fo freely
as in younger fubjeéts. The ftru€ture is molt eafily fhewn
in children juft born. In other refpeéts they are alike. If
We continue to blow gently into thefe canals, from’below
upwards, and if, after having opened by this operation the
length of fix or eight lines in the {pinal marrow, we expofe
only four or five, in order to maintain the opening, we
may follow thefe canals through the medulla oblongata, the
pons; crura cerebri, and as far as the’ optic thalami, in
which they form on each fide a cavity as large as an
almond when blown up. They are clofed at the anterior
margin of the thalami, at the commencement of the corpora
ftriata, and they have no communication with the cavities of
the brain. Their furface is {mooth; but they contain no
fluid.” P. 72.

The filaments by which the fpinal nerves arife are nume-
rous and delicate ; they unite into two, three, or more faf-
ciculi, which go out by two or more openings of the dura
mater ; the anterior and pofterior fafciculi of each nerve,
feparated at firit by the ligamentum denticulatum and above
by the fpinal acceffory nerve, approach to each other, ‘but
they penetrate the membrane feparately, and are contained
in two diltin& tubes.

The anterior origins confift of very numerous fine roots,
which unite together into larger fibres, and thefe again into
ftill larger ones, which joi ‘yltimately into’ two cords.
The dafeHlde ire fimple and round, and run to the opering
of the dura mater without joining the neighbouring ones.
The lowe't thread of one nerve often joins the higheft: of’the
nerve immediately fucceeding on the poftérior afpect of the
medulla fpinalis. ;

The pofterior origins are nee and more nunierous than
the anterior, throughout the whole vertebral column. Gall
and Spurzheim explain this by the Wervi force reqtiired
for extending than bending the trunk; and confider, that
the extended condition of the body’ after death indicates
this preponderance in the extenfor mufcles: P. 66.

The ‘two firlt cervical’ nerves’ have on the front an af-
cending and a defcending fafciculus; in all the~ other
nerves all the fibrés are ‘dire¢ted from their ‘origins down-
wards to the opetiings of the dura mater. The pofterior
origin of the fecond nerve goes entirely downwards. Hence
the two firft {pinal’nerves go out tra:fverfely from their ori-
gin, while all the reft run obliquely downwards. The former

are the fhorteft, within the fheath; the others increafe in
length as we trace them downwards. he inferior and
longelt are loofely contained, lie in clofe appofition to each
other, are tortuous in their courfe, but not conneéted by
any communications: they form below the termination of
the medulla fpinalis, a large bundle of threads called the
cauda equirea. ,

In younger individuals, the fibres, by which the fpinal
nerves arife, follow each other very clofély ; in the adult
thefe are {mall intervals. The arrangement, the height,
fize, and number of the fibres are often different on the
two fides. t ;

After pafling through the openings of the dura mater,
and receiving a firm fibrous covering, .the pofterior origins
of the fpinal nerves fwell out, at different diftances from
their commencement, into {mall reddifh oval ganglia, to
which the anterior fafciculus is clofely conneéted by cel-
lular tiffue, without being included in it. Thefe ganglia
have ufually been defcribed in general terms, -without notic-
ing the mode of their formation. Scarpa demonttrated,
that they belong to: the polterior fafciculus only. Yet we
meet fometimes, particularly in the neck, with fuch a firm
and red interweaving of the anterior fafciculi, that we are
tempted to regard them as gangliform produétions.

The fize of the nerves is much below that of the common
lateral holes of the vertebral column, through which they
go out of the vertebral canal; cellular tiffue and vafcular
ramifications fill up the reft of the fpace.

The medulla fpinalis ferves for conveying fenfations to the
brain, and for producing voluntary motions. Hence pref-
fure on this organ, or divifion of it, caufes the fame effets
on the fenfations and motions of the parts, which’ receive
nerves below the fituation of the preflureor divifion, as the
fame operations, on the nerves, or as injuries of the brain.
The powers of fenf{ation and motion are fometimes recovered
when the medulla fpinalis is reftored to its former ftate : this
depends on the degree of injury it has received. Although
the fame nerves are employed for fenfation and motion, the
latter power may be deftroyed while the former remains!
The effects of injury are confined to: the parts whofe nerves
arife below the point’ affeted; the fenfibility and mobility
of other parts is not impaired.

That the medulla fpinalis is only a conduting organ, and_
not the:immediate feat of fenfation and volition, is: proved
by the ceflation of thefe funétions, when its conneétion with
the brain is cut off, although it remains uninjured in other
refpects. The fuddenly fatal effe& of cutting through’ the
{pinal marrow high up inthe neck, depends onthe paralytis
of the refpiratory mufcles ¢aufed by this operation : if the
feGtion be above thofe cervical nerves which give rife to the
plirenic nerves, the operation's fatal ; if below, the aninal
may furvive for a longer or fhorter timé.. By maintaining
artificial refpiration, we'may alfo keep an animal alive after
having divided the medulla {pinalis above the origin of the
phrenic nerves. toad t

The-fame law does not obtain it the medulla fpinalis as ‘in
the brain, with refpe& to the paralyfis of the mafcles on
the fide oppofite to that of the injury. On’ this point there
have been’ contrary opinions. ' Galen has not ‘expreffed him
felf very clearly; but he feems to ‘ftate that divifion of one-
half of the fpinal marrow paralyfes the mufclés'of the fame
fide. Soemmerring’ confirms this ftatement; but Haller
contradidts himfelf in different parts of bis Elomenta Phy fio-
logiz. Inthe firft volume of Medico-Chirargical Tranfac-
tions, Dr. Yelloly mentions a eafesof tumour paffing on'the
fide of the fpine’ which it had rendered carious : the para-
lyfis was much more: confiderableon the fame fide with the

tumour,

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

tumour, than on the oppofite; p. 195. Mr. Aftley Coo-
per divided one-half of the fpinal marrow in a dog, imme-
diately below the occiput; the mufcles were paralyfed on
the fame fide. P. 198.

According to Galen, a longitudinal incifion in the middle
of the {pinal marrow has no paralyfing effect.

Preffure or irritation of the part excites very fevere pain :
if it comes on gradually, as in difeafe, it does not caufe
pain, but gradual lofs of feeling and motion in the parts be-
low. } i

For an account of the effe& which irritation of this
part has on the voluntary mulcles, fee Muscte.

Defeription of the Nerves of the Medulla Spinalis—There
are thirty pairsof thefe: viz. eight cervical, of which the
firft paffes between the occiput and atlas, and the laft be-
tween the feventh cervical, and firft dorfal vertebra ; twelve
dorfal, of which the firft paffes under the firft rib, and the
others, in fucceffion, under the remainiag ribs ; five lumbar,
bearing the fame relation to the lumbar vertebra, as the dor-
fal nerves do to the ribs; and five facral, of which four pe-
netrate the four facral foramina, and the fifth the foramen
formed between the facrum and the coccyx.

Sometimes there are only twenty-nine pairs ; and fome-
times only twenty-eight : in which cafe the lat ganglion
divides into two nerves.

Firfi cervical Nerve.—The diflribution of this nerve ac-
cords generally with that of the cervical, from which it dif-
fers in being much {maller ; in often wanting the pofterior
root, which, when it exifts, is not in the fame line with the
correfponding roots of thofe nerves; in haying its anterior
branches much fmaller than the pofterior ; and in having no
conne¢tion with the cervical plexus. Thefe circumitances
have led many anatomilts to feparate this from the remain-
ing cervical nerves, and to defcribe it under the name of
f{ub-occipital nerve : fometimes, indeed, it is claffed with the
nerves arifing in the head; of which, in the common ar-
rangement, it would form the tenth, in that which we have
adopted from Soemmerring and Vicq d’Azyr, the thir-
teenth.

It arifes from the fide of the upper part of the medulla
fpinalis, juft under its fuperior enlargement, and about half
an inch below the origin of the hypogloffal. Seven or eight
filaments unite into two or three fafciculi in front, and two
or three threads only behind, form the two origins, which
are feparated by the ligamentum denticulatum, and fome-
times by the {pinal nerve, which more frequently goes behind
both origins of this nerve, and fometimes communicates
with the anterior. They penetrate the dura mater at the
point where the vertebral artery pafles, and run clofe to that
vartery in the fame canal, on i which, a {mall greyith
enlargement, fimilar to what we fhall defcribe in the other
cervical nerves, but lefs ftrongly marked, is obferved. The
two fafciculi united together form a fingle trunk, lodged
in the excavation behind the articular procefs of the atlas,
running onthe inner fide of the vertebral artery, and divided
immediately into an anterior anda pofterior branch. The
former is the {malleft, runs along the articular procefs of the
atlas, between it and the reétus lateralis, from behind for-
wards, then defcends in front of the tranfverfe procefs, and
unites with a branch of the cervical plexus, fo as to form
anarch, It produces only {mall twigs, to the lateral and an-
terior re¢ti, to the fuperior cervical ganglion, and to the
nervus vagus and hypogloflus.

The potterior and larger branch goes backwards and up-
wards, through the triangular fpace bounded by the obliqui
and reétus potticus major, and divides, afcer a fhort courle,
into, 3, an internal occipital branch; 2, an external occipital

branch ; and 3, a cervical branch, which are diltributed on
the obliqui, the pofterior reéti, and the complexus. _Inftead
of thefe three, fix or even feven twigs may be produced im-
mediately from the trunk.

It appears from this defcription, that the firft cervical, or
the fub-occipital nerve, is principally concerned in the mo-
tions of the head.

Of the remaining feven cervical nerves, the anterior ort-
gins are placed in a vertical line, and confiit of two portions
or threads, which arife from the medulla {pinalis by feven or
eight filaments, diltin€t at the point of origin, but imme-
diately uniting to form the two threads. Thefe origins in-
creafe in fize from above downwards. ‘The polterior roots,
much more confiderable than thefe, arife in a vertical line
from a clearly marked groove, by a variable number of
threads : there are commonly three or four in the fecond, fix
or feven in the three following, and eight or nine in the re-
mainder. Between the roots of two neighbouring nerves,
there is very commonly a middle thread, which bifurcates,
one branch joining the upper, and the other the lower
nerve. Like the anterior origins, thefe become larger as
they are fituated lower down : and the threads converge from
their origin towards the dura mater, fo as to acquire a tri-
angular figure.

The two roots, feparated at firft by the ligamentum den-
ticulatum, and above by the {pinal nerve, approach towards
each other as they pafs outwards. They have a more
oblique and larger courfe in the canal, in proportion as they
are placed lower down; the firft goes out oppofite to its
origin, but each of the fucceeding penetrates the dura ma-
ter below this point: the difference between the origin
and the exit of the laft is not lefs than the depth of a ver-
tebra.

When they come to the orifice of the fibrous canal
which is to tranfmit them, the two origins are united, and
enter: but a thin partition {till feparates them, forming, as
it were, two tubes. Aftera fhort courfe, the filaments of
the pofterior root {well into a greyifh, denfe, oval body,
extremely analogous in its appearance to the ganglia of the
organic nerves. he canal is enlarged for lodging this {well.
ing, in which the anterior root has no concern. The latter
joins the cord after the formation of the ganglion, and forms
with it a trunk, proportioned in fize to that of the two roots -
which give it origin: this trunk paffes through a very fhort
courfe, when it ends by dividing into an anterior and a pof.
terior branch.

The fecond cervical nerve goes out backwards between
the atlas and the fecond vertebra, and divides into the branches
of which the pofterior is the moft confiderable.

The latter paffes under the lower edge of the obliquus
major, turns over it upwards and backwards under the com.
plexus, and perforates that mufcle at its infertion in the occi-
put to become fubcutaneous. It communicates, at the ed
of the obliquus major, with the fub-occipital and the fecond
cervical nerves ; and fends branches to the complexus and
{plenius. Where it becomes fuperficial, the trunk is fome-
times.called the great occipital nerve ; it divides into a vait
number of branches, ditributed to the occipital mufcle, and
to the fkin of the pofterior, lateral, and upper parts of the
head, reaching as far as the termination of the frontal
branches of the ophthalmic nerye, with which they commu-
nicate.

The anterior branch turns over the articulation between the
atlas and the fecond vertebra towards the front, pafles bet ween
their tranfverfe procefles, covered by the levator fcapule,
the {plenius, and intertranfyerfalis prior, and divides into,
1, upper branches, of which one forms an arch with the

anterior

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

anterior branch of the firft cervical, and others go to the
fuperior cervical ganglion: 2, lewer branches, of which
one or two goto the rectus major anticus, and two or three,
rarely one, to communicate with the fecond cervical, and
thus contribute to the cervical plexus.

The third cervical nerve divides, like the preceding, im
mediately on its efcape from the vertebral canal, into two
branches, of which, however, the polterior is f{maller by
half than the anterior.

The pofterior turns immediately backwards, over the ar-'

ticulation, between the fecond and third vertebra, firft de-
fcends a little, then afcends, and becomes attached to the
anterior furface of the complexus, on which it mounts a
little, penetrates it and the trapezius, and becomes fub-
cutaneous towards the upper part of the neck. It commu-
nicates with the pofterior branch of the fecond nerve, gives
branches to the complexus and neighbouring mufcles, and
ends at. laft in the upper part of the neck, and back of the
head.

The anterior branch goes forwards and outwards, covered
by the fplenius and levator feapulz, gives a filament to the
fuperior cervical ganglion, forms an arch above and below
with the contiguous nerves, and then joins the cervical
plexus.

Fourth cervical Nerve.—Its pofterior branch goes back-
wards, along the articular procefs, penetrates between the
infertions of the complexus and femifpinalis colli, defcends
between thefe two mufcles, diftributing to them feveral fila-
ments, ard then pierces the mufcle, td terminate on the {kin
of the neck. It communicates with the third. The ante-
rior branch goes firlt outwards, then turns forwards, round
the anterior tubercle of the fourth vertebra, fends a commu-
nicating branch to the fuperior cervical ganglion, forms
nervous arches with the branches above and below it, and
then enters the cervical plexus.

The cervical plexus is formed by the union of the anterior
-branches of the fecond, third, and fourth cervical nerves,
which, as they leave the vertebral column, communicate
with the fuperior cervical ganglion, then divide each into two
branches, which communicate refpectively, fo as to form
nervous arches at the fide of the neck, from which other
branches arife that are again united more externally. By
the upper branch of the fecond cervical nerve, this plexus is
connected with the fub-occipital ; and by the lower branch
of the fourth, with the firft nerve of the brachial plexus.

There is a marked interval in the neck between thefe two

plexufes; the cervical is placed at the back edge of the’

iterno-maftoideus, and correfponds to the fecond, third, and
fourth cervical vertebre: it lies in front of the pofterior
fcalenus, and on the outfide of the carotid artery, jugular
vein, and nervus vagus. A large quantity of cellular
tiffue ‘is placed about it, and many blood-veffels and lympha-
tic glands are interwoven with it, occupying often the areole
formed by itscommunications. It produces twigs of com-
munication with the cervical ganglia, and with the fpinal
nerve, and then divides into the following branches.

1. Defcending cervical nerve, arifing by two roots that
remain feparate for fome time, from the fecond aud. third
cervical, pafling downwards and inwards, and communi-
cating in the manner already defcribed with the defcending
branch of the hypogloffal nerve.

2. Phrenic or diaphragmatic (nervus fepti tranfverfi),
arifing from the lower part of the plexus. The fourth
nerve furnifhes its moit confiderable root, and a flender twig
js fometimes added by the third. ‘The brachial plexus alfo
adds two or three twigs lower down in the neck. It de-
{cends on the front of the anterior fealenus, to which it is

clofely tied by cellular tiffue, enters the cheft betweew the
fubclavian vein and artery, pafles inwards and forwards in
the mediaftinum before the great veflels of the lungs, and
then becomes conneéted to the pericardium, over which it
runs, covered by the pleura, to the convexity of the dia-
phragm. Its white colour enables us to trace its courfe,
without any diffeétion, by fimply opening the cheft: the
pleura is fo thin, that the nerve is feen through it on either
fide of the pericardium.

The right nerve is more anterior, and follows a ftraighter
courfe: it divides, before reaching the diaphragm, into fe-
veral branches united by communicating filaments, and then
diverging. They give twigs to the convexity of this mufcle,
and others which defcend through the opening occupied by
the vena cava to the inferior furface, whence they communi-
cate with branches of the celiac ganglia. Other branches,
longer than thefe, pierce the oiicles join the arteries, and
are diftributed with them, communicating alfo with the
celiac nerves.

The left phrenic nerve lies farther back in the cheft, and
is longer, becaufe it turns round the point of the heart. Its
branches, like thofe of the former, are diftributed on both
furfaces of the diaphragm: fome go with the cefophagus
into the abdomen, and communicate below with the celiac.
Ganglia have been deferibed at the point of conneétion be-
tween the phrenic and celiac.

In the neck, the phrenic nerves give twigs to the rectus
major, the fcalenus, and, according to fome, to The thy-
mus; but the latter are doubtful. It communicates on
each fide with the inferior cervical ganglion, but fends no-
thing to the pericardium or lung.

Innumerable experiments on living animals have. fhewn
that this nerve is concerned in the motions of the diaphragm.
Injury or irritation of it induces dreadful fymptoms; con-
sulfions of the diaphragm, anxiety, diftrefs of breathing,
&c. When it is divided, the motion of the diaphragm
ceafes, and great difficulty of breathing follows; the abdo-
men falls in when air is taken into the lungs, and fwells
on expiration. Divifion of the fpinal marrow above the
origin of the nerves, which produce the phrenic, is inftantly
fatal, aé all the refpiratory mufcles are inftantly paralyfed :
below that point, it is only fatal after the lapfe of hours, or
even days; becaufe the diaphragm can {till ac.

3- Defcending external cervical branches, two, three, or
four in number, quickly fubdivided into numerous other
ramifications, which pafs over the clavicle and acromion to
the integumients and mufcles on the cheft and fhoulder, as
the pectoral and deltoid, ({fupraclaviculares interiores &
medi; fus-claviculaires & fus-acromiens of Bichat,) behind
that bone into the axilla, where they are diftributed to the
omohyoideus, fubfcapularis, and ferratus anticus, (fub-
claviculares, fou claviculaires of Bichat,) and deeper in the
neighbourhood of the cervical mufcles, particularly of the
levator fcapule, along the edge of which a large branch
defcends ramified in it, and in the neighbouring mufcles,
(cervicaux profonds, Bichat).

4. Afcending branches. Of thefe there are two prin-
cipal; a maftoid and an auricular, particularly produced
from the fecond cervical nerve. The maftoid branch (ner-
vos occipitalis minor) afcends along the pofterior edge of
the fterno-maftoideus, between the integuments and the
{plenius, to the back of the mattoid procefs, where it di-
vides into feveral filaments, diftributed to the integuments
on the fide and back of the head, to the external ear and
the occipital mufcle, and communicate with the auricular
branch of the facial, and the great occipital branch of the
fecond cervical.

The

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

The auricular nerve ({uperficialis colli, Soemmerring) isa,

very confiderable trunk, twice as large as the preceding, firft
-direGted outwards as it leaves the plexus, then, bent forwards

upper part of its external furface, in clofe contaét wit the
mufcle, obliquely upwards and forwards.
anterior edge of this -mufcle; and divides, oppofite-to,the
angle of the jaw, into, 1, anterior auricular branches,
{pread out on the furface of the carotid, .giving fome
filaments to its {ubftance, and then ramifiedon the external
ear: one of, theny)communicates, in the, gland, with) the
facial ‘nerve. . 2-/Potkerior auricular branches, of which
there are fometimes two, fometimes only one, afcending, in
front of the fterno-matteideus and fof the maftoid procefs,
and diftributedion thé ear andneighbouring integuments.

5. Middle cervical branches... There. is either a fingle
trunk or two, produced chiefly! by the third cervical, re-
fleGed over the back edge of the fterno-maltoideus, and dif.
tributed to the fkin and latiffimus colli. The fuperior fila-
ments communicaté with (the lower. twigs of the - facial
nerve. 0G

The fifth, fixth, feventh, and eighth cervical nerves, fo far
agree in their diitribution, that they may be confidered to-
gether. They divide into two: branches, as they quit the
foramina of the vertebral column... Their pofterior branches
are remarkable for their fmallnefs, when compared to thofe
of the preceding nerves: they go backwards between. the
- femifpinalis colli and complexus, penetrate the fplenius and
trapezius, andare loft on the flcin. -

The anterior branches, particularly. of the three laft
nerves, are very large: they pafs obliquely downwards and
outwards from the fide of the fpine, between the. fealeni
mufcles, which cover their exit from the vertebral foramina,
and very foon communicate together. The fifth communi-
cates alfo with the fourth cervical, and the eighth with the
firft dorfal. Each fends a filament to the cervical, ganglia :
from the fourth, the phrenic derives a root already men-
tioned; and various twigs are fpent on the furrounding
mufcles: they then unite to compofe the brachial plexus.

The brachial or axillary plexus is compofed of the anterior
branches of the four laft cervical nerves, and of the cor-
refponding branch of the firft dorfal, which afcends from
the cheft. Its extent is confiderable; broad at its origin,
contracted in the middle, and again expanded towards its
termination. The fifth and fixth cervical nerves unite im-
mediately into a common trunk, which defcends very ob-
liquely outwards. The eighth cervical and firlt dorfal join
into one trunk, which runs nearly horizontally. The fe-
venth cervical paffes between thefe two trunks as far-as the
firft rib, before it joins them. The plexus defcends, in the
form of a flattened fafciculus, between the fubclavius and
the upper portion of the ferratus anticus: it then expands,
and divides into numerous branches pafling downwards, as
we fhall defcribe prefently.

The different nerves are all joined together in this plexus,
mutually giving and receiving filaments ; fo that the branches
produced from it may be confidered as arifing from all the
five fpinal trunks that enter into its compofition. In this
great plexus another {maller is obferved, produced by the
union of the origins of the median and ulnar: feveral {mall
twigs of a foft texture defcend from the trunk of the former,
and, after a more or lefs intricate plexiform arrangement,
join the latter, conftituting the plexus brachialis minor of
Scarpa, who firft defcribed it. See the excellent reprefent-
ations of the whole axillary plexus in his Annot. Anat, lib. 1.
tab. 2. figs. 2 and 3.

At its origin, the brachial plexus is placed between the

It teaches the,

fealeni, of which the anterior conceals this origin, efpecially _
towards the lower parts,’ It then is furrounded by the

_ abundant loofe! cellular tiffue of the axilla below the clavicle,
over the back edge of the {terno-maftoideus, and croffing the,

lying firft between the fubclavius and the firlt rib, and then -
upon the ferratus: it goes through the axilla to the upper
and inner part of the arm... Both pe@toral mufcles, the fub-
clayius, and the clavicle, ,cover it in its paflage through the
cavity. .Towards the upper part, the axillary vein is in
front, the artery in the middle, and the nerves behind. In
the cavity of the axilla, the nerves produced from the plexus
furround the artery,, almoft.like a fheath. Befides the
branches. of,,communication. with the cervical ganglia, and
the phrenic nerve, and the mufeular twigs already men-
tioned; the plexus produces the following nerves.

I, 2.) Anterior and poferior thoracte nerves, accompanying
the arteries of the fame: name, and diftributed on the pec-
toral and ferratus mufcles, and through the former to the
gland and {kin of the brealti, ; : ;

3. Suprafcapulary nerve ({capularis, fus-{capulaire), going
backwards, through the notch of the fame nerve, to the
dorfum of the feapula, and diftributed to the fubfeapularis,
fupra and infrafpinatus, and teres minor. 108%

4. The axillary nerve pafles under the lower edge of ‘the
fcapula, and round the head of the humerus, in company
with the pofterior.circumflex artery. It is loft on the fur-
face of the deltoid. Its branches are fent to the fubfcapu-
laris, teres major and minor, rhomboidei, infrafpinatus, latif-
fimus dorfi, and deltoid. It communicates with the cu:
taneous pectoral nerves arifing from the dorfal; and it fends
off the external cutaneous branch of the fhoulder, which
goes to the fkin of the outer part of the fhoulder, and has
communications with fuperficial branches of the radial nerve,
Sometimes one, two, or more feparate branches come from
the brachial plexus to the fubfcapularis mufcle.

5. The internal cutaneous (cutaneus medius of Soemmer-
ring) is the fmalleft branch of the axillary plexus, It lies
in the axilla, between the median and ulnar nerves, then
runs along the inner fide of the arm, under the brachial
aponeurofis, and in the fame general dire€tion with the
brachial veffel, as far as the bend of the elbow. It lies,
however, more fuperficially and pofteriorly than the veflels,
and generally very clofe upon the bafilic vein. It fends off
{ome very inconfiderable twigs among the cellular fubftance,
to terminate on the fkin. , One of them is more confiderable,
and defcends towards the internal condyle. | Near the middle
of the arm, or rather higher, the trunk divides into an in-
ternal and an external branch. :

The external branch penetrates the aponeurofis, goes ob-
liquely downwards and forwards over the median nerves, as
far as the end of the biceps, then pafles over the bend of the
elbow, about its middle, and continues its courfe fuper-
ficially as far as the wrift, diltributed to the integuments,
and communicating with the neighbouring fuperficial nerves.
The trunk of this nerve is connected at the elbow with the
fuperficial veins, going generally behind thofe veffels; and
the ramifications on the fore-arm are interwoven with the
plexus of cutaneous veins, ;

The internal or larger branch is continued in the direction
of the trunk, and accompanies the bafilic vein. This di-
vides at the bend of the elbow, and is diftributed fuperficially
on the fore-arm, over the ulnas ! i

6. The external cutaneous or mufculo-cutaneous nerve (ner-
vus/perforans) is of a middle fize between the preceding and
the other brachial nerves: it feparates from the plexus, op-
pofite to the common origin of the biceps and coraco-
brachialis, and is direéted outwards. It defcends obliquely,
and penetrates the middle of the coraco-brachialis —

then

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

then goes between it and the brachialis internus, and efcapes
at the outer edge of the lower end of the biceps. It then
lies parallel'‘to the tendon of that mufcle, under the median
cephalic vein, and becomes fuperficial. It defcends through
the forearm, between the aponevrofis and the fkin, in the
dire€tion of the radius, and reaches as far as the wrift.
‘The mufculo-cutaneous nerve fends off mufcular branches to
the coraco-brachialis, biceps, and brachialis internus. A
{mall twig fometimes joins it to the median. Numerous
fmall twigs are diftributed fuperficially in the forearm, but
have nothing remarkable about them. The trunk ter-
minates at the wrift by dividing into two branches, of which
one goes backwards, principally to the thumb; and the
other forwards, to the eminence formed by the mufcles of
that member.

There are communications in the forearm, particularly
near the wrift, between the internal and external cutaneous
trunks. y

The trunks of the two nerves juft defcribed, (the internal
and the mufculo-cutaneous,) are deeply feated in the arm;
but become quite fuperficial in the forearm; being placed,
with all their branches, in the fubcutaneous cellular tiffue, in
company with the fuperficial veins. t the bend of the
elbow they are clofely conneéted to thofe veins, particularly
to the median bafilic and cephalic: the trunks ufually pafs
behind thofe veffels, but branches occafionally go over them.
Thefe are the nerves expofed to injury in venefesction.

7. The median nerve (radial of fome authors) is the
largeft branch of the plexus, after the radial, and comes
from the lower and anterior part of it. The trunks, from
which it arifes, furround the axillary artery. The median
nerve defcends along the inner fide of the arm, in company
with that artery, but placed more fuperficially, to the elbow,
which it paffes on the inner fide of the biceps, and behind
the production which its tendon fends to the aponeurofis of
the forearm. Here it lies parallel and clofe to the artery,
but on its outfide. The trunk then plunges under the
mulcles of the forearm; it goes firft behind the pronator
teres, and then'between the two flexors of the fingers along
the middle of the limb, and arrives in this fituation at the
wrift. Here it becomes more fuperficial, and pafles with
the tendons under the annular ligament of the carpus, be-
coming apparently increafed in fize. Having entered the
palm of the hand, where it is covered by the palmar apo-
neurofis, it divides, oppofite to the carpal ends of the meta-
carpal bones, into the branches, which will be prefently
defcribed.

In the arm, the median nerve diftributes no branches; it
fends off, in the forearm, feveral mufcular branches to the
numerous mufcles which occupy the internal or palmar afpect
of the limb, and one.of which penetrates the interofleous li-
gament, near the pronator quadratus, to be diftributed on
the back of the hand. A cutaneous palmar branch comes
off near the wrift to be diftributed on the fkin of the palm.

In the fituation already mentioned, the median nerve
divides into five digital branches, which may come off all
together, or through the medium of two principal primary
ramifications ; an external forming three, and an internal two
fecondary branches.

The firft (reckoning from the outer or radial fide) digital
branch goes obliquely outwards, and gives feveral branches
to the mufcles of the thumb; thefe fometimes come off in
one trunk from the median itfelf. ‘The firft digital nerve
pafles along the radial fide of the thumb toits extremity. A
{mall twig arifing at the firft phalanx goes to the back of the
thumb.

The fecond digital nerve is at firft parallel to the former,

Vor. XXIV.

but feparates from it, and runs along the ulnar edge of the
thumb, giving pofterior branches, and terminating, at the
extremity of the organ, by communications with the former.

The third follows the firft lumbricalis, to which it fends a
twig, as far as the root of the forefinger, and then runs
along the radial edge of that finger to its extremity.

The fourth goes to the interval between the fore and mid-
dle fingers, and then divides into two fecondary branches,
which follow the oppofed edges of their fingers.

The fifth is diftributed in an analogous manner to the ulnar
edge of the middle, and the radial edge of the ring finger.

The trunk of the median nerve, and the digital branches
produced from it, are covered by the palmar aponeurofis, as
well as by the fkin of the palm. The latter pafs in company
with the digital arteries of the arcus fublimis ; they are fur-
ther accompanied by thefe arteries in their paflage along the
fides of the fingers, but they lie nearer to the inner (mefial)
or anterior part of the fingers. All of them give branches
to the lumbricales mufcles, and pofterior ramifications turning
round the fingers towards their back part; numerous fila-
ments are fent to the fkin of the fingers, -but the trunks,
which retain a confiderable fize to the ends of the organs,
are principally diftributed to the cutaneous palmar convexities
of the laft phalanges, where they communicate together, and
beftow on the parts that more acute fenfibility, which qua-
lifies them to aét in a more efpecial manner than the reft of
the fkin, as organs of touch. The fame obfervations will
apply to the diffribution of the digital branches of the ulnar
nerve.

8. The ulnar or cubital nerve feparates from the inner or
back part of the brachial plexus, and defcends almoft per-
pendicularly over the triceps mufcle, to which it is clofely
tied by cellular tiffue, at fome diftance behind the brachial
veffels. It goes behind the elbow, in the channel between
the internal condyle and the olecranon, and pafles, in the in-
terval between the two origins of the flexor carpi ulnaris, to
the front of the forearm. Here it becomes conne¢ted to the
ulnar artery, and paffes in company with it, but rather on
the infide, between the flexor ulnaris and flexor profundus.
Witkin two or three inches of the wrift it divides into twe
branches, a palmar and a dorfal.

In its courfe along the arm it fends off fome flender twigs
to the fkin and citifeles, There is a more confiderable branch
given off in the axilla, diftributed to the integuments cover-
ing the triceps and the olecranon, communicating with the
internal cutaneous, and defcribed by Soemmerring, under the
name of cutaneus internus, as a diftinét branch of the
plexus. From four to fix mufcular branches are produced
between the olecranon and the bifurcation of the trunk.

The palmar branch (volaris) is the largeft of the two,
into which the nerve divides ; and it continues its courfe, im
company with the ulnar artery, in the direction of the trunk.
‘It accompanies that artery in its paflage over the annular li-
gament and on the infide of the os pififorme, and enters the
palm of the hand; where it is placed, with the artery, under
the palmar aponeurofis. It divides into a deep-feated and a
fuperficial branch. ;

The deep-feated palmar branch goes under the lumbri-
cales and the flexor tendons, and bends outwards or towards
the thumb, fo as to defcribe an arch, from the convexity of
which numerous branches go off to the mufcles of the little
finger, to the interoffei, to the abduétor indicis, adductor
and flexor brevis pollicis,

The fuperficial palmar branch, after fending a twig to the
mufcles of the little finger, divides into an external and an
internal digital branch. The former, which is the largeft,
goes to the interval between the ring and little fingers,

4Y having

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

having communicated with the laft digital branch of the
median ; itis then fubdivided into two, which are diftributed
on the oppofed edges of the two fingers. That which goes
to the ulnar fide of the ring finger communicates at the end
of the finger with the laft digital branch of the median. The
internal branch goes over the mufcles of the little finger,
{ending branches to them, to the palmaris brevis, and to the
integuments, and then runs along the ulnar fide of that
finger.

The courfe and diftribution of thefe digital branches cor-
refpond in every refpeét with thofe of the median. 5

The dorfal branch of the ulnar nerve goes obliquely back-
wards, between the flexor ulnaris and the bone, and divides
into two branches; one running along the edge of the lait
metacarpal bone, and diftributed to the abduéter minimi di-
giti, and to the fin of the hand and little finger; the other
paffing between the laft and the third metacarpal bones, and
then {feparated into two branches ramified on the oppofed
edges of the little and ring fingers. Thefe ramifications fend
numerous twigs to the back of the two lait fingers ; and form
a communication with the radial on the ring finger.

g. The radial nerve (mulcular fpiral), the largeft be-
longing to the upper extremity, goes from the upper and
back part of the axillary plexus, defcends obliquely on the
inner fide of the humerus, covered by the other nerves, and
by the brachial veffels, until it arrives at the interval between
the fecond and third headsof the triceps. It penetrates the
interval between thefe, in company with the profunda major
humeri artery, lies immediately in contaét with the bone, and
pafles clofe behind it from the inner to the outer fide of the
arm, coyered in its paflage by the whole thicknefs of the
triceps. It comes from behind the bone at the anterior, lower,
and outer part of the arm, and lies in the bottom of the
deep fifflure between the brachialis internus and the fupinator
radii longus: it defcends over the elbow, holding the fame
relative pofition to thefe mufcles, and divides.

It gives off, before it paffes behind the humerus, feveral
large branches to the triceps, and a cutaneous nerve, called
by Soemmerring fubcutaneus internus, to the integuments
covering the inner head of the triceps, and communicating
with the other cutaneous ramifications. Another cutaneous
branch arifes on the front of the arm, comes out between the
brachialis internus and the fupinator longus, and defcends
under the {kin to the wrift, where it communicates frequently
with the other fuperficial nerves. In the fame fituation arife
two or three other mufcular branches; the nerve, diminifhed
to nearly one-half its original fize, is now divided into an
anterior and a pofterior branch. The former is the {mallett,
and goes obliquely downwards, under the fupinator longus,
and onthe outfide of the radial artery, which it accom-
panies. About the lower third of the forearm it turns out-
wards, quits the artery, and paffes between the tendon of
the fupinator longus and the bene; it divides into feveral
branches diltributed fuperficially over the back of the hand,
of the thumb, the fore and middle fingers, and the radial fide
of the ring finger.

The pofterior branch, confiderably larger than the pre-
ceding, goes obliquely outwards, under the fupinator longus,
and the radial extenfor, and pierces the fubflance of the fu-
pinator brevis, which it traverfes from above downwards,
turning obliquely round the head of the radius. In the fub-
fiance of the latter mufcle it divides into feveral branches. It
gives branches to the mufcles juft mentioned ; its ramifica-
tions in the fupinator brevis may be divided into anterior and
polterior. The latter go to the extenfor ulnaris, extenfor
communis digitorum, at to the indicator; the former to the
polterior and deep-feated mufcles of the forearm.

4

_The dor/fal nerves have an anterior origin compofed of two
or three filaments, and a polterior of more numerous threads
but uncertain in their number. ‘They defcend obliquely, and
are longer in the canal, in proportion as they are fituated
lower down. ‘Thefe origins are {mailer than thofe of the
lower cervical nerves, or of the lumbar. From the common
trunk, which is fhort, two branches (a dorfal and an inter-
coftal) arife in each nerve. ’

The dorfal branches are much fmaller than the intercoftal ;
they go immediately backwards between the tranfverfe pro-
cefles, and under the multifidus fpinez, and divide into an
internal and external feries of branches. ‘There is one or two
internal branches produced from each nerve; they penetrate
the multifidus, and the mufcles that cover it, giving branches
to them, and then terminate on the integuments, to which
however all of them do not reach. The external branches
are the largelt, go ob!iquely outwards, efcaping at the tri-
angular {paces under the levatores coltarum, and then be-
tween the lougiffimus dorfi and facrolumbalis. Afterwards
they run under the latiflimus dorfi, trapezius, rhomboideus,
&c. and end on the fkin ; having given branches to the dif-
ferent mufcles, near which they pals. ;

The intercoftal branches refemble each other in fome
points, and differ in others. They come out of the ver-
tebral canal under the correfponding ribs; the firlt under the
firft rib, and the lait under the twelfth. They all go nearly
horizontally outwards, except the firlt; pafs in the interval
of the two tranfverfe procefles, and then between the two
ribs; and communicate with the thoracic ganglia by one or
two branches, which turn inwards and upwards, on the fides
of the vertebral column. The intercoftal branches then con-
tinue their courfe outwards, covered only by the pleura, to
the angles of the ribs, where they pafs between the two ftrata
of intercoftal mufcles, approach the lower edge of the upper
rib, and run onin the intercoftal interval, where they are dif-
tributed as we fhall defcribe.

if Jntercoftal Nerve.—This differs much from the fuc-
ceeding ones. Immediately after its origin it goes obliquely
upwards and outwards over the firlt rib, and joins the axil-
lary plexus, as we have already defcribed. Where it turns
over the rib, it fends off a {mall branch, of which the
courfe and diftribution correfpond to thofe ef the following
nerves. This branch goes along the under furface of the
firft rib, and arrives at the anterior extremity of the firft
intercoftal interval, where it penetrates the mufcles, and is
diftributed on the upper and anterior part of the cheft. It
gives branches to the intercoftal mufcles of the firft interval.

The 2d intercoflal nerve runs along the inner furface of
the fecend rib, through the pofterior third part of the inter-
coftal interval, and then divides into an intercoltal and a
brachial branch, previoufly fending a branch to the back
part of the intercoftal. mufcles. The former continues its
courfe along the fecond rib to the front of the cheit, and
pafles out between the margin of the fternum and the
external intercoftal mufcle, to terminate on the pectoralis
major. The latter pierces the external intercottal mufcle,
pailes through the axilla, and defcends along the inner and
back part of the arm to the elbow, being loft on the integu-
ments.

The 3d intercoflal goes along the lower edge of the third
rib to the middle at the bone, and there divides like the
former. _Its intercoftal branch is diftributed like that of
the former: the brachial branch pierces the external inter-
coftal mufcle, goes along the lower part of the axilla, and
is foon loft upon the arm.

The 4th, sth, 6th, and 7th branches are nearly alike in
their diftribution. Each of them runs along the lower edge

oO

,

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

of its correfponding rib to about the middle of the chett,
giving in its paflage many branches to the intercoltal mufcles,
They then divide into intercoftal branches, which follow the
lower edges of the ribs, fupply the intercoftals and triangu-
laris fterni, pafs out at the edge of the {ternum, and are
loft upon the peétoralis major, mammary gland, and integu-
ments, and into external pectoral branches which come
through the intercoftal mufcles, and terminate on the neigh-
bouring {kin and mufcles.

The 8th, gth, roth, and 11th branches follow the fame
courfe, towards the pofterior part of the chelt, as the lait,
fupply the intercoftal mufcles, and divide into external and
internal branches. ‘The latter continue in the ccurfe of the
trunk, and, at the ends of the intercoftal {paces, pafs over
the origins of the diaphragm, and enter the abdominal
parietes between the tran{verfus and the obliquus internus,
to both of which they fend branches. They reach the
rectus, atid there divide into twigs, which enter that mufcle,
and others which penetrate its fheath to end on the integu-
ments. The external branches go through the external in-
tercoltal mufcles, and are diltributed to the furrounding
mufcles and fkin.

The r2th branch fends firft a communicating twig to the
firft lumbar nerve, foon leaves the laft rib to go outwards
and downwards, pafles along the front of the quadratus
lumborum, giving branches to it and to the diaphragm, and
divides, at the outer edge of the mufcle, into a fuperficial
abdominal branch, which firft goes between the two oblique
mufcles, giving them branches, then penetrates the outer, and
defcends on its furface as far as the crilta of the ilium; anda
deepfeated abdominal branch, paffing downwards and for-
wards between the obliquus internus and tranfverfus, as far
as the edge of the rectus.

Lumbar Nerves.—The firft pair paffes out between the
two upper lumbar vertebrx ; and the fifth between the fifth
vertebra ard the facrum. ‘Their origins are much clofer
together than thofe of the dorfal nerves; and are all found
in that part of the medulla which is within the laft dorfal
and firft lumbar vertebra. All of them are much longer
within the canal than the dorfal nerves, and they become
longer in preportion as they are lower down: the laft nerve
arifes oppofite to the firft vertebra, and its length is equal
to that of the intervening fpace. The lumbar nerves in-
creafe in fize from above downwards.

Immediately after quitting the canal, each divides into a
pofterior or lumbar and an anterior or abdominal branch.

rf Lumbar nerve. Its potterior branch is large, goes
backwards between the tran{verfe procefles, gives branches
to the mufcles fituated upon the {pine, and terminates on
the integuments of the loins and buttock. at

The abdominal branch goes forwards, and is hidden by
the origin of the pfoas; it communicates with the branches
of fide ianihte ganglia, receives the communicating branch
from the lalt dorfal nerve, and fends one to the anterior
branch of the fecond lumbar nerve. It then enters the
lumbar plexus.

2d Lumbar herve. Its pofterior branch, like that of the
former nerve, goes backwards, and is diftributed to the
multifidus {pine, and to the integuments of the upper and
back part of the thigh. The anterior is hidden by the
pfoas, communicates with the lumbar ganglia, and with the
nerve above and below it, fo as to contribute to the lumbar

lexus.
3 3d Lumbar nerve. The lumbar branch is fmall, but dif-
tributed in a manner fimilar to the former: the abdominal
refembles in all redpeéts that of the fecond nerve.

4th and sth Lumbar nerves. The pofterior branches

are {mall, and terminafe in the multifidus, and common
origin of the facrolumbalis and longiflimus dorfi, without
becoming fuperficial.

The abdominal branches communicate with the lumbar
ganglia: that of the fourth enters into the lumbar plexus,
while the fifth defcends into the pelvis to join the facral
plexus.

Lumbar plexus (plexus lombo-abdominal of | Bichat.)
This is produced, as we have already mentioned, by the
union of the abdominal branches of the lumbar nerves,
which form, on leaving the vertebral column, a feries of
communications with each other, behind the pfoas mufcle,
and in front of the tranfyerfe procefles. It is narrow above,
but grows broader below. It begins, in the former fitua-
tion, by the conneétion of the firft lumbar with the lat
dorfal nerve; and it ends by three nerves, of which one
defcends into the pelvis, to communicate with the facral
plexus, and give off the fuperior gluteal nerve; one pafles
through the foramen ovale; and the third defcends in front
of the thigh. Befides thefe, the plexus fends off other
branches to the upper part of the thigh, and to the neigh-
bouring mufcles.

1. External or mufculo-cutaneous branches. There are
ufually three, fituated between the peritoneum and the iliacus
internus; they run over that mufcle to penetrate the abdo-
minal mufcles, and terminate on the fkin. There is con-
fiderable variety in their origin and courfe. The fuperir
penetrates the upper part of the pfoas, pafles obliquely
downwards and forwards, in front of the quadratus lum-
borum, and then continues along the crifta of the ilium,
giving branches to the quadratus, iliacus, and tran{verfus.
It penetrates the latter, and divides into an outer branch,
which is loft on the lower part of the three broad mufcles
of the abdomen, and an inner, which defcends between the
tran{verfus and internal oblique to the anterior fuperior {pine
of the ilium. Then it continues behind the aponeurofis of
the external oblique, in the courfe of the crural arch, to its
ring, and terminates in filaments expanded on the integu-
ments of the groin, pubes, and even fcrotum.

The middle branch comes from the plexus near the former,
penetrates the pfoas, paffes in front of the quadratus and
iliacus to the crifta ihi, pierces the tranfverfus, and foon
after the obliquus internus, and is loft upon thefe mufcles.
One branch follows the crural arch to the ring, and is dif-
tributed like the correfponding branch of the former nerve,
and more particularly to the fcrotum.

The inferior branch arifes lower down, pafles over the
iliacus to the anterior and fuperior {pine of the ilium, and
defcends into the thigh between that procefs and the an-
terior and inferior fpine. It divides inte two branches,
which penetrate the fafcia lata, and are diftributed to the
integuments of the anterior and outer part of the limb; the
inner reaches nearly to the knee.

2. Internal branch (génito-crurale of Bichat). It arifes
from the upper part of the plexus, defcends in the fub-
{tance of the pfoas, and then penetrates that mufcle entirely,
fo as to lie on its furface, covered by peritoneum. It
defcends to the crural arch and divides into two branches,
The internal of thefe is the largeft ; it follows the {permatic
veflels through the ring, and terminates on the integuments
of the inner part of the thigh and of the fcrotum. The
internal goes with the veffels behind the arch, and is loft in
the akin of the thigh,

3. Inferior or crural branches. The lumbar plexus, after
fending off the nerves already defcribed, ends in three large
trunks diftributed to the lower extremity.

a. The anterior crural nerve (cruralis; femoralis prior) is

oT ae the

NERVOUS SYSTEM. ;

the moft external of the three trunks: all the lumbar nerves,
except the fifth, contribute to its formation. Completely
detached from the plexus at the level of the fourth lumbar
vertebra, it follows the courfe of the outer edge of the
pfoas, concealed by it above, and partly uncovered below.
It defcends to the front of the thigh, under the crural arch,
in front of the common mafs formed by the union of the
pfoas and iliacus, and on the outer fide of the femoral artery,
from which it 1s diftant about a quarter of aninch. Below
the arch it divides into a great number of branches; fome
of which are fuperficial, the others deep-feated. There are
great varieties in the arrangement of the trunk: fometimes
it is fingle as far as the arch; fometimes the divifions begin
about its middle: often the fuperficial branches are feparate
through the whole courfe of the trunk, and merely lie con-
tiguous to it. Several {mall twigs come off in the abdomen,
form a network, and are afterwards loft upon the iliacus in-
ternus; others go about the crural artery; but the latter
are frequently deficient.

The cutaneous branches of the anterior crural (from two
to fix in number) are the fmalleft and leaft numerous of its
ramifications. ‘The point of their origin from the trunk
varies: after a fhort courfe under the fafcia, they pierce it,
and are loft upon the fkin of the inner and anterior part of
the thigh, where they reach as low as the knee.

The mufcular branches are numerous and large, but the
number varies: they may be divided into external and in-
ternal. The former go outwards in the fpace between the
iliacus, fartorius, and reétus, aud then between the latter
and the cruralis. We may notice the following: 1, fome
branches to the lower end of the iliacus; 2, three or four
to the fartorius, partly loft in it, partly penetrating that
mulcle to terminate fuperficially ; 3, a large branch to the
rectus; 4, three or four branches to the vaitus externus;
5, an equal number to the cruralis; 6, a branch to the
tenfor vagine femoris.

The internal branches have the following diftributien :
1, feveral to the vaftus internus, of which the inferior
defcends low on the mufcles, before entering its fubftance ;
2, fome to the pectinalis; 3, a cutaneous branch, defcend-
ing at firlt in front of the femoral artery, then feparating
from it to follow the inner edge of the fartorius as far as
the knee: it gives fome twigs to that mufcle, and terminates
on the integuments; 4, the largeft of thefe external branches
is called the internal faphenal nerve, from its accompanying
the great faphena vein. This nerve lies clofe to the artery
on its outer fide; it paffes the knee joint between the far-
torius and the bone, and joins the faphena vein on the infide
of the leg. In the thigh it fends branches to the furround-
ing aitfeles' its twigs are diltributed in the leg to the fltin,
and they reach on the foot to the ankle, or even the great
toe.

6. The obturator nerve arifes particularly from the fecond
and third lumbar; fometimes alfo from the fourth. It
defcends between the pfoas and the laft lumbar vertebra, and
traverfes obliquely the upper and lateral part of the pelvis,
accompanied by an artery and vein of the fame name, and
furrounded by much cellular tiffue. It pafles out through
the hole under the pubes, and lies between the peétineus and
the adduéter magnus, where it divides into an anterior and
a polterior branch. Before this divifion it only fends off
one twig near the notch of the bone. ‘The two branches
juft mentioned are diftributed to the addu€tor mufcles, valtus
internus, obturator externus, and flcin.

¢ The large branch joining the facral plexus (nerf lombo-
facré of Bichat). This trunk defcends obliquely into the
pelvis, and produces, before it joins the facral plexus, a

3

confiderable nerve for the glutei mufcles (the fuperior giv.
teal nerve). This nerve receives fome twigs from the facral
plexus, then goes out of the facro-fciatic notch, above the
pyramidalis, and divides into feveral filaments for the gluteus
medius and minimus.

The facral nerves are commonly five, but fometimes fix
‘pairs. The firft pair comes out through the firft facrak
foramen, and the laft at an opening formed between the fa-
crum and the coccyx. They all arife clofe together, from
the confiderable {welling which terminates the medulla fpina-
lis, and within a {pace not greater than the interval of the
two vertebre ; yet their origins are perfeGly diftina. Each
nerve, asin the cafe of the other nerves of the fpinal mar-
row, has a diftiné anterior and pofterior origin, compofed
of feveral feparate threads. They defcend perpendicularly,
and are very long within the canal, becaufe the fpinal mar-
row terminates at the fecond lumbar vertebra, and each
nerve mult go from this point to its refpective facral foramen;
before it paffes out of the fheath cf dura mater. They
unite at the aperture of the latter membrane ; one of the
fafciculithen forms, as in the other vertebral nerves, a {mall
oval ganglion, and the common trunk paffing from this di-
vides into two branches, an anterior and a potterior. The
ganglia of the facral nerves are contained in the bony canal,
inftead of being fituated, as thofe of the other fpinal
nerves are, at the external apertures. The ganglia of the
upper nerves, however, are nearer to the openings than
thofe of the lower.

The firit pair is as large as the laft lumbar nerve; they
gradually decreafe to the fifth, which is very fmal!, confi-
derably {maller than the firft cervical.

The anterior branches decreafe fucceflively in fize, from
above downwards, like the trunks themfelves: they go
out of the canal by the anterior facral foramina. The pofte-
rior foramina tranfmit the pofterior branches, which are
comparatively very fmall.

Firft facral Nerve.—The pofterior branch is very {malk
and fhort: it communicates with the fecond, and is diftri-
buted to the mufcles on the back of the bone, and to the
fin. The anterior branch, which is large, communicates
with the facral ganglia by two confiderable but fhort fila-
ments, then defcends obliquely outwards, and joins, above
the pyramidalis, with the firit lumbar nerve above, and the
fecond facral below, to contribute to the {acral plexus.

Second facral Nerve.—Its potterior branch is diftributed
to the mufcles occupying the back of the facrum, and ex-
tends beyond them to the polterior furface of the gluteus
magnus. ‘The anterior branch comes out between two por-
tions of the pyramidalis, communicates with the facral
ganglion, and crofies the mufcle obliquely to join the facral
plexus.

Third faral Nerve-—The potterior branch is larger than
thofe of the preceding nerves, joins the nerve above and be-
low it, penetrates the gluteus, and is diftributed to the fkin
of the buttock, The anterior communicates with the facral
ganglia, and joins the plexus, communicating with the two
nerves immediately adjoining.

Fourth facral Nerve —Its potterior branch is the largeft of
all produced from the facral nerves. It defcends obliquely
outwards, communicates with the two branches, between
which it is placed, gives filaments to the gluteus maximus,
and terminates in the integuments of the buttock. The an-
terior branch communicates with the ganglia, and joins the
facral plexus.

Fifth facral Nerve:—Its anterior branch paffes out between
the facrum and coccyx ; it communicates with the fourth,
but has no other fhare in the facral plexus. It goes to the

levator

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

fevator and f{phinéter ani, and to the coccygeus. The pof-
terior branch, which is very {mall, is diftributed on the inte-
guments at the back of the anus.

The facral plexus is formed by the fifth lumbar, and the
four fuperior facral nerves. The former defcends obliquely ;
the firft and fecond facral nerves are oblique in the fame di-
rection, but the third and fourth go nearly tranfverfely,
they unite in front of the pyramidalis, and receive a com-
municating branch from the fifth nerve. The refult of the
union is a fingle flat and broad nervous trunk, of which the

_ cords are varioufly interwoven with each other, as they are in
the interior of all nerves: the ftruéture is particularly mani-
feft here, on account of the fize of the parts.

The plexus lies on the pyramidalis; the veffels of the
pelvis, the reétum, bladder, uterus, and a confiderable
quantity of cellular tiffue, lie upon it. On the infide it is
bounded by the facral foramina, and it ends on the outfide in
the trunk of the great fciatic ; the edge of the {ciatic notch
may be regarded as the boundary.

The branches may be divided into anterior and pofterior,
befides the communications with the ganglia already men-
tioned.

Poflerior Branches.—1. The inferior gluteal nerve arifes
from the potterior and lower part of the facral plexus, par-
ticularly fromthe fecond and third nerves, near the com-
mencement of the {ciatic nerve. It goes out of the pelvis
below the pyramidalis, and produces the following branches :
1, feveral to the anterior furface of the gluteus maximus;
2, to the lower part of the glutersmaximus, and to the in-
teguments of the upper and inner part of thethigh, of the
perineum and penis; 3, the crural branch, which is the
largeft of all, defcends in front of the gluteus, to which it
gives branches, aud then along the back of the thigh, under
the fafcia, and over the mufcles, which arife from the tu-
berofity of the ifchium. It produces feveral cutaneous
branches, which penetrate the falcia, and are lott in the
fkin. The trunk divides at the ham into two or three
branches, whicl: terminate in the integuments of the leg.

2. The pudendal nerve (nervus pudendorum, nerf geni=
tal) comes from the lower and back part of the plexus,
principally from the third and fourth nerves, goes down-
wards and inwards, and pafies, in company with the puden-
dal artery, in the triangular interval between the two facro-
{ciatic ligaments. It divides into a fuperior and an inferior
branch. Before the divifion a branch from the anterior part
ef the facral plexus generally joins the trunk, and a {mall
twig or two go to the obturator internus.

The inferior branch afcends along the inner fide of the tu-
berofity of the ifchium, parallel to the fuperior ; then paffes
between the ere€tor penis and the accelerator urine, and di-
vides into numerous filaments, which are diftnbuted to the

mufeles of the anus and of the perineum, to the urethra
and to the fcrotum.

The fuperior branch afcends on the infide of the ramus of
the pubes, as far as the fymphyfis, goes between the bone
and the correfponding crus of the penis, to the upper furface
of the organ, where it becomes the nervus dorfalis, or fu-
perior penis. It runs along the back of the penis to the
glans, and divides into. numerous: branches, diltributed to
itand to the prepuce. In its courfe, the trunk fends branches
to the obturator internus and accelerator, to the urethra, and
to the integuments of the penis. Inthe female, the infe-
rior branch is much larger than the fuperior ; it pafles along
the perineum, leaving twigs as it goes, then turns upwards
into the labium, fupplying the perineal mufcles, and ends
inthe mons Veneris. ‘The f{uperior branch, which is {mall,

has an analogous diftribution to that of the male fubje& ; it
terminates upon the clitoris.

The anterior branches of the facral plexus are very varia-
ble in fize and number, but are in general {mall and numer-
ous ; they arife from the lower part of the plexus, and efpe-
cially from the third and fourth nerves. They may be
named after the parts which they are diftributed to,

The hemorrhoidal branches ramify on the whole length of
the rectum: they appear to end partly in the mufcular
fibres, and partly on the mucous membrane.

The vefical nerves pafs along the fide of the rectum, and
are partly derived from the hemorrhoidal. They terminate
on the bladder, proltate, and veficule, and can be followed
in the female to the urethra.

The uterine and vaginal nerves afcend by the fide of the
reGtum, diverge, and are diftributed to the whole length of
the vagina. ‘The upper ones go to the neck and body of
the uterus, but in much fmaller number than to the vagina.
They are conneéted with the vefical nerves.

All thefe nerves, which are fmall and very numerous, are
fo minutely divided, and fo much interwoven with each
other, that we give only a general view of them. They are
alfo very intricately conneéted with the abdominal and fa-
cral gangha, and from this union refults the hy pogaftric
plexus, which we fhall deferibe afterwards.

The facral plexus generally produces one or two branches,
paffing over'the lefler facro-{ciatic ligament to join the pu-
dendal nerve.

The feiatic or ifchiatic nerve (nervus ifchiadicus), the
largeft trunk in the body, is the true termination of the
facral plexus ; and there is {uch complete continuity between’
them, that we cannot aflign any ,exaét limit. All the fa-
cral nerves entering the plexus contribute to the formation of
the feiatic. It defcends in front of the pyriformis, and
paffes through the lower part of the great {ciatic foramen,
between the edge of that mufcle and the bone, then goes
along the back of the limb towards the knee. Some-
times two trunks go from the plexus, inftead of one; the
{maller penetrates the fibres of the pyriformis, and joins the
other at the back of the pelvis. The {ciatic trunk lies firft
in the interval between the tuberofity of the ifchium and the
great trochanter, and then is found nearly in the middle of
the back of the thigh, between the biceps and the other
flexors of the knee, and rather in front of them. Whereit
comes out of the pelvis, it is covered by the gluteus maxi-
mus; lower down by the long head of the biceps and the
femitendinofus. It lies upon the geminiand the obturator
internus, upon the quadratus femoris, and the pofterior fur-
face of the addu€tor magnus ; it is every where furrounded,
but particularly in the thigh, by a large quantity of cellular
and adipous fubftance.

The trunk of the nerve continues in the fame courfe
through the ham, where the name of popliteal is given to it.
It lies between the tendons of the biceps and femitendinofus,
covered externally by the fafcia, placed over the popli-
teal vein, with which it is not in contaét, and imbedded in
much fat.

The branches of this trunk are numerous, and confift of,
1, feveral, as it quits the pelvis to the obturator internus,
gemini, and quadratus ; 2, fome, which are not conftant, to
the gluteus maximus ; 3, two or three to the long head of
the biceps, one of which extends towards the knee, and is
loft on the fkin ; 4, a branch to the fhort head of the fame
mufcle ; 5, to the femitendinofus and femimembranofus,;
6, to the adductor magnus.

Several of thefe produce cutaneous filaments, varying in
length and diftribution, penetrating the fafcia, and reaching

below

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

below to the leg. ‘Thefe, with the branches of the infe-
rior gluteal nerve, cover all the back of the thigh.

The feciatic nerve divides into two trunks; a {maller ex-
ternal one, called the peroneal nerve ; and a larger internal
one, the pofterior tibial nerve.. The fituation of this divi-
fion is not always the fame; it may take place at the back
of the pelvis, or in the middle of the thigh. The two
trunks run clofe together, connected by cellular membrare,
but eafily feparable by diffeCtion, and they begin to diverge
on the lower third part of the thigh. ‘The outer branch
eoes towards the head of the fibula, and the inner continues
in the dire¢tion of the fciatic trunk.

External branch, or peroneal nerve. This defcends by
the fide of the lower end of the biceps, goes behind the
outer end of the gaftrocnemius, the outer condyle and the
joint, then turns forwards between the fibula and the pero-
neus longus, and divides into two branches : but it previoufly
fends off feveral fmall nerves: viz. I, an articular branch
fent off near its origin, defcending between the femur and
the biceps, giving fome branches to that mufcle, and termi-
nating on the outfide of the knee; 2, a confiderable cuta-
neous branch, arifing before the nerve has arrived at the con-
dyle (nervus communicans tibiz, or cutaneus longus potte-
rior tibie), defcending over the outer head of the gailroc-
nemius, to which it gives branches, accompanying the ra-
mifications of the leffer faphena vein, runnning along the outer
edge of the tendo Achillis, and uniting at the bottom of the
les with the external faphenal branch of the pofterior tibial
nerve ; 3, a{maller cutaneous nerve fometimes wanting.

The two branches, into which the peroneal nerve divides
at its termination, are the anterior tibial, and the fuperficial
peroneal.

The fuperficial peroneal (mufculg-cutanée of Bichat) de-
{cends between the extenfor longus digitorum pedis and the
peronei mufcles, and then on their furface to about the mid-
die of theleg, when it penetrates the fafcia, and pafles over
it to the foot. It fends branches to the mufcles juft men-
tioned, and cutaneous twigs to the lower and outer part of
the leg. The trunk divides at the foot into an internal and
external fuperficial branch, whichvare diftributed to the in-
teguments of the back of the foot, and of the toes, com-
municating on the infide with the nervus faphenus of the
anterior crural, and on the outfide with the fuperficial branch
of the pofterior tibial.

The anterior tib:al branch ferforates the upper extremity
of the peroneus longus and extenfor communis, and defcends
in front of the anterior tibial artery, and in company with
it tothe back of the foot, where it ends by dividing into an
internal and external deepfeated branch. The trunk fends
off a few mufcular branches in its courfe ; the two nerves in
which it terminates on the foot are diftributed to the exten-
for brevis and interoffei, and fome even reach the toes.

The potterior tibial nefve (nervus tibialis), confiderably
larger than the peroneal, continues in the fame courfe ‘as the
trunk through the hollow of the ham, covered by the fafcia
of the leg, and feparated from the popliteal veffels by much
fat. It goes between the two heads of the ga{trocnemius,
behind the knee joint and the popliteus mufcle, then pafles
between the latter and the edge of the foleus, along the back
of the tibia, in company with the pofterior tibial artery, be-
tween the tibialis poficus and extenfor longus digitorum,
which are in front of it, and the foleus, which 1s behind.
At the lower part of the leg it becomes nearly fuperticial,
is placed at the inner edge of the tendo Achillis, and behind
the internal malleolus, defcends into the fole of the foot at
the concavity of the os calcis, where it is covered by the ab-
ductor pollicis, and terminates by dividing into an external

and an internal plantar nerve. It gives origin, in this courfe,
to the following branches.

The external faphenal nerve defcends in the interval of the
two heads of the gaitrocnemius, and then on the outer edge
of the tendo Achillis, giving off feyeral twigs principally to
the {kin, and accompanying the branches of the external fa-
phena vein. It unites below with the potterior cutaneous
branch of the peroneal, and continues to defcend, much in-
creafed in fize, on the outfide of the leg, under the fafcia ;
it goes behind the external malleolus, then runs forwards. on
the outer edge of the back of the foot as far as the laft meta-
tarfal bone, where it terminates by dividing into two branches,
of which the internal runs over the fhort extenfor and is dif-
tributed to the back of the two laft toes, communicating
with the external branch of the anterior tibial nerve, the
external continues along the outfide of the foot and little toe.
Previous to its divifion, the trunk produces many branches
which go under the tendo Achillis, and the flcin on the outfide
of the heel.

Confiderable branches to the gaftrocnemii, foleus, plan-
taris, and popliteus. One penetrates the upper opening of
the interoffeous ligament, and is loft in the front mufcles.

Slender and long branches to the lower and front part of
the foleus, and to the deepfeated mufcles at the back of the
leg. .

a soiné cutaneous twigs towards the lower part of the leg;
the largeft of thefe gees to the fole of the foot, and is dif-
tributed between the {kin and fafcia.

Branches to the abductor pollicis and flexor accefforius
juft before the divifion of the trunk.

The two plantar nerves run horizontally forwards in the
fole of the foot, fupply the different mufcles of this part,
and terminate on the toes, each of which receives two
branches. Thefe run along the fides of the under furface of
the toes, in company with the arteries, and have a diftri-
bution entirely analogous to that of the digital nerves-in the
hand.

The internal is the largeft of the two plantar nerves; it
runs above the abduétor pollicis, and by the fide of the flexor
longus, to the middle of the foot, where it divides into four
branches. The firft of thefe, towards the infide, goes to the
inner edge of the great toe; the three fucceeding ones, that
is, the 2d, 3d, and 4th, go refpeétively to the intervals be-
tween the great toe andthe 2d, between the 2d and the 3d,
and between the 3d and 4th; each of them divides into two
branches, which are diltributed to the oppofed edges of thofe
toes.

The external plantar nerve pafles between the flexor brevis
and accefforius towards the outfide of the fole, and divides
into two branches; a fuperficial one, which gives a branch
to the euter edge of the fourth toe, and two branches to the
little toe; and a deepfeated one, that terminates on the
deeper mufcles of the foot.

Great /ympathetic Nerve (fympatheticus, fympathicus, or
intercoftalis). In conformity with the principle, that the
brain is the common origin of all the nerves, the great fym-
pathetic has been derived indireétly from the brain, and im-
mediately from the fpinal marrow ; and the plexufes of the
vifcera have been reprefented as a continuation of the fame)
nerve; but this opinion is fo irreconcileable with the anato-
mical faéts, that the beft anatomifts and phyfiologilts have
called it in queftion. Winflow obferves concerning the fila-
ments of the sth and 6th pairs, which have been regarded
as the origin of the great fympathetic, that they feem rather
to afcend from the ganglion’ to thofe nerves, and that the
angle of their union with thofe pairs is turned forwards,
Winflow alfo regards the twigs, which go from the dympa-

thetic

-

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

thetic to the fpinal nerves, as mere hranches of communica-
ton.

Soemmerring regards the fympathetic as a nerve exilting
by itfeif; he ftares that the nerve of the 6th pair is larger
between the point, at which the filament joins jit, and the
abductor mufcle, than between the former and the brain ; he
notices alfo the princival differences between it and the cere-
bral nerves, particularly that it no where forms a trunk pro-
portioned to its branches; and concludes that it is not con-
nected with, or dependent on, the brain. Bichat has ex-
preiled himfelf {till more clearly to the fame effe@, both in
his Récherches fur Ja Vie et la Mort, and in his Anatomie
Générale.

The defcription of the fympathetic has been drawn up in
conformity with thefe views, following the nerve from above
. downwards, as thofe of the head and fpinal marrow are de-
feribed.» In the Anatomie Defcriptive of Bichat this plan
has been no longer preferved. He defcribes the ganglia
feparately, and the branches that go from each. We hall
adopt that method. The feries of ganglia, that compofe
this nerve, are placed upon the fpine, and are diftinguifhed,
according to their fituation, into cervical, thoracic, lumbar
and facral; they are ali conneéted together by branches of
communication, and they are joined to all the {pinal nerves
and feveral of the cerebral, by communicating filaments.

When viewed as a fingle nerve, in which manner it is de-
feribed in all anatomical works, except the Anatomie De-
fcriptive of Bichat, it conlilts of a thread, for the moft part
flender, interrupted by numerous {wellings or ganglia.

The cervical ganghia are ufually two in number ;_ but fome-
times three.

The fuperior, firft or great ganglion, is remarkable for
its fize; it is con{tantly found. It is placed on the fide of
the front of the vertebral column, immediately under the
head. It lies on the re€tus major anticus, behind the internal
carotid artery, with the par vagum and the hypogloffal nerve
on the outfide of it, conneéted to ali thefe parts by cellular
fubftance. Its extent and figure are very variable ; but it is
always largeft in the middle, and gradually {maller towards
either end. It begins a little below the carotid canal ; and
it may terminate at the 3d, 4th, 5th, or 6th vertebra of the
neck. When fhort it is broad; when long, narrow. The
colour is a reddifk-grey.

Two branches, ora {ingle one afterwards divided into two,
go from its upper end into the carotid canal, where they fe-
parate, and include the artery between them. One of thefe
joins the carotid branch of the pterygoid nerve, and fome-
times goes on to the abdutor nerve after this union. he
other communicates with the laft mentioned nerve in the ca-
vernous finus ; and this isthe filament commonly regarded as
the origin of the great fympathetic nerve. . Thefe two
branches adhere clofely to the internal carotid artery, and
give fome twigs to the coats of that veflel; the ganglion alfo
produces other flender filaments, which run upon the artery,
and follow its ramifications.

There is only one inferior branch, of which the fize is
various, but never confiderable. The boundary between it
and the ganglion is not always very clearly marked. It de-
{eends on the furface of the re€tus.major and longus colli, to
the inferior cervical ganglion, The carotid artery, jugular
vein, and’ par vagum, lie in front of it; to thefe, as well as to
the mufcles behind, it is conneéted by a tolerably clofe cel-
lular tiffue.

The external branches are four in number, arifing either
feparately, or by one or two trunks, and communicating
with the three upper cervical nerves.

The internal branches exhibit numerous varieties in num-

ber, fize, and diftribution. They are expanded on the ver-
tebral column, and, after fending numerous filaments to the
recius major and longus colli, terminate on the pharynx and
larynx. They are very {mall, ‘They come either from the
ganglion or from its inferior branch, and are diftributed on
the back of the pharynx, where they communicate with the
gloffo-pharyngeus, and on the larynx and thyroid gland,

The anterior branches are the moft important in their dif-
tributions; they are the mo!t numerous, and offer the firft
examples of thofe intricate interweavings peculiar to the
nervous fyltem of the ganglia, which make their difleétion
very difficult.

The higheft and fhorteft of thefe communicate with the
facial and hypogloffal nerves, and the par vagum.

Next to thefle come the nerves that form the carotid plex-
ufes, fometimes called, from their foft texture, nervi molles.
They have a reddifh colour and knotted appearance; arife
from the ganglion in one, two, or more trunks, and join the
common carotid juit at its divifion, Their ramifications de-
{cend along the trunk, and afcend with the branches of the
external carotid, forming intricate plexufes, which adhere
very clofely to the arterial coats, aud receive twigs from the
gloffo-pharyngeal, facial, and nervus vagus. ‘hefe arterial
plexufes differ much in their appearance, coniifting fometimes
of confpicuous ramifications, while they can hardly be traced
at others. From the plexufes formed by the conjunGion of
thefe with the pharyngeal and laryngeal nerves, twigs pro-
ceed to the two lower conftriétor mufcles of the pharynx, to
the thyroid gland, ftylo-pharyngeus, ftylo-gloffus, tterno-
thyroideus, and crico-thyroideus.

‘he fuperior cervical ganglion produces laftly the fuperior
cardiac nerve, or nervus cordis fuperficialis; which we fhall
defcribe prefently with the nerves of the heart.

Middle cervical ganglion (ganglion thyroideum). This
is often wanting. When it exilts, it is fituated between the
sth and 6th cervical vertebre. It varies much in fize, fome-
times appearing, only asa flight {welling of the trunk, that
connects the nqier aad lower cervical ganglia. It lies on the
longus colli, and behind the carotid and internal jugular vein,
Three or four branches depart from it below, furround the
vertebral and inferior thyroid arteries, and unite again at the
lower cervical ganglion. It communicates with the neigh-
bouring cervical nerves, and fends branches to the cardiac
plexus, with the inferior thyroid artery to the gland of that
name, and to the fealenus anticus. Its branches commu-
nicate with thofe of the recurrent.

The inferior cervical ganglion (cardiacum) exifts conftantly,
but varies greatly in fize and figure; fometimes it is even _
double. It generally lies in the hollow between the tranf-
verfe procefs of the 7th cervical vertebra, and the neck of
the firft rib; or it may be placed in the hollow of the firft
rib. It may be either above or below, before or behind, the
inferior thyroid artery, and it is partly covered by the ver-
tebral. It extends to the firft intercoital fpace, and fome-
times feems confufed with the firft thoracic ganglion.

This ganglion has one or more fuperior branches; when
it is file it joins the inferior branch of the upper ganglion;
when they are more numerous, they furround the vertebral
or thyroid artery, and join the middle ganglion. Another
follows the vertebral artery through the foramina of the
tranfverfe procefles, gives filaments to the inter-tranfverfales
mufcles, and communicates with the cervical nerves.

Two branches come from the ganglion below ; one goes
behind, and the other in front of the fubclavian artery, and
they join the firft thoracic ganglion.

The external branches communicate with the fixth,

feventh, and eighth cervical, and the firft dorfal nerves ;
ethers

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

others are expanded on the coats of the fubclavian artery,
and fome twigs are loft on the anterior fcalenus.

_ The internal branches are few and fmall; they go to the
longus colli, and to the pulmonary plexus, and one anatto-
mofes with the recurrent nerve. The anterior branches are
the inferior cardiac nerves, which unite into one, two, or
three trunks.

Nerves of the Heart—This organ receives its principal
fupply from the ganglia; but the par vagum and the re-
current communicate with the cther cardiac branches.

On the right fide there are three cardiac nerves, a fupe-
rior, a middle, and an inferior. The fuperior, called by
Scarpa the fuperficial, arifes by five or fix filaments from the
fuperior cervical ganglion. \ Thefe unite into a trunk, which
defcends perpendicularly to the lower part of the neck,
along the vertebrz, on the infide of the trunk, which con-
neéts the two cervical ganglia. It goes behind the middle
cardiac nerve, and divides into feveral branches, which com-
municate with the recurrent and the middle cervical gan-
glion. But fometimes it paffes over the common carotid to
the arch of the aorta, where it joins the middle cardiac
nerve. In its paflage along the neck, it communicates with
the par vagum, and with the nervous arch formed by the
defcendens noni; and it fends branches to the cefophagus,
and to the mufcles covering the trachea.

The middle, called by Scarpa the great or deepfeated
cardiac nerve, is the largeft of the three. It arifes from
the middle cervical ganglion, pafles forwards and down-
wards by the fide of the carotid, and then over the fub-
clavian; it runs along the arteria innominata, -and pafles
between the arch of the aorta and the bronchi to terminate
in the cardiac plexus. It communicates with the par vagum
and the recurrent, and gives feveral flender twigs to the
aorta.

The inferior, or {mall cardiac nerve of Scarpa, comes
from the lowett cervical ganglion in the form of a plexus,
defcends behind the fubclavian artery, and then by the fide
of the innominata, to the front of thesaedq’of the aorta,
and turns towards the left on that veflel. It receives feveral
twigs in this courfe from the recurrent and par vagum, and
gives many to the aorta. ;

On the left fide there are ufually only two cardiac nerves;
the fuperior has the fame origin, and nearly the fame courfe
as on the right. It defcends between the carotid and fub-
clavian arteries, and divides into feveral twigs, of which fome
go to the front of the aorta, and the others join the common
cardiac plexus behind that veffel.

The great cardiac nerve is formed on the left fide by the
union of thofe which come from the two lower ganglia.
It goes forwards and downwards to the back of the aorta,
and there joins the cardiac plexus. This and the preceding
have confiderable communications with branches of the par
vagum, The nerves of the heart, as they approach the
plexus, fometimes form a ganglion (ganglion nervorum
cordis), placed near the lalt cervical vertebra and the fub-
clavian artery, and fometimes wanting.

The cardiac plexus, or the common point of termination
of the nerves jult deferibed, occupies the pofterior part of
the arch of the aorta, It correfponds behind to the divifion
of the bronchi, and to the anterior pulmonary plexus of the
par vagum, and it extends from the origin of the innomi-
nata to the divifion of the pulmonary artery. The nerves
of which it confifts<are remarkably foft. It receives above
the right, middle, and inferior cardiac | nerves, feveral
branches from the left fuperior nerve, and fometimes from
the right.

Its anterior branches are inconfiderable; they are diltri-

buted to the front of the aorta; the pofterior join the ante-
rior pulmonary plexus. The inferior are the largeft and
moft numerous, and belong properly to the heart. Thefe
are partly diftributed on the large veffels, as the trunk and
branches of the pulmonary artery, and the pulmonary veins,
and partly compofe an anterior and pofterior coronary plexus,
which attend and furround the anterior and pofterior coro-
nary arteries, and follow their ramifications into the fubftance
of the heart. The pofterior plexus is much the largeft, and,
confequently, the flat furface of the heart has more nume-
rous nerves than the convex. The branches of thefe plexufes
adhere clofely to the arteries; and it is fuppofed by fome
anatomilts, that the nerves are entirely diftributed on thofe
veffels, without goiny at all to the mufcular fubftance of the
heart.

Thoracic Ganglia. —The appearance of the fyftem of the
ganglia in the cheft is very different from what it prefents in
the neck: in the latter its parts are fo diftinét, and fo
widely feparated, that they mutt be defcribed diftin@ly. In
the cheft, on the contrary, the ganglia are fo imall, and fo
near to each other, and the uniting branches fo large, that
the whole looks like a continuous nervous trunk. There
are twelve thoracic ganglia, placed on the heads of the ribs,
and covered by the pleura; fometimes the lower cervical.
ganglion extends to the firft rib, and takes the place of the
firft thoracic. Their form is irregular ; in moft approaching
to the triangular: their furfaces are flattened, and their fize
is inconfiderable, except the firft, which is large.

The fuperior and inferior branches of thefe ganglia may
be confidered together ; they unite them into one cord, and
are remarkably large, when compared with the correfpond-
ing uniting branches in the neck, Two contiguous ganglia
are always joined in the cheft by a fingle branch. Careful
diffe@tion and examination will always enable us to diftin-
guifh the ganglia from the branches that unite them, al-
though in many cafes the difference of fize is not confider-
able. The upper ganglion has two fuperior branches, which
we have already defcribed as the inferior of the lai cervicak
ganglion; the inferior branch of the laft thoracic ganglion
joins the firft lumbar ganglion.

The external branches vary from one to three or four for
each ganglion; they go obliquely upwards and outwards,
and communicate with the anterior branches of the refpective
dorfal nerves. 3

Internal Branches.—The fuperior thoracic ganglion fends
branches to the cardiac plexus, to the vertebral and fub-
clavian artery, to the anterior fcalenus, and the longus
colli.

There are a few {mall branches fent to the defcending
aorta, to the intercoltal arteries, and to the plexus formed
on the efophagus by the par vagum. The moft important
nerves produced by the thoracic ganglia are the fplanchnic,,
two in number, a great anda fmallone. ~

The great {planchnic nerve arifes by four or five branches,
at a confiderable diftance from each other, from the inner
fide of the middle thoracic ganglia, from the fixth or feventh,
to the ninth or tenth. Thefe pafs obliquely forwards and
inwards on the vertebral column, covered only by the pleura,
and unite into one trunk about the eleventh dorfal vertebra,
The trunk continues its courfe in the fame direGtion, and
enters the abdomen by a {mall flit in the appendix of the
diaphragm, being divided, as it pafles, into three or four
branches, which feparate a little from each other, and ter-
minate behind the ftomach on one fide, and the liver on the
other, in ganglia confiderably larger than thofe hitherto
defcribed.

A {maller nerye, called {planchnicus minor, or cartes

arifes

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

arifes by two branches from the lower thoracic ganglia ;
thefe come forwards on the vertebra, and join into one
trunk, which pafles through the fame opening of the dia-
phragm with the former, and terminates partly in the czliac
ganglia, partly in the renal plexus.

There is a large flattened ganglion, called femi-lunar, on
each fide of the abdomen, in which the fplanchnic nerves
end. This lies on the furface of the crus of the diaphragm,
by the fide of the czliac artery, and juft below the phrenic.
Many other ganglia (from twelve to twenty in number)
fmaller than this, varying greatly in fize and figure, are
placed near it. All thefe are united together, and to thofe
of the oppofite fide, by numerous fhort and thick nervous
branches, and thus compofe an almoft inextricable plexus
furrounding the root of the celiac artery, and its primary
. branches, and the fides and front of the aorta. This has

been called the folar plexus, and is named by Socmmerring
plexus: czliacus.

This plexus lies upon the vertebral column, the aorta,
-and the crura of the diaphragm; the liver, ftomach, and
pancreas are placed above, in front of, and below it. It
has numerous large communications with the nerves of the
eighth pair; and it receives branches from the laft thoracic
ganglion.

From this, fecondary plexufes go off with the different
arteries to the various organs, and their branches adhere
clofely to the coats of the veflels. Thefe are formed, like
the celiac plexus, of ganglia and nervous chords, and their
communications compole quite a fine net-work.

1. The diaphragmatic plexus confilts of a few twigs ac-
companying the arteries, diltributed to the concavity of the
diaphragm, and communicating with the phrenic nerves.

2. The coronary ftomachic plexus furrounds the artery
of the fame name, turns with it along the leffer curvature
of the ftomach, and reaches the pylorus, its branches be-
coming gradually lefs and lefs numerous, as it approaches
the latter part. This plexus is augmented on the ftomach
by the par vagum ; it joins the hepatic plexus near the pylo-
rus, and it fends branches with the right gaftro-epiploic
artery.

3. The hepatic is a very confiderable plexus, furrounding -

the hepatic artery and vena portarum, and accompanying
them to the great fiffure on the under furface of the liver.
A fmall plexus parts from this, to accompany the right
galtro-epiploic artery, and to featter branches alfo on the
duodenum and pancreas. The ramifications of the hepatic
plextis furround the neck of the gall-bladder, and are diftri-
buted in confiderable number on that organ; many alfo
furround the duétus choledochus. They enter’ the liver
with the hepatic artery and dué&, and vena portarum, and
follow the ramifications of thofe veffels in its fubftance.

4. The {plenic plexus is {mall in proportion to the fize of
its artery, and does not lie very clofe upon the veffel. There
are two or three {mall ganglia at its commencement ; but
afterwards we fee only a few branches not communicating
very frequently. They enter the fubftance of the fpleen
with the arterial branches ; give fome twigs to the pancreas,
and others that follow the left gaftro-epiploic artery.

5- The fuperior mefenteric plexus is a prolongation of the
great cxliac plexus, in front of the aorta, where it quickly
meets with the fuperior mefenteric artery. It is a very intri-
cate intertexture of nervous branches with numerous ganglia,
lying very clofe on the artery, which it accompanies be-
tween the pancreas and duodenum, and then between the
two layers of the mefentery. Its branches accompany thofe
of the artery, and are diftributed with them to the final

Voi. XXIV.

inteftine, to the cecum, the afcending and the tran{verfe
portions of the colon.

6. The inferior mefenteric plexus (mefocolicus, or me-
fentericus medius) is made up of branches from the pre-
ceding, from the lumbar ganglia, from the renal and the
{permatic plexufes. It becomes conneéted with the trunk
of the inferior mefenteric artery, and accompanies it to the
fuperior aperture of the pelvis; its branches furround the
ramifications of that trunk, and terminate upon the arch,
the defcending portion, the figmoid flexure of the colon,
and the rectum, and contribute to the formation of the hypo-
galtric plexus.

7- Renal plexufes (plexus nervorum renum gangliformis,
dexter et finifter.) ‘Thefe are made up by rh from
the czliac and fuperior mefenteric plexufes, from the fmaller
fplanchnic nerves, and from the tenth and eleventh thoracic
ganglia; the latter are the potterior renal nerves of Walter.
They receive filaments alfo from the abdominal portion of
the fympathetic. According to that anatomilt, there are
four ganglia on the right, and feven on the left renal nerve;
thefe communicate with each other, and thofe of the two
fides are alfo joined together. Several nerves proceed from
thefe ganglia, over the artery, nearly parallel to each other,
and enter the organ with the arterial branches. Some twigs
go to the renal capfule.

8. Spermatic plexufes. Thefe are inconfiderable, and
arife chiefly from the renal; two fpermatic ganglia are
found lower down cn each fide, communicating with each
other, and with the fuperior and inferior pee daecar and
the hypogaltric plexufes. From thefe fources a fmall plexus
arifes, {urrounding the {permatic artery, adhering clofely
to it, and accompanying it to the teftis and ovarium. It
gives a branch to the ureter.

9g. The hypogaftric plexus (mefentericus infimus) is pro-
duced from the lumbar and fpermatic ganglia, and the in-
ferior mefenteric plexus, united with the numerous branches
already defcribed of the facral nerves. It confifts of nume-
rous fmall twigs communicating frequently, but not mixed
with ganglia, placed at the fide and back part of the pelvis,
and fending its branches to the reétum, ureter, bladder,
veficulz feminales, vagina, and uterus. The lower part of the
aorta, the internal iliac artery and its branches receive nume-
rous twigs from it.

Such are the numerous plexufes which the abdominal
vifcera receive from the fyftem of the ganglia. The {planch-
nic nerves are ufually defcribed as the origin of thefe;
but when we obferve that there is no proportion in fize
between the fplanchnic nerves and the numerous large
ganglia below the diaphragm, and that thofe ganglia pro-
duce nearly all the nerves of the folar plexus, we muit re-
gard the ganglia as the true centres of the abdominal
nerves, and the fplanchnic trunks only as branches of com-
munication. ;

The abdominal or lumbar ganglia continue the chain
from the cheftito the junGtion of the laft lumbar vertebra
and facrum, and are Biferibert by authors as the continua-
tion of the great fympathetic nerve in the abdomen. They
are generally fivein number, but there may be only four,
three, oreven two. Their form and fize are fubject to great
variety ; they are ufually flattened and angular; larger than
the thoracic, and of the ordinary reddifh-grey colour. ‘They
are more completely diftinguifhed from each other than thole
in the chelt. Their fituation is on the anterior lateral part
of the vertebral column; either on the bone, or the fibro-
cartilage.

They are conneéted throughout by flender branches pafl-
ing from one to the other; fometimes there is a fingle

4Z branch,

NER

branch, fometimes two, or even three. The fuperior lum-
bar ganglion is joined to the laft thoracic by a branch, which
paffes through a flit in the fibres of the crus of the dia-
phragm, rather below the opening which tran{mits the
fplanchnic nerves; the laft lumbar is joined to the firft
facral ganglion. According to Bichat, the conneéting
branch between the lumbar and thoracic ganglia is fometimes
wanting.

Each ganglion produces two or three branches on the
outfide, which go obliquely upwards above, tranfveriely in
the middle, and downwards below; crofs in front of the
lumbar arteries, penetrate the attachments of the pfoas,
and join the anterior branches of the lumbar nerves. Thefe
are much longer than the correfponding communicating
nerves in the cheft, becaufe the lumbar ganglia are placed
fo far forwards on the fpine. Some very {mall twigs are
diftributed to the quadratus lumborum.

On the infide, the Inmbar ganglia, or the branches
which unite them, produce the following nerves: 1, twigs
to the aorta and lumbar arteries; 2, a branch to the renal
plexus, and another to the {permatic ; 3, branches uniting
together, and with thofe of the oppolite fide, to form ac-
ceffory ganglia lying on the aorta, giving branches to that
veffel, to the lumbar arteries, the inferior mefenteric and
hypogattric plexufes ; 4, {mall branches joining thofe of the
oppolite fide.

The facral ganglia continue the feries in the lower part of
the vertebral column, and form, with their uniting branches,
the pelvic portion of the great fympathetic nerve, according
to the common defcriptions. i

Their ufual number, according to Walter, is five on each
fide ; Bichat only mentions three as clearly recognifable.
The upper is the largeft, and the fize decreafes downwards ;
they are flattened, and irregular in figure ; indeed they are
fubje&t to great variety in all refpe&ts. They are placed at
the fide of the anterior furface of the bone, and covered in
front by the peritoneum and reétum.

The firft is joined to the laft lumbar nerve ; they are con-
neéted together by one, two, or three branches. Bichat
ftates that the conneéting branch between the laft lumbar
and firft facral ganglion is fometimes wanting.

On the outfide the facral ganglia are conneéted by feveral
branches to the facral nerves; they fend alfo fome flender
twigs to the pyriformis and levator ani. Branches of
irregular number go from fide to fide to unite the right
and left ganglia. Others are fent to the rectum, the hy-
pogaltric plexus, and the internal iliac artery: a branch
defcends to the upper and front part of the coccyx from
the laft facral ganglion on each fide; they unite on the fur-
face of that bone, and a {mall {welling marks the point of
union; this is called the ganglion coccygeum, but does not
exilt conftantly. A few very {mall twigs go from it to the
end of the reétum, and the furface of the bone.

Befides the works referred to in the article Bran, the
reader may confult Soemmerring, de Corporis Humani Fa-
brica, tom. iv. ; Haller, Elementa Phyfiologiw, tom. iv.;
Bichat, Anatomie Generale, tom. 1.; and the works of
Gall and Spurzheim mentioned in this article. For an ac-
count of the ramifications of the nerves, befides the two
books firft mentioned, fee Walter, Tabula Nervorum Tho-
racis & Abdominis, folio; Scarpa, Tabule Neurologice,
folio; Fifeher, Defcriptio Nervorum Lumbalium et Sacra-
lium, folio; Ludwig, Collectio Scriptorum Neurologico-
rum Minorvum.

Nenvous Sy/lem, Wounds of Nerves, in Surgery. In almoft
every treatife upon furgery, we find a fection upon the bad
fymptoms which originate from wounds of nerves, Now, al-

NES

though it cannot be queftioned, that the wound, or divifion, of
a large nerve ought to be regarded as a ferious accident, inaf-
much as fuch an injury may even be followed by fatal confe-
quences, and this nearly with certainty when nerves, fupply-
ing particular vifcera, are interefted, yet it fhould be un-
derftood that, in every accidental cut, numerous nervous
filaments are either completely, or partially divided, without
any alarming effects being ufually produced, and we may
therefore conclude, that wounds of ordinary nerves are not
attended in common inftances with any remarkable hazard.
The complete divifion of the trunk of a large nerve of
courfe produces paralyfis in the parts to which the branches
of that nerve tend ; and a partial fection of it fometimes
appears to give rife to violent fhooting pains in the fame
parts, attended with fevere nervous irritation throughout the
whole conftitution. Gunfhot injuries, in the track of large
nerves, were oblerved by M. Larrey to be particularly
often followed by tetanus in the climate of Egypt. Whether
this obfervation applies to fimilar accidents in more nor-
thern countries, we cannot decide ; but, in thefe, tetanus is
well known to be far lefs frequent.

Mr. Pott, in his le€&tures, ufed to mention cafes, in which
patients had fuffered diftraGting pain after venefeGtion, fol-
lowed by convulfions, and other fymptoms, which could
only be afcribed to nervous irritation, originating from the
injury of the cutaneous nerves in the operation. Mr.
Abernethy has treated this fubje€t with much difcrimina-
tion ; he explains what nerves are expofed to injury ; what
are the effeéts likely to be produced by fuch an accident ;
and what means are moft likely to afford relief.

The two cutaneous nerves are chiefly expofed to the lancet.
Moft frequently, all their branches pafs beneath the veins at
the bend of the arm; but fometimes many {mall filaments
are detached from thefe branches and proceed over the
veffels. When a nerve is irritated at any point between its
origin and termination, a fenfation is felt, as if fome injury
were done to the parts which it fupplies. Hence, when the
cutaneous nerves are injured, the integuments of the forearm
will feem to fuffer pain.

It feems highly probable, that fome fymptoms, confe-
quent to venefeétion, have been, in certain inftances, un-
foundedly imputed to the irritation of a nerve arifing from
its partial divifion. As Mr. Abernethy has obferved, it
would be ftrange if a partial divifion of a nerve fhould not
happen in the many operations which are daily performed,
and the innumerable wounds which are continually oc-
curring ; yet no particular fymptoms ufually enfue.

The practice of completing the divifion of the nerve,
fuppofed to be partially cut, may therefore feem a proceed-
ing, for which the indication is extremely doubtful. The
plan, however, has the recommendation of being attended
with no particular rif ; and, upon the whole, it may be as
rational a thing as any which can be purfued, when the
fymptoms of irritation in the courfe of the injured nerve
are {trong and well marked. A tranfverfe incilion may be
made above the orifice in the vein. This wound need not
be extenfive ; for the injured nerve muft lie within the li-
mits of the original orifice, and there is no occafion for the
cut to extend below the fafcia, as all the filaments of the
cutaneous nerves he above this part. See Abernethy's Sur-
gical Works, and Cooper’s Firtt Lines of the Praétice of
Surgery, edit. 3.

Some obfervations, conne&ed with this fubje&t, will be
found in the article Tic Douloureux.

NERVUS, in Botany, the rib or nerve of a leaf. See
Costa and Costatum.

NES, in Geography, a river of Denmark, in the ifland

of

MES
of Zealand, which runs into the Baltic ; 4 miles S. of Nelt-
wed

NESA, a town of Perfia, in Khorafan, on the borders
of Kharafm, ferving as a frontier between the two coun-
tries. Inthe year 1221 it was taken, by Jenghis Khan,
after a fiege of fifteen days. The Mongols took it by
ftorm, and the next day the inhabitants were drawn out into
a plain, and fhot with darts and arrows like wild bealts;
ftrangers, natives, and peafants without diltinétion, to the
amount of 70,020; 200 miles N. of Herar.

NESBIT, Tuomas, in Biography, a Scotch antiquary,
the fon of the lord prefident Nefbit, was born at Edin-
burgh in 1672. He was author of an excellent book on
Heraldry, and a Vindication of Scottifh Antiquities, which
is faid to be ftill in MS. in the advocate’s library at Edin-
burgh. He died in 1725.

EsBIT’s Harlour, in Geography, a harbour on the coalt
of New Britain, in North America, where, in 1752, the
Moravians formed a fettlement, but being either expelled or
killed, a fecond attempt was made in 1762 under the pro-
teGtion of the Britith government, favoured by the Efqui-
maux, and fucceeded.

NESCOPECK River, a river of America, which falls
into the Sufquehannah river, nearthe mouth of a creek of
that name, in Northumberland county, Pennfylvania, oppo-
fite to the town of Berwick; 160 miles N.W. of Philadel-

hia. N. lat. 41° 3/.—Alfo, an Indian town which formerly

ood near the {cite of Berwick.— Alfo, a mountain of Penn-
fylvania, near the Sufquehannah river.

NESH, a provincial term commonly applied to fuch
animals of the horfe or cow kind as are tender or wajby.

NESIGODA, in Geography, a lake of Silefia, in the
principality of Oels ; 5 miles S. gf Milit{ch.

NESIRBAD, atown of Perfia, in Farfiftan; 69 miles
S.S.E. of Schiras.

NESLE, a town of France, in the department of the
Somme, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri€ of Pe-
ronne ; 10 miles S. of it. The place contains 1567, and
the canton 8744 inhabitants, on a territory of 1174 kilio-
metres, in 25 communes.

NESLOU, a fmall ifland in the Perfian gulf; 180
miles W.S.W. of Ormuz.

NESMIEL, a town of Hungary; 8 miles S.E. of
Comorn.

NESPA, a town of Mexico, in the province of Mechoa-
can, at the mouth of a river which runs into the Pacific
Ocean.

NESPEREIRA, a town of Spain, in Galicia; 12
miles N. of Tuy.

NESS, a town of Norway, in the diocefe of Agger-
huus; 36 miles N.N.W. of Chriftiania.

Ness, J.ech, a lake in the county of Invernefs, Scotland,
is a moft beautiful expanfe of water, twenty-two miles
long, and from one to two miles and a half broad. Its
depth, in the centre, is from fixty to one hundred and thirty
fathoms, andeven near its fides, excepting at the points of
Torr and Foyers, the declivity is fuch, that a fhip of the
line might fail in fafety within fifty yards of the fhore,
from end to end, on either fide of the lake. Owing to
this circumftance loch Nefs never freezes, even in the fe-
verelt feafon; atruth which is ftrongly doubted by Dr.
Johnfon, though admitting of as eafy an explanation aa
any phenomenon conne¢ted with chemical feience. Loch
Nefs abounds with trout, and a few falmon are alfo fome-
times found to have paffed the cruives in the river Nefs
when the water is high; which in rainy weather takes place
¢o the extent of ten feet perpendicular. This lake is fre-

NES

uently agitated with great violence by the winds ; and on
ome occafions even without any apparent caufe. An event
of this fort occurred in a moft extraordinary manner on the
it of November 1755, the time of the great earthquake,
which nearly deftroyed Lifbon. The water rofe with the
utmoft impetuofity from eaft to welt, many of the waves
being carried two hundred yards up the Oich, and break-
ing, on its banks, five feet above the level of the river.
It continued in this flate for nearly an hour, when the com-
motion ceafed, by a wave much larger than any’ that pre-
ceded it, overflowing the north fhore of the lake. Loch
Nefs communicates, by the river Nefs, with the Moray frith,
and forms part of the chain of lakes and rivers from that
arm of the North fea, to the found of Mull, on the weftern
coaft. As the lakes are all navigable, and rife very little
above the level of the fea, a canal was lately projected on
this line. It is denominated the Caledonian Canal, and is
now nearly completed, under the {cientific management of
Mr. Telford ; and as it is defigned to admit frigates of 32
gurs, there is reafon to expect that the fingular fpeétacle
will foou be exhibited, of large veffels croffing the Britifh
ifland, from the Atlantic to the German ocean, furrounded
by mountains which frequently tower to an enormous height.
(See Canat, Caledonian.) The {cenery of this lake is grand
and magnificent in the highe% degree, as the hills are well
covered with wood, and Gatctises flope gradually from
the fhore, and at others rife with the utmoft boldnefs and
irregularity. The vale of Foyers, at its eaftern extremity,
is not inferior in romantic beauty to the celebrated Dove-
dale of Derbyfhire. The river from which it derives its
name forms two moft beautiful falls, one ef them feventy,
and the other two hundred and twelve feet in height. The
latter is confequently among the loftieft in the world, and,
during floods, prefents a view, at once grand and impreflive.
Pennant’s Tour in Scotland. Beauties of Scotland, vol. v.

NESSA, or NesserLanp, an ifland in the N. part of
Dollart bay, on the coaft of Eaft Friefland, a little to the
S.E. of Emden. N. lat. 53° 18. E. long. 6°59’.

NESSELWANG, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric
of Augfburg ; 45 miles S. of Augfburg.

NESSO, Nexus. See Usus.

NEST. See Ninvs.

NESTES, in Geography, a {mall country of France, fo
called before the revelution, but now a part of the depart-
ment of the Higher Pyrenées; its chief town was La
Barthe.

NESTIER, a town of France, in the department of the
Higher Pyrenées, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trict of Bagneres; 4 miles Es of La Barthe. The place
contains 503, and the canton 8176 inhabitante, on a terri-
tory of 170 kiliometres, in 16 communes.

NESTLINGS, aname given to Canary birds brought
up by hand. See Canary-Bird.

NESTON, Grear, in Geography, a {mall market-town
in the hundred of Wirall and county palatine of Chefter,
England, isfituated clofe upon the fhore, on the fouth-weft-
ern fide of a peninfula formed by the efluaries of the
Dee and Merfey. It isa place of very little importance,
and chiefly fupported by the number of perfons who refort
to it as a fummer refidence. The marke: day is Friday.
The manor here was at an early period in the poffeffion of
the family of Montalt, and was bequeathed by Robert de
Montalt to queen Ifabel in the reign of Edward III.
This prince afterwards granted it to William Montacute,
earl of Salifbury, but reverting to the crown foon after, by
attainder, it was given by Henry IV. to fir John a
anceftor to the earls of Derby, by one of whom it was fold

4Z 2 to

i le Oils,

to the Whitmores of Leighton, and from them pafled, by
female heirs, to the Savages and Moftyns. The parifh is

of great extent, and contains the townfhips of Lidfham, |

Leighton, Little Nelton, Nefs, Raby, Thornton, Mayow,
and Willafton, the whole comprifing 625 houfes, and 1909
inhabitants, as appears from the parliamentary returns of
1811. Lyfons’s Magna Britannia, vol. 1. 4to. 1$10.
NESTOR, in Biography, a diftinguifhed Grecian chief
in the time of the Trojan war, was kin of Pylos in the
Peloponnefus. He was one of the twelve fons of Neleus,
of whom all but himfelf were flain in the invafion of the
country by Hercules. Neltor was preferved from flaugh-
ter by his tender age, and by being educated among the
Gerenians. He was very fuccefsful in battle, while young,
againft the Eleans. He was placed by Hercules on the
throne of Pylos, and, as king of that country, and of Mef-
fenia, he led his fubje&ts to the Trojan war, where he dif-
tinguifhed himfelf among the reft of the Grecian chiefs, by
eloquence, addrefs, wifdom, juftice, and an uncommon pru-
dence.in the adminiftration of affairs. His chara¢ter is re-
prefented by Homer as the molt perfe& of all his heroes,
and Agamemnon is made to exclaim, that if he had ten
fuch generals as Neltor he fhould foon' fee the walls of Troy
reduced toutterruin. He is reprefented, by the poets, as of

a great age at the fiege of Troy, and even as having lived _

three ages, which has been thought to be about ninety
years. His wifdom, the refult of long experience, 1s dif-
played on feveral occafions in the councils of the Greeks,
and his honey-like eloquence is employed in conciliating the
diffentions between the leaders. he garrulity of old age,
joined to the qualities of a veteran ftatefman and warrior,
renders him a very natural and interefting perfonage in the
Iliad. After the Trojan war Neftor is fuppofed to have
retired to Greece, where he enjoyed in the bofom of his
family the peace and tranquillity which were due to his
wifdom and his old age. The manner and time of his
death are unknown: the ancients are all agreed that he
lived three generations of men, and from this circumf{tance
it was ufual among the Greeks and the Latins, when they
wifhed a long and happy life to their friends, to wifh that
they might fee the years of Neftor. He had two daughters
and feven fons, among the latter was Antilochus, a brave
warrior, who perifhed before the wallsof Troy. Homer.
Nesror, or Letoris Nesrorova, a Ruflian hiltorian,
born in the year 1056 at Bielozero, aflumed the monattic
habit in the rgth year of his age, and took the name by
which he is known. When he entered the monaftery he
cultivated the Greek language with diligence, though he
is thought to have ftudied it rather in the Byzantine hif-
torians, than in the older claffics. He is fuppofed to have
died in 1115 : the work by which he is chiefly known is a
“ Chronicle,’’ containing, after a fhort introductory account
of the early ftate of the world, taken from the Byzantine
writers, a geographical defeription of Ruffia, and the ad-
joining countries; aa account of the Sclavonian nations,
their emigrations, difperfion, and final fettlement, and lattly,
a chronological feries of the Ruffian annals from 858 to
about 1113. ‘This work lay in obfcurity, till Peter the
Great ordered a tranfcript to be made of a copy of it,
found in the library of Konigfberg. Profeffor Muller, in
1732, publifhed a German tranflation of the firlt part,
which has been erroneoufly afcribed to one Theodofius. It
was publifhed at Peterfburg in the year 1767, and 1s va-
lued as the earlict monument of Ruffian hiftory. The
{tyle of this work is fimple and unadorned, fuch as fuits a
mere recorder of fats, but his chronological exaétnefs
contributes to afcertain the era and authenticity of the

NES

events which he relates. We may add further, on the av-
thority of Mr. Coxe, that Neltor was followed fucceffively
by three annalifts, the firit was Sylvefter, abbot of the con-
vent of St. Michael, at Kiof, and bifhop of Periflaf, who
died in 1123 ; he commences his chronicle from 1115, two
years potterior to that of Neftor, and continues it to the
year 1123, from which period a monk, whofe name has not
come down to us, carries the hiftory to 1157, and another,
equally unknown, to 1204. With refpeét to thefe perform~-
ances, M. Muller informs us, that the labours of Neftor and
his three continuators have produced a connetted feries of
the Ruffian hiftory fo complete, that no nation can boaft of
a fimilar treafure for fo long and unbroken a period. See
Coxe’s Travels, vol. iii.

Nestor, an excellent Roman mufician, famous panto-
mimic, and a great favourite of Caligula. When he was on
the ftage, if any one interrupted him he was inftantly
{courged, even by the emperor himfelf. ;

NESTORIANS, in Ecclefiaftical Hiftory, a {e&t of an-
cient Chriftians, ftill faid to be fubfilting in fome part of the
Levant ; whofe diftinguifhing tenet is, that Mary is not the
mother of God. They take their name from Nettorius, a
Syrian, who, of a monk, became a prieft, and a celebrated
preacher ; and was at length, after the death of Sifinnius in
428, raifed by Theodofius to the fee of Conftantinople.

At firft he fhewed a great deal of zeal againft herefy, in
his fermons before the emperor; but at length, taking the
liberty to fay, that he found in Scripture that Mary was the
mother of Jefus, but that he no where found that Mary was
the mother of God ; his auditory was fhocked, and a great
part of them retired from his communion.

His writings were foon fpread through Syria, Egypt, and
Perfia, where he made many converts, notwithitanding the
vigorous oppofition of St. Cyril.

But nothing tended fo much to propagate with rapidity
the doétrine of Nettorius, as its being received in the famous
f{chool which had for a long time flourifhed at Edefia. For
the doétors of this celebrated academy not only inftruéted
the youth in the Neftorian tenets, but tranflated from the
Greek into the Syriac language the books of Neftorius, of
his mafter Theodorus of Mopfueftia, and the writings alfo
of Diodorus of Tarfus, and {pread them abroad throughout
Affyria and Perfia.

One of the chief promoters of the Neftorian caufe was
Barfumas, created bifhop of Nifibis A.D. 435. Such were
his zeal and fuccefs, that the Neftorians, who {till remain in’
Chaldeza, Perfia, Affyria, and the adjacent countries, confider
him alone as their parent and founder. By him, Pherozes,
the Perfian monarch, was perfuaded to expel thofe Chrif-
tians who adopted the opinions of the Greeks, and to ad-
mit the Neftorians in their place, putting them in pefleffion
of the principal feat of ecclefiaftical authority in Perfia,
the fee of. Seleucia, which the patriarch of the Netto-
rians has always filled even down to our time. Barfumas
alfo ereéted a fchool at Nifibis, from which proceeded thofe
Neftorian doors, who, in the fifth and fixth centuries,
{pread abroad their tenets through Egypt, Syria, Arabia,
India, Tartary, and China.

His capital tenet was, that there are two perfons in Jefus
Chrift ; and that the Virgin was not his mother, as God, but
only as man.

This doétrine was condemned in the council of Ephefus
fummoned by Theodofius the Younger, A.D, 431, at which
above two hundred bifhops aflifted, and Cyril prefided ; and
Neftorius was anathematized, without being heard, and de-
pofed from his fee,

Neftorius

WES

Neftorius was not the author of this opinion, but borrowed
it at Antioch, where he had {tudied ; and though he was the
fuffering and perfecuted party from the beginning of the
controverfy to his death, the flame was firft kindled by the
prefbyter Anaftafius. ‘Theodorus Mopfueftanus, whofe dif-
ciple he was, had taught the fame before him.

The abettors of this.doétrine refufe the title Neftorians ;
alleging, that it had been handed down from the earlieft
times of the Chriftian church.

In the tenth century the Neftorians in Chaldea, whence

they are fometimes called Chaldeans, extended their fpi-
ritual conqueft beyond mount Imaus, and introduced the
Chriftian religion into Tartary, properly fo called, and ef-
pecially into that country called Karit, and bordering on
the northern part of China. The prince of that country,
- whom the Neftorians converted to the Chriftian faith, af-
fumed, according to the vulgar tradition, the name of John,
after his baptif{m, to which he added the furname of Pref-
byter, from a principle of modefty ; whence it is faid, his
fucceflors were each of them called Prefter John, until the
time ef Jenghis Khan. But Mofheim obferves, that the fa-
mous Pretter John did not begin to reign in that part of
A fia before the conclufion of the eleventh century. The
Neftorians formed fo confiderable a body of Chriftians, that
the miflionaries of Rome were indultrious in their endea-
vours to reduce them under the papal yoke. Innocent IV.
in 1246, and Nicolas LV. in 1278, ufed their utmott efforts
for this purpofe, but without fuccefs. Till the time of
pope Julius III. che Neftorians acknowledged but one pa-
triarch who refided fir't at Bagdat, and afterwards at Mou-
ful; but a divifion arifing among them, in 1551, the patri-
archate became divided, at leaft for a time, and a new pa-
triarch was confecrated by that pope, whofe fucceffors fixed
their refidence in the city of Ormus, in the mountainous
part of Perfia, where they {til continue diftinguifhed by
the name of Simeon; and fo far down as the 17th cen-
tury, thefe patriarchs perfevered in their communion with the
church of Rome, but feem at prefent to have withdrawn
themfelves from it. The great Neftorian pontiffs, who
form the oppofite party, and look with a hoftile eye on
this little patriarch, have, fince the-year 1559, been diftin-
guifhed by the general denomination of Elias, and refide
con{tantly in the c.ty of Mouful. Their fpiritual dominion
is very extenfive, takes in a great part of Afia, and com-
prehends alfo within its circuit the Arabian Neltorians, and
alfo the Chriftians of St. Thomas, who dwell alorg the
coaft of Malabar. It is obferved, to the lafting honour of
the Neftorians, that of all the Chriftian focieties eftablifhed
in the Ealt, they have been the molt careful and fuccefsful
in avoiding a multitude of fuperftitious opinions and prac-
tices that have infected the Greek and Latin churches.
About the middle of the 17th century the Romifh miffiona-
ries gained over to their communion a {mall number of Nef-
torians, whom they formed into a congregation or church,
the patriarchs or bifhops of which refide in the city of Amida,
or Diarbekir, and all aflume the denomination of Jofeph.
Neverthelefs, the Neftorians in general perfevere, to our
own times, in their refufal to enter into the communion of
the Romifh church, notwith{tanding the earnelt entreaties
and alluring offers that have been made by the pope’s legate
to conquer their inflexible conftancy. Mofheim.

NESTOSA, La, in Geography, atown of Spain, in the
province of Bifcay ; 21 miles W.S.W. of Bilboa.

NESTVED, a town of Denmark, in the ifland of Zea-
land, on the river Nes, near the coaft. The river divides
-the town into two parts, called Great and Little Neflved,
and by means of its difcharge into the Baltic, furnifhes the

NET

trade of the town, It has two parifh churches; 22 miles
E.S.E. of Corfoer. N. lat. 55° 15’. E. long. 11° 51’.

NESTY, a town of Nepaul; 18 miles N.N.E. of No-

rcot.

NESUAR, a town of Hindooftan, in Allahabad ; nine
miles W. of Gazypour.

NET, in Fi/bing and Fowling, a contrivance by which to
catch fifh or fowl. See Fisuina.

The taking of fowls by nets is the readieft and molt ad-
vantageous of all others, where numbers are to be taken.

The making of the nets is very eafy, and what every true
{port{man ought to be able to do for himfelf. All the tools
neceflary to it are wooden needles, of which there fhould be
feveral of different fizes, fome round, and others flat; a
pair of round-pointed flat fciffars, and a wheel to wind
off the thread. The packthread is to be of different
ftrength and thicknefs, according to the fort of birds
that are to be taken; and the general fize of the mefhes,
if not for very {mall birds, is two inches from point to
point.

The nets fhould be made neither too deep nor too long,
for they are then difficult to manage: and they mult be
verged on each fide with twilted thread. The natural
colour of the thread is too bright and pale, and is there-
fore to be altered in many cafes, according to the oc-
cafion,

The moft ufeful colour is the ruffet : this isto be obtained
by plunging the net, after it is made, into a tanner’s pit,
and letting it lie there till it be fufficiently tinged ; this is
of a double fervice to the net, preferving the thread very
greatly, as well as altering the colour. The green colour is
given by chopping fome green wheat, and boiling it in
water, then foaking the net in this green tinéture till it
have fufficient colour. The yellow colour is given in the
fame manner, with the decoétion of celandine: this gives
a pale and faint ftraw-colour, which is the colour of
ftubble in harveft time, and is juft what is wanted. The
brown nets are intended to be ufed on ploughed fields ; the
green on grafs grounds, and the yellow on ftubble lands.

Great care is neceflary in the preferving of nets ; and the
principal thing to be confidered in regard to this ts, that
all wet rots the threads; whenever they have been ufed
in dew or rain, they mult be hung up to dry in the fun ;
and if there is any rent or breach made, it muft be mended
as foon as it is difcovered. In the drying, they muft be
hung as far as may be from the walls, that they may be
out of the way of mice and rats, which are very apt to
deftroy them. The utmoft depth that fhould be allowed
to a net for fowl, istwo fathom, and the utmoft length fix
fathom.

The places for ufing fowling nets to moft advantage, are
the morning and evening haunts, where the birds come to
feed. The fport{man is to be at the place at leaft two hours
before the time of their coming, and the nets muft immedi-
ately be fpread flat and even upon the ground, and the two
ends faltened down with ftakes. At the lower part there is

-to be along cord fixed to the upper edge of the net, by

means of which it may be immediately raifed, and pulled over.
The fport{man is to hide himfelf behind fome natural or artifi-
cial fhelter, at the extremity of this line, and fome cut grafs
muft be ftrewed all over the net, as it lies on the ground,
to hide it from the fowl; and fome live bird, that has been
taken before, fhould be ftaked down before the net, by way
of a ftall, to draw in the others.

As foon as a fufficient number of birds are within the
compafs of the net, it is to be pulled fwiftly over them,
and the fowler having taken thofe that are under i ey

ake

NET’

ftake down two or three more live ones, and {pread the
net, covering it with grafs as before. This fort of fport
may be continued from as foon as it is light in the morning
till an hour after fun-rife; but after that time, the birds
have done feeding ravenoufly, and the {port is over for that
day.
Nine, Cinque-port, in Fifbery, a name given to a fort of
{quare net, refembling a cage, and having five entrances into
it, from whence it has the name.

Itis a very ferviceable net in any pond or river, and is
equally good in {wift or ftanding water. In order to make
this net, there muft be provided four large and {traight poles,
anfwerable in length to the depth of the water. The ends
of thefe muft be fharpened in the manner of ftakes, and
there muft be notches within a foot of the fharp part to faften
the net to; and ataconvenient diftance, on the poles, there
muft be another fet of notches, for the faftening the other
ends of the net.

The bottom of this net-is four-fquare, without any en-
trance. A boat muft be taken out with this net, to place
it properly. The four poles muft be fixed in the bottom
in fuch a manner, that each may anfwer to the other in
a direct line ; and they mutt ftand at fuch diftances, that the
net may be drawn ont as {tiff as poflible between them. If
the net is to be fixed in ftanding water, this method alone
will do very well; but if it be a fmooth itream, fomething
more is neceflary, otherwife the motion of the water will
keep the net playing about, and this will frighten away the
fifh. To prevent this, four ftrong iticks are in this cafe to
be faftened along the tops of the others, fo as to make a fort
of frame, to ftraighten and ftrengthen the others, and keep
all tight.

When the net is perfeétly fixed, it reprefents a cage, and
the fides, top, and bottom are kept fo firm, that the fifh do
not regard them, but feem to take them for weeds; but
going in at the entrances, there is no returning, and in rich
places great numbers are taken.

Net, Clap. See Crarv-Net, and Dorina.

Net, Crow, in Birding, a name given to a fort of net
contrived for the catching of wild fowl in the winter feafor.
This net may be ufed in the day-time, and is to be-made of
double thread, or of fine packthread, and the mefhes are to
be two inches wide. The length of the whole fhould be
about ten yards, and the depth abuut three; it fhould be
verged on the fides with a ftrong cord, and itretched out in
length very {tiff upon long poles prepared for that purpofe.
When this net is brought to the place where it is to be ufed,
it muft be opened, and fpread at full length and breadth ;
then its lower end is to be faltened all along the whole length
of the ground, fo that it only can be moved up and down ;
the upper end of the net muft ftand extended on the long
cord, the farther end of it being firft ftaked to the earth by
a ftrong cord, above five yards diltant from the net, and {tand-
ing in an even line with the bottom of the net; the other
end of thecord mult reach at lealt five and twenty yards, to
fome natural or artificial fhelter, by means of which the
fport{man is to lie concealed from his prey. The net mult
be placed in fuch exaét order, that it will play upon the
leaft jerk of the cord, and that mult always be given fud-
denly, lett the prey efcape. This net is principally ufed
for crows aud pigeons, on new-fown corn-fields, and it may
alfo be ufed in ftubble-fields, where the ftubble wiil hide the
net from the fowl. If the mefhes are made f{maller, it may
be ufed at barn-doors and the like for {mall birds, and a bait
of chaff will bring them together under it. But the great
ufe of the crow-net, is to {pread it in mornings and evenings
where the haunts of wild fowl are, which in hard weather

NET

fly in great flocks to and from land, with and againft the
wind, and then fly clofe to the ground, in open countries
and low lands, where there are few hedges. When awhole
covey of thefe are within the reach of the net, it is to be
let go over them, and they will be taken in great numbers at .
one caift.

Net, Fold. See Forp.

Net, Tramel. See TRAMEL.

Net, Tunnel. See TuNNEL.

Net, Waterfowl. See Water-Fowu.

Net, Wolf. See Wotr.

Net, Neat, in Commerce, fomething pure, and unadil-
terated with any fcreign mixture.

Thus, wine is faid to be net, when not falfified or fophif-
ticated ; and coffee, rice, pepper, &c. are net, when the filth
and impurities are feparated frem them.

A diamond is faid to be net, when it kas no ftains or flaws ;
a cry{tal, when tranfparent throughout.

Net is alfo ufed for what remains after the tare has been
taken out of the weight of any merchandize ; i. e. when it
is weighed clear of all package.

Thus we fay, a barrel of cochineal weighs 450 pounds ;
the tare is 50 pounds, and there remains net 400 pounds,

Net-Mea/ure, in Buildings, is when no allowance is made
for finifhing ; and in artificers’ work, when no allowance is
made for walle of materials.

Net-Produce, a term ufed to exprefs what any commo-
dity has yielded, all tare and charges deducted.

The merchants fometimes ufe the Italian words nefto pro-
ceduto, for net produce.

Net-Majfonry. See Masonry.

NETE, in the Ancient Greek Mufic, the fourth ftring, or
higheft note of eachtetrachord. When the third tetrachord
was conjoined with the fecond, it was the fynnemenon, and
its nete was called neve /ynnemenon. The third tetrachord was
called diezeugmenon, when it was disjunct or feparated from
the fecond by the interval of a tone, and its nete was then
called nete diezeugmenon. And laftly, the fourth tetrachord,
called Ayperboleon, its nete was always called nete byperbo-
/zon. With refpeét to the two firft tetrachords being both
always conjunét, they had no nete; the fourth ftring of the
firft being alfo the firft of the fecond, it was calied hypate
mefon, and the fourth itring of the fecond, conftituting the
middle of the fyftem, was called me/.

NETHAN, in Geography, a river of Scotland, which rifes
near Lefmahagow, in Lanerkfhire, and runs into the Clyde,
about 5 miles below Lanerk.

NETHE, river of France, which runs into the Dyle,
6 miles N.W. of Malines.—A fmall river of the fame name,
with the epithet Lefer, unites with the other at Liere.

NETHER Srowry. See Stowey Nether.

Netnuer Vert. See Verr.

NETHERBY, in Geography, a village of Cumberland,
in England, abounding in antiquities, and fuppofed to have
been a Roman ftation; 12 miles N. of Carlifle.

NETHERLANDS, or Srvenreen PROVINCES, a
country of Europe, bounded on the N. by the German fea,
onthe E. by Ealt Friefland, the bifhopric ef Muntter, county
of Bentheim, duchy of Cleves, archbifhopric of Cologn,
and duchy of Juliers, on the S. by the bifhopric of Liege
and by France, and on the W. by the German fea and
part of France. It extended from N. lat. 49° 25’ to 53°
30', and from E. long. 2° 30! to 7° 20'. The Netherlands,
in general, were anciently known by the name of Belgica
Gallia, which fee ; by the Spaniards they were called Pays-
baxo, and by the French Pays-bas, by the Germans
Nierdelande, and by the Englifh Netherlands, or Low

Countries,

NETHERLANDS. >

Countries, in reference to its fituation with regard to High
Germany. In the time of the Romans, who gained pof-
feffion of this country with great difficulty, the inha-
bitants were Pagans, the original population confilting of
Celts, who were fupplanted by the Belge; and it is not
certain when Chniltianity was firft introduced into this
country : towards the end of the third century, the ec-
clefiattics fent hither by pope Marcellin made many con-
verts, but during the latter end of the fifth century a
bifhopric was ereéted at Tournay, and as Chriftianity
began to flourifh, churches were built at Cambray,
Arras, Terouane, Maettricht, and other towns. In the
ear 608 St. Amand preached at Ghent, and in the
atter end of the feventh century St. Wildebrord, with
his companions, preached the gofpel in Holland, Zealand,
and Utrecht. In the beginning of this century the Van-
dals committed great enormities in the Netherlands; and in
the year 451, Attila, king of the Huns, invaded the country
with an army of 600,000 men, and burnt molt of its towns.
In 445, Clodio, king of France, made himfelf mafter of Cam-
bray and Tournay, and fubdued the country as far as the
Meufe. After the irruption of the Franks, this country
formed Neuttria, or the new kingdom, (the ancient king-
dom of the Franks being on the E. of the Rhine,) partly
belonging to the province of Flandria, and partly to that of
Lotharingia, or Lower Lorrain. Soon after this period it
was divided into provinces, forming as many different ftates,
and the number of provinces has been generally reckoned
feventeen, viz. the duchies of Brabant, Limburg, Luxem-
burg, and Gueldres ; the marquifate of the empire of Ant-
werp; the comtés of Flanders, Artois, Hainault, Namur,
Zutphen, Holland, and Zealand; and lordfhips of Malines,
Utrecht, Overiffel, Friefland, and Groningen; to which is
added Cambrefin ; fo that, in fact, there would be eighteen ;
but Guelderland and Zutphen being politically united
to the Dutch ftates, they were called feventeen; and the
United States were always called the Seven, although, ac-
cording to the above ftatement, they are, in reality, eight.
In the middle of the ninth century arofe the powerful houfe
of the earls of Flanders; and the counts of Hainault com-
mence about the fame epoch. The dukes of Lower Lor-
rain and Brabant are little known till the end of the 1oth
century. Thefe, together with other large inheritances,
gradually fell under the power of the dukes of Burgundy,
who, in the rsth century, enjoyed dominions worthy of the
regal title. During thefe two laft epochs, the Netherlands
became the great mart of commerce in the welt of Europe,
and were diftinguifhed by opulence and the arts. With the
heirefs of Burgundy, the Netherlands pafled by marriage to
the houfe of Aultria. When the feventeen provinces were
united into one body under Charles V., he ordered their
union to be perpetual ; and for this purpofe he publifhed, in
November 1549, with the confent, and at the requelt of all the
ftates of the provinces, an irrevocable ediét or law, providing
for the regular fucceffion of the reigning prince. Philip of
Auftria and his fon Charles, being natives of the Nether-
lands, treated the people with affection, and allowed to the
ftates a kind of fhare in the fupreme authority with them-
felves. But Philip II., fon of Charles V., was born in
Spain, and had neither the affe€tion for the Netherlands,
nor the generous fentiments which actuated his father’s
condué; and therefore, inftead of purfuing the fame mild
and moderate meafures, he had recourfe to violent and crvel
proceedings, of which the refult was a general infurreétion.
Iu order to reftrain its progrefs, and the f{preading of the re-
formation, Philip introduced into thecountry a kind of in-
quifition, which aggravated the evil, and terminated in a

civil war. On this occafion the prince of Orange, retirin
into Holland, was enabled, by the affiftance of Englan
and France, to preferve Holland and fome of the adjacent
provinces, which entered into a treaty for their mutual de-
fence at Utrecht, in 1579; and thefe were afterwards
ftyled the United Provinces; they were feven in number,
viz. Holland, Zealand, Friefland, Groningen, Overiffel,
Guelderland, united with Zutphen and Utrecht. The ten
Catholic provinces were, Flanders, Brabant, Artois, Hai-
nault, Namur, Luxemburg, Limburg, Upper Guelderland,
the marquifate of Antwerp, and the county of Malines or
Mechlin. Several of thefe were retained by the Spaniards,
until the duke of Marlborough gained the vi€tory of Ra-
millies ; after which Bruffels the capital, and the greateft
part of thefe provinces, acknowledged Charles VI., after-
wards emperor, as their fovereign; but after his death they *
were wholly conquered by the French, except part of the
province of Luxemburg, and afterwards reftored by the
peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 ; except a few that were
retained by the French. Before the revolution in France,
the greater part of the fore-mentioned Catholic provinces
belonged to the houfe of Auftria; the Dutch, however,
‘occupied fome diftriéts of Flanders, Brabant, Upper Guel-
derland, and Limburg; the French poffeffed Artois, with
certain portions of Hainault, Namur, Luxemburg, and
Flanders ; and Upper Guelderland belonged to the king of
Proffia, the emperor, and the Dutch. In confequence of
the revolution, Flanders, Auftrian Brabant, Hainault, Up-
per Guelderland, Limburg, Luxemburg, the bifhopric of
Liege, Antwerp, the circle of the Lower Rhine, the duchy
of Juliers, and the territory extending along the left bank of
the Rhine, to the influx of the Meufe, were annexed to
the French dominions by the treaty of Formio, A. D. 1797.
The length of the Auftrian Netherlands, computed from
the eaftern limit of Luxemburg to Oftend on the ocean, is
about 180 Britifh miles ; and about 120 in breadth, from the
northern boundary of Auftrian Brabant to the moft fouthern
limit of Hainault. The extent is computed at 7520 fquare
miles, with a population ef 1,900,000. But if the French
territory be extended to the Rhine, and thus to include
large portions of the German circles of the Lower Rhine and
Wettphalia, the territory and population may be increafed
by at leaft one-third.

The eftablifhed religion in the Netherlands is the Roman
Catholic; but Proteftants and other feé&ts are tolerated.
According to the new ecclefiaftical divifion of the conquered
provinces, the metropolitan fee is the archbifhoric of Mech-
lin; and the bifhoprics are thofe of Namur, Tournay, Aix-
la-Chapelle, Treves, Gand or Ghent, Liege, and Mentz,
all the bifhops being appointed by the French emperor.
Before the late revolution, the inhabitants were notorious
for their bigotry. Thefe provinces boatt of early literature
foon after their converfion to Chriftianity in the feventh cen-
tary; but in modern times they have rarely produced any
writers of diftinguifhed talents. ‘The Flemifh language,
which partakes of the German and of the Dutch, remains
uncultivated; and the chief authors have ufed the Latin
or the French. Among their writers of any celebrity we
may mention Froiflart, Philip de Comines, and Lipfius. In
general the Southern Netherlands are more eminent for
artilts, and the United Provinces for literary charaters.
For an account of the engravers of the Flemith {chool, “fee
Low Country.

The moft celebrated univerfities were thofe of Tournay or
Dornick, which have been long fubjet to the French, thofe
of Douay and St. Omers, much frequented by Englith Ca-
tholics, and that of Louvain, of {till greater celebrity,

I founded

N, Eo

founded in 1425. The manners and cuftoms of the Nether-
lands partake of thofe of their neighbours, the Dutch and
French, the phlegm of one being tempered by the vivacity
of the other. The lower claffes have been fond of religious
pageantry, and much addiéed to the fuperftitious obfer-
vances of the Catholic fyftem. The three chief cities of
what were called the Auftrian Netherlands are, Bruffels,
Ghent, and Antwerp. The other principal towns are,
Mans, Bruges, Namur, Luxemburg, Roermond, and Lim-
burg. The fea-coalt of Flanders (which fee), the maritime
province, confifts chiefly of fandy hills and downs, and has
few inlets, molt of the rivers flowing into the Scheldt. The
two ports that deferve particular notice are, the S/uys and
Offend ; which fee. The Netherlands exceed every country
in Europe, if we except the United Provinces, not only in
the number, but in the great extent of its cities, towns, and
villages. The chief edifices are cathedrals, churches, and
monafteries. The canals of this country are very nume-
rous, and fome of them ancient. They interfect the pro-
viaces in all direGtions, fuch are thofe of Bruffels, Ghent,
Antwerp, Oftend, &c.; but of late years they have been
much negleGted. The manufactures and commerce of the
Netherlands, which were formerly fuperior to any in the
weit of Europe, have much declined, partly becaufe other
powers entered into competition, and partly becaufe freedom
was eftablifhed in the United Provinces, fo that Amfterdam
arofe upon the ruins of Antwerp. The little commerce
that is left is chiefly inland to Germany. The Eait India
company of Oftend was fupprefled by the jealoufy of Eng-
land and other powers ; and the chief commerce was after-
wards carried on by the Englifh eftablifhed in. that city.
Some few fragments of the manufactures {till remain.
Cambray is renowned for its cambrics, and Tournay or
Dornick was anciently famous for the fineft linens. At
Bruges there are itill fome manufaétures of broad fays,
baize, and other woollens; confiderable fabrics of broad
cloth, druggets, fhalloons, and ftockings, were conduéted
at St. Omers, chiefly with wool fmuggled from England.
The principal manufaétures of tapettry, fine linen, and laces,
are at Mechlin, Bruffels, Ghent, Antwerp, and Louvain; and
thefe {till enrich the country, and induce the farmers to cul-
tivate flax, even on the poorett foils. For home confump-
tion, the Netherlanders produce abundance of corn and
vegetables, and the coal mines, if they were proper!y con-
ducted, would be important. ‘Turf for fuel is plentiful, as
are alfo iron, porcelain, clay, and various other commodities.
The climate refembles that of the fouth of England, and
is more moift than warm ; neverthelefs Luxemburg produces
fome wine, refembling Rhenifh in aufterity, but dettitute of
its fpirit. The face of the country is generally level; the
foil is a rich fandy loam, interfperfed occafionally with fields
of clay, but more frequently with large intervals of fand.
The Netherlands, by the prevalence and boalted excellence
of its agriculture, have been long deemed the garden of
Europe. ‘The repeated crops of excellent clover, cole, tur-
nips, and clean crops of flax, barley, and oats have attracted
the attention of accurate obfervers; and, indeed, the agri-
cnlture of this country has been celebrated for 600 years,
ever fince their commerce and manufactures became eminent;
and it is remarked, that they {till poffefs the effentials of
good hufbandry in the deftruétion of weeds, and perpe-
tual crops. Hops, a native and peculiar produét, adopted
in England in the reign of Henry VIII., are abundant.
The Nether!anders never allow the land to lie fallow.

The chief river of the Netherlands is the Scheldt, which
receives two other ftreams, the Lys and the Scalpe. The
Dyle joins the Scheldt above Neil, after receiving from the

hay NL E.T

E. the Dermer, the Nette, or Nethe, from the N., and
the Senne from the S. The Netherlands, although they
have no elevations that deferve the name of mountains, have
feveral woods and foretts of confiderable extent. The plants
that are natives of this country may be found in the fandy
and marfhy diftri€ts of the S.E. coaft of England, except
the Gentiana cruciata. The breed of horfes and cattle in
this country is efteemed for its fize. In various provinces
are minerals of different kinds, flate, marble, and alabafter.

Since the union of the Auttrian Netherlands with France,
which has extinguifhed this appellation, or exchanged it for
that of the Re-united Country, they have been divided
into departments, fubjected to the government eftablifhed ir
that kingdom. Its condition feems to have been little, if at
all, amended by exchanging the oppreffion of the nobles
and clergy under its ancient regime for that of French
defpoti{m.

NETHES, Two, deriving its appellation from the rivers
above-mentioned, one of the thirteen departments of the
region of France, called the Re-united Country, formed of
the north part of Brabant, 1g French leagues in length,
and 13 in breadth, containing 2645 kiliometres, or 1
f{quare leagues, 249,376 inhabitants, on the right hand of the
Scheldt, in N. lat. 51° 15/. It is divided into 3 diitri@s
or circles, 21 cantons, and 141 communes. According to
Haffenfratz, it comprehends 1 circle, 23 cantons, and
153,981 inhabitants. The three circles are Ayers -or
Antwerp, including 114,507, Turnhout 62,172, and Ma-
lines 72,697 inhabitants. Its contributions in the 11th year
of the new French era, were 2,667,815 fr., and its expences
268,236 fr. 33 cents. Its capitalis Antwerp. The foil is
fandy, and indifferently fertile.

NETHINIMS, among the Jews, the poiterity of the
Gibeonites, who were condemned by Jofhua to be hewers
of wood and drawers of water for the houfe of God.

The Nethinims are mentioned 1 Chr. ix. 2. Ear. ii. 58.
Neh. vii. 60. and Ezr. viii. 20. Ezra, in this latter paf-
fage, informs us, that they were given by David to the
Levites, which is the original of their name; as the Levites
were given by God to help the priefts; and, therefore, in
all places they are mentioned with holy perfons. Some have
called thefe perfons inferior clergy ; but they feem rather to
have been fervants to them. However mean their original,
or low and laborious their employment may have been, the
people of Ifrael were indebted to them for their zeal for the
houfe of God. Many of them readily returned from Ba-
bylon te Judea, and performed their part for upholding the
worfhip of God at his temple.

NETHY, in Geography, a river of Scotland, which
rifes in Invernefsfhire, and runs into the Spey, 3 miles S.E.
of Grantown.

NETIERS, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Schlan ;
11 miles N.E. of Schlan.

NETO, a river of Naples, which runs into the fea,
7 miles N.N.W. of Cortona.

NETOIDES, acute founds in the Greek mufic.
Lepsis.

NETOPION, Nevoviov, a name given by the ancients to
a very fragrant and coftly ointment, confifting of a great
number of the fineft {picy ingredients. Hippocrates, in his
Treatife of the Difeafes of Women, frequently prefcribes
the net pion in difeafes of the uterus; and in other places
he fpeaks of its being poured into the ear as a remedy for
deafnefs; thefe compotitions, by their attenuating Parsi
dividing the yifcous and thick humours.

The word netopion is alfo fometimes ufed to exprefs the

7 unguentum

See

NET

unguentum AEgyptiacum, and fometimes fimply for oil of al-
monds. ,

NETSBUCKTOKE, or Sandwich Bay, in Geography,
a bay on the eaft coaftiof Labrador. N. lat. 53° 45’. W.
long. §7° 30!. |

NETSCHETIN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Pilfen ; 9 miles S.E. of Teufing.

NETSCHER, Gasparn, in Biography, one of the
mott able artifts of the Flemifh fchool, was born at Heidel-
bourg. His family afterwards migrating to Arnheim, he
was there adopted by a phyfician, named Tullekens, who
placed him firft with one Koftec, a painter of dead game;
and then with a better mafter, Gherard Terburgh, who
was well qualified to lead the promifing talents of Netfcher
into action.

The fubjeéts he chofe, when thofe talents were matured,
were generally of that clafs calied converfation pieces, with
figures fele&ted from among the better ranks of his country-
men. Thefe, while he touched and finifhed them with great
neatnefs, he treated with a breadth unknown till then among
the Flemifh painters. He finifhed all the parts of his pic-
tures with great perfeGiion, and the moft charaéeriftic imi-
tation of nature. The rich filk and fattin drefles of his
figures, the gold and filver utenfils, carpets, &c. &c. which
he introduced in his compofitions, are exquifitely wrought,
and with uncommon brilliancy and luftre. He painted many
portraits of a {mall fize, but they exhibit much of the
reftraint which belongs to portrait painting, and which al-
ways prevents the moft powerful exertion of an artift’s
talents; at leaft, the beft effe&t which thofe talents are ca-
pable of producing.

King Charles II. invited him to London, but was not
able to prevail upon him to quit his native country, and the
fatisfatory enjoyment of labouring in it both honourably
and profitably.

Although he died at the early age of 45, yet his pi€tures
are not very fcarce, but are to be found in moft collections
of confequence in this country, and throughout Europe.

His principal refidence was at the Hague. :

Nerscuer, THeopore, was the fon of Gafpard, who
taught him the art of painting from his earlieft years, fo
that at the age of nine he was accounted a very extraordinary
performer ; and when he had attained his eighteenth year,
he was folicited by count D’Arvaux to go to Paris, where
he was greatly admired and encouraged.

His principal occupation there, where he continued for
twenty years, was painting the portraits of the principal
perfons about the court, which he did with great fuccefs,
and for which he was very highly applauded and handfomely
rewarded; but the tafte they were executed with is by no
means of the higheft clafs. He made the moft of the lace
cravats and ruffles, the rich velvet robes embroidered with
devices, &c. then in ufe, and relieved them from back-
grounds full of buftle. But the principal office of por-
traiture was loft in this mafs of rinfed and flutter; the minds
of his fubjets feem nevet to have engaged his thoughts, or
are, by accident rather than defign, brought forth in a few
inftances ; whilft the idle affectation of ftage felf-importance
reigns predominant in them: as if a nobleman could not have
the air of a great man, without (to ufe a common expreffion)
at the fame time * looking big.”

He died in 1732, at the age of 71.

Nerscuer, Constantine, another fon of Gafpard,
who was born at the Hague in 1670. He alfo praétifed
the art of painting under the tuition of his father, but was
fo unfortunate as to lofe that advantage at the early age of

Vou. XXIV.

NET

fourteen. He neverthelefs endeavoured to compenfate him-
felf for that lofs, by the careful ftudy of his father’s works ;
and though he never was able to equal them, yet he arrived
at no mean degree of fill in his profeffion.

His principal practice was in portraiture, in which he was
much encouraged ; but being of an infirm habit of conftitu-
tion, he was much interrupted in his labours, and died at
the age of 52.

NETSCHKAU, in Geography, a town of Saxony, in
the Vogtland, fituated on the Golfch; 12 miles S.W. of
Zwickau.

NETTANGER, a town of Sweden, in Helfingland ;
6 miles S. of Hudwickfwal.

NETTE, atown of Weftphalia, in the bifhopric of Of-
nabruck; 4 miles N.E. of Ofnabruck.

NETTER, Tuomas, in Biography, a learned Englifr
Carmelite monk, who flourifhed in the 14th and r5th cen-
turies, was named Waldenfis, probably from the place of his
birth, which is fuppofed to have been Saffron-Walden. He
embraced the religious life in a monaftery at London, and
was afterwards fent to the univerfity of Oxford.. Here he
purfued his ftudies with great fuccefs, and became public
profeffor, at firft of philofophy, and then of divinity. ‘In
the laft named faculty he obtained the degree of doétor.
He zealoufly contefted the opinions of Wickliff, both in
the fchools and the pulpit, and was chofen provincial of his
order; and by the command of Henry IV. attended, in
1409, the council of Pifa. By Henry V. he was appointed
privy councillor, and confeffor, and fent to the couneil of
Conitance, where he diftinguifhed himfelf by his {peeches
againft the reformers of that period, the followers of Wick-
liff and John Hufs. He likewife enjoyed the favour of
Henry VI., and went to France with the intention of being
prefent at the coronation at Paris ; but he died, as he was
on his journey, at Rouen, inthe year 1430. He was
author of Commentaries on many parts of the Scriptures ;
alfo of a work, entitled ** DoGtrinale Antiquitatum Fidei
Ecclefie Catholice,’’ which was publifhed after his death, in
1571, in three volumes folio, and many other works.
Moreri.

NETTINGS, in a Ship, are a fort-of grates made with
fmall ropes, and feized together with rope-yarn, and are
laid in the walte of a fhip, fometimes, to ferve inftead of
gratings.

Nerrine-Sail; ina Ship. See Sait.

NETTLE, the common name of a well-known perennial
weed, which may be eafily deftroyed by cutting the roots,
before the plant has perfeéted its feed.

Nerr_e, in Botany, &c. See Urrica.

The roots of the common nettle, or urtica dioica, have
been much recommended in medicine as powerful diuretics ;
and great virtues have been afcribed to them in calculous
complaints, feurvy, gout, jaundice, &c.; and alfo as ttyp-
tics; in hemorrhages of all kinds, particularly in fpittings
of blood, and overflowings of the menfes. Authors add to
this, that they are fpecifics, by way of antidote, againit the

oifon of henbane and hemlock ; but this we are not fo well
affured of. The accounts that have been given of its medi-
cinal virtues’ have now little credit; and the nettle is con-
fidered merely as a fimple oleraceous plant, and, when
young, is found to be a good fubftitute for greens, or other
pot-herbs. The young fhoots of the plant are eaten in the
{pring, as good againft fcorbutic complaints..

The fharp hairs upon the frefh leaves of nettles readily
enter the fkin, and thus produce confiderable irritation and
inflammation, and therefore have been employed as a rube-

5A facient,

NE ET
facient, a practice which is termed. “ urtication,’’ and
found .of advantage in reftoring excitement in paralytic
limbs, or in other cafes of torpor or lethargy.

The ancients feem to have defpifed this plant, from its
being common, and though fuppofed to be poffeffed of great
virtues in medicine, neither the Greeks nor Latins have faid
much about it; nor have the Arabians, who abound in the
imaginary virtues of plants, thought the real ones of this
herb worth their confideration.

It has, however, been more honoured lately, and not-
withftanding its being now the moft vile and abject plant
among us, as well as the leait regarded by the ancients,
Johannes Francus, an author of confiderable fame, has pub-
lifhed a treatife folely upon it: in this he has treated at large
on its hiftory and yirtues. He defcribes its flings in a very
judicious manner, according to the prefent doétrine of the
microfcope, and gives the hiftory of certain worms of fin-
gular kinds which feed upon it ; and adds its ufe in our own
foods as an wholefome and agreeable pot-herb ; in our drink
as a fubftitute for hops, being as well capable of preferving
it as thofe, and in its great fervice to the farmer in fattening
hens.

John Melchiore Drefchler, in the year 1717, fuftained
alfo a thefis on the virtues and ufes of this plant, which has
been fince printed, ornamented with feveral cuts. In thefe
two authors we find the whole account of the feveral ufes
this common plant has been put to, and may be put to in
our manufatures, our domeftic and medicinal ufes; and, if
what they fay be true, we muft wonder to fee fo much value
overlooked in a herb, only becaufe it is common.

An ingenious manufacturer at Leipfic has contrived to
make ropes and cloth of nettle. ‘The f{pecies he ufes for
this purpofe. is the urtica urens maxima, or great stinging
nettle; and the procefs of preparing it as follows: having
gathered a quantity of the ftalks {till green, though half
withered, he dried them over his ftove; ahd when the moif-
ture was entirely exhaufted, bruifed them fo as to be able to
feparate the wood from the bark. By this operation he
procured a kind of green hards, which was rubbed and pre-
pared like flax. This new matter being {pun, he obtained
a greenifh-brown thread, very uniform and clear, fomewhat
refembling worfted. The manufacturer afterwards boiled
this thread, when it yielded a greenifh juice, and became
more white, uniform, and ftrong; fo that by continuing the
preparation, he had reafon to hope that an excellent thread
might be made, and confequently a. ftrong and laftng
cloth; and that it might be employed with advantage, not
only by rope-makers, but even by weavers, in making fine
ftuffs.

This practice of drefling the ftalks of nettles like flax or
hemp, for making ropes, nets, cloth, paper, &c. is not un-
common in fome parts of Ruffia and Siberia.

The {tings of nettles are very curious microfcopic objects :
they confift of an exceedingly fine pointed tapering hollow
fubftance, with a perforation at the point, and a bag at the
bafe. When the {ting is prefled upon, it readily punctures
the fkin, and the fame preffure forces up from the bag an
acrimonious fluid, which inftantly enters into the wound,
and excites a burning inflammation. The nettle is faid to
be poifonous to frogs: for if the plant be thrown into a
veflel where thefe animals are confined, they foon begin to
fwell, and in a few days perith.

Nettie, Bee. See GALEOPSIS.

Nerrie, Dead. See Lamium.

NertLe, Shrubby Hedge. See PRAsIUM.

Nettie, Stinking Dead. See GALEOPSIS.

WEE

Nettre Tree. See CeLtis.

NeETTLE, Sea, in Zoology. See Mepusa, Acrtinia,

’ ANIMAL Flower, and Urtica Marina.

Netrie-Rafh, in Medicine, an eruptive diforder, which
has been fo named, in confequence of the refemblance of the
rafh to the appearance produced by the ftinging of nettles
on the fkin.

Although this eruption appears to have been well known
to medical pra¢titioners from the time of the Arabians, by
whom it was defcribed under the appellation of /ara, or
effera ; yet it is commonly fuppofed to have been unknown
to the Greek and Roman phyficians, as well as the con-
tagious eruptive fevers. We have ftated, when treating of
the hiftory of Measvxs, that this fuppofition is probably
erroneous; and a perufal of the chapter of Aétius, bor-
rowed from the phyfician Herodotus, which treats of “ the
eruptions tha: occur in fevers,’’ leaves no doubt that the
nettle-rafh, among others, was familiar to the writer. (See
Aét. Tetrab. ii. fas I. cap. 129.) Subfequent authors,
in defcribing this eruption, have borrowed the Arabian ap-
pellation of ¢fera, (fee Sennert. Pratice, lib. v. p. 1.
cap. 27. Heberden Comment. de Morb., and Medical
Tranf. vol. ii, art. xi.), or have confounded it with ery-
fipelas, (Sydenham, fe&. v. cap. 6. De Febri Eryfipela-
tofa,) with purpura, (Juncker Confpeét. Med.), or fcar-
latina. The nofologifts (Vogel and Cullen) have adopted
the appellation of urticaria, from urtica, a nettle, by which
the diforder is now commonly defignated. See Frank, de
Cerrand. Homin. Morbis, tom. 1i. Willan on Cutaneous
Difeafes, ord. iii. 4 ‘

The urticaria, or nettle-rafh, is chara&terized by the ap-
pearance of round, oval, or longitudinal elevations of the
cuticle, which are commonly called whea/s. Thefe are not
very hard, nor permanent, and have no tendency to fup-
puration: they are ufually.white at the top, and are often
furrounded bya diffufe rednefs. Although it is in many
cafes accompanied by fever, the nettle-rafh is never con-
tagious.. It occurs under feveral varieties of form, to which
Dr. Willan has given diftin@ {pecific appellations.

1. The febrile nettle-rafh is always attended with ,con-
fiderable diforder of the conftitution. ‘The eruption is’ pre-
ceded for a couple of days by pain and ficknefs at the fto-
mach, headache, languor, and drowfinefs, with a quick
pulfe and white furred tongue, and by fits of thivering ; and
when it appears, it is accompanied by a moft troublefome
itching or tingling, which is greatly aggravated during the
night, fo as to prevent fleep for many hours... ‘The eruption
occurs on mott parts of the body, .but moft copioufly-on the
fhoulders, loins, nates, thighs, and about the knees; fome-
times, however, extending to the face. The wheals arife
irregularly, firft on one part and then on anacher; and they
may be excited on any part of the fkin, by ftrong friction
or feratching. During the day, the eflorefcence fades, and
the wheals in general fubfide; bat both of them return with
a febrile paroxyfm in the evening. The patches of efflo-
refcence often coalefce, fo as to produce a continuous red-
nefs; and they are often elevated above the level of the ad-
joining cuticle, and form denfe tumours, with a hard diftiné
border. When they are numerous, the face, or the limb
chiefly affeGed, appears tenfe and confiderably. enlarged.
At the latter end of the diforder, the eye-lids are red and
tumefied, and there is often.a {welling and inflammation on
the fides of the feet. On the appearance of the eruption,
the pain and ficknefs at the ftomach are generally relieved ;
but when it difappears, thofe fymptoms return. ‘The whole
duration of the febrile nettle-rath is feven or eight days. “ie

the

NETTLE-RASH.

the eruption declines, the tongue becomes clean, the pulfe
returns to its ufual {tate, and all internal diforder ceafes:
the efflorefcence exhibits a livht purple or pink colour, and
then gradually difappears, being fucceeded by flight ex-
foliations of the cuticle

This {pecies of nettle-rafh, though not in general dan-
gerous, is extremely troublefome from the violent heat of
the fkin, and the itching and reftlefsnefs with which it is
ufually attended. It is on fome occafions very alarming,
efpecially when the ficknefs and languor, at the beginning
of the eruption, bring on repeated fits of fainting. It oc-
curs chiefly in fummer, and affeéts perfons of a plethoric or
fanguine habit, efpecially thofe who indulge themfelves in
eating and drinking too freely. It affects even infants,
however, under a year old, in confequence of the irritation
of teething and of bowel complaints, and renders them hot,
fretful, and reftlefs. It is not uncommon, indeed, during
the whole period of childhood ; and among adults, appears
to affeé&t men more frequently than women.

The principal treatment required in the febrile nettle-rafh
is the adminiftration of a laxative, as of rhubarb and mag-
nefia, in the beginning, which may be repeated according
to circumftances ; and the reftriétion of the patient to alight
and cooling diet, during the continuance of the fever. He
fhould abftain efpecially from vinous and fermented liquors ;
he fhould avoid hot rooms, and all the expedients, both ex-
ternal and internal, which tend to augment the cutaneous
circulation, and produce fweating. Sudorific medicines
fhould be particularly avoided. In the decline of the difeafe,
Peruvian bark, with fulphuric acid, may be taken with great
advantage.

2. The urticaria evanida, or tranfitory nettle-rafh, of Dr.
Willan’s claffification, is without fever, and without any
extenfive cflorefcence on the fkin. The eruption confifts
fometimes of round wheals, at other times of longitudinal
elevations of the fkin, refembling thofe which are produced
by the ftroke of a whip. They are all white at the top,
but in fome there is a flight rednefs at the bafe. Though
often hard and elevated, they do not contain a fluid, nor
tend to fuppuration. They are occafionally feen’ on every
part of the body, but they are moft numerous on parts
which are clofely covered. The eruption appears and dif-
appears many times in the courfe of a day and night, ac-
cording to the temperature of the air, or to the exercife
ufed by the perfon affected. It may be excited on any part
of the body, by ftrong friction or feratchiag; but the
wheals prefently fubfide again. A violent itching, mixed
with a fenfation of tingling or ftinging, attends the eruption ;
and thefe fenfations are moft troublefome while the patients
undrefs, and for fome time after they have lain down in bed,
when the eruption is ufually moft vivid. ;

This fpecies of nettle-rafh continues for various periods,
with repeated eruptions, that are more or lefs extenlive in
different perfons: in fome, as Dr. Heberden obferves, it

lafts but a few days; while in others it goes on for many |

months, or even for years. It occurs moft frequently in
perfons of the fanguine temperament, efpecially in thofe who
have a delicate ftomach and irritable {kin, and in females
more frequently than male. The occafional caufes are heat,
fatigue, watching, anxiety of mind, and a too {ftimulant
diet. It is remarked by Dr. Willan, that although perfons
affe&ted with the urticaria evanida may be capable of bufinefs
and occafional exertion; yet they are often low-fpirited.
and they feldom remain for twenty-four hours without fome
bodily uneafinefs, as head-ache, laffitude, pain and ficknefs
at the ftomach, aching in the limbs, or an oppreflive
languor.

This form of urticaria is thought to confit in a morbid
irritability of the fkin, conneéted with a fimilar flate of the
ftomach and inteftines. It feems attached to particular con-
ftitutions, being produced in fome individuals by fubftances
which make no impreffion on others. Thus rubbing oat~
meal on the hands and wrifts has excited the nettle-rafh in
perfons otherwife healthy, which became diffufed over the
whole body, and proved troublefome for a length of time.
The fame effet has been produced by a flight application
of mercurial ointment. Dr. Winterbottom informed Dr.
Willan, that a lady of his acquaintance is affected with an
eruption of this kind, whenever her fkin is touched with the
common wall-flower. And Dr. Heberden bas mentioned
feveral fubftances, which produce this diforder through the
medium of the ftomach; as the wild valerian root, fhrimps,
honey, and the kernels of fruits. He thinks that it may
often be owing to external or mechanical caufes, fuch as the
hair of ftinging nettles, the down furrounding the pods of
cowhage, and the fpiculz of cantharides. The following
obfervations of Dr. Willan are of great practical im-
portance:

“* When the difeafe continues long,” he fays, “ without
the application of external ftimuli, we fhall m many cafes
find it owing to fome article in diet, which difturbs di-
geftion. I have defired feveral perfons affeGted with chronic
urticaria to omit firft one and then another accuftomed
article of food or drink, and have thus frequently been able
to trace the caufe of the fymptoms. | This appeared to be
very different in different perfons. In fome it was malt-
liquor, in others fpirit, or {pirit and water; in fome white
wine, in others vinegar; in fome fruit, in others fugar; in
fome fifh, in others unprepared vegetables. I muft however:
confefs,’’ he adds, ‘‘ that feveral cafes have occurred to me,
where a total alteration of the diet did not produce the leaft
alleviation of the complaint. In fuch cafes I have employed
a variety of medicines, but have found the vitriolic and ma-
rine acids, with magnefia, rhubarb, or other laxatives, given
occafionally, the moft fuccefsful remedies. Lotions made
with brandy, vinegar, faline compounds, é&c. cannot be ap-
plied extenfively enough to produce any confiderable effe&.
Baths, efpecially warm baths, are neceffary for the allevia-
tion of a difeafe which affeéts nearly the whole fkin. Sea-
bathing will be generally found advautageous’ by thofe
who perfevere in the ufe of it for three or four fucceffive
months. A bath prepared by diffolving marine falt in
water, is not equally efficacious; in fome perfons it mani-
fe(tly aggravates the diforder.”

3- In the third {pecies of Dr. Willan, urticaria i
the wheals are ftationary, and the rednefs, which at firtt fur-
rounds them, gradually difappears: but the eruption is ftill
attended with itching, efpecially when the patient becomes
warm in bed or is heated by exercife. It does not, however,
extend over the body, but appears chiefly on the arms,
breaft, and thighs. Pain and ficknefs at the ftomach fome-
times precede the eruption. Its duration is two or three
weeks, and when it is about to terminate the wheals become
flat at the top, and then gradually fubfide, leaving a reddifh
fpot, which is fometimes fcurfy, and which continues for
feveral days.

This complaint is relieved by the method of treatment
recommended in the foregoing {pecies. Moderate dofes of
the cauftic potafs, or liquor potaffz, feemed, in fome cafes,
to fhorten the period of the eruption.

4. In the fourth fpecies, urticaria conferta, the eruption
is full and extenfively diffufed; and, as the wheals in many
| seep coalefce, or are indented by clofe contact, they have

ery irregular forms; when they are fingly confidered, how-
5A2 ever,

NET

ever, the fize and elevation of them is perhaps lefs than in
any other f{pecies of nettle-rafh. They are fometimes con-
fiderably inflamed at the bafe, and produce an almoft. in-
ceffant itching and pricking fenfation. The eruption often
continues many weeks: it appears chiefly in perfons who
have a dry and {warthy fkin, and who are above forty years
of age; and is fometimes conneéted with pain and ficknefs
at the ftomach, and fometimes with giddinefs and head-ache.
The occafional caufes feem to be, tco much exercife, ex-

pofure to heat, rich or high-feafoned food, and the intem-_

perate ufe of fpirituous liquors; and the cure of the com-
plaint is not eafily accomplifhed, without relinquifhing thefe
articles of diet, and fubitituting others that are hight and
cooling. Together with this plan of diet alterative medi-
cines or tonics are often ufeful.

5. The /ubcutaneous nettle-rafh occurs at diftant intervals,
and continues only a few days at each return; but the
patient is continually haraffed, whether the eruption be
prefent or not, with a violent and almoft conftant tingling
in the fkin, with other dittrefling fymptoms. The com-
plaint is at firlt confined to one {pot on the leg or arm, and
commences there with a fenfation of {tinging, which is after-
wards felt more and more extenfively, along the limbs, or
perhaps over nearly the whole furface of the body. Sudden
changes in the temperature of the air, and agitation of
mind, occafion increafed uneafinefs in the fin, fo that pains
are fometimes felt, as from a fharp inftrument penetrating
indifferent direGtions, at other times as from needles pierc-
ing or pufhing the fkin upwards. There is ufually a {tiff-
nefs and flight torpor in the mufcles of the parts moit
affected. An appearance of ‘wheals takes place onthe
arms, chefl, or lower extremities, frem time to time, efpe-
cially during the fummer, and continues two or three days,
but without'effeGing any change in the fenfations above
mentioned. .Perfons affected with thefe fymptoms are liable
to. frequent pains in the ftomach, and to cramps in the
mufcles of the legs; and ufually have a dry and unper!piring
fkin. ‘The complaint is: moft. commonly - partial; but 1s
ufually tedious and ob{tinate. It may be relieved, however,
by gentle friction and by the repeated ufe of warm fea-water
baths.

6. The only remaining variety is the tuberous nettle-rath,
fo called by Dr. Frank of Vienna, in which many of the
wheals increafe to a.large fize, forming hard tuberofiues,
which feem to extend deeply into the mufcular flcfh, and
occafion:a contraction in the: finews, with total inability of
motion and a fenfation of pain in the bones. Thefe tumours
are ufually whitith at their tops: they rife on the arms,
thighs, loins, and calf of the leg, and are very hot and pain-
ful for feveral hours.’ The eruption commonly takes place
at night and difappears by the morning, leaving the patient
weak, languid, and fore, as if he had been bruifed, or had
undergone much fatigue.

This form of nettle-rafh is often, like the preceding,
tedious and wbflinate, and feems to originate from fimilar
caufes, and to require fimilar treatment.

Some perfons poflefs a peculiar idiofynerafy in refpeé& to
particular articles of food, infomuch that a fudden and uni-
verfal affection of the fkin, very nearly allied to the nettle-
rafh, is produced immediately or within a fhort time after
thefe articles are fwallowed. The molt common fources of
thus affection are fhell-fih, as crabs, lobfters, and efpecially
mufcles; but in fome conttitutions almonds, whether bitter
or {weet, the kernels of flone-fruit, rafpberries, {trawberries,
mufhrooms, herrings, oatmeal, and various other fubltances
produce the fame cruption, In thefe cafes the ftomach is
commonly firft affected with pain, a fenfe of flriure, and

3

NEV

afterwards with ficknefs and vomiting ; diarrhoea alfo oftem
comes on. Great heat and fwelling fuddenly take place,
commonly about the face and ears, with much itching, and
afterwards extend rapidly to other parts of the body, the
whole fkin becoming tumid, hot, and ftiff. In the courfe
of twenty-four hours or lefs, thefe fymptoms gradually dif-
appear, and the patiert returns to his ufual health. For
more ample accounts of this fingular fymptomatic rafh, the
reader may refer to Dr, Beehren’s differtarion, De Affedtu a
Mytilorum Efu, annexed to Dr. Werlhofl’s treatife, De Va-
riolis et Anthracibus, and to two papers in the Memoirs of
the Academy of Bruflels, tom. i. p. 242, and tom. ii. It
is afferted, in both thefe differtations, that vinegar or lemon ~
juice, taken internally and applied externally, foon relieves
the perfons affected by eating mufcles; and the author of
the latter, M. du Rondeau, affirms, from experience, that,
if the mufcles be previoufly drefled with vinegar, they may
be eaten with impunity.

NETTLEBED, in, Geography, a village of England, in
Oxfordfhire, 18 miles E. of Oxfordfhire, and. 40 W. of
London, remarkable for the elevation of the land on which
it is fituated. :

NETTOLITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Prachalitz ; 6 miles E. of Prachalitz. N. lat. 49° Zion $Be
long. 14° 4!. ‘

NETTUNO, a town of Campagna di Roma, on a bay
of the Mediterranean, near the ruijis of the ancient Antium;
12 miles S.W. of Veletri.. N. lat. 41° 31'. E. long, 12?

' e
> NETWORZITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Beraun ; 18 miles S.E. of Beraun. :

NEVA, a river of Ruffia, which flows from the lake of _
Ladoga, where it takes its rife, acrofs the government of
St. Peterfourgh for 60 verlts in length, and falis'in feveral
arms into the gulf of Cronftadt.. It reaches the city under
the walls of the Nevfki monaltery, after having ju‘t above it
admitted the waters of. the rivulet Ochta. ihe feveral
mouths of the Neva are all within the city, and are called
the Nevka, the Great Nevka, and the Litile Nevka, which,
are from 50 to 100 fathoms broad. The Litt'e Neva goes off
from the main river on the right fide under the walls of the
fortrefs and flows W.N.W. to the gulf. It is broader than
the Great Neva, but more fhallow, and purpofely rendered
unnavigable by Peter the Great, on account of Sweden and
the cultoms. The Great Neva, having diftributed its waters,
flows in a S.W. direétion, from 150 to upwards of 200
fathoms in breadth, and in fome places of grea: depth, into
the Cronftadt gulf. ‘This river and its banks have undergone
very great improvements. In the quay, at certain diftances,
openings are made for defcending upon the ice in winter,
and ttairs with f{pacious landing places and benches, for
taking up water, unloading the barks, and the repofe and
convenience of thofe who walk here for bufinefs or pleafure.
Moreover, the face of the wall is fernifhed with mafly iren
rings for the faftening of galliots, barks, barges, and other
veflels ‘This truly imperial quay, fays Mr, Tooke, is, for
its length, which, deduéting the fpace before: the Ad=
miralty, is 1650 fathoms or 3 verits, for ftrength, magni-
ficence, and the cott of building it, unequalled in Europe,
and the conftant fubjeét of admiration to foreigners. The
water of the Neva, and of its feveral arms and running
canals, which, befides the Ligova canal, fupplies the whole
city, is to be ranked with the lighte(t, cleareft, and purett
of river waters; and it thus amply compenfates the want of
wells and {prings to the city. Occationally, however, it
overflows its banks. Some thoufands of fhips and barks
annually pafs and repafs the Neva, coming either is

inland

NEU

inland parts of the empire, or from foreign countries acrofs
the feas, and bringing commodities and provifions to the
amount of feveral millions of rubles, to St, Peterfburgh.
This river receives in its courfe the Ijora and the Yofna.

NEVALCOTTY, a town of Thibet ; 18 milessW. of
Sirinagur.

NEUBENDAM, a town of Perfia, in Segeltan ; 80
miles N. of Zareng.

NEUBENDJAM, a town of Perfia, in Chufiltan; 60
miles N.W. of Schiras.

NEUBERG, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 20 miles
N.E. of Pruck.—Alfo, a town of the duchy of Carniola ;
4 wiles N. of Crainburg.

NEUBOURG, a towu of France, in the department
of the Eure, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of
Louriers. The place contains 1980, and the canton 14,007
inhabitants, on a territory of 1874 kiliometres, in 28 com-
munes.

NEUBRUN, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg; 4
miles N. of Eltman.—Alfo, a town of Germany, in thie
county of Henneberg; 5 miles S.E. of Meinungen.

NEUBURG, atown of Bavaria, in the Upper Palatinate,
on the Schwarza; 19 miles S.E. of Amberg. N. lat. 49° 19’.
E. long. 12° 124—Alfo, a city of Bavaria, and capital of a
duchy ofthe fame name. The priucipalities of Neuburg and
Sultzbach, formerly feparate, are now united. Neuburg en-
joys a government of its own; and the prevaiting religion is
the Roman Catholic. The capital, which is the feat of go-
vernment, is well fituated on a hill by the Danube, and forti-
fied, having in it a palace; 24 miles N.N.E. of Augfburg.
N. lat. 48° 40’. E long. rr 8’.—Alfo, a town of Bavaria,
in the county of Feidkirch, on the right bank of the Rhine;
5 miles N N.AW. of Feldkirch.— Alto, a town of Baden,
called ‘*-Neuenburg,” feated on the Rhine, formerly im-
perial, but much injured by war; 16 miles N. of Bale. N.
Tat. 47° 49’. E. long. 7 38!.—Alfo, a town of Praffia,
in Pomerelia, on the Vittula; 32 miles S. of Dantzic.—
Alfo, a town of Bavaria, on the left fide of the Inn; 4
miles S. of Paffau.

NEUCHATEL, or Nevrcwarer, County of, a princi-
pality of Switzerland, in alliance with the Helvetic confe-
deracy before the French revolution, is bounded on the
N.W. by France, on the N.E. by the bifhopric of Bale
and canton of Berne, on the S.E. by the lake of Neucha-
tel, and on the S. by the bailiwic of Granfon. This prin-
cipality, long azo united to the lordfhip of Valiengin,
{tretches from the !ake tothe limits of Franche Comté, and
contains in length from north to fouth about twelve leagues,
and about fix in its greate(t breadth, The diftri€t of Neu-
chatel occupies the whole plain, together with the lower
parts of the mountains, while Vallengin is totally enclofed
within the Jura. Parallel chains of the Jura run from E. to
W.., and form, even in the moft elevated parts, feveral val-
lies. The lower grounds of this chain are arable lands and
vineyards ; the higher confilt of large traéts of fore(t, which
in many parts have been cleared and converted into confider-
able paftures, intermixed with fome fields of barley and
oats. [he number of inhabitants in the principality of
Neuchatel and Va'lengin being, in 1752 only 28,017 fub-
jeGs, and 4318 aliens, amounted in 1784, to 31,576 fubjects,
and 9704 aliens, which gives an increafe of near a fourth
part within the fpace of thirty-two years. In the whole
principality are four towns, and fixty-four villages. For
an account of the general employment of the inhabitants,
we refer to the articles CHAux de Fond, requelting the
reader to fubltitute /acle for Jode, and Locte. ‘The produc-
tions of the principality are wine, both red and white,

NEU

fruits, corn, hemp, and flax. Moft of the inhabitants are
Proteftants;° but in two diltri&s, wiz. Lauderon and
Creffier, Popery prevai's. This country anciently belonged
to the lalt kingdom of Burgundy, with which, in 1032, it
devolved to the German empire. In procefs of time, it
i to the houfe of Chalons, andin 1694 William IIT.,

ing of Great Britain, as heir of that family, transferred to
Frederic, eleGtor of Brandenburgh, afterwards king of Pruffia,
his intereft in Neuchatel and Vallengin. Several claimants
afterwards urged their pretenfions to it, and the tribunal of
the three eftates of Neuchatel having examined their allega-
tions, decreed, in 1707, in favour of Frederic L., king of
Pruffia. This fovereign, upon his acceffion, figned and
ratified certain articles, which feemed to eftablihh the prero-
gative of the prince, and the liberties of the fubjeét ; to
thefe others were added in 1768, which terminated the dif-
pute between the fovereign and fubje&t. The prince con-
fers nobility, nomiuates to the principal offices of ftate, both
civil and military, and appoints the chatelains and mayors,
who prelide in the courts of jultice. His revenues, fearce-
ly amounting to sooo/. 2-year, arife from certain demefnes,
a {mall land-tax, the tithes of wine and corn, and the tenth
of the value on the fale of immoveables. As to commerce,
no fubjeét whatever paid any duties, either of importation or
exportation, except for foreign wines imported into the town
of Neuchatel. ‘The three eftates, according to the ancient con-
ftitution, compofed of twelve judges, formed the fuperior tri-
bunal, and received appeals from the inferior courts of jultice.
The principality of Neuchatel and Vallengin is divided
into a certain number ef diftria&s, each of which has its cri-
minal court of juftice.’ But it is needlefs to enlarge upon
the coniflitution and government cf this principality, as it
was ceded in 1806 by the king of Pruffia to marfhal Ber-
thier, one of the generals of France, aud the grant con-
firmed by the emperor Napoleon.

Neucuarter, Neujchatel, or Neuenburg, anciently Neo-
comum or Novum Cafirum, a {mall town of Switzerland,
capital of the principality above defcribed, lies partly
upon a little plain between the lake which here receives
the river Scyon, and the Jura, and partly upon the deeli-
vity of that mountain,. confilting of four principal ftreets,
which contain fome elegant edifices, and a caftle for its de-
fence, in which the governor refides, and about 3000 in-
habitants. ‘The environs are diverfifed with delightful
vineyards, gardens and villas. Between Neuchatel and
Yverdun, the country confilts of rude or elegant fcenery, con-
traited with well cultivated hills, vineyards, and meadows,
Atthe commencement of the lait century, commerce was
almott wholly unknown in this towr, as the ridiculous pride
of its beg deemed degrading generally prevailed among
the inhabitants ; a fenfelefs prejudice, which has of late
been almott extinguifhed. The chief article of exportation
is.wine, produced from the adjacent vineyards, and much
efteemed ; manufactures alfo of printed linens and cottons
have been eftablifhed with fuccefs; ard within fome late
years, feveral merchants have raifed large fortunes. Several
public works and buildings, particularly a town-houfe, have
been lately erefted at Neuchatel ; and for the embellifhment
of their town, the burghers have been indebted to the fin-
gular munificence of M. David Pury, late banker of the
court at Lifbon, who was a citizen of this burgh, born in
1709, and who died in 1785. His benefactions, during his
hte, and at his deceafe, amounted to near 200,000/. The
citizens have teltifed their refpeét for his memory by placing
his portrait in ore of the apar ments in which the govern-
ment aflembles, and a marble buft in the new town-houle.
This town enjoys confiderable privileges ; it has the care =

the

NE U

the police within itsown diftri&t, and is governed by its own
magiltracy, confifting of a great and little council. In the
year 1530 this town declared for the Reformation. It is faid
to have been built by the emperor Conrad, about the year
1034; 30 miles S.S.E. of Bale. N. lat. 47° 2'. E. long.
6° t

NeEucHATEL, Lake of,or of Yverdun,a lake whichfeparates
the county of Neuchatel from the cantons of Bern and Fri-
burg, and which ftretches from N. to S. about twenty
miles in length, and in fome places about five in breadth.
It is well furnifhed with various kinds of excellent fifh,
and its fhores near Yverdun are covered with country
houfes.

NEUCLOSTER, a town of Germany, in the duchy
of Schwerin; ro miles E. of Wifmar.—Alfo, a town of
the duchy of Bremen; three miles S.W. of Buxtehude.

NEUDOMA, a river of Norway, which runs into the
North fea, 20 miles S.W. of Wardhuys.

NEUDORF, a town of Hungary, formerly fortified,
inhabited partly by farmers, and partly by miners; 6 miles
E.N.E. of Kapfdorf.—Alfo, a town of Auftria; 8 miles
S. of Vienna.—Alfo, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Chrudim; 12 miles N.N.E. of Chrudim.--Alfo, a town
of Silefia, in the principality of Oels ; 9 miles S.E. of Mi-
litfch.— Alfo, a town of Germany, in the principality of
Culmbach ; 5 miles S. of Markt Erlbach.

NEUDOREGEN, autaynsofePiuffia, inti Oberland’
7 miles S.E. of Marienwerder.

NEUDORFIA, in Botany, a name given by Adanfon,
Familles des Plantes, v. 2. 219, to the genus now called
Nolana, which had been taken for an dtropa, or Bella-donna
by fome, and proving new, was called by Ehret Walkeria,
by Hofer Zwingera, and by Schmidel Teganium ; fee No-
LANA. We find no record of any author or botanift of the
name of Neudorf, nor any thing like it.

NEVE Istanp, in Geography, a {mall ifland of Scotland,
on the N.W. coaft of Ilay ; 4 miles N.E. of Tonvore.

NEVEL, a town of Ruflia, in the government of Po-
lothk ; 64 miles N.E. of Polotfk. N. lat. 59° 15/. E. long.
29° 54!.

aN de, a town of France, in the department of the

Scheldt, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of
Ghent. The place contains 2938, and thecanton 15,847 in-
habitants, on a territory of 974 kiliometres, in 10 com-
munes.

NEUENBORG, a town of Germany, in the county
of Oldenburg ; 22 miles N. of Oldenburg.

NEUENBURG, a town of Wurtemburg; 22 miles
W. of Stuttgart. In its vicinity are found, among old
pits, great quantities of thofe excellent iron-ftones, called
glafs-heads, or blood-{tones, and from their fize and figure
bohn-erze, or bean-ore.—Alfo, a town of the duchy of
Courland ; 18 miles W.N.W. of Mittaw.

NEUENDAMY, a town of the New Mark of Bran-
denburg ; g miles N. of Cultrin, N. lat. 52° 48’. E. long.

14° 52'.

NEUENDORF, a town of Weltphalia, in the Old
Mark of Brandenburg ; 4 miles E. of Gardeleben.—Alfo,
a town of Pruffia, in the province of Pomerelia; 10 miles
S. of Marienburg.

NEUENKIRCHEN, atown of Germany, in the coun-
ty of Verden; 14 miles E.S.E. of Rotenburg.—Alfo, a
town of Aultria; 12 miles S.W. of Ebenfurth.

NEUENPLOSS, a town of Germany, in the principali-
ty of Culmbach; fix miles N.W. of Bayreuth.

NEUENSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the principa-
lity of Hohenloe ; 3 miles E. of Ohringen.

NUE U

NEUERBOURG, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Forefts, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Bittbourg ; 22 miles N.N:E. of Luxembourg.
The place contains 1225, and the canton 5226 inhabitants,
on a territory of 195 kiliometres, in 12 communes.

NEUERDORYF, a town of Germany, in the county of
Henneberg ; 4 miles N. of Smalkalden.

NEVER, a river of South America, in the govern-
ment of Caraccas, which runs into the Caribbean fea, near
Barcelonetta. N. lat. 10° 7’. W. long. 65° 16.

NEVERN, atown of Bohemia, in the circle of Pilfen ;
10 miles S. of Klattau. ;

NEVERS, a town of France, and principal place of a
diftri&, in the department of the Niévre, formerly capital of
the Nivernois, fituated on the Loire, at.its jun€tion with the
Nievre ; before the revolution the fee of a bifhop, and a
place of official importance, containing, befides a cathedral,
eleven parifh churches, and feveral religious houfes. The
principal manufa&tures of this place are china, glafs, and
works of enamel. The town contains 10,150, and the
canton 16,087 inhabitants, on a territory of 2321 kiliome-
tres, in 15 communes. N. lat. 46°59’. E. long. 3° 14!.

NEVERZIN, a town of European Turkey, in Dal-
matia, on the Narenza; eight miles N.N.W. of Moftar.

NEUFBORG. See Neuzounc. .

NEUF-BRISACK, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Upper Rhine, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri& of Colmar. The place contains 1682, and the
canton 7925 inhabitants, on a territory of 170 kiliometres,
in 16 communes. ;

NEUFCHATEAU, a town of France, and principal
place of a diftri&, in the department of the Forefts, in the
Ardennes, before the revolution a ftrong, but now a
mean place; 12 miles N.W. of Arlon. The town con-
tains 648, and the canton 6399 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 335 kiliometres, in 17 communes.—Alfo, a town
ef France, and principal place of a diftrié, in the de-
partment of the Vofges, feated on the Meufe ; 16 miles
W. of Mirecourt. The place contains 2700, and the can-
ton 13,508 inhabitants, on a territory of 345 kiliome-
tres, in 28 communes. N. lat. 43° 22’. E. long. 5°
48".

NEUFCHATEL, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Aifne, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Laon; 11 miles E.S.E. of Laon. The place
contains 496, and the canton 8175 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 2324 kiliometres, in 28 communes.—Alfo, a town
of France, and principal place of a diftri&, in the depart-
ment of the Lower Seine; 18 miles S.E. of Dieppe.
The place contains 2838, and the canton 11,350 inhabit-
ants, on a territory of 182% kiliometres, in 27 communes.
N. lat. 49° 44'._ E. long. 1° 30!.

NEUGEDYN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Pilfen ; 30 miles S.S.W. of Pilfen. N. lat. 49° 23/. E.
long. 12° 51’.

NEUHASEN, a town of Courland; 18 miles S. of
Goldingen.

NEUHAUS, or Hradecz Gindrzichu, a town of Bo-
hemia, in the circle of Bechin; 27 miles S.S.E. of
Bechin. N. lat. 49? 12'. E. long. 14° 53’.

Neunaus, or Nienhaus, a town of Weltphalia, in the
bifhopric of Paderborn, at the conflux of the Alme and
Lippe: the ufual refidence of the bifhop; two miles
N.N.E. of Paderborn. N. lat. 51° 42’. E. long. 8° 14/.

Nevuaus, a town of Germany, in the principality of
Hefle Darmiftadt; 11 miles S.E. of Worms.—Alfo, a

town

NEV

town of Bavaria, in the Upper Palatinate, on the Nao; 18
miles N. of Straubing.

NEUHAUSZ, a town of the duchy of Bremen, near
the mouth of the Ofte, with a fafe harbour, and formerly
the refort of trading fhips annually exceeding 100 in num-
ber; but the entrance has of late been rendered dangerous
by a fand-bank, which has arifen at the conflux of the
Ofte into the Elbe, fo that only few foreign fhips can vifit
it; 19 miles N.W. of Stade. N.. lat. 53° 52'. E. long.
8° 27'—Alfo, a town of Germany, in the principality of
Coburg ; 10 miles E.of Coburg.

NEUHEUSEL, a town of Hungary, on the Neitra;
32 miles E.S.E. of Prefburg. N. lat. 48° 2’. E. long.
18° 3!.

NEUHEUSL, a town of the duchy of Carinthia; five
miles W.S.W. of Lavamund.

NEUHOF, a town of Germany, in the bifhopric of
Fulda; fix miles S.S.W. of Fulda. —Alfo, a town of Bo-
hemia, in the circle of Saatz; 10 miles N. of Eger.—AHo,
a town of Germany, in the principality of Bayreuth; 12
miles N. of Anfpach.—Alfo, a town of Pruffia, in the
province of Bartenland; three miles W. of Raftenburg.

NEUHOFEN, a town of Auftria; 16 miles E. of
Steyr.

NEUHORNBACH, ,a town of France, in the depart-
ment of Mont-Tonnerre, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri& of Deux-Ponts. The place contains 972, and
the canton 3121 inhabitants, in 12 communes.

NEVIL-Hol Waters. See Nevil-Holt WatER.

Nevit’s Bay, in Geography, a bay on the W. fhore of
Hudfon’s Bay. N. lat. 61° 58'. W. long. 94°.

NEUILLE!-Pont dePierre,a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Indre and Loire, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftri&t of Tours. The place contains 1730,
and the canton 8220 inhabitants, en a territory of 3074
kiliometres, in 11 communes.

NEVILLI Testa. See Trsra.

_NEUILLY, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Seine, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri& of St. Denis.. The place contains 1500, and
the canton 9542 inhabitants, on a territory of 44,5, kilio-
metres, in fix communes.

Neutity-en-Thal, a town of France, in the department
of the Oife, and chief place of a canton, in the diltriét of
Senlis. The place contains. 915; and the canton 9614 in-
habitants, on a territory of 130 kiliometres, in 16 com-
munes.

Neuitty-k-Real, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Allier, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftriG of Moulins. The place contains 1156, and the can-
ton 5467 inhabitants, on a territory of 340 kiliometres, in
to communes.

Neuitty-/es-Langres, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Upper Marne, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftri&t of Langres. The place contains 1014, and
the canton 6901 inhabitants, on a territory of 175 kilio-

. Metres, in 17 communes.

Neuitiy-St.-Frond, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Aifne, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Chateau-Thierry ; nine miles N.W. of it. The

place contains 1807, and the canton 11,220 inhabitants, on

a territory of 2724 kiliometres, in 35 communes.
NEVIN, or Neryn, a fmall borough and market-town
in the hundred of Dinlleyn, and county of Caernarvon,
North Wales, is fituated on the coaft of the Irifh fea, and
has a [mall pier, which is found very ufeful for the herring

‘vegetables.

NEV

fihery and coatting veffels. It was confticuted a free bo-
rough by Edward, the Black Prince, and is at prefent one
of the contributary boroughs with Caernarvon, in return-
ing one member to the Britith fenate. Here Edward I.
in 1284, celebrated his triumph over the liberties of Wales,
which had fo long defied the utmoft exertions of his pre-
deceffors for its fubjugation. At this time he held a round
table, in imitation of the hero Arthur; the concourfe was
prodigious, for not ouly the nobility of England, but a valt
number of diftinguifhed foreigners graced the feftival with
their prefence. The market day in this town is Saturday,
and there are four fairs during the year. According to the
population returns of 1811, it contains 280 houfes and
1777 inhabitants.

About a mile from Nevin, on the fhore, is Porth-yn-
Llyn, moft probably a port of the Romans, as veftiges of
a {trong entrenchment, apparently the work of that people,
are {till vifible in the vicinity. Jn the parith of Lianjebin,
feveral miles to the fouth, many Roman urns have been dug
up at different times, and oppofite to the extremity of the
peninfula of Caernarvon is the {mall ifland of Bardfey, once
noted for its abbey, and fuppofed to have béen one of the
feats of the Colidei or Culdees, the firft order of religious
reclufes in Britain. Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. xvii. Carlifle's Topographical Diétionary of Wales,
two vols. 4to.

NEVIS, one of the Leeward Charibbzan iflands in the
Welt Indies, is a beautiful little fpot, confifting of a fingle
mountain, rifing like a cone in an eafy afcent from the-fea :
the circumference of its bafe not exceeding eight Englifh
leagues. It is fuppofed to have derived its name from
Columbus, its difcoverer, who called it ‘ Nieves,” or
“© The Snows,” from its refemblance to a mountain of the
fame name in Spain; or, perhaps, a white {moke was feen
to iffue from the fummit, which appeared like fnow, and
that it derived its name from that circumftance. That it

_ owed its origin to fome volcanic explofion, we can have no

reafon to queftion; for near the fummit there is itill vifible
a hollow, or crater, which contains a hot fpring, ftrongly
impregnated with fulphur; and fulphur is frequently found
in fubftance, in neighbouring gullies and cavities of the
earth. It is well watered, and the land is generally fertile ;
and even the fummit furnifhes yams and other efculent
The foil is ftony; the heft is a loofe black
mould, on aclay; and in fome places the upper ftratum is
a {tiff clay, the cultivation of which requires labour, that is
amply compenfated by the produce. Sugar is its only ftaple
produétion ; and in general it yields one hogfhead of 16 cwt.

per acre from all the canes that are annually cut; and the

productive land being about 4000 acres, the produce of
{ugar amounts to as many hogfheads. ‘This fmall ifland is
divided into five parifhes; and it contains a town called
** Charles-town,”’ the feat of government and port of entry,
befides which there are two other fhipping-places, called
“ Indian-caftle’ and « New-caitle."’ The principal fortifi-
cation is at Charles-town, and is called ‘* Charles Fort.”
The commandant is appointed by the crown, but receives a
falary from the ifland. In the abfence of the governor-
general, the government is adminiftered by the prefident of
the council, which council confifts of fix members befides
the prefident. The houfe of aflembly is compofed of 15
reprefentatives, three for each parifh. The adminiftration
of common law is under the direction of a chief jultice,
and two affiftant judges, and there is an office for the re-
giftry of deeds. ‘The number-of white inhabitants is ftated
by Mr. Edwards not to exceed 600, while the negroes

Ie amount

NEU

amount to about 10,000. The former compofe a militia,
in which there is a troop confifting of so horfe, well
mounted and accoutred.

The Englifh firft eftablifhed themfelves in this ifland in
the year 1628, under the protection and encouragement of
fir Thomas Warner. He was fucceeded by Mr. Lake,
who completed what Mr. Warner had wifely begun, fo that
under his adminiftration Nevis rofe to opulence and import-
ance. N,. lat. 17° 14!. W. long, 62° 35/. Edwards’s W.
Ind. vol. i.

NEUKALDEN, or NeuKkauten, a town of the duchy
of Mecklenburg, ona lake; 28 miles S.S.E. of Roftock.
N. lat. 53° 49'. E. long. 12° 46'.

NEUKIRCH, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Ermeland; 13 miles N.E. of Elbing.—Alfo, a town of
Silefia, in the principality of Oppau; 10 miles E. of Ja-
gerndorf. N. lat. 50°. E. long. 17° 15’.

NEUKIRCHEN, a town of Switzerland, and capital
of a bailiwick, in the canton of Schaffhaufen; five miles
W. of Schaffhaufen.—Alfo, a town of Bavaria; 22 miles
N.N.E. of Ratifbon.—Alfo, a town of Auftria; fix miles
S.S.E. of Enjelhartzel.—Alfo, a town of the principality
of Heffe ; 22 miles N.N.E. of Marburg. N. lat. 50° 40’.
E. long. 27° 1.—Alfo, a town of Bavaria; five miles
S.S.E. of Furt.—Alfo, a town of Saxony, in the cir-
cle of Erzgebirge ; five miles S. of Chemnitz.—Alfo, a
town of Saxony, in the Vogtland; 1o miles S.E. of
Oelnitz.

NEUKRUG, a town of Pruffia, in the palatinate of
Culm; 10 miles of E. Culm.

NEULA, a town of Germany, in the principality of
Culmbach, on the Selbitz ; three miles S.S.E. of Lichten-
berg.

NE ULTRA, or Sir Thomas Roe’s Welcome, a narrow
ftrait in New North Wales, between N. lat. 62° and 63°.

NEUMAGEN, a town of France, in the department of
the Sarre, on the fide of the Mofelle; 11 miles E.N.E. of
Treves. N. lat. 49° 54’. E. long. 6° 58’.

NEUMANN, Joun-Gezorce, in Biography, a learned
German Lutheran divine, was born in the year 1661 at
Mertz, a village of the countty of Merfebourg, in the circle
of Saxony, of which his father was minifter. He com-
menced his academical ftudies at Zittau, whence he remdved,
in 1680, to the univerfity of Wittemberg. He afterwards
{pent fome time at Strafburg, and vifited feveral of the
moft celebrated German univerfities. He returned to Wit-
temberg, and was appointed profeffor of poetry in 1690,
and librarian to the univerfity in 1692. After this he was
appointed theological profeffor, affeffor to the confiftory,
and provoft of the caftle-chapel. He died in 1709, in the
49th year of his age. He was author of many learned
dg Disle
and controverfial fubjeéts, of which a lift is given in the
fupplement to the Hittorical Dictionary, publifhed at Bafil.
Moreri. “

NeuMANN, CAsPAR, an eminent chemift, was born at
Zullichau, in the duchy of Croffen, where his father prac-
tifed as an apothecary, in July 1682. Cafpar was educated
for the fame profeffion, and commenced the pra¢tice of it
at Unruhtftadt, in Poland; but, after a fhort refidence there,
he went to Berlin in 1705, aud was employed feveral years
in the capacity of traveller for the pharmaceutic eftablifh-
ment of the king of Pruffia, In confequence of the
ability which he manifefted in the performance of this duty,
the king fent him to profecute his ftudies at the univerfity
of Halle, and fubfequently defrayed the expences of a

rtations,’’ and other treatifes on moral, religious,.

N‘E U

journey, for the purpofe of acquiring chemical information.
He commenced this chemical tour in 1711 by vifiting the
mines of Germany ; and thence he went to Holland, where
he profited by the inftruétions of the celebrated Boerhaave.

He then vifited England, and during his fojourn here, had

the misfortune to lofe his royal patron, Frederick I., by
death. His talents and charaéter, however, foon afforded
him relief from this temporary embarraffment ; for, on his
return to the continent, he was detained at Franeker by
Cyprianus, who employed him in the execution of many
chemical experiments; and he was at the fame time invited
to Berlin. At that time, however, he preferred accom-
panying George I., king of England, to Hanover, whither
he went in 1716. But he fubfequently vifited Berlin, for
the purpofe of fettling fome private affairs, where he ob-
tained the friendfhip of Stahl, through whofe influence at
court he was again fent on a tour of chemical inveltigation,
through England, France, and Italy, where he was intro-
duced to all the celebrated chemiits of the day. On his
return to Berlin, he was appointed apothecary to the court ;
and in 1723, when the king inftituted the Royal College of
Medicine and Surgery, he was nominated profeffor of prac-
tical chemiftry to that body, and was elected a: member of
it in the following year. In 1725, he was chofen a fellow
of the Royal Society of London; and in 1727, was ho-
noured with the degree of M.D. by the univerfity of Halle.
In the courfe of the fame year, he travelled through Silefia
and Moravia to Vienna; and on his return through Bohemia
he vifited the baths of Toplitz, and examined the mines,
in pafling by the way of Drefden and Freyberg, with all
the attention of a chemical. philofopher. :

Neumann likewife obtained: other honours, which were
due to his fcientific charaGter; having been eleted a mem-
ber of the academy Nature Curioforum in 1728, and of the
Inftitute of Bologna in 1734. The king alfo conferred on
him the dignity of aulic counfellor. He died at Berlin in
Oétober, 1737, and left feveral memoirs, which were pub-
lifhed in the colleétions of the focieties of which he was a
member, and fome feparate treatifes, relating to chemical
fubje&ts; efpecially differtations on the qualities of the fixed
alkalis of camphor, caftor, amber, opium, ~alcohol, &e.
Eloy Di&. Hift. de la Méd.

NEUMARCK, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in
the circle of Pilfen; fix miles S. of Teufing.—Alfo, a
town of Bohemia, in the circle of Pilfen; fix miles S. of
Taus.—Alfo, a town of the. principality of Culmbach ;
10 miles N. of Bayreuth.

NEUMARK, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Erz-
gebirge; fix miles S.W. of Zwickau.—Alfo, a town of
the duchy of Stiria; 26 miles S.W. of Judenburg.—Alfa, a
town of the duchy of Carniola; 10 miles N, of Crainburg.—~
Alfo, atown of Hinder Pomerania; 10 miles S.W. of Star-
gard.—Alfo, a town of the archbifhopric of Salzburg; 12
miles N N.E. of Salzburg.—Alfo, a town of the Tyrolefe; 24
miles N. of Trent.—Alfo, a town of Bohemta, in the cir.
cle of Pilfen; 35 miles S.W. of Pilfen. N, lat. 49° 20!
E. long. 12° 52'.—Alfo, a town of Saxony, in the Vogt.
land; 11 miles N.N.E. of Plauen.—Alfo, a town of the
principality of Weimar; five miles N,W. of Weimar.

NeuMARK, or Nowemiaffro, a town of Pruffia, in the
territory of Culm; 44 miles E. of Culm.

NEUMARKT, a town of Silefia, in the principality
of Breflau; 19 miles W. of Breflan, N, lat. 51° 7’. E.
long. 16° 38'.--Alfo, a town of Bavaria, on the Roth,
41 miles E.N.E, of Munich.—Alfo, a town of Bavaria;
a2 miles §.W, of Amberg.

NEUME,

NEW

NEUME, aterm in Canto Fermo. The neume, or neuma,
is a kind of fhort recapitulation of the chant of a mode or
ecclefiaftical tone, which is made at the end of a chant or
anthem by a fimple variety or extempore divifion of founds
without words. Roman Catholics authorize this cuftom by
a paflage in St. Auguitine, which fays, that when we are
unable to find words worthy of the divinity, we do well to
addrefs him with confufed founds of joy and thankfgiving :
** For to whom are fuch extatic founds due, unlefs to the
Supreme Being? and how can we celebrate his ineffable
goodnefs, when we are equally unable to adore him in
filence, and to find any other expreffions for our tranfports
than inarticulate founds?” Amen and Hallelujah are of
this kind,

NEUMUNSTER, in Geography, a town of the duchy
of Holftein; 18 miles S.W. of Kiel.

NEUNG-/far-Barror, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Loire and Cher, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diltri&t of Romorantin. The place contains rg
and the canton 4544 inhabitants, ona territory of 28¢ kilio-
metres, in 11 communes.

NEUNKIRCHEN, a town of Germany in the princi-
pality of Culmbach; four miles S.E. of Bayreuth.—Alfo,
a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of Bamberg; eight
miles S. of Forcheim.

NEVONSKA, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Irkutfk ; 92 miles N.N.W. ef Ilimfk.

NEUPEURN, a town of Bavaria; 38 miles W. of
Salzburg.

NEURACHNE, in Botany, from »:vpov, a nerve, and
xxvn, a glume or hufk, alluding to the nerves, or ribs, of
the calyx-valves. Brown. Prod, Nov. Holl. v. 1. 196.—
Clafs and order, Triandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Gramina>

Eff. Ch. Calyx of two ribbed, acute, hifpid, coriaceous
valves, hardened when in feed; the outer one rather the
fmalleft. Flowers diffinilar; the outer one neuter, of
two valves, of which the outermoft nearly refembles the
calyx; inner hermaphrodite, of two membranous pellucid
valves. Scales two beneath the germen. Stigmas feathery.
Seed unconnected, falling out of the membranous corolla.

1. N. alopecurcidea.—Gathered by Mr. Brown on the
fouth coaft of New Holland. A perennial grafs, with nu-
merous upright lems, whofe knots are bearded with filky
hairs. Leaves flat and fhort. Spike folitary, ovate, re-
fembling that of the Fox-tail Grafs, Alopecurus, fimple,
deftitute of any involucrum. :

NEURADA, fo called, as Linneus himfelf tells us,
Phil. Bot. 183, from y:vgx a nerve, in allufion to the ftruc-
ture of the plant ; probably adverting to the ftrong inter-
branching ribs or nerves of the feed-veffel. Whether he,
or Bernard de Juffieu, who feems to have given the name,
had alfo in view yup: of the Greeks; or vwp2dx, which
Diofcorides fays is the Ionian appellation of his zelngioy,
Aftragalus creticus, Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 13303 a plant fup-
pofed, from its gummy nature, to be ufeful in confolidating
nerves or finews; does not appear. Poffibly the long
rourd ftems of our Neurada, which are clothed with white
tenacious cottony down, fuggefted the idea of a nerve or
tendon. It is much to be wifhed, that the authors of
names would, in fuch obfcure cafes, be more explicit—
Linn. Gen. 232. Schreb. 313. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 821.
Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 2. Juff. 336. Lamarck Illuftr.
t. 393. Gaertn. t. 32.—Clafs and order, Decandria Deca-
gynia. Nat. Ord. Succulenta, Linn. Rofacee, Juff.; but
this author juftly doubts, whether his uncle and Adanfon
have not led him into an error; the genus furely belongs to
pis Ficcidee.

Vou, XXIV.

NEU

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, mivute, in five deep,
at lengch hardened, fegments. Cor. Petals five, equal,
oval, feffile,ere&t. Stam. Filaments ten, awl-fhaped, fhorter
than the calyx; anthers fimple. Pi. Germen inferior,
gibbous below ; ftyles ten, very fhort, approximated ; ftigmas
capitate. Peric. Capfule orbicular, depreffed. convex be-
neath, covered all over. with afcending thorns, of ten cells.
Seeds folitary.

Eff. Ch. Calyx in five deep permanent fegments. Pe-
ia five. Capfule inferior, thorny, with ten cells and ten
eeds.

Obf. We have correAed the generic defcription of Lin-
neus from his own manufcripts, Forfkall conceives the
{pines which cover the fruit, and which are found in a
foft {tate on the germen, to be in fa&t a multiplicity of feg-
ments in the calyx, clothing the germen. It appears that
the five teeth, which Linneus takes for the only calyx, are
hardened in the fruit, and affimilate themfelves to the reft.
Neverthelefs the analogy of Méefembryanthemum, to which
this genus is unqueftionably akin, juitifies the opinion of
Linneus rather than that of Forfkall.

1. N. procumbens. Proftrate Neurada. Linn. Sp. Pl. 631.
Willd. n. 1. Forfk. Egypt-Arab. go. Desfont. Atlant.
v. I. 369.—Native of dry fandy ground in Egypt, Arabia,
&c. Profeffor Desfontaines gathered it in fimilar fituations
near Tunis. [he root is faid to be annual. Stems feveral,
proltrate, woody at the bafe, round, leafy, with numerous
fhort axillary branches. “They are clothed like every part of
the herbage, even the flowers and fruit, except only the
corolla and organs of impregnation, with a denfe, depreffed,
{now-white, cottony down. eaves alternate, ftalked,
ovate-oblong, obtufe; tapering at the bafe, pinnatifid and
notched ; lefs cottony on their upper furface. Flowers ax-
illary, folitary, rather ftalked.

Linneus, who raifed this plant from feeds fent him by
Bernard de Juffieu, fee Hort. Upf. 117, recommends
fowing the entire fruit, in the drieit poffible foil. Forfkalk
remarks that, in a ftate of nature, the whole*capfule re-
mains, like a ring, encircling the root. So we find it ina
{pecimen from Desfontaines. Thus nine of the feeds prove
fuperfluous, as one capfule produces but a fingle plant. The
only figure of the Neurada is that of Lamarck, the fyno-
nyms of Shaw and Plukenet, cited by Linneus, belonging
to For/kalea tenaciffima. _It is unknown in our gardens.

NEURIS, in the Writings of the Ancients, the name
given to a {pecies of marble, otherwife called elaphonefum, and
proconnefium. It was much ufed by the Roman ftatuaries,
and was dug ina {mall ifland that lay between Paros and
Cyzicus, It was of a dufky or blueifh-white, and was
variegated with fine and flender veins of black, often beau-
tifully difpofed, and in the bodies of the naked ftatues re-
fembling the courfe of the veins.

NEURITICS, or. Nervines, formed from »vpov, ner-
vus, 1n Medicine, remedies proper for difeafes of the
nerves, and nervous parts; as the membranes, ligaments,
&e.

Such are .betony, lavender, rofemary, fage, laurel, mar-
joram, and others among the cephalics.

NEUROBATES, in Antiquity, a rope-dancer. See
Dancer.

NEURODE, in Geography, a town of Silefia, in the
circle of Glatz, where are manufa@ures of cloth and
ferges, with a confiderable trade in fnuff and tobacco; 10
miles N.N.E. of Glatz. N. lat. 50° 22’. E. long.
14° Ig.

NEUROGRAPHIA, in Anatomy, a defcription of the

nerves,
5B Raim,

NEU

Raim? Vieuffens, a phyfician of Montpelier, has an ex-
cellent treatife in Latin, under the title of «* Neurographia
Univerfalis ;?” where he fhews, that there are more ramifica-
tions of the nerves in the fkin than in the mufcles and all
the other parts. : 5

Duncan, another phyfician of the fame place, has alfo
a treatife called “« Neurographia Rationalis.”’

NEUROLOGY, Nevporoliz, a difcourfe of the nerves.

Neurology feems to be of lefs extent than neurography,
inafmuch as’ the latter may be under{tood not only of dif-
courfes of the nerves, but alfo of figures and engravings,
reprefenting them; whereas the former is reftrained to dif-
courfing alone. Willis has given a fine neurology, in his
«¢ Anatome Cerebri.’” See Nervous Sy/fem.

NEUROPORA, in Botany, fo called by Commerfon,
from vvpo, a nerve, and rweos, a callofity, becaufe there are
axillary callous ulcerations, as it were, at the principal veins
underneath, is referred by Juffieu to ANTIDESMA ; fee that
article.

NEUROPTERA, in Entomology, the name of the
fourth order of infeéts, according to the Linnean fyflem,
{fo called from ‘the words vevgoy and rispov, fignifying nerve-
winged, becaufe the infects of this order are remarkable for
the nerved or reticulated appearance of their wings, the
fibres running into ramifications and decuffations over the
whole furface. This order is well exemplified in the Lr-
BELLUL®, or Dragon-flies (which fee), in which the cha-
raéteriftic of the order is very confpicuous. The wings
are always four in number. This order includes feven ge-
nera, viz. ;

Ephemera, Panorpa,
Hemerobius, Phryganea,
Libellula, Raphidia.
Myrmeleon,

The infe&ts of this order are chiefly aquatic ; refiding in
the waters as caterpillar; and fying about their furface in
the perfe& ftate.

NEUROTROTOS, (from v:vpo, a nerve, and riper,

‘to: wound,) a perfon who has received a wound of a nerve.

NEUSALTZ, in Geography, a town of Silefia, in the
principality of Glogau, on the Oder; 12 miles N.W. of
Glogau. N. lat. 51° 48'. E. long. 15° 45’. *

NEUSATZ, a town of Hungary, formerly called
« Peter Wardein Schanz,” feparated by the Danube from
Peter Wardein in Sclavonia, peopled by Rafcians, and for-
tified: the fee of a Greek bifhop, and made a royal and
free town in the year 175%.

NEUSCHLOSS, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Saatz; fix miles E. of Saatz—Alfo, a town of Bohemia,
in the circle of Leitmeritz; three miles S. of Leypa.— Alfo,
a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Konigingratz ; nine miles
W.S.W. of Trautenau.—Alfo, a town of Silefia, giving
name to a lordfhip on the borders of Poland; five miles E.
of Militfch.

NEUSE, a river of North Carolina, which rifes above
Hillfborough, and after a courfe of more than 500 miles,
falls into Pamlico Sound ; 70 miles below Newbern ;
13 miles above which it is navigable for fhips.

NEUSIDL, a town of Hungary, on a lake of the fame
name; 24 miles S.W. of Prefburg. The lake is 13 miles
long, and three wide.

NEUSLING, a town of Germany, in the margraviate
of Anfpach; feven miles E. of Weiffenburg.

NEUSOL, a town of Hungary, which is royal and free,
and the belt of the mine towns, feated on the river Gran.
It has fix churches and a fchool, with about sooo inha-

NEU

bitants, chiefly Germans and Sclavonians. It has a weekly
market, and in the adjacent mountains is copper ore. The
fmelting works render the air infalubrious ; 104 miles E. of
Vienna. N. lat. 48° 47’. E. long. 19° 25!.

NEUSS, a town of France, in the department of the
Roer, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Cré-
veldt. The place contains 4423, and the canton 13,853
inhabitants, in 24 communes.

NEUSTADT, a town of France, in the department of

Mont Tonnerre, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict:

of Spire, on the Hart; 14 miles W. of Spire. The place
contains 2875, and the canton 17,683 inhabitants, in 27
communes. N. lat. 49° 20!. E. long. 8° 1o—Alfo, a
town of the principality of Weimar; 10 miles N.E. of
Weimar.—Alfo, a town of Germany, in the lordfhip of
Stublingen; 16 miles N.N.W. of it.—Alfo, a town of
Bavaria, on the Nab; 45 miles N. of Bamberg.—Alfo, a
town of the archbifhopric of Salzburg; 12 miles N.N.E.
of Salzburg.—Alfo, a town of Pruffia, in the circle of

Samland ; 30 miles S. of Memel.—Alfo, a town of Auftria, *

formerly a bifhop*’s fee, fuppreffed in 1784. Here are a
manufacture of china and a military fehool; 10 miles S.S.E.
of Baden. N. lat. 48° 18'. E. long. 16° 13'.—Alfo, a
town of Bohemia, in Konigingratz ; 12 miles N.E. of it.
N. lat. 50° 15’. E. long. 15° 57'.—Alfo, a town of Mo-
ravia, in the circle of Olmutz; 10 miles N. of Olmutz.—
Alfo, a town of Heffe; 12 miles E. of Marpurg.—Alfo,
a town of Sweden, in the province of Finland, near the gulf
of Bothnia; 24 miles N. of Abo.—Alfo, a town of Wett-
phalia, in the principality of Wolfenbuttle; 24 miles S.E.
of Goflar. —Alfo, a fea-port town of the duchy of Hol-
ftein, with a fpacious harbour on the coaft_of the Baltic.
The cattle has been ufed for ftate prifoners; 17 miles N.N.E.
of Lubeck: N. lat. 54°. 7’. E. long. 10° 55'-—Alo, a
town of Bavaria, on the Danube; 16 miles E. of Ingol-
ftadt. N. lat. 48° 44’. E. long. 11° 45’.—Alfo, a town
of Weltphalia ; 40 miles E. of Gottingen. N. lat. 51° 35’.
E. long. 10° 56'.—Alfo, a town of Germany, fituated a
the foot of a mountain, on which was formerly a citadel.
Its trade was formerly confiderable in iron; but of late the
burghers fubfift chiefly by agriculture, and breeding of
cattle; 26 miles E.S.E. of Bonn. N. lat. 50° 57’. E. long.
7°45’ —Alfo, a town of Wurtemberg ; fix miles N.E. of
Heilbron. N. lat. 49° 18'. E. long. 9° 201. \

Neusrapt, or Prudnik, a town of Silefia, in the prin-
cipality of Oppeln, inferior only to Oppeln; 25 miles
S.S.W. of it. “N. lat. 50° 12's E. long. 17° 30!

Neustapt am Ai/cth, a town of Germany, in Culmbach,
on the Aifch ; 23 miles W.N.W. of Nuremberg.

Neustapt am Culmen, a town of Germany, in Culm-
bach, taking its name from two mountains between which
it is fituated ; 12 miles S.E. of Bayreuth,

Neustapt am Doff, a town of the Middle’ Mark of
Brandenburg, on the Dofle, famous for its manufacture of
plate-glafs ; 36 miles N.W. of Berlin. N. lat. 52° 32’.
E. long. 12° 30’.

Neustapt Lber/walde, a town of the Middle Mark of
Brandenburg, on the Finow canal, that forms a communica-
tion between the Havel and the Oder; 28 miles N.E. of
Berlin. N. lat. 52° 54’. E. long. 13° 50’.

Neustapt an der Heyde; a town of Germany, in the
principality of Coburg; {ix miles N.E. of Coburg. N. lat.
50° 20! E. long. 10? 14’.

Nevstavt pres Hohenfiein, atown of Saxony, in the mar-
graviate of Meiffen ; 20 miles E. of Drefden. N. lat. 51° 4’.
E. long. 14° 16".

Neusrapr am Orla, a town of Saxony, and capital *

4 the

EEE

NEU

the circle of the fame name, fituated on the Orla. The
circle includes nine towns, and more than 220 villages. The
town of Neuftadt has a citadel, two churches, a court of
judicature for the circle, and a mine office; 80 miles W.S.W.
of Drefden. N. lat. s0° 39’. E. long. 11° 48),

Neustapr in der Rofinau, a town of Germany, in the
county of Wertheim; 18 miles S.S.E. of Francfort on the
Maine.

Neustapt am Rubenberg, a town of Weftphalia, in Ca-
lenberg, fituated on the Leina; 12 miles W.N.W. of
Hanover. N. lat. 52° 33’. E. long. 9° 33’.

NeustapT am Saale, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg,
on the Saal; 13 miles N. of Schweinfurt.

NEvsTapT, or Neufladtel pres de Schneeberg, a town of
Saxony, in the circle of Erzgebirg; 17 miles $.S.W. of
Chemnitz. N. lat. 50°30’. E. long. 12° 35".

Nevusrapt ober Wiefenthal, a town of Saxony, in the cir-
cle of Erzgebirg, on the borders of Bohemia; 11 miles
S.S.E. of Schwartzenburg.

NEUSTADTEL, a town of Silefia, in the principality
of Glogau; 15 miles W. of Gros Glogau. N. lat. 51° 40!.
E, long. 15° 45/.

NeusrapTEL, or Neufladtl, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Pilfen; 32 miles W. of Pilfen. N. lat. 49° 39).
E. long. 12° 457.

NEUSTADTL, or Nowre-Mentor, a town of Mora-
via, in the circle of Brunn; fix miles E. of Saar.—Alfo, a
town of Bohemia, in the-circle of Boleflaw; 14 miles E.N.E.
of Krottau.

NEUSTATT, a town of the principality of Naflau-
Dillenburg; fix miles W.S.W. of Dillenburg.

NEUSTIFFT, a town of the county of Tyrol; 13
miles S.W. of Infpruck.

NEUTER, a perfon indifferent, who has ef{poufed neither
party, and is neither friend nor foe.

Neuter, in Grammar, denotes a fort of gender in nouns
which are neither mafculine nor feminine. See GENDER.

Neuter Verb. See Vere.

NEUTRAL Satrts, among Chemiffs, fuch as do not
abound with an exeefs of acid or alkali. See Neurrati-
ZATION.

Formerly thofe only were called neutral falts, which were
compofed of acids and alkalies united together to the point
of faturation, fo that they had no acid nor alkaline pro-
perty, and thence they were called neutral. But now this
name is commonly extended to combinations of acids with
all fubftances, with which they can fo unite, that they lofe
entirely or moftly their acid qualities ; as, for inftance, when
they are united with earthy or metallic fubftances. See
SALr.

Mr. Boyle alfo gives the appellation neutral to a fort of
fpirits, differing, in divers qualities, both from vinous, acid,
and urinous fpirits. Thefe he alfo calls anonymous and adia-
phorous {pirits.

NEUTRALITY, the ftate of a perfon or thing that is
neutral.

NeurraLity, Armed, Treaty of, in Modern Hiftory, a
treaty for the proteétion of the navigation of the North,
which was planned by Vergennes, in conformity to the views
and wifhes of Catharine II., emprefs of Ruffia, in the year
1780, and to which almoft all the potentates of Europe fuc-
ceflively acceded. This minifter, having gained his point
in depriving the Englith of the affiftance of the Ruffian fleet,
formed this extenfive plan for effecting his political purpofes.
Well acquainted with the haughty fpirit of the emprefs,
Vergennes artfully contrived to intereft her in the execution
of his project. He wreught upon the minifters of Den-

NEU

mark and Sweden to open it to her. They performed thew
tafk with fo much addrefs, that fhe adopted it without hefi-
tation; and fhe almoft perfuaded herfelf to believe it a crea-
ture of her own invention, or at leaft fhe feemed defirous of
perfuading others that this was the cafe, Accordingly the
iffued a manifetto, declaratory of this armed neutrality. From
that time forward fhe refolved to ufe force for the protec-
tion of her fhips; and fhe propofed to the court of Copen-
hagen, and to that of Stockholm, to equip each of them a
{quadron, which fhould combine with hers for the defence
of their neutrality, The wifkes of Denmark had antici-
pated this invitation. The prudent minifter (copes Bern-
itorf), who guided the councils of that kingdom, fenfibly
felt the importance of an alliance, without which, the
Englifh would have derided all the armaments of the North.
He promifed to fubfcribe to the treaty propofed by the em-
prefs. Sweden was lefs prompt in aeceding to it. She was
withheld by France herfelf, who dexteroufly engaged to
ftart fome difficulties, in order to excite Ruffia to remove
them. After the emprefs had made the neceflary explana-
tions, Guftavus gave orders to his minifter at Peterfburgh
to fign the treaty of the armed neutrality, which was done on
the 21ft of July, the plenipotentiary of Denmark having
done the fame on the 19th day of the month. Catharine
had not waited for the acceffion of thefe two potentates for
notifying her refolution to the courts of London, Verfailles,
and Madrid. She delivered to them by her ambaffadors a
declaration, in which fhe complained, that the law of nations
had been violated towards her fubje&ts; that their commerce
had been confined, and navigation interrupted ; and that to
prevent fuch abufes for the time to come, fhe was preparing
to affert, by force, the rights which undoubtedly belonged to
neutral nations. The cabinet of St. James’s replied, that,
from the very commencement of the war, it had iffued the
moft precife and unequivocal orders to all commanders of
veflels refpeting the Ruffian flag. Notwithftanding this
affurance, the Englith continued for fome time to itop the
Ruffian fhips, and try the validity of their captures by the
Britifh court of admiralty. The emprelfs refufed to acknow-
ledge the competency of that court. The conteft was be-
ginning to take a ferious turn. The Englifh put an end to
it by releafing the veffels. Pruffia, Auftria, and even Por-
tugal, concurred with the other neutral ftates ; and thus a
power, which, however great in other refpets, was of inferior
note in a maritime view, was now feen dittating a new code
of maritime laws te mankind, in many refpects effentially
differing from thofe which had for feveral hundred years
been -eitablifhed among commercial nations, and going di-
reCtly to the overthrow of that fovereignty, or pre-eminence
on the ocean, which had been fo long claimed and main-
tained by Great Britain; but which, that power not being
in a fituation dire&tly to contravene, feemed now to be
fettled as a part of the law of nations. Sir James Harris,
the Englifh minifter at Peterfburgh, exerted every means
which he could employ to break the league of the neutral
powers, or at leaft to prevent Ruffia from proteéting the
vefiels of the other nations; but all his efforts proved in-
effeCtual.

In the following year, 1781, the armed neutrality dif-
played its flag in all the northern feas. The Ruffian fqua-
drons vifited the coafts of the Mediterranean ; and commerce
was efficacioufly protected in every quarter. The Dutch,
who had hefitated to enter into the naval confederacy, foon
repented of their fcruples, and in the war with England,
which was the confequence of their determination, they
were {upported by the emprefs of Ruffia, who offered her

mediation both to Holland and England. On the part of
eB .2 the

NEU

the latter, her pacific intentfons were unavailing ; and peace
with Holland was the laft that was concluded.

The great principle of the armed neutrality was, that free
bottoms make free goods ; and this was carried to fuch an
extent, that neutral ftates were entitled to carry on their
commerce with the belligerent parties, in a ftate of war,
with the fame degree of convenience, eafe, and fafety, which
they might have practifed in time of peace. It was farther
laid down, that the neutral bottom has a right to convey,
and to render free, all things from any one port of a belli-
gerent ftate, and even coaftwife, to another without let or
impediment, faving only fuch matters as might be deemed
contraband in confequence of the ftipulations of former
treaties. The courts of France and Spain cordially ap-
proved this fyftem, as it fuited their own views, till ata
future time they might find opportunity to difcharge them-
felves from the obligation of it. The folitary court of
London was obliged to fupprefs her indignation at an injury
which fhe could not at prefent refent or, remedy. She ex-
poitulated with the court of Peterfburgh, profeffed refpe&
for her flag and commerce, and declared a continuanee of
the fame friendly difpofition and condu& manifefted on
former occafions. The principal elaims of the confederate
powers were thus fpecified ; 1. That all neutral veffels may
freely navigate from one port to another on the coafts of
the nations at war. 2. That the effeéts of the belligerent
powers fhall be fafe in all neutral veffels, with the exception
of prohibited mercantile goods. 3. That the emprefs under-
ftands, by prohibited mercantile goods, fuch as are fpecified
in the articles 10 and 11 of her treaty of commerce with
Great Britain, extending her obligation in that refpe& to
the other powers at war. 4. That by a port blocked up,
is to be underftood only a port fo ftriétly watched by the
fhips of the powers which attack it, that to enter it would
be dangerous. 5. That thefe principles fhould be admitted
as the fole rule whereby to decide the legality of prizes.
The emprefs added, that in publifhing thefe articles, fhe
declared, that to enforce their execution, and to prote& the
honour of her flag, the fecurity of her commerce, and the
navigation of her fubjeéts, fhe was about to arm the greater
part of her naval forces. That her marine fhould not in
anywife injure the neutrality, which fhe was difpofed to ob-
ferve as long as fhe fhould not be provoked and obliged to
exceed the bounds of a juft moderation, and the moft perfeét
impartiality. See Tooke’s Life of Catharine II. vol. ii.

NEUTRALIZATION, in Chemiftry, the a& of com-
bining an acid with an alkali, in fuch proportion that the com-
pound may not exhibit either acid or alkaline qualities, and is in
what is called a neutral ftate. Under the fame circumftances
the acid and the alkali are faid to be mutually faturated or
neutralized. In the old nomenclature, this language, rela-
tive to falts, was more appropriate than in the prefent ttate
of chemiftry. Acids ufed then to be called acid falts, and
the alkalies alkaline falts, while thofe compounds confitting of
an acid and an alkali, where neither the acid nor the alkali
predominated, were called, for the fake of diftin@tion, neutral
falts. The teft commonly employed for afcertaining the
{tate of neutrality is a vegetable blue, fuch as an infufion of
violets, or paper {tained with almoft any vegetable blue. If
the colour is not changed, the compound may be deemed
neutral. If the colour be changed to red, the acid prevails ;
bot if a green, the alkali predominates.

NEUVIE, in Geography, atown of France, in the depart-
ment of the Dordogne, and chief place of acanton, in the
diftri€t of Riberac; 12 miles S.W. of Perigueux. The
place contains 1816, andthe canton 8569 inhabitants, on a
territory of 1824 kiliometres, in 16 communes.—Alfo, a

NEW

town of France, in the department of the Correze, and
chief place of a canton, in the diftriét of Uffel; 10 miles S.
of Uffel. The place contains 2037, and the canton 7924
inhabitants, on a territory of 2474 kiliometres, in 10 com-
munes. :
NEUVILLE, a town of France, in the department of
the Loiret, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét of
Orleans. ‘The place contains 1887, and the canton 9253
inhabitants, on a territory of 325 kiliometres, in 16 com-
munes.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the
Rhéne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri€& of
Lyons; fix miles from Lyons. The place contains 1950,
and the canton 12,147 inhabitants, on a territory of 80 kilio-
metres, in 13 communes.—Alfo, a town of France, in the
department of the Vienne, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri& cf Poitiers; feven miles N.N.W. of Poitiers.
The place contains 2718, and the canton go6o inhabitants,

ona territory of 1774 kiliometres, in 11 communes. —Alfo, ~
y 1/2 ? >

a town of Canada, on the St. Laurence; 14 miles S.W. of
uebec.

NEUVY-St.-Sepulchre, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Indre, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri@ of La Chatre ; nine miles W.of La Chatre. The
place contains 1672, and the canton gsoo inhabitants, ona
territory of 382! kiliometres, in 14 communes. -

NEUWALDE, a town of Silefia, in the principality

of Neiffe; feven miles N.N.E. of Ziegenhals.
NEUWARDP, atown of Anterior Pomerania, on a lake
communicating with the Frifche Haff; 10 miles E. of Uck-
ermunce. N. lat 53° 48’. E.long. 14° 15'.
NEUWEDEL, a town of Brandenburg, in the New
Mark, onthe Drage; 30 miles S.E. of Stargard. N. lat.
tee eae LONG mtb nib bre ;
NEUWIED, or New Wien, a town of Germany, in

the county of Wied Runkel, on the Rhine. This is a neat

town of confiderable commercial importance, and its pro-
{perity has been gradually advancing with its trade and manu-
fa€tures ; four miles below Coblentz. N. lat. 50° 29'. E.
long. 7° 28’.

NEW, ariver of America, in North Carolina, which,
after a fhort courfe, difcharges itfelf into the ocean, throvgh
New River inlet by a wide but fhoal mouth. In the winter
feafon it abounds with mullet. :

NEW ALBION. See New Apion.

NEW ANDALUSIA. See New ANDALUSIA.

NEW ANDOVER. See Easr Andover.

NEW ANTICARIA, a town of New Spain; 34
leagues northward of Acapulco. ;

NEW ANTIGUERA, an epifcopal city of New Spain,
in the province of Guaxaca, erected inte a bifhopric by
Paul III. in 1547. Its noble cathedral is fupported by
marble pillars.

NEWARK-upon-Trent, a borough and market-town, fitu-
ated in the fouth divifion of the wapentake of Newark, and
county of Nottingham, England, is a place of great antiquity,
and fuppofed to have rifen on the ruins of the Roman ftations
of «* Ad Pontem’’ and ** Crocolana,’’ which were undoubtedly
fituated in this vicinity. Stukeley hazards the conjecture
that it was the much difputed Sidnaceatter of the Saxons,
and Throfby remarks that it was the actual {cite of * Ad,
Pontem,” but neither of thefe opinions are generally admitted
to be corre. Newark, according to Mr. Dickenfon, means
New-work, which, he fays, evidently implies that there was
fomething older on which it was ingrafted, though whether
the new erection took place in the time of the Romans, or
the Saxons, he thinks cannot be precifely determined. It is
certain, however, that this place had acquired its prefent

name

NE W

name before the reign of Edward the Confeffor, as it is men-
tioned in his time as the property of Leofric, earl of Mer-
cia, and given by himto the monattery of Stow, near Lin-
coln. What was its condition or extent at this period is
unknown, nor does any circumitance deferving attention oc-
cur refpeéting it till about the year 1126, when weare in-
formed that Alexander, bifhop of Lincoln, built « a large and
magnificent caftle here,”” which was foon afterwards feized
from him by king Stephen, and held for man years in the
pofleffion of the crown. During the troublefome reign of
king John, this fortrefs was befieged by the rebellious ba-
rons, and refolutely defended till news arrived of the ap-
proach of the monarch, when the affailants thought preper
to retire; the king, in confequence, fubfequently entered
the townnwithout oppofition ; but fo fatiguedand exhaufted
by care, and the difficulties of a long march, that he was at-
tacked with a dyfentery, which, in a few days, put an end
to his life. Inthe fucceeding reign, Newark cattle was for-
tified by the barons who had fupported the interefts of prince
Lewis, and were bafely deferted by him. The earl of
Pembroke marched again{ft them, and having clofely invefted
the caftle, compelled them to furrender at difcretion, after a
refiftance of eight days. Throughout the time of the ees
rebellion in the feventeenth century, the inhabitants of this
town were confpicuous for their loyalty. By the exertions
made to render the place defenfible, and the bravery of the
royaliits, it betame a moft important garrifon, and not only
held in fubjeétion the county of Northampton, but laid a
great part of Lincolnfhire under contribution. It itood
three very defperate fieges, in all of which much refolution
and gallantry were difplayed, nor were the parliamentary
forces able to obtain poffeffion of it till it furrendered to the
Scotch army by order of the king.

Newark, fubfequent to the ereétion of the caftle, feems
to have advanced rapidly in extent and population. Ed-
ward VI. conftituted it a borough by charter in the third
year of his reign. This deed has been contirmed, and
many new privileges added, by feveral of his fucceffors, and
particularly by Charles IJ., under whofe charter the town
is now governed. A mayor, recorder, twelve aldermen, a
common council of the. principal inhabitants, and a town-
clerk, form the corporation. Two members are returned
from this borough to ferve in parliament. The petty fef-
fions of two hundreds are held here, befides thofe of the
borough. The market is on Wednefday, and is well fup-
plied with all kinds of-provifions. In the market-place,
whichis a large {quare, and faid to have been formerly much
more extenfive than at prefent, ftands the town-hall, an ele-
gant ftone building, ereéted in 1805, at an expence of
17,000/., paid out of the funds of the teftamentary eftates
left for the advantage of the town. It confifts of three fto-
ries, containing the courts and requifite offices and apart-
ments belonging to the corporation, and a large room ap-
propriated to concerts and affemblies. The workhoufe of
this town is one of the moft commodious and belt regulated
in the kingdom, but its prifon was, till very lately at lealt,a
difgrace to any civilized nation, and ftill requires confider-
able amelioration. Here is a grammar-fchool of acknow-
ledged refpectability, founded by Dr. Thomas Magnus
in 1529, as an infcription over the door imports. The
church isa truly fuperb and capacious edifice of the age of
Henry VI. The tower is finely ornamented with arch-
work and fculpture, and fupports a lofty {pire, adorned
with ftatues of the twelve apoftles in niches. In the win-
dows appear fome paintings on glafs, reprefenting the various
events of our Saviour’slife, together with a number of ar-
morial bearings. Clofe to the river ftand the rujps of the

NEW

caltle, which, notwithftanding the demolition it has under~
gone, ftill prefent an auguf and impofing afpeét. The
north front is the moft perfe@, having a chaiiite f{quare
tower at the north-eaft angle, and another in the centre of
the elevation. Between thefe, in the principal ftory, and
among fome large magnificent windows, is an immenfe pro-
jeting window, exhibiting a perfect {pecimen of thofe an-
ciently called ‘ bays or bowers?” Under the great hall,
which feems to have been of later ereGtion than the reft of
the building, is a moft curious arched vault or crypt, fup-
ported by a row of pillars in the centre, and having loop-
holes and embrafures towards the river. At the end of
this vault is a fubterraneous paflage, faid to have gone a
great way under ground, but it has never been explored.
The bridge thrown over the Trent here is conftructed of
brick, faced with ftone, and was the gift of the earl of
Northumberland.

The religious foundations in this town, during the times
of popery, were a houfe of Auftin friars, and another of
Obfervant friars ; befides an hofpital dedicated to St. Leo-
nard, built by bifhop Alexander, in the latter end of the
reign of Henry I.; and one belonging to the Knights
Templars, founded previous to the year1185. Near North~
gate was a great houfe, calledthe Spittle, which was burnt
down in the civil wars, and fuppofed by fome authors, but
without fufficient evidence, to have been the hofpital of St.
Leonard. Inthe church-yard ftood an edifice called the
chauntry free-fchool, and a fong-{chool, for an organift and
fix chorifters. There was likewife in Newark a fecond
church, but this was demolifhed during one of the three laft
fieges in the feyenteenth century.

The trade and manufactures of Newark are tolerably ex-
tenfive. In Northgate is a very large brewery, which was
accuftomed to carry on a vaft commerce with the north of
Europe, before the developement of the continental fyitem.
The manufacture of cotton has been lately introduced, and
affords employment to a confiderable number of the poor.
The counties of Nottingham, Lincoln, Derby, Stafford,
Chefter, Warwick, and part of York, are chiefly fupplied
with malt made in this town and its vicinity. Two large
eftablifhments for the weaving and bleaching of,coarfe linen
are in a thriving condition, as is likewife an infant manu-
faétory of fail-cloth and facking. Corn and coals form im-
portant articles of traffic in Newark : and there is annually
a very large market, or fair, for cheefe, held on the Wed-
nefday preceding the fecond day of OGober.

According to the parliamentary returns of 1801, this
town contained only 1390 houfes, and a population of 6730
perfons. By the late returns (1811), however, it appears
that a very material increafe has taken place ; the houfes
being there {tated to amount to 1504, and the inhabitants to
7236in number. The parifh of Newark comprifes abont
S800 acres. ;

The vicinity of this town has been much cut up by mili-
tary works in the time of the civil wars, many traces of
which remain. Beacon-hill, where are feveral extenfive
quarries of gypfum, was the fcene of action between the
royal army under prince Rupert, and the parliamentary
troops, commanded by fir John Meldrum, who had laid fiege
to the caftle in 1643. In this engagement the royalifts were
completely fuccefsful, though much inferior in number to
the republicans. The fofle-road paffes clofe to this hill At
Coddington, on the Sleaford road, ftands a handfome feat of
S.C. Colclough, efq.; and direétly north from hence is the
Bruff or Brough, pointed out by Stukeley asthe undoubted
Crocolana of the Romans. Balderten, two miles from
Newark, is remarkable for a curious Saxon porch to ite

church,

N’'E W

church, wrought with zig-zag mouldings and ozes’ heads.
Elvefton, or Elfton, fituated about four miles fouth from
the town, has acquired juft celebrity as the birth-place of
the late Dr. Darwin, whofe {cientific and literary labours,
and active benevolence, reflect luttre on the human charaéter.
Between this village and that of Stoke, er, as fome anti-
quaries aflert, of Thorpe, Henry VII. engaged and defeated
the army of the earl of Lincoln, who had efpoufed the caufe
of the impoftor Lambeth Simnel. ‘his action was fought
in the month of June, in the year 1487, but much differ-
ence of opinion prevails with refpeét to the exaét day:
Hall calls it the 6th, Stowe the 16th, and Holinfhed the
zoth. ‘Tradition affirms that Henry fixed his head quarters,
before the battle,’ in Elfton fields, clofe to the village. For
an account of fome other places in this vicinity, fee Souru-
WELL. Hiftory and Antiquities of the Town of Newark,
by William Dickenfon, efg., Newark edit. 1806. 4to.
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xii.

Newark, a townfhip of America, in Effex county,
Vermont.—Alfo, a polt-town of New Jerfey, and capital
of Effex county, pleafantly fituated at a fmall diftance W.
of Paffaick river, near its mouth on Newark bay ; nine miles
W. of New York city. Itis a handfome flourifhing town,
famous for its excellent cyder, and as being the feat of the
largeft fhoe manufacture in the ftate. It has alfo a large
and elegant Prefbyterian meeting-houfe, an epifcopal church,
a court-houfe, and a gaol. Its academy was eftablifhed
in 1792. ‘This town, which has feveral tanneries and quar-
ries of ftones for building, was originally fettled by emi-
grants from Branford, in Conneéticut, in the year 1662.—
Alfo, a town lately laid out by the Britifh in Upper Canada,
on the river which conneéts lakes Erie and Ontario, dire@ly
oppofite to Niagara town and fort. The town ishandfome,
about a mile fquare, with its ftreets at right angles, and
contains about 150 houfes.—Alfo, a townfhip, comprehend-
ing the above town, in the county of Lincoln, Upper Ca-
nada, and lying on the W. fide of Niagara river, oppofite
to the fort.

Newark Bay, a bay of New Jerfey, formed by the con-
fluence of Paffaick and Hackinfack rivers from the N., and
feparated from that part of North river oppofite. to New
York city, by Bergen neck on the E. This neck forms,
with Staten ifland on the S., a narrow channel from the bay
to North river eaftward. Newark bay alfo communicates
with Rariton bay, at the mouth of Rariton siver, by a chan-
nelin a $.W. direétion along the W. fide of Staten ifland.
The water paflage from New York to Elizabeth-town point,
15 miles long, is through this bay.

NEW ASHFORD. See New Asuronrp.

NEW ATHENS, or Tioga Point, ftands on the poft-
road in America from. Caoperftown to Williamfburg, in
Luzerne county, Pennfylvania, onthe point of land formed
by the confluence of Tioga river with the E. branch of
Sufquehannah river, in N. lat. 41° 54’. W. long. 76° 32';
zo miles S,E. by E. of Newtown in New York.

NEW BANK, one of the banks of Newfoundland ; fix
miles S. of Cape Ballard.

NEW BEDFORD. See New Brprorp.

NEWBERN, one of the eaftern maritime diftrids of
North Carolina, comprehending the counties of Carteret,
Jones, Craven, Beaufort, Hyde, Pitt, Wayne, Glafgow,
Lenoir, and Johniton, and containing 60,433 inhabitants, in-
cluding 20,134 flaves—Alfo, the capital of the above diftri¢t,
which is a poft-town and port of entry in Craven county,
fituated ona flat, fandy point of land, formed by the con-
fluence of the rivers Neus on the N.and Trent on the S.
This is the largeft town in the flate, containing about 400

NEW

houfes and 2467 inhabitants, of whom 1298 are flaves. he.
edifices are all conitru&ted of wood, except the palace, the
church, the gaol, and two dwelling houfes, which are of
brick. The palace was formerly the refidence of the govern-

“or, but it is now decayed and applied to the ufe of {chools:

Newbern carries on a confiderable trade to the Weft Indies

and the different ftates, in tar, pitch, turpentine, lumber,

corn, &c. ‘Theexports in 1794 amounted to 69,615 dollars:

sor miles S. of Philadelphia. N. lat. 35° 20'.. W, long.
heas ls ;

NEW BISCAY. See New Biscay. F

NEWBLISS, a poft-town of the county of Monaghan,
Ireland ; 55 miles N.W. by N. from Dublin.

NEWBOROUGH. See Gorey.

NewsorouGu, a borough, market-town, and parifh, in
the hundred of Menai, and county of Anglefey, North
Wales, is fituated onthe river Braint, or Breint, about three
miles from the fhore of Caernarvon bay. The Britifh name
of this place is Rhos-Hir, or Vair. Edward I. conftituted
it a corporation by charter, and annexed it to the royalties
of the prince of Wales; and this deed afterwards received
the fanétion of parliament, in the reign of Edward IIL. In
the time of Henry VIII. andthe firlt year of Edward V1.
Newborough fent members to parliament, but the latter mo-
narch was pleafed to transfer the ele¢tive franchife from hence
to Beaumaris, in the fecond year of his fovereignty. The
government of the town is now vefted in a mayor, two bailiffs,
a recorder, and other affiftant officers, who continue to hold
regular courts. The revenue of the corporation is chiefly
derived from about four hundred acres of excellent land,
(fituated in the vicinity,) which the magiitrates have it in
contemplation to inclofe. This was an ancient manor of the
Britifh princes, who had a liys or palace here ; and here was
alfo the feat of juftice for the whole comot of Menai, and
which continued fo long after Wales became fubje€t to Eng-
land. The chief manufaéture carried on by the inhabitants
is that of mats, netting, and cordage, made of fea reed-
grafs. A. few perfons are likewife engaged in fifhing, aud a
confiderable number in the labours of agriculture. This
town gives title of baron te the family of Wynn. It hasa
weekly market on Tuefday, and, according to the parlia-
mentary returns of 1811, contains 183 houfes, and a popu-
lation of 750 perfons. ‘The amount of acres in the parith is
eftimated at 1000.

Adjoining to the town, and near the ruins of a building,
which has been generally regarded as the domeftic chapel of
the ancient palace, may be feen a large upright ftone, in-
feribed ‘ Filius Ulrici erexit hunc lapidem,’’ and fuppofed
to commemorate fome Danifh chieftain who had fallen in
battle here, as it is well afcertained that the Danes made
frequent defcents on this coaft. At Llanddwyn, a fmall,
narrow peninfula, proje€ting into the bay of Caernarvon,
{tood an oratory of St. Dwynwen, the Britifh Venus, or
tutelary faint of lovers, who flourifhed in the fifth century.
In after-timesa Benedictine abbey was erected upon the fame
{pot, and feems to have been one of the richett in the county.
In the time of Owen Glyndwr its wealth gave rife to a very
ferious depredatory quarrel, and in the vifitation made by the
order of Henry VIII. it is mentioned among the moft va-
luable prebends belonging to the fee of Bangor.

Llanedwen, lying about five miles to the north-ealt of
Newborough, is diftinguifhed as the birth-place of Henry
Rowlands, bifhop of Bangor, and author of the «* Mona An-
tiqua Reftorata,’’? who died in 1723. Almoft clofe to the
village is the ferry of Moel-y-Don, by which Agricola crofled
over into the ifland of Anglefey, and where the army of
Edward I. fuftained a fignal defeat in 1282. The itp of

Maes-

——————

NEW

Maes-mawr-gad, or the plain of the oe army; has been
fuppofed by fome to be the fcene of the firft fanguinary
battle recorded by Tacitus as fought in this county ; and by
others to allude to an engagement between Gryffydd ap Cy-
nan, king of Gwynedd, and the ufurper Trahaiarn ap Ca-
radog, which took place in 1082. Plas-Newydd, a feat of
the earl of Uxbridge, is fituated clofe to the north bank of
the Menai, and occupies a portion of thofe groves, once fo
celebrated as embowering the principal temples of the ancient
Druids. Here, and for feveral miles round, appear nume-
rous memorials of the religious rites praétifed during the
prevalenc> of that extraerdinary worfhip. Near the manfion
of Plas-Newyddris a large cromlech, with another of {maller
dimenfions clofe to it. Particular accounts of thefe, with
an engraving, are contained in King’s «* Munimenta An-
tiqua.”’ Near a path-way leading into the road from Plas-
Newydd to Llanidan is a large carnedd, which was opened
about feventy years ago, and found to contain a vault ftrewed
with an immenfe quantity of human bones. This is conjec-
tured to have had a fubterraneous conneétion with the crom-
lech, and to have formed a place of confinement for the
wretched victims deftined to be facrificed. At Tan-ben-
Ceven, on the river Brient, are two large entrenchments of
a f{quare form, generaily regarded as outworks to the chief
feat of the Arch-Druid at Tre’r Dryw. ‘he Bryn Gwyn,
Brien Gwyn, or royal tribunal of this fovereign priett, {till
continues diftin@ly marked. It isa circular hollow, one
hundred and eighty feet in diameter, furrounded by a vatt
agger of earth and itones. Near it was one of the Gorfed-
dau’s, now difperfed, but once confifting of a great heap of
ftones, on which fate aloft the Druid whofe duty it was to
harangue and inftru@ the people when colle&ted on any im-
portant occafion. Pennant’s Tour in Wales, vol. iii.
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xvii. by the Rev. J.
Evans.

NEW BOSTON. See New Boston.

NEW BRAINTREE, atown of America, in the county
of Worcelter, between Rutland or Oakham on the E.
and Hardwick on the W.; 21 miles N.W. of Worcefter.
It has 875 inhabitants.

NEW BRITAIN. © See New Britain.

NEW BRUNSWICK. See New Brunswick.

NEWBURGH, a royal borough, market-town, and
parifh, in the county of Fife, Scotland, is fituated on the
fouth bank of the river Tay. This place was very early
eonttituted a borough of regality, by one of the abbots of
Lindores, under whofe charter it was governed till the fecu-
larization of the abbey by James VI. Charles I. granted
the charter by which it now enjoys all the privileges and im-
munities of any royal borough in North Britain, except the
right of voting for a reprefentative in the national councils,
and of fending a delegate to the convention of boroughs.
The revenue of the community is very inconfiderable, fearce-
ly exceeding 25/. per annum, but the magiltracy notwith-
ftanding make a refpectable appearance. A court is held
weekly, with the ufual marks of dignity, and it retains a
clerk for recording its public proceedings. The town of
Newburgh forms one principal itreet of confiderable length,
having {mall fuburbs at eack end, and a lane leading towards
the fhore from its centre. Moft of the houfes on each fide
of the lane, and in the fuburbs, are of late ere€tion ; as well
as a great proportion of thofe in the main ftreet. Hence,
and in confequence of alterations in fuch as have not been en-
tirely rebuilt, Newburzh is capable of containing double the
amount of inhabitants it could have done formerly, though
it probably does not occupy a rood more ate new than at
the beginning of the laft century. At that time the gene-

NE-W

rality of the houfes were low built, and covered with a thateh
of ttraw or of reeds, but for many years a better ftyle of
architeCture has prevailed, and at prefent the town haa even
pretenfions to a more than ordinary degree of neatnefs. The
chief ftreet is excellently paved, and kept in repair by means
of an aflefiment from proprietors within the borou The
principal employment of the inhabitants is that of weaving
cloth. Accuftomed in early life to handle the'oar and the
plough, as well as the fhuttle, they frequently betake them-
felves either to the fea, or to agriculture, whenever the price
of the kinds of cloth they are in the practice of manufac-
turing fuffers any material depreciation in the market. Mott
of the perfons employed in this trade weave their own yarn,
and carry their own webs to market, that is to fay, difpofe
of them to a few individuals in the town, or neighbourhood,
by whom they are refold to the merchants of Dundee, Cupar,
and Glafgow. Clofe to the borough, but independent of
the jurifdiGtion of the magiftrates, is the harbour of New-
burgh, confifting of three contiguous piers, projecting into
the fouth deep of the Tay, and of feveral dwe ing-houfes,
itore-houfes, and other conveniences for commerce. Thefe
piers form very fafe ftations for the veflels employed in the
trade on the river ; and though none of any burden can pro-
perly be faid to belong to Newburgh, and feware freighted
to it, except with coals or lime, they are feldom devoid of
fhipping, as the generality of veffels for Perth muft wait the
flow of the tide here, and not a few of them unload a part
of their cargoes, before they can venture up further, even
with the tide. Hence arifes a good deal of a@ivity at New-
burgh ; and confiderable quantities of grain are annually ex-
ported for Edinburgh and London.

The parifh of Newburgh is comparatively of inconfider-
able extent, and only deferving of notice on account of fome
veftiges of antiquity which it contains. OF thefe, the ruins
of the ancient abbey of Lindores are the moit noted. They
are fituated at the‘north-ealt extremity of the parifh, ona
gentle eminence, rifing from the edge of the river Tay. This
monattery was founded in the twelfth century, and filled with
monks of the order of St. Benedi&. The extent of ground
occupied by the buildings of the abbey in former times cannot
now be afcertained, as many of them have been completely
razed to the very foundations. It was no doubt, however,
one of the moft fuperb and magnificent on the northern fide
of the Forth. The luxury and wealth of its ecclefiaftics are
{trongly marked by the pains they have evidently taken, in
the economy of their garden, to fecure all the delicacies of
the table. Near the abbey ftands the ancient manfion of
Lindores, once a baronial refidence belonging to the family of
Lefley. ‘

The other monuments of ancient art, in this vicinity, are
two croffes, one called the crofs of Mogdrum, and the other
Macduff’s crofs. The former ftands only four yards from
the fhore, and though much mutilated {till difplays remains
of the figures of horfes, but there is no appearance of any
infeription. The latter, which is placed in an opening on
the Ochil hills, and which, at prefent, exhibits one large
quadrilateral block of free-ftone, rudely indented in feveral
places, is traditionally faid to have pointed out the limits of
the jurifdiction of the powerful Thane of Fife. Concerning
Mugdrum crofs even tradition is filent. According to the
parliamentary reports of 18rr, the whole parifh contains
283 houfes, and a population of 1951 perfons. Sinclair’s
Statiftical Account of Scotland, vol. viti. Beauties of Scot-
land, vol. iv.

NewsurcH, a poft-town of America, in Orange
county, New York, containing 3258 inhabitants, and con-
fifting of between 50 and 60 houfes, and a Prefbyterian

church,

NE W

church, fituated on a gentle afcent from the river. The
country to the N. is well cultivated, and affords a rich pro-
fpect. Veffels of confiderable burden may load and unload
at the wharfs, and many veffels are annually built, fo that
the place is encouraging to induftry, and thriving.

NEWBURN, a parifh of Scotland, in the county of
Fife ; eight miles S.S.W. of St. Andrew’s.

NEWBURY, a large market-town in the hundred of
Faircrofs, Berkfhire, England, is fituated ina fertile valley
on the banks of the river Kennet, 17 miles diftant from
Reading, and 56 from London. Though its name implies a
modern borough, it was a townof confiderable importance
at the time of the Norman furvey, and then known by the
name of Uluritone, probably a corruption of Ulwardetone,
from Ulward, who poffeffed it in the time of Edward the
Confeffor. Newbury was originally the name of a caftle
which was built by one of the earls of Perch, and this ap-
pellation might be transferred to the town inftead of its
ancient Saxon name. The town was incorporated in 1586
by queen Elizabeth ; and is governed by a mayor, high-
fteward, recorder, fix aldermen, and twenty-four capital
burgeffes. It fent two members to parliament in the 3oth
year of Edward I., and in the 11th of Edward III. was
alfo reprefented by three perfons in a great council, held on
account of trade at Weftminfter. Extenfive manufactorics
of woollen cloth were eftablifhed in this town, and furnifhed
the inhabitants with employment for feveral centuries; but the
clothing bufinefs has been removed into the more weftern
parts of the kingdom. It does not appear that the town
has fuffered by the removal ; but on the contrary, from the
influx of trade, confequent on the ready communication
it now has by canals with London and Briftol, its opulence
as well as its population has been on theincreafe. Inthe year
1555, when the clothing bufinefs was at its greatelt height,
the number of inhabitants was 1600. The return to parlia-
ment in the year 1801 ftates the houfes to be 965, the num-
ber of perfons 4275: and by the late furvey in the year
1811, the houfes are returned as 1028; the inhabitants as
4898 : thefe returns do not include the tything of Speen-
hamland, which is apparently part of the town, but is in the
parifh of Speen; and contains about 150 houfes and up-
wards of 7oo inhabitants. The town confifts chiefly of
three principal ftreets, which are fpacious and well built.
The old market-houfe is an ancient timber building, over
which is the gaol and a town-hall: the new market-houfe is
a brick edifice of modern date; above it is an affembly-
room, fometimes’called the new town-hall, where the cor-
poration tranfaé their private bufinefs ; the public meetings
being held at the old hall. The market, which is held on
Thurfdays by prefcriptive right, is a great mart for corn,
and is under excellent regulations, tending to defeat the ar-
tifices of monopolizers ; four fairs are kept annually, and a
ftatute for hiring fervants.

On the banks of the Kennet, in the vicinity of Newbury,
are feveral mills, which fupply the cities of London and
Briftol with great quantities of flour. The parifti church
of Newbury is a plain {tone ftructure, built in the reign of
Henry VIII., principally at the charge of John Winch-
combe, a wealthy clothier of this town, of which he was a
native. He died in the year 1519, and lies buried in the
church, by the name of John Smallwode, alias Winchcombe.
A brafs plate, with his effigy, was formerly placed over his
tomb, but it is now fixed again{t the eaft wall of the north
aifle. The hiftory of this celebrated perfon, who was gene-
rally known by the name of Jack of Newbury, is rather
of a marvellous calt; he appears to have carried on the
clothing bufinefé toa great extent; having an hundred looms

5

NEW

in conftant ufe, in his own houfe, for the weaving of broad
cloth only. He is recorded to have affifted the king with an
hundred of his men, all armed and clothed at his own ex-
pence, in the expedition againft Scotland, which was termi-
nated by the battle of Flodden Field. The building called
his manufactory, is now divided into tenements, ref{peCtively
occupied as a bookfeller’s, a hair dreffer’s, and an inn; the
latter bearing the fign of Jack of Newbury. The cha-
ritable endowments in this town are numerous; not lefs
than fixty-alms houfes being eftablifhed on different founda-
tions. One of thefe, called St. Bartholomew's hofpital, is
faid to have been founded by king John, who granted a fair
for its fupport. It was formerly under the government of
a mafter, warden, or prior: but is now, by charter of queen
Elizabeth, vefted in the corporation. The original endow-
ment has been increafed by various benefactions. In the year
1624, Mr. John Kendrick of Reading bequeathed 4000/
to provide a workhoufe and employment for the poor of
Newbury. Great part of this gift appears to have been loft:
with a portion of it the wharf and other premifes were pur-
chafed ; and the remainder 4s lent, without intereft, in fums
of fifty pounds, to weavers, for three years.

In the dreadful conteft between Charles I. and his parlia-
ment, Newbury became remarkable for being the fcene of
action in two fucceeding years. The firft battle was fought
September 18, 1643, on a common called the Wath; the
other in the fields between Newbury, Speen, and Shaw,
O&ober 27, 1644. Thofe who were killed in the’ firft en-
gagement were depofited beneath two tumuli near the field
of battle ; whilft thofe who fell in the fecond conteft were
interred ina large pit near Newbury church. Many veltiges
of thefe fanguinary confliéts have, at different times, been
found in the furrounding country.

Abeut a mile north-weft from Newbury is the fmall vil-
lage and parilh of Speen, a place of confiderable antiquity,
deriving its name from the Roman Spine, which is fuppofed
to have been fituated in this vicinity. Speen had formerly a
market on Mondays, which was granted, in the year 1218, by.
William Marfhall, earl of Pembroke.

At a {mall dittance from Speen, on the north, but in the
parifh of Shaw, is Donnington Grove, late the feat of Wil-
liam Brummell, efq. The houfe, which is pleafantly fituated
under a ridge of woody hills, was built by the late James
Petit Andrews, efq. author of “ The Hiftory of Great
Britain, connected with the Chronology of Europe,’? and
was for fome time his refidence.

On an eminence north-eaft of the Grove are the remains
of Donnington cattle, which was formerly a place of great
importance ; and by commanding the weitern road, gave to
its poffeffors a confiderable degree of authority. It is faid
to have been built by fir Richard Abberbury in the reign of
Richard II. About the year 1397 Geoffrey Chaucer, the
father of Englith poetry, became pofleffed of this caftle, and
fpent the clofe of his life in retirement here. From the
Chaucers the caftle defcended, by marriage, to the dukes
of Suffolk. Inthe reign of James I. it belonged to the
family of the Packers, whofe heirefs married Dr. Hartley, the
ance(tor of Mr. Hartley the prefent poffeffor. During the
civil wars of Charles I. this caftle was a poft of great con-
fequence ; being fortified as a garrifon for the king, and en-
tru(ted to the command of colonel Boys, who bravely defended
it during along fiege. Camden, in whofe time the caftle was
entire, defcribes it as ‘a fmall, but very neat place, feated on
the brow of a woody hill, having a fine profpect, and lighted
by windows on every fide.’’ ‘The walls nearly fronted the
cardinal points of the compafs, the entrance being at the
ealt end. It was defended by four round towers placed on

the

NEW

theangles. The length of the eaft end, including the towers,
was 85 feet ; the extent from eaft to weft 120 fect. All this
partis deltroyed ; the remains confilt of the {tone gate-houfe,
with its two towers, and a {mall part of the eaft wall. The

teway isin good prefervation, and the place for the port-
eullis is ftill vilible.

To the eat of Donnington cattle, about a mile diftant,
ftands Shaw houfe, a large edifice, built in the reign of
queen Elizabeth by Mr. Doleman, an eminent clothier, in
whofe family the eftate continued till about the year 1727,
when it was purchafed by James, duke of Chandos, who
fold it, in 1746, to Jofeph Andrews, efq. grandfather to fir
Jofeph Andrews, bart. who now poffeffes it.

About a mile weitward from Speen is Benham place, a
villa of lord Craven's.’ The houfe, an elegant ftructure of
the Ionic order, was completed in.1775 ; it was built by
Brown, under the direGion of lady Craven. The lodges,
at the eaftern and weftern extremities of the park, were re-
cently built by the margravine. _Lyfons’s Magna Britannia,
vol. i. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. 1.

Newsury, a diftri& of South Carolina; the court-
houfe being 45 miles. from Columbia. —Alfo, a town-
fhip in York jcounty, Pennfylvania, containing 2014 inha-
bitants.—Alfo, atown.in Lycoming county, 40 miles from
Northumberland.—Alfo, a polt-town and capital of Orange
county, in Vermont, pleafantly fituated on the W. fide of
Conneticut river, oppofite to Haverhill, in. New Hamp-
fhire, and five miles diftant from it. It containsa gaol, a
court-houfe, and a handfome church for Congregationalitts,
and 1304 inhabitants; 130 miles N.E. of Bennington.—
Alfo, a townfhip in Effex county, Maffachufetts, incorpo-
rated in 1635, fituated on the S. bank of Merrimack river,
and containing 4076 inhabitants. It formerly included New-
bury port, and with Merrimack river encircled it. It is di-
vided into five parifhes, belides a fociety of Quakers. The
land, particularly on Merrimack river, called «‘ Newbury-
Newtown,” is of fuperior quality, and well cultivated.
Some few veffels are here employed in the fifhery. This
townthip is conueéted with Salifbury by Effex Merrimack
bridge, about two miles above Newbury port, built in
1792.

heieteis Port, aport of entry, and poft-town in Effex
county, Maflachufetts, pleafantly fituated on the S. fide
of Merrimack river, about three miles from the fea; ranking
in acommercial view next to Salem, and containing 5946 in-
habitants: incorporated into a townfhip, confilting of 640
acres, in 1764. The churches, which are fix in number,
are ornamented with fteeples: the other public buildings
are the court-houfe, gaol, a bank, and four public {chool-
houfes. In this town are ten public fchools and three print-
ing houfes. Many of the dwelling-houfes are elegant. The
harbour is fafe and capacious, but difficult of accefs. The
bufinefs of thip-building is carried onhere ; and a confider-
able trade fubfifts between this place and the Wett Indies, as
well as the Southern States, Some veffels are employed
in the freighting bufinefs, and a few in the fifhery. In
1790 there belonged to this port 6 fhips, 45 brigan-
tines, 39 {chooners, and 25 floops, amounting in the whole
to 11,870 tons. The exports in the year ending Septem-
ber 1794, amounted to 363,380 dollars. A machine for
cutting nails has been invented in this town, which will ma-
facture 200,000 ina day. In this town are a Humane and
Marine Society. The light-houfes are on Plum ifland, in
N. lat. 42° 47'.. W.long.70° 47'.. Newbury port is 40
miles N.N.E. of Bolton,

NEW CALEDONIA. See Careponia.

NEW CANTON, a finall poft-town of America, lately

Vou. XXIV.

NEW

eftablifhed in Buckingham county, Virginia, on the S, fide
of James's river; 70 miles above Richmond,

NEW CASCO, a poft-town of America, in Cumber-
land county, Maine; 613 miles N.E. from Wafhington.

NEWCASTLE, a village of the county of Dublin,
Ireland, which before the union returned two members to
parliament. It is 10 miles S.W. by W. from Doblin.

NewcastLE, a poft-town of the county, of Limerick,
Ireland, which was orignally founded by the Knights
Templars, and became a corporation ; but has been fince re-
duced, and is now a place of little confequence. It is 114
miles S.W. from Dublin, and 20S.W. from Limerick.
There are fome other villages of this name, as one near the
river Inny, in the county of Longford, and one in the county
of Down, on the Irifh fea, but there is no_occafion to en-
large.

peat ea a town of Upper Canada, fituated on the
Prefque’ Ifle de Quinté, extending into lake Ontario, from
the eaftern part. of the townfhip of Cramahi.—Alfo, the
moit northern county of Delaware ftate, about 40 miles
long and 20 broad, containing 25,361 inhabitants, including
1338 flaves.. Here are feveral mills for different purpofes.
The chief towns are Wilmington and Newcaltle—Alfo, a
pott-town and capital of the above county, fituated on the
W. fide of Delaware river ; 33 miles S.W. of Philadelphia.
It.contains more than 100 houfes, a court-houfe, and gaol ;
a church for Epifcopalians, and another for Prefbyterians.
‘This town was fettled by the Swedes about the year 1627,
and they called it. ‘* Stockholm.’? The Dutck had poffef-
fion-of it under the name of “ New Amfterdam ;’’ and the
Englifh gave it the name of Newcaltle. It was incorpo-
rated in/1672. N. lat. 39° 38’—Alfo, a townfhip in Welt
Chefter county, New York, incorporated in 1791-—Alfo,
a town in Rockingham county, New Hampbhire, called
« Great Ifland,”’ confitting of about 100 houfesand 534-inha-
bitantsin17go. Itis the largeft of anumber of iflands in the
mouth of Pifcataqua; two miles E. of Portfmouth. It has
a meeting-houfe, and on the N.E. point of the ifland are the
light-houfe and fort, built in 1795.—Alfo, a poft-town in
Lincoln county, Maine, between Damafcotte and Skungut
rivers; 192 miles N.E.of Bofton. The townfhip contains
996 inhabitants.—Alfo, a poft-town of Hanover county,
Virginia, at the mouth of the Affequin creek, on the S.W,
fide of Pamunky river, containing about 36 houfes; 54
miles N.W. of Williamfburgh.—Alfo, a town on the N.
coat of the ifland of Nevis; fix miles N.N.E. of Charlef-
town.

NewcastTLeE Bay; a large ®pen bay of the Pacific ocean,
on the N.E. coait of New Holland, in which are fome
{mall low iflands and fhoals, S. of York cape.

Newcastte Jfland, a {mall ifland in the Florida flream.
N. lat. 24° 48!.. W. long. 81° 4o!.

NewcastLe-upon-Tyne, a borough and market-town, and
a diftin& county by. itfelf, is feated on the banks of the
river Tyne, within the county of Northumberland, England.
Julius Agricola, the general of Vefpafian, eftablithed a
Roman poft here about the year 80. Its appellation at this
period is uncertain, but in lefs than half a century after-
wards we find it denominated “ Pons Aélii,’’ from the
bridge built over the river by the emperor Hadrian, when
he conftruéted his celebrated vallum, or wall, which ter-
minated here, and has been traced pafling the weit door of
St. Nicholas church.» The rampart formed by Agricoia
alfo ran through a part of the town, and not improbably
terminated near the {cite of the caftle, which might have
been originally a Roman fort. After the evacuation of
Britain by that illuftrious people, the hiftory of this place

5C is

NEW

is very little known, though there is no doubt of its having
been a town of fome importance under the Northumbrian
monarchs of the Saxon line. Grey, in his Chorographia,
fays, **the town of Pampedon (now included in Newcattle)
is very ancient. I find one of the kings of Northum-
berland that had a houfe in it, which we now call Pandon-
hall.”” At the time of the conqueft it occurs under the
name of Munk-ceattre, a defignation received from the
number of religious foundations which had been erected in
it during the heptarchy. In 1080, the caftle whence the
town has fince obtained the appellation of Newcaftle was
built by Robert Curthofe, a younger fon of William the
Conqueror, on his return from an expedition into Scotland
againit king Malcolm, in revenge for haying afforded pro-
tection to Edgar Atheling. This ftru€ture, with its necef-
fary appurtenances, occupied an extent of three acres, and
was a fortrefs of great ftrength, having been defended by a
deep foffe, and two maffive walls. Only fourteen years
after its ereétion, it was feized by the adherents of earl
Mowbray, the laft of the ancient line of the earls of Nor-
thumberland, who had revolted againft William Rufus.
That prince, laying clofe fiege to it, however, with a {trong
force, foon compelled the garrifon to furrender. In the
time of Henry II. the great tower of the caftle underwent
confiderable repairs. At the fame period, alfo, the fortifi-
cations were much {trengthened and augmented ; and the
whole fitted up as a royal refidence. John Baliol did
homage in the great hall to Edward I. for the crown of
Scotland; and David Bruce was long detained a prifoner
here, under the charge of John Copeland. Twelve of the
ancient Northumbrian barons paid caftle-cuard rents and
cornage to this fortrefs, being the tenures by which they
held their lands. Thefe were abolifhed, together with the
tenure by knights’ fees, in the reign of Charles I]. From
1605 to 1616, the caltle appears to have been in the poffef-
ficn of the worfhipful company of tailors, and in 1618 it
was granted to Alexander Stevenfon, one of the pages to
the king, on aleafe for fifty years ; but this was afterwards
purchafed by the corporation. Sir John Morley, mayor of
the town in 1644, garrifoned this edifice in fupport of the
parliamentary caufe, and with{tood a very defperate fiege
againtt the Scotsarmy, commanded by the earl of Cailender
and general Levin. Since that time it has gradually fallen
to decay. Of the outer wall nothing remains but the prin-
cipal entrance, called the Black Gate; the inner wall was
entirely demolifhed in 1811. The great tower, a maffive
fquare ftruéture, is ftanding : it is about eizhty feet high,
and its exterior walls meafure hear fourteen feet in thicknefs.
‘There are no fire-places in any part of this edifice, except
in a few {mall rooms, apparently gained out of the walls in
later times. The dungeon has been ufed, for time immemo-
rial, as the county prifon during the affizes. A very bold
and fpacious circular ftaircafe afcends to the fummit of the
tower, and adjoining, on the eaft fide, is a chapel of moft
beautiful and curious archite€ture. The corporation have
lately purchafed this building, and intend to throw an arched
roof over it, and to pull down all the old houfes built
again{t it.

In ancient times, the town, as well as the caftle, was for-
tified by a ftrong wall and ditch. In the reign of Ed-
ward I., a rich citizen of Newcaftle was cited off from
that town into Scotland, and being at laft ranfomed, he
began to enclofe Newcaftle with a very firm wall, and the
relt of the inhabitants following his example, he finifhed the
undertaking in the reign of Edward IIT.’’ ‘Vhis wall had
feven maffive gates, and feventeen round towers, with {maller
watch-towers in each interval between them; but all the

NE W

gates are now levelled, except two, the “ Weft Gate and
New Gate.’’ Leland calls the Wett Gate “ a mightie
{trong thinge of four wards and an iron gate ;"" and {peaking
generally of the wall, he adds, «* the ftrength and magni-
ficens of the waulling of this towne far paffeth all the waulls
of the cities of England, and moft of the townes of Europe.”
Above the Weft Gate is the hall of one of the incorporated
companies ; New Gate is occupied as the town prifon.

The rife of Newcaitle to eminence as a borough feems to
have taken place gradually. William Rufus granted the
inhabitants fome privileges, which were confiderably aug-
mented by Henry I. and John. Att this time it was go-
verned by bailiffs only ; but in 1251 a mayor was appointed.
In 1400 the town was firlt conitituted a county by itfelf,
at which period a fheriff and fix aldermen were fub{tituted
for the bailiffs. A recorder, eight chamberlains, two
coroners, a fword-bearer, a common clerk, and eight fer-
jeants at mace, were added in 1516; and in 1559 the alder-
men were increafed to ten, and the twenty-four eleétors
conftituted a common-council. The powers of juitices
were conferred on the mayor, the aldermen, and recorder,
by queen Elizabeth ; and king James I. generally confirmed
thefe, and all the former privileges enjoyed by the corpora-
tion. Newcaftle fends two members to parliament, who
are chofen by the free burgefles refident and not refident,
and returned by the fheriff. The number of voters is
eftimated at 2500.

This town abounded with religious eftablifhments after as
well as before the conquelt. In 1086 a BenediQine nunnery
is mentioned as exilting here, in which Agas, the mother-
in-law of Malcolm, and Chriftiana her fifter, took the veil
fubfequent to the death of that prince, and his fon, at the
fiege of the caftle of Alnwick. Another nunnery, dedi-
cated to St. Bartholomew, and faid to have been founded by
Henry III., ftood in the field behind the prefent Nun-gate.
At the diffolution it was exceedingly poor, though origi-
nally poflefled of large eftates. The houfe of the Black
friars is {till tanding ; as is alfo the church belonging to it,
in which Edward Baliol alienated to Edward I. the five
Scottifh counties next adjoining to the borders of England.
This houfe was granted to the mayor and burgeffes, who
afterwards transferred it to nine of the ancient trades of the
town, feven of whom hold their public meetings in it to
the prefent day. The priory of Auguttine friars, which
ftood on the feite of the general hofpital, owed its origin to
William lord Rofs, baron of Wark, about the year 1291.
It was of great extent and magnificence, and the ufual refi-
dence of the kings of England, when pafling through New-
caftle on their route to Scotland. Here wasa priory of
Francifcans, or Grey friars, eftablifhed in 1300 by the fa-
mily of the Carliols. In this monaftery the celebrated Duns
Scotus and friar Martin took the order of St. Francis, and
refided during many years. In that part of the town called
Conftable-Garth was a houfe of brethren de Penitentia
Jefu Chrifti, fubfequently granted by Edward III. to the
Carmelites, who had their firlt houfeon Wal. Knoll, where
was alfo an hofpital of 'Trinitarians, founded by William de
Aéton in 1361. The grammar-fchool at Weltgate was
formerly the church of an hofpital of St. Mary, founded
and endowed in the time of Henry II. Near this {pot ftood
another hofpital, alfo dedicated to the Holy Virgin, which
at the fuppreflion maintained a mafter and fix brethren.
An hofpital of St. Mary Magdalen was fituated between
Vine-laneand Barras-bridge, where many vettiges of it are
yet vifible. It was built and endowed by Henry I, for a
matter, brethren, and fifters, who were bound to receive
perfons afliéted with the leprofy, King James incorporated

7 this

NEW

this hofpital, with the chapel of St. Thomas a Becket, on
Tyne-bridge, and decreed that the revenues of both fhould
in future be appropriated to the fupport of a warden, and
three poor, and aged, unmarried burgefles ; and that the
mayor and common-council fhould a& in the capacity of pa-
trons. On Sand-hill was an hofpital of St. Catharine,
commonly called Thornton’s hofpital, having been founded
by Roger Thornton, in 1403, for a chaplain, who fhould
alfo be mafter,, nine poor men, and four women. This
houfe is now occupied as a warehoufe, and isthe property
of the mayor and burgeffes. Fordun, and fome other
Scottifh hiftorians, affert that there was in this town a mo-
naftery of Premonftratenfians, fouthe by David, king of
Scotland. An ancient houfe in Grindon Chare, traditionally
called the chapel of St. John, is fuppofed to have been
their convent. On St. Lawrence’s quay are the ruins of a
chapel, in honour of St. Lawrence, which was ereéted by
one of the earls of Northumberland ; and near Barras-bridge
arethe remains of another, dedicatedto St. James. There
was alfo, before the diffolution, a chapel or oratory in one
of the towers of Newcaltle-bridge ; and in another part of
it a hermitage tenanted by a reclufe. Clofe to one end of
Tyne-bridge is the:chapel of St. Thomas a Becket, the ori-
gin of which is urknown, though certainly built before the
commencement of the thirteenth century. It has lately
been fitted up as a chapel of eafe to the church of St. Ni-
cholas.

Newcaftle is a town of confiderable extent, and con-
tains, according to the populat‘on returns of 1811. 3146
houfes, and 27,587 inhabitants. The higher parts of it,
which are molt diftant from the river, difplay a number of
wide and refpeétable ftreets, but, in the lower parts, the
ftreets and alleys are extremely narrow, dirty, and ill built.
The fuburbs of Sand-gate and the North-fhore are chiefly
inhabited by the keelmen, who amount to about feven or
eight thoufand in number.

The county of Newcaftle includes a diftri& of ten miles
in circuit, and is entirely independent of Northumberland.
Within the town are four parithes, the limits of which were
diftintly marked out in 1220. All the churches and cha-
pels are fubje& to the mother-church of St. Nicholas. This
edifice is much admired for the elegant architeGture of its
tower, which was built in the reign of Henry VI., and
rifesto the height of 194 feet. ‘The remainder of the ftruc-
ture is of moreancient date, having been ereéted, in 1359,
upon the {cite of one ftill older, founded by Ofmund, bifhop
of Sarum, and burnt to the ground in 1216. In the library
of this church are feveral curious manufcripts, and among
them a highly illuminated bible, formerly belonging to
Hexham abbey. The other parifh-churches in Newcattle are
St. Andrew’s, St. John’s, and All Saints: the two firlt were
built in the 13th century, but the laft is of modern erection,
and may vie with any church in England in refpet of in-
terior decoration. Befides thefe, there are feveral chapels
attached to the eftablifhment. Diflenting meeting-houfes
are numerous, almoft every clafs 8f religionilts known in
the ifland having one or more places in this town appro-
priated to public worfhip. The moft frequent are thofe be-
longing to Prefbyterians in communion with the church of
Scotland. The grammar-fchool, already noticed as occu-
pying the premifes of St. Mary's hofpital, can rank among
its pupils fome of the moft diftinguifhes characters of this
and the laft century, feveral of whom were likewife natives
of thetown. A charity-fchool is attached to each of the
four churches, and a fifth to the chapel of St. Anne. Sun-
day-fchools are fearcely lefs numerous than the feveral places

NEW
’

of public worfhip: and independent of all thefe,-a- large
building has been lately ere€ted for the eftablifhment of a
{chool on the Lancaftrian plan, where poor children of every
fe& and denomination may be inftruéted in reading, writing,
and arithmetic. ‘This laft is called the Royal Jubilee {chool,
and was built to commemorate his majefty’sentry into the
fiftieth year of his reign. Nor is the health and fupport of the
poor lefs attended to in Newcatlle than their education. On
the welt fide of the town, and overlooking the river, ftands
an infirmary, in which nearly twelve hundred difeafed indivi-
duals are annually reftored to health ; and in Low Friar-
{treet is a difpenfary, eftablifhed upon the moft judicious
and liberal principles. A houfe of recovery for fever pa-
tients was erected in 1804. All thefe charities owe their fup-
port to annual fub{criptions alone. In an extenfive garden,
near Weltpate, a range of very commodious baths was bujlt
by Dr. Hall, fome years ago, according to a defign fur-
nifhed by William Cranefon, efq. architeét. The Lying-in
hofpital is fituated in Rofemary lane ; and there is likewife
an inftitution for the relief of poor women lying-in at their
own houfes. The other hofpitals in this town are the
Freemen’s hofpital, three fmaller ones, ftanding contigu-
ousto it, and the Keelman’s hofpital, the funds of which
are managed under the dire€tion of an aét of parliament,
pafled in 1788. Here is alfo a {pacious afylum for luna-
tics, belonging to the counties of Newcaftle, Durham, and
‘Northumberland.

As the new courts, begun in 1810, are not yet completed,
the exchange and town court-houfe {till conftitute one large
ftruQure, which was built in 1658, and is faid to have coft
upwards of 10,000/. The lower ftory is occupied by the
offices of the town-clerk, the merchant’s coffee-houfe, and a
range of piazzas. On the fecond floor are the guildhall,
the mayor’s chamber, the merchant's court, the archives of
the town, and the revenue-office. In the guildhall are held
the aflizes, quarter-feffions, and all the other courts of the
town and county of Newcattle, except the court of com-
mon council, which is held in the mayor’s chamber, where
may be feen an engine called the branks,formerly employed in
the punifhment of {coldiag women. The manfion-houfe,
rebuilt in 1691, isagrand and ftately edifice, and fitted up
in a handfome ftyle. Here the judges and their attendants
are lodged and entertained during the feffions. The affem-
bly-rooms and theatre-royal are both handfome and commo-
dious buildings of modern ere&tion. The old play-houfe is
now occupied as a concert-room ; and the old aflembly-rooms
are appropriated to the ufe of the Literary and Philofophical
Society, which was inftituted in 1793, and bids fair to rival
the beft eftablifhments of a fimilar kind in the kingdom.
On the quay-fide, at a fhort diftance from the ievcfiange
ftands the cuftom-houfe.

The general appearance of this portion of the town bears
a {trong refemblance to the port of London, in the circum-
{tances of the river being crowded with a vaft fleet of fhips
of every fize and defcription, and having a bridge thrown
over it in a fimilar pofition to London-bridge. ‘This ftruc-
ture was built in 1781, to fupply the place of a former
bridge, which was deftroyed by a tremendous {well of the
Tyne in 1771, and was found to have been raifed on the
bafis of the Pons A&lii, fromthe number of Roman coins
difcovered inthe piers. For an accountof the borough of
Gatefhead, onthe Durham fide of the river, fee the article
GATESHEAD.

The manufa@tories of this town are various and important,
confifting, however, principally of glafs, fteel, iron, and
rope-works. Broad and narrow woollen cloths are likewife

5C2

manufactured

NEW

manufa&tured in confiderable quantity for home confump-
tion. The chief exports are coals, lead, glafs, iron, falt,
bacon, butter and tallow, and the imports include almoft
every article of foreign or Britifh produce, which conve-
nience or luxury can demand. The collieries in this vicinity
are perhaps the moft valuable and extenfive in Europe, and
afford nearly the whole fupply of the metropolis, and of thofe
counties on the eaftern coaft deficient in coal-ftrata. (See
the article Coat.) Molt of the glafs-houfes and roperies
belonging to the town {tretch along the fhore, from the fu-
burbs, for two miles down the river. The chief iron-works
are fituated at Swalwell, three miles above the town, and at
New Greenwich, onthe fouth bank of the river. The mar-
kets here are held on Tuefday and Saturday weekly, and
the annual fairs on the 12th of Augult, the 29th of OGo-
ber, and the 22d of November. Of the fairs, the two firft
continue for nine days each, and the other for one only.
Many improvements have lately been effected in the difpofi-
tion and economy of the markets ; which range northwards
from the church of St. Nicholas towards Newgate-itreet.
The new butcher-market was ere¢ted at the expence of the
corporation in 1809.

Befides the hiftorical events already noticed, as conreéted
with the caftle, many others of general importance have
occurred at this town, fome of which may not improperly
claim attention, even in an article like the prefent. A con-
ference for a peace was held here, in 1269, between king
John and William king of the Scots, but the two monarchs
parted without coming to a reconciliation. ‘The meeting,
however, in 1244, between Henry IIT. and Alexander,
was more fortunate in its refult. William Wallace, the
celebrated champion of Scottifh liberty, repeatedly at-
tempted to reduce Newcaftle, and was as often repulfed by
the refolution of the townfmen. King David attacked it
about the year 1340 with no better fuccefs, and in 1346
a dreadful aGtion took place, in which the Scots were routed
with great flaughter. Henry VI. fled hither after the fatal
battle of Towton. Newcaftle was the firft vi@tim in the
grand rebellion, having been feized by the Scottifh covenan-
ters, under general Lefley, in the year 1640, a few days
fubfequent to the defeat of lord Conway at Newburn.

Heaton hall, fituated about two miles eaft from New-
caftle, is the feat of the family of the Bidleys; and near
it are the ruins of an cld building, fortified on the north,
and faid to have been one of the places of king John’s
retreat from the fury of his rebellious barons. Walls-End,
the Segedunum of the Romans, lies till farther to the ealt ;
and derives its prefent appellation from the circumftance of
the great ftone barrier ere¢ted by Hadrian terminating clofe
to the village. Some remains of the Roman fortrefs appear
in a field called the Well or Wall-laws. In finking the pits
of the colliery here, many curious and valuable relics of
Roman art were dug.up by the workmen. At Benwell,
two miles weft from Newcaftle, was the Condercum of the
Notitia, and the ftation of the Ala Aftorum. A hypocauf-
tum, a very fine urn, (vow in Durham library, ) and a variety
of infcribed ttones and coins, were difcovered here at differ-
ent periods in the lalt century. Gosforth houfe, the feat
of C. J. Brandling, efq. is a {plendid manfion, fituated about
four miles north from the town. The other feats in this
neighbourhood are Stote hall, Eland hall, and Blagdon
hall. Ogle caftle, the ancient refidence of the Ogles, in
which David, king of Scots, lay the firft night of his cap-
tivity, is now in ruins. Not far from hence, adjoining the
village of Walton, are the remains of a very remarkable
encampment, fuppofed to be of Danifh or Saxon origin.

NEW

Hiftory and Antiquities of the Town and County of the
Town of Newcaftle, by John Brand, M. A. two vols. 4to.
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xii. by the Rey. Mr.
Hodgfon.

NeweastLe-under-Line, a borough and, market-town
in the hundred of Pyrehill, and county of Stafford, Eng-
land, is fituated on a branch of the river Trent, and owes
its name and origin to a caftle built here by Edmund, earl
of Lancatter, in the reign of Henry III. This edifice ftood
in the centre of a confiderable lake, being on the fouth-welt
fide of the town,” but fearcely any veltiges of it now
remain. Leland 'yffays ‘the whole was deitroyed in his
time, with the exception of one tower, and that it was ori-
ginally ereGed to fupply the place of the more ancient for-
trefs at Chefterton-under-Line. Hence the appellation
Newcattle. This town was incorporated, by royal char-
ter, foon after its foundation; and queen Elizabeth and
Charles II. feverally confirmed its privileges. It is now go-
verned by a mayor, two juftices, two bailiffs, and twenty-
four common-councilmen, who have the right of holding
courts for the recovery of debts under forty pounds.
Newcattle fends two members to parliament, and’has done fo
fince the twenty-feventh year of the reign of Edward III.
The right of eletion has been mitch difputed, but was de-
clared, in 1792, to be velted <¢ in the freemen refiding in the
borough of Newcaitle-under-Line.”’

The fituation of the town is extremely pleafant, and the
houfes difplay a fuperior neatnefs in their architecture, as
well as a more than ordinary degree of uniformity in their
arrangement. The principal ftreet.in particular is fpacious
and well paved, but its appearance is fomewhat injured by
the market-place occupying its centre. It is faid there
were anciently four churches in this town, though one only
now exiits, and this is denominated a chapelry to Stoke.
Diffenting meeting-houfes, however, are numerous, ‘The
alms-houfes, twenty in number, owe their ere€tion to the
marquis of , Stafford and lord Grenville, and’ are appro-
priated for the accommodaticn of twenty poor women, in-
habitants of the borough. A manufactory of hats, the coal
and cloathing trade, and the potteries in the vicinity, form
the chief fupport both of the higher and lower orders of
the inhabitants. ‘The market-day is on Monday, weekly,
for provifions ; and every alternate week a great cattle market
isheld. According to the parliamentary returns of 1811,
this town contained 1344 houfes, and 6175 inhabitants,
fhewing an increafe, fince 1801, of 286 houfes, and 1571
perfons.

As the grand Trunk canal, which direétly conneéts the
navigation of the Trent, the Merfey, the Severn, and the
Thames, with, collaterally, almolt every trading town in the
interior, paffes clofe to Newcaltle, its pofition mult be re-
garded as extremely favourable to trade and ‘manufactures.
Its vicinity, moreover, abounds with coal, and contains an
exhauillefs ftore of feveral kinds of clay, admirably adapted
for the manufaéture of various forts of earthen-ware; and
accordingly here are fituated the moift extenfive and valu-
able ** potteries’’ in Great Britain. The diftri€t compre-
hended under this title is fomewhat above eight miles in
length, and nearly as maqy in breadth, including within its
compafs feveral thriving market-towns and villages, which
entirely owe their rife and profperity to this branch of in-
duftry. (See Pot ery.) ‘he principal coal mines lie
to the north of Newcaltle, and their produce is conveyed
hither by a canal formed by fir Nigel Greafley, under an
act of parliament dated in 1775. Etruria, the fuperb man-
fion of the celebrated Jofias Wedgewood, efq. ftands about

two

NEW

two miles north from the town ; and nearly at the fame dif-
tance, but more to the eaft, is the village of Shelton, the
birth-place of Elijah Fenton, a diftinguifhed poet of the
laft century. Chefterton-under-Line, the fcite of the an-
cient fortrefs, the decay of which gave occafion to the
erection of that at Neweaftle, is now atrifling village, but
there can be no doubt of its having been a place of im-
portance previous to the event we have juit mentioned.
Scarcely any traces either of the caftle or town can now be
difcovered, but Camden tells us he faw their ruins and fhat-
tered walls; and Erdefwick fays, he could perceive the
walls had been of wonderful thicknefs and ftrength. In
the reign of king John, the property of the manor here, and
confequently the cuftody of the caftle, were yelted by that
monarch in Randal, one of the earls of Chetter, from whom
it molt probably took its prefent name, for we conceive it
very likely that it had a different appellation at a more re-
mote period. ,

At Trentham, three miles and a half from Newcatftle, on
the fouth bank of the river, is a magnificent feat, belouging
to the marquis of Stafford. The houfe is a modern erec-
tion, built after the model of the Queen’s palace in St. James’s
Park, and is fyrrounded by extentfive inclofures finely va-
riegated by umbrageous foliage, {welling lawns, and expan-
five fheets of water, formed by the Trent, which flows
through the park. The noble owner of Trentham is juftly
eminent in the annals of the fine arts for his large col-
Jeétion of pictures, which is partly preferved in this man-
fion, and partly in the town-houfe at St. James’s, London,
At an extremity of Trentham-park, bordering on the pub-
lic road, is a family maufoleum, lately erected from the
claffical deligns of J. H. Tatham, efq. archite&. _ Some
further particulars of this fplendid feat, and of others in
the vicinity, will be given in a fubfequent account of the
town of Stone. In the village of Trentham ftood an an-
cient nunnery, where St. Werburgh, the filter of king
Ethelred, was abbefs at the time of her death, A.D. 683.
This monaftery, haying fallen to decay, was reftered by
Randal, fecond earl of Chefter, in the reign of Henry I.
and filled with canons of the order of St. Auguttine. After
its renewal it was dedicated to the Virgin Mary, and All
Saints, and at the period of the diffolution had feven reli-
gious inmates, and poflefled endowments to the amount of
1210, 3s. 2d. per annum. The petty jeffions for the nor-
thern divifion of the huadred of Pyrehill are held here.
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xi. by. the Rev,
Jofeph Nightingale. See alfo Carlifle’s: Topographical
Diétionary of England, 2 vols. gto. Tanner’s Notitia, and
The Topographer, 4 vols. 8vo. '

Neweastis-in-Emlyn, a {mall market-town, is fituated
partly in the hundred of Elfed, and. county of Caermar-
then, and partly in the hundred of Troed-yr-Aur, in the
county of Cardigan, South, Wales. It is pleafantly fta-
tioned on the banks of the river Teivi, which meanders along
the vale here in a very bold and ferpentine courfe, and adds
greatly, by its majeltic fweeps, to the charms of the fur-
rounding {cenery. The approach to the town lies through
an arched gateway, about fourteen feet high, and fupported
by two-o¢tagon pillars, which concributes alfo to, enhance
the romantic and pi¢turefque view, beyond at, ; Here are
the ruins of a caltle originally founded at)a very remote
period, and fubfequently rebuilt by fir Rhys ap Thomas,
who made; it one of his principal feats. Some coins and
other veltiges of a Roman:{tation are faid to have been dif-
covered in this vicinity, and the country around. exhibits
feveral encampments of different forms and fizes, fome of

NEW

which were doubtlefs either conftruéted or altered by the
Romans. The market day in this town is Saturday of
every week, and there are fix fairs during the year. Car-
lifle’s Topographical Di&ionary of Wales, 2 vols. 4to. See
alfo Evans’s Tour in Wales.

NEW CHESTER, a townhhip of America, in Grafton
county, New Hamphhire, on the W. fide of Pemigewaflet
river, incorporated in 1778; 13 miles below Plymouth.

NEWCOME, Wittiam, in Biography, a learned Irifh
prelate, was the fecond fon of the Rey. Jofeph Newcome,
who enjoyed preferment in England, as well in the county
of Bedfordfhire as in Berkfhire. The fubjeét of this article
was born at Barton-le-Clay, in Bedfordfhire, on the roth of
April, 1729, O. S. He was educated at the grammar-
{chool at -\bingdon, and became greatly diftinguifhed among
his contemporaries. In 1745 he was eleéted to a {cholar-
fhip of Pembroke college, in the univerfity of Oxford: here
he took his degrees with much reputation, and being in-
tended for the clerical profeffion, he paid every attention in
his power to thofe ftudies that would enable him to fuftain
the facred character of a Chriftian minilter with refpecta-
bility and real dignity. After this he became fellow and
tutor of Hertford college, and among other pupils placed
under his care were lord Henry Seymour and the late right
hon. Charles James Fox (fee his. article, vol. xv.), who
always cherifhed a warm refpeé for his perfon and memory.
It was at Hertford college that he met. with an accident
which occafioned the lofs of his left arm. In the year 1765
he took his degree of D.D., and was appointed chaplain to
the earl of Hertford, then lord lieutenant of Ireland; and
in the following year he was nominated to, the fee of Dro-
more. In this fituation he continued about nine years, dif-
charging, with great afliduity, the duties of the epifcopal
office, and by his affability, prudence, and moderation, fecur-
ing the refpeét of all parties, and of all religious perfuafions.
Shortly after he had obtained this bifhopric he married an
Englifh lady, by whom he had a daughter, and on the
death of this lady, in a few years, he married a fecond time,
and had feveral children. In the year 1775, Dr. Newcome
was tranflated from Dromore to the bilhopric of Offery,
and from this period he began to arrange the papers that he
had compofed, as the foundation of deveral learned works,
which he afterwards gave to the world. The firit of thefe
publications. was entitled “ An Harmony. of the Gofpels,
in which the original Text is difpofed. after Le Clerc’s
general manner ; with fuch various Readings as haye.re-
ceived Wetitein’s Sanction, &c.” | To this work his lordthip
fubjoined obfervations to. fettle the time and place of every
tranfaétion, to eftablifh the feries of facts; and to reconcile
feeming inconfiftencies.. The bifhop adopts the notion that
our Lord’s miniftry was of more than three, years anda
half duration, and with this view he divides ;his Harmony
into feven parts, r. The hiflory before the public miniftry
of Chrift, including thirty anda half years. 2. The tran
actions of about fix, months, from Jefus’s ‘baptifm till the
beginning of the enfuing paffover...3.. The ) tranfactions
of twelve months, from the.beginning of the firlt paflover.
4; The tranfactions of :another twelve: months, from: the
beginning of the fecond paflover; 5.’ The tranfa&tions of
a third, twelve months, |from.the, beginning of the third
paflover. 6. The tranfaGtions of tliree days, from. the day
on which the fourth paflover was killed, to. the end of the
day. before the refurrection, snd 7. The tranfattions of
forty days, from the day ofthe refurreCtion to the afcenfion.
See ,the article PriestLex, in which a different theory and
arrangement will be given. 7

fe

3

N.E W

Dr. Newcome, in the year 1779, was tranflated to the
fee of Waterford, and in the following year he entered into
a vindication of the work juit {poken of, in a tra¢t entitled
«©The Duration of our Lord’s Miniftry particularly con-
fidered,’” which was replied to by Dr. Prieftley; and Dr.
Newcome publifhed a fecond tra& on the fame fubjeét. In
the year 1782, he publifhed « Obfervations on our Lord’s
Condu& as a Divine Inftru€tor, and on the Excellence of
his Moral Chara&ter."’ Three years after this, he rendered
an acceptable fervice to biblical fcholars, in a thin quarto,
entitled “An Attempt towards an improved Verlion, a
metrical Arrangement, and an Explanation of the Twelve
Minor Prophets.’ ‘ One defign,’’ fays his lordfhip, * of
engaging in the prefent arduous province, was to recom-
mend, and, in a {mall degree, to facilitate, an improved
Englifh verfion of the Scriptures ; than which nothing can
be more beneficial to the caufe of religion, or more honour-
able to the reign and age in which it was patronized and
executed. The reafons for its expediency are, the miftakes,
imperfeétions, and many invincible obfcurities of our prefent
verfion ; the acceffion of various helps fince the execution of
that work; the advanced ftate of learning, and our emanci-
pation from flavery to the Maforetic points, and to the
Hebrew text as abfolutely uncorrupt.’’ His lordfhip gives
a feries of fifteen rules for the conduct of fuch a work, which
are allowed by all competent judges to be extremely valua-
ble and important. In the year 1788, the bifhop publifhed
«“ An Attempt towards an improved Verfion, a metrical
Arrangement, and an Explanation of the Prophet Ezekiel.”
In a very admirable preface to this work, and on other
occafions, bifhop Newcome recommends moft earneftly the
cultivation of the Hebrew language, on account of the vaft
importance of the treafures which it unfolds. ‘* The vene-
rable books written in Hebrew are indeed highly curious
and inftruétive, apart from religious confiderations. ‘The
hiftorian, the geographer, the chronologer, the antiquarian,
the naturalift, the poet, the orator, the legiflatior, the ob-
ferver of human nature in its original fimplicity, of the
fources whence nations fprang, of fociety in its earlieft ftage,
and of ancient Eaftern manners in their only genuine repre-
{entation ; will here find their refearches amply rewarded,
no lefs than the divine who raifes his eye to the adorable
ways of Providence in the religious and civil hiftory of man-
kind."” And the worthy prelate adds, that ‘* Such a vein
of Hebraifm runs through the writings of the Old Tefta-
ment, that even thefe divine oracles cannot be accurately
underftood, nor the anomalies of their ftyle explained, with-
out fome knowledge of Hebrew literature.’’ Another im-
portant work given to the public by our learned prelate,
was entitled “* An hiftorical View of the Englifh biblical
Tranflations; the Expediency of revifing, by Authority, our
prefent Tranflation; and the Means of executing fuch a
Revifion’’ In January 1795, Dr. Newcome was tranf-
lated to the archiepifcopal fee of Armagh; and in this
new fituation he maintained the fame charaéter which had
rendered him the object of univerfal refpe& and efteem at
Dromore, Offory, and Waterford, though he was obliged
to aflume greater {tate in his manner of living and appearance,
and to mix more in public life, than was agreeable to his
withes, but he conduéted himfelf in thofe fcenes with the
fame propriety which governed him in all his intercourfe
with the world, rejoicing when he was ennabled to with-
draw from them to the enjoyment of domeftic happinefs and
the purfuit of his ftudies. Shortly after his elevation to the
archbifhopric, he publifhed « A Charge,” in which he calls
the attention of the clergy to a very important, and at that

NE W

time much negleCted, part of the paftoral care, that of oc-
cafional and private inftru€tion, pointing out the manner of
communicating inftruétion to different defcriptions of per-
fons. This charge was the laft publication of Dr. New-
come, who, to the regret of all that knew him, or were
acquainted with his works, died at Dublin on the 11th of
January, 1800, in the 71ft year of his age. Soon after the
archbifhop’s death was publifhed his ** Attempt towards
revifing our Englifh Tranflation of the Greek Scriptures,
or the New Covenant of Jefus Chnift, &c.’’ This work,
which was printed in 1796, and referved by the author for
publication after his death, has been made the bafis of an
«¢ Improved Verfion of the New Teftament, publithed by
a Society for the Promotion of Chriftian Knowledge, &c.”
much to the mortification, as we have heard, of fome of the
archbifhop’s relatives. The archbifhop had employed a
confiderable portior of his time on an ‘* Attempt towards
revifing our Englifh Tranflation of the Hebrew Scriptures,”
and he bequeathed his interleaved Bible, in four volumes
folio, containing the refult of his labours, to the library at
Lambeth-palace. We underftand from the article in the
General Biography, to which we have been greatly indebted
for the foregoing faéts, that there exifts fomewhere in MS.
a memoir of the archbifhop drawn up by himfelf, and in his
own hand-writing, in which he gives an interefting account
of the progrefs of his ftudies, and of the fentiments relative to
the characters and opinions which have occafioned much dif-
cuffion in the theological world.

NEWCOMEN, Marruew, a nonconformift divine,
who was ejected from the living of Dedham in Effex in 1662,
was of St. John’s college, Cambridge, where he took his
degree of M. A. He was likewife a member of the Wett-
mintter affembly of divines, and had fome concern in drawing
up their cathechi{m. Mr. Newcomen was one of the five
perfons who wrote ‘¢ Smeétymnuus,” which was a treatife _
againft bifhop Hall’s Vindication of Epifcopacy. The title
of the work was made up of the initials of the chriftian and
furnames of the feveral authors, viz. Stephen Marfhal, Ed-
mund Calamy, Thomas Young, Matthew Newcomen, and
William Spurftow. After Newcomen was ejected for his
aap to confcience, he went to Leyden, where he died,
in 1666.

NEW CORBUDA, in Geography, a town of the pro.
vince of Tucuman, in South America.

NEW DUBLIN, a townfhip in the county of Lunen-
burg, Nova Scotia, on Mahone bay, firft fettled by Irifh
and afterwards by Germans.

NEW EDINBURGH, a new fettlement in Nova Scotia.

NEWEKLOW, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Beraun; 17 miles S.E. of Beraun.

NEWEL, in Archite@ure, the upright poft which ftairs
turn about ; being that part of the flaircafe which fuftains
the fteps.

The newel is, properly, a cylinder of ftone, which bears
on the ground, and is formed by the ends of the fteps of the
winding-itairs.

There are alfe newels of wood, which are pieces of timber
placed perpendicularly, receiving the tenons of the fteps of
wooden {tairs into their mortifes, and wherein are fitted the
fhafts and refts of the ftaircafe, and the flights of each ftory.

NEWELL, in Geography, a town of Lithuania, in the
palatinate of Brzefe ; 24 miles S.W. of Pinfk.

NEW ENGLAND. Sce New ENGLAND.

NEWENHAM, Carr, the north point of Briftol bay,
on the N.W. coaft of North America. N, lat. 58° 42’.
W. long. 162° 24’.

NEWENT,

NE W

NEWENT, a {mall market-town in the hundred of
Botloe, and county of Gloucefter, England, is fituated nine
miles from the city of Gloucefter, and 108 miles from
London. Its original appellation, according to Leland,
was New Inn; from a building ere¢ted for the accommo-
dation of travellers, when the communication was firft opened
by this road into Wales. The town is irregularly built, and
is but of little importance ; though formerly it was much
larger, and had the privileges of a borough; it was alfo
governed by a bailiff, whofe office appears to have fallen
into difufe about the end of the 17th century. A houfe,
now dilapidated, ftill bears the name of the Booth-hall.
The church is a fpacious ftruéture, of the architecture of
various periods ; as it appears to have been three times par-
tially rebuilt. Over the porch is a tewer, terminating in a
lofty f{pire, erected, with the roof of the nave, about the
year 1675: the latter is f{upported by {crews without pillars,
in a manner fimilar to that of the theatre in Oxford. The
population returns of the year 1811 ftate the inhabitants of
Newent as amounting to 2538, the number of houfes to
sti. Tour fairs are annually “held here, and a weekly
market on Fridays. The town and its vicinity were diltin-
guifhed by many military tranfaétions during the civil wars.
The parifh, which includes a circumference of nearly
twenty-five miles, produces great quantities of coal: two
pits have been recently funk by fubfcription ; the thicknefs
of the feam is be:ween four and five feet ; the depth to the
coal about forty-one yards.

An alien priory was founded in this town, foon after the
Norman invafion, by Roger de Montgomery ; at whofe re-
queft it was fubjeéted by the Conqueror to the Benediétine
abbey of Cormeillein Normandy. King Henry IV. granted
its pofleffions to the collegiate church of Fotheringhay in
Northamptonfhire, to which they continued annexed till
‘the diffolution. On the fcite of this priory the court-houfe
was built: an ancient gateway, and fome {maller fragments
of the monattic building, yet remain. Rudge’s Hiftory of
the County of Gloucelter, 2 vols. 8vo. 1803. Beauties of
England and Wales, vol. v.

NEWERT, a {mall ifland in the North fea, near the E.
coaft of Lewis. N. lat. 58°. W. long. 6° 22'.

NEW-FANE, the chief town of Windham county, in
Vermont, America, fituated on the Welt river; 12 miles
N.W. of Brattleborough, containing 1000 inhabitants.

NEW FOREST. See Forest.

NEWFOUNDLAND, an ifland in the Atlantic ocean,
feparated from the continent of America by the ftraits of
Belleifle, about 21 miles wide, and the gulf of St. Lawrence,
about 320 miles in length and breadth, approaching to the
fhape of a triangle, and fituated between N. lat. 46° 4o!
and 51° 30’, and W. long. 52° 31’ and 59° 4o’. This
ifland is rather hilly than mountainous. The foil is rocky
and barren. The coalts are fubje& to fogs, fuppofed by
fome to be owing to the fuperior warmth of the gulf
ftream from the Weft Indies, and alfo to fnow and fleet ;
and the interior parts, which have not been penetrated above
30 miles, abound with ponds and moraffes. It is watered,
however, by feveral rivers, and has many large and good
harbours; and it furnifhes a fupply of birch, {mall pine,
and fir, which may probably, with due attention, be of
fervice for ma{ts, yards, and iumber of all forts for the Weft
India trade ; but the chief mine of its wealth is the fifhery
on its banks, which 1s computed to employ annually 3000
fail of {mall craft, and 100,000 perfons, and to yield about
300,000/, a-year, from the cod fold in Catholic countries,
For an account of its fifhery, fee the article Fisnery. The
chief towns of this ifland are, St. John inthe S.E., Placentia

_ NEW ;

iu the S., and Bonavifta in the E.; but not above 1000
families remain here during the winter. In the {pring a
{mall {quadron is fent to protect the filheries and fettlements,
the admiral being alfo governor of the ifland, as its fole im-
portance depends upon the fifhery; and there are two
lieutenant-governors, one at St. John’s and another at
Placentia.

This ifland was difcovered by John Cabot in 1497; but
the French feem to have firft availed themfelves of the gold
mine of the Newfoundland fifhery, in which they were ac-
tually engaged in the year 1534. In 1583, fir Humphrey
Gilbert, brother-in-law to Raleigh, made an attempt to
fettle this important colony ; but he was obliged to return
without effecting his purpofe, and he was Feallnped up by
the ocean in his voyage homewards, retaining to the lait
his love of improvement and his piety; for whilft in the
midft of danger he was litting unmaved in the ftern of his
fhip, with a book in his hand, he was frequently heard to
fay to his comrades, ** Courage, my lads, we are as near
heaven at fea as on land.”? After feveral fubfequeut efforte
for making a fettlement in this ifland, and difputes with thi
French, who had poffeffion of Placentia, and a principa
part of the ifland, it was ceded to England by the treaty
of Utrecht in 1713, the French being allowed to dry their
nets on the northern fhores; and by a treaty in 1763, they
were permitted to fifh, under certain limitations, in the gulf
of St. Lawrence; and the fmall ifles of St. Pierre and
Miquelon were ceded to them. For further particulars,
fee Cod Fisuery.

NEW FOUND MILLS, a place of America, with a
pott-office, in Hanover county, Virginia; 112 miles from
Wahhington.

NEW GARDEN, a poft-town of America, in Chefter
county, Pennfylvania.—Alfo, a fettlement of the Friends,
in Guildford county, North Carolina.

NEW GENEVA, a poft-town of America, in Fayette
county, Pennfylvania, on the S. fide of the Monongahela,
in which is a manufa¢tory of glafs bottles and mufkets. In ©
its vicinity is found plenty of iron ore and coal. Here isa
poit-office, 230 miles from Wathington.

NEW GERMAN TOWN, a polt-town of America,
in Hunterdon county, New Jerfey; 48 miles N.W. of
Brunfwick.

NEW GLOUCESTER, a {mall poft-town of America,
in Cumberland county, Maine ; 146 miles N. of Bofton;
incorporated in 1774, and containing 1378 inhabitants.

NEW GOTTINGEN, a town of America, in Burke
county, Georgia, on the W. bank of Savannah river ; about
18 miles E. of Waynefborough.

NEW GRANADA. See New Granapa.

NEW GRANTHAM, a townfhip of America, in
Chefhire county, New Hampfhire, incorporated in 1761 ;
about 15 miles S.E. of Dartmouth college.

NEW HAMPSHIRE, one of the United States of
America, extending 168 miles in length, go in its greatett,
and 19 in its leaft breadth, between 42° 41' and 45° 30! N.
lat., and 2° 41! and 4° 29' E. long. from Philadelphia ;
bounded N. by the province of Lower Canada, E. by the
diftri€t of Maine azd the Aclantic ocean, S. by Maffa-
chufetts, W. by the weftern bank of Conseéticut river, and
containing 9491 fquare miles, or 6,074,240 acres, of which
at lealt 100,000 acres are water. This {late is divided into
fix counties, which are fubdivided into 214 townfhips and
locations, moft of which are about fix miles {quare. The
names of thefe counties, their chief towns, and number of
inhabitants, in 1800, were as follow :

Coanties,

NEW NE W
Conhties. Townships. Inhabitants. Chief Towns. No, of Inhabitants.
Portfmouth, N. lat. 43° 5! :
Rockingham - 46 “ = 45,427 esc "i 5339
Concord - = = 4 = 2052
Sai 3 en lag nas co gig | Bath inh ube ah
; d
Hillfborough — - 34 ein } 43.899 Ambhertt Hawes cl L> els W om boosge
: Keene = = “ - < 16.
Se eee 35 r ‘ 3 Siena) ‘ Charlefton - = 5 = - t364'
ese real j 2 jaaehct } 232093 ;
( G7) Ee Ne 26 = - Lancafter - Fe - = = 440
otal cms. je 219 - - 183,858 ;

The principal harbour for fhips in this ftate, which has
but about 18 miles of fea-coaft at its S.E. corner, is the
entrance of Pifcataqua river. The more remarkable high
lands do not appear nearer to the fea than about 20 or 30
miles. The firft ridge is denominated the Blue Hills, which
pafs through Rocheiter, Barrington, and Nottingham, be-
yond which are feveral higher detached mountains. The third
ridge confifts of higher mountains, of which the principal
are Chocorua, Offapy, and Kyafarge. Beyond thefe is the
lofty ridge which divides the branches of Conneéticut and
Merrimack rivers, denominated the height of land. In this
ridge is the celebrated Monadnock mountain; and 30 miles
N. of this is Sunapee ; and 48 miles farther is Moofehillock
mountain. This ridge is then continued northerly, dividing
the waters of the river Connedticut from thofe of Saco and
Amerifcoggin. Here the mountains rife much higher, the
moft elevated fummits of which are the White mountains.
The lands weft of this ridge, bordering on ConneGicut
river, are inter{perfed with extenfive meadows or intervals,
rich and well watered. Five of the largeft ftreams in New
England receive more or lefs of their waters from this
ftate ; thefe are Connecticut, Amerifcoggin, Saco, Merri-
mack, and Pifcataqua rivers. ‘The principal lakes in this
ftate are, Winnipifeogee, Umbagog, Squam, Sunapee, Great
Offapy, and Maffabefick pond. The foil in New Hamp-
fhire is very various; the moft valuable is that which lies
contiguous to the larger rivers, becaufe it is annually over-
flowed, and thus enriched : lands of this kind yield wheat,
and other kinds of grain, in the greateft perfection; but
they are not fo good for pafture as the uplands of a proper
quality ; apples and pears are the moft common, and the
Frincipal fruits cultivated in this ftate. The chief bufinefs
of the inhabitants is agriculture. Beef, pork, mutton,
poultry, wheat, rye, Indian corn, barley, pulfe, butter,
cheefe, flax, hemp, hops, efculent plants, and roots, may be
produced in great abundance in New Hampfhire. The
principal articles of export from this {tate are pine-boards,
oak-plank, ftaves and heading, clap-boards, fhingles, hoops,
oars, rafters, pine and oak timber, mafts, fpars, fhook-
hogfheads, fifh dried and pickled, whale-oil, tar, flax-feed,
beef, corn, oxen and cows, horfes, fheep, New England rum,
bricks, pot and pearl-afhes, &c. The total value of ex-
portation for the years 1798 and 1799 was 723,242
dollars. "The imports confift of Welt India rum, gin, mo-
lafles, wine, porter, fugars, tea, coffee, cotton, shel’, nails,
cordage, twine, falt, fea-coal, fteel, lead, and grind-f{tones.
The amount of thipping belonging to New Hero pthire in
1798 was 19,220 tons. The people in this country gene-
rally manufacture their own clothing, and confiderable quan-
tities of tow-cloth for exportation. The other manufactures

are pot and pearl-afhes, maple fugar, bricks and pottery,
and fome iron. :

By an act of affembly in 1792, a bank, under the ftyle of
the “ Bank of New Hampfhire,”’ was eftablifhed at Portf-
mouth, to continue 50 years, under the management of a
prefident and feven direGtors. The number of inhabitants
in the year 1800 was 183,858, and it appears that the
number has actually been doubled in lefs than 19 years;
and of thefe inhabitants feveral inftances occur of remarkable
longevity. The people of this ftate are, in general, hardy,
robuit, aétive, and brave ; but it is a fubjeé of regret, that
the free indulgence of fpirituous liquors is one of their
greateft faults, particularly in the vicinity of Pifcataqua
river, and its branches. Since the revolution, the means of
information and improvement have been augmented and ex-
tended. The only college in this ftate is in the townfhip
of Hanover, called «‘ Dartmouth College,”’ (fee CoLLEGE) ;
befides which there are many academies.

The largeft town in New Hampfhire is Port/mouth,
which fee : befides which we mention, in their proper places,
the towns of Exeter, Concord, Haverhill, Charlefon,
Keene, Dover, Amherft, and Plymouth. The principal
denominations of Chriftians in this ftate are Congre-
gationalilts, Prefbyterians, Epifcopalians, Baptifts, and
Quakers: here are alfo a few Sandemanians and Univer-
falifts. The conftitution of this ftate is fimilar to that of
Maffachuietts. The firlt difcovery of any part of New
Hampfhire was in 1614; and the firft fettlement was made
in 1623. See Morfe’s Geog.

NEW HAMPTON, a poft-town of America, in New
Hamphhire, Strafford county, on the W. fide of lake Win-
nipifcogee, nine miles S.E. of Plymouth, incorporated in
1777-—Alfo, a pott-town in Hunterdon county, New Jer-
fey, 217 miles from Wafhington.

NEW HANOVER, a maritime county of Wilmington
diftrit, North Carolina, extending from cape Fear river
N.E. along the Atlantic ocean, ‘The chief town is Wil-
miugton.—Alfo, a townfhip in Burlington county, New
Tertey, containing about 20,000 acres of improved land, and
a large quantity that is barren and uncaltivated. The com-
pact part is called «* New-mills,”” containing about 50 houfes ;
27 miles from Philadelphia,—Alfo, a townfhip in Morgan
county, Pennfylvania,— Alfo, a county of North Carolina,
in the diftri€&t of Wilmington, containing 5371 inhabitants,
of whom 2933 are flaves. See alfo HANOVER.

NEW HARTFORD, a fmall poft-town in Litchfield
county, Conneéticut; 14 miles N.E, of Litchfield.

NEW HAVEN, called alfo Mecching, a town of Eng-
land, inthe county of Suffex, fituated on the Enghfh chan-
nel, having a fmall, but convenient, harbour, at the Tee

re)

NEW

of the river Oufe ; guarded at the entrance by a {mall fort ;
feven milesS. of Lewes. N. lat. 50° 47’. E.long.o” 4’.
—Alfo, a county of Conneéticut, in America, extending
along the Sound between Middlefex county on the E. and
Fairfield on the W ; about 50 miles loug from N. to S. and
28 from Eto W. ; divided into 14 townthips, and contain-
ing, in the year 1800, 31,926 free perfons, and 256 flaves.
—Alfo, a city, the feat of juftice in the lalt-mentioned
county, and the femi-metropolis of the ftate. This city lies
round the head of a bay, which makes up about four miles
N. from Long Ifland found ; and covers a large plain, which
is enclofed on three fides by high hills or mountains. Two
{mall rivers bound the city E. and W. It was originally laid
out in fquares, many of which have been divided by crofs
ftreets ; four ftreets run N.W. and S.E., and are croffed by
others at right angles; near the ceritre is the public fquare,
‘in and about which are the public buildings, which are a
ftate-houfe, three college edifices, a chapel and edifice for the
library, &c. three churches for Congregationalifts, and one
for Epifcopalians, The public fquare is encircled with rows
of trees, which render it both convenient and delightful.
Many of the ftreets are alfo ornamented with rows of trees,
giving to the city a rural appearance. The city contains
between 3 and 4oo neat houfes, chiefly of wood. Within
the limits of the city there were, in 1798, 547 houfes, and
upwards of 4000 perfons, of whom about one in feventy
dies annually. Ass to pleafantnefs and falubrity, New Haven
is hardly exceeded by any city in America. It carries on a
confiderable trade with New York and the Welt India iflands.
The exports for one year, ending Sept. 1794, amounted in
value to 171,868 dollars. Here are manutactures of card-
teeth, linen, buttons, cotton and paper. For an account
of Yale college in this city, fee Cottecr. This place and
Hartford are the feats of the legiflature alternately; 40
miles S.W. by S. of Hartford, 152 from Bofton, and 183
N.E. of Philadeiphia. N. lat. 41° 18’. W. long. 72°56’.
—Alfo, a poft-town in Addifon county, Vermont, on Otter
creek, between Middlebury and Vergennes.

NEW HEBRIDES. See Hesrines.

NEWHOFF, Tueopore Baron, in Biography, com-
monly entitled King of Corfica, the fon of Anthony baron
de Newhoff, and de Stein, in Weftphalia, was born at
Metz, about the year 1696. His father, by his marriage
with the daughter of a merchant, having incurred the hatred
of his relations, was obliged to emigrate into France, and
‘died while the fon was very young. The duchefs of Or-
leans, to whom the baron had been introduced, took com-
paffion of the defolate {tate of Theodore, and his fatherlefs
filter, fent for them, and caufed them to be brought to court.
While a youth, Theodore obtained the appointment of page
to the duke regent, and his filter, who became maid of ho-
nour to her hishnefs, was afterwards married to the count
de Trevoux. The boy manifefted at an early period a paf-
fionate attachment to military glory ; the lives of the illuf-
trious Romans and Greeks, as recorded by Plutarch, were the
fubjets of his conftant ftudy ; he read them till his heart was
infpired with an ambition to imitate their heroic deeds. The
romantic exploits of Charles XII. of Sweden had filled Eu-
rope with the praifes of that monarch, and became the prin-
cipal fubje& of converfation at this period. Young New-
hoff, burning to participate in the glory of this prince, left
France, entered into the fervice of Charles, and foon acquired
a confiderable fhare of knowledge in the art of war, and at
all times exhibited that indifference for exiftence which was
the charaGteriltic of the hero whom he wifhed to emulate.
He alfo diftinguifhed himfelf by his genius and capacity for

ublic affairs, which introduced him to the notice of baron
de Gortz, who direéted all the political concerns of the

Vor. XXIV,

NEW

Swedifh cabinet. By that minifter he was employed in feveral
difficult negociations, and acquitted himfelf to his entire fa-
tisfaction. When that ftatefman was executed at Stock-
holm, Theodore Newhoff entered into the Spamih iervice.
Soon after this he married an Irifh lady of fome rank, who,
in confequence of the misfortunes of her family, had taken
refuge in a foreign country. This was lady Sarstield, dangh-
ter of lord Kilmalock, and lady of honour to the queen, by
whom he had a fon, who was afterwards known in this
country by the name of colonel Frederic, who obtained mi-
litary rank as colonel, from the duke of Wirtemberg, and
who, being reduced to great diltrefs, put an end to his life,
in the portal of Weftminfter abbey, in the year 1796. This
gentleman was known in the literary world by “ Mémoires
pour fervir 4 l’Hiftoire de Corfe’’ and by a “ Deicription
of Corfica, with an Account of its Union to the Crown of
England.” (See Monthly Magazine, vol. lil.) But to re-
turn to Theodore; he now repaired to France, and beca

conneéed with John Law, the famous Scotch adventurer,
with whom he embarked in the memorable Miffifippi fcheme,
which was afterwards produétive of fo much wretchednefs
to thoufands. From thence he paffed into Holland and Eng-
land, and in 1736 we find him at Leghorn. It was during
his refidence in Florence that his conne@tion with his future
fubjects commenced. Corfica being, at that time, in a tate
of infurrection, Theodore went to that ifland, where the in-
habitants chofe him for their king. He inftituted a new
military order, called “The Order of Deliverance,’ but he
was, after a time, obliged to quit the ifland, having firft ap-
pointed deputies to manage affairsin his abfence. He went
to Naples in difguife, but was difcovered and made prifoner
in the fortrefs of Ceuta; at length he efcaped to England,
where he died. See our article Corsica ; alfo a work en-

titled « Necrology,” publifhed in London in 1800.

NEW HOLLAND, in Geography. See Hoxianp.

New Hortanp, a poft-town of America, in Lancafter
county, Pennfylvania, in the midft of a fertile country ;
containing a German church and about 100 houfes ; 54 miles
W.N.W. of Philadelphia,

NEW JERSEY. See New Jersey.

NEWIN. See Nevin. =

NEWINGTON, in Geography, a townfhip of America,
formerly part of Portfmouth and Dover, in Rockingham
county, New Hamphhire, containing 481 inhabitants,

NewinatTon-Butts, a large village, and a parifh, fituated
in the eaftern divifion of the hundred of Brixton, and county
of Surrey, at the diftance of fomewhat more than a mile to
the fouth of London-bridge. The parifh is of very {mall
extent, confifting only of about three hundred acres, of
which a third is covered with houfes, and the remainder laid
out in gardens and pafturage. It is bounded on the weft by
the parifh of Lambeth; on the eaft and north by that of
St. George, Southwark ; and on the fouth by Camberwell.
The church, which is a brick building in the modern ftyle,
though much enlarged within thefe few years, is {till by far
too confined for the population. The living is a reCtory in
the peculiar jurifdiétion of the archbifhop of Canterbury.
In Eaft-lane, Walworth, are two meeting-houfes of the
Baptilts ; and in Weft-lane is one belonging to the Inde-
pendents, who have alfo another in Lock's Fields. Near the
Elephant and Cattle ftands a conventicle, on the front of
which is infcribed, in large letters, «© The Houfe of God.”
The congregation which affemble here only differ from the
eftablifhed church in the circumftance of their entertaining a
confident belief that the world is nigh diffolution. In this
parifh are ** The Draper’s Alms-houfes,"’ founded and en-
dowed by Mr. John Walter in the year 1651. Newington
was originally {pelt Neweton, and 8 Newenton. It

5D occurs

NEW

occurs firft as Newington-Butts in a record dated 1555,
when there can be no doubt but that “ butts’ were placed
here for archers to fhoot at. According to the parliamentary
returns of 1811, this parifh contains 4994 houfes, and 23,853
inhabitants. By the returns of 1801, the former were only
eftimated at 2940, and the latter at 14,847, fo that the po-
pulation has increafed more than a third of its total amount
within the laft ten years. Lyfons’s Environs of London, vol.1.
ato. edit. 1795; with ‘‘ Supplement,”’ publifhed in 18rr.

NEWINGTON, Stofe, a parifh and village in the hundred of
Offulton, and county of Middlefex, England, is fituated at
a fhort diftance N.E. of Iflington, The parifh is bounded
by thofe of Hackney, Iflington, Hornfey, and Tottenham,
and contains, exclufive of the ground covered with houfes,
about soo acres of land, chiefly laid down in pafture. The
manor has, from time immemorial, been attached to a pre-
bend in St. Paul’s cathedral. ‘Thomas Sutton, efq. who oc-
@afionally refided at the manor-houfe, which he held on a leafe
of 99 years, founded the charter-houfe in this village. The
church is a low, ancient edifice, containing a great variety of
monuments and infcriptions, but none of them feem entitled
to particular notice. Here is a charity fchool, eftablifhed be-
fore the year 1729, and fupported partly by endowments,
and partly by voluntary contributions and colleCtions at cha-
rity fermons. Twenty boys and fifteen girls are clothed and
educated in this fchool, befides which, there is one belonging
to the Diffenters, where fourteen girls receive their clothes
and education. . Newington pofleffes two diffenting meeting-
houfes of great refpectability, one being at Newington
Green. The diftinguifhed and much lamented Dr. Price
was long paitor of the latter.

In the parliamentary returns of 1801, the number of
houfes in this parifh were eftimated at 221, and the inha-
bitants at 1462 in number, but by the late returns (1811)
it appears to contain 364 houfes, and a population of 2149
perfons. Lyfons’s Environs of London, vol. iii. 4to. edit.
1795, with “Supplement,” 1 vol. 4to. 1811.

NEW INLET, achannel of the Atlantic, between cape
Fear ifland and the coait of North Carolina. N. lat. 33°
56!. W. long. 78° 5'.—Alfo, a channel between two {mall
iflands on the coafl of New Jerfey. N. lat. 39° 50°. W.
long. 74° 15'.

NEW INVERNESS. See New INVERNESS.

NEW IPSWICH. See New Ivswicu.

NEW ISLAND, an ifland near the fouthern extremity
of South America; 21 miles N.E. of Evout’s iflands.

NEW KENT, acounty of Virginia, bounded on the S.
fide of Pamunky and York rivers, about 33 miles long, and
12 broad, containing 2741 free inhabitants, and 3622 flaves ;
the court-houfe is 30 miles from Richmond, and has a polt-
office.

NEWLAND, Peter, in Biography, the fon of a car-

enter at Dimmermeer, near Am{terdam, was born in 1764.
th his chjldhood he evinced extraordinary proofs of genius,
and at the age of ten years produced fome excellent pieces of
poetry, and was, even then, able to folve problems in ma-
thematics without having had any inftruétion from a matter.
The Batavian government appoigted him one of the com-
miffioners of longitude, and he was fucceflively profeffor of
mathematics and philofophy at Utrecht and Amiterdam.
He died in the year 1794. He was author of feveral works,
among which may be mentioned the following ; 1. Poems in
the Dutch Language ; 2. A Trraét on the Means of enlighten-
ing a People ; 3. On the general Utility of the Mathematics ;
4- Of the Syftem of Layoifier ; and 5. A ‘Treatife on Navi-
gation. ‘T’o thefe may be added treatifes on the form of the
globe; onthe courfe of Comets, and the uncertainty of their
return ; and on the method of afcertaining the latitude at fea.

NEW

Newxanp, in Geography, a {mall ifland of England, near
the N.W. coatt of the county of Cornwall, at the mouth of
the river Alan; four miles below Paditow.

NEW LEBANON. See New Lesanon.—Alfo, a
poft-town of Camden county, North Carolina; 279 miles
from Wafhington.

NEWLIN, a townfhip of America, in Chefter county,
Pennfylvania, on the Brandywine.

NEW LONDON, a maritime county of Conneticut,
comprehending the S.E. corner of it, bordering E. on Rhode
land, and S. on Long Ifland found, about 30 miles from
E.to W. and 24 from N. to S.; it is divided into 11 town-
fhips, of which New London and Norwich are the chief,
and contained, in 1800, 34,888 inhabitants, of whom 209
were flaves.—Alfo, a city, port of entry, and poft-town of
the above county, and one of the moft confiderable com-
mercial towns in the ftate; fituated on the W. fide of the
river Thames, about feven miles from its entrance into the
Sound, and defended by fort Trumbull and fort Grifwold.
Here are two places of public worfhip, one for Epifco-
palians and one for Congregationalifts ; about 300 dwelling-
houfes, and 4600 inhabitants. The harbour is large, fafe,
and commodious, and has, on the W. fide, a light-houfe.
The exports for a year, ending Sept. 1794, amounted in
value to 557,453 dollars. In this year 1000 mules were
fhipped for the Weit Indies; 14 miles S. of Norwich. N.
lat. 41° 25’. W. long. 72°15’. The townfhip of New
London was laid out in lots in 1648 ; it was called by the
Indians “* Namang”’ or ** Toungog,”’ and from being the
feat of the Pequot tribe “* Pequot.” It was the feat of
Saffacus, the grand monarch of Long Ifland, and part of
Conneéticut and Narraganfet.—Alfo, a {mall townfhip
of Hillfborough county, New Hampfhire, incorporated in
1779, and containing 617 inhabitants; lying at the head of
Blackwater river, and about three miles from the N.E. fide
of Sunapee lake.—Alfo, a pott-town of Campbell county,
Virginia, feated on rifing ground, and containing about 130
houfes, a court-houfe, and gaol. It has a magazine of arms,
and a flourifhing academy, 133 miles W. by S. of Richmond.

NEW MADRID. See Manprip.

NEWMANSTOWN, a town of America, in Dauphin
county, Pennfylvania, on the E. fide of Mill creek, con-
taining about 14 houfes; 14 miles E. by N. of Harrifburg.
—Alfo, atown of North Wales, in the county of Flint;
four miles N.E. of St. Afaph.

NEWMARKET, a {mall market-town and parifh in
the hundred of Preftatyn and county of Flint, North Wales,
is fituated at the diftance of three miles and a half to the
north of the city of St. Afaph. The church here is an
ancient edifice, and in the cemetery {tands a curious {tone
crofs. Here are held the petty feffions for the hundred.
The market is holden on Saturday ; and the fairs, of which
there are four annually, on the laft Saturday in April, the
third Saturday in July, the fourth Saturday in Oétober, and
the fecond Saturday in December. There is in this town a
charity {chool, founded and endowed by Dr. Daniel Wil-
liams, a diftinguifhed Diflenting minilter. According to
the parliamentary returns of 1811, the. whole parifh contained
89 houfes, and 469 inhabitants.

NewMARKET is a market-town, partly fituated in the hun-
dred of Chevely, Cambridgefhire, and partly in the hundred
of Lackford, in the county cf Suffolk, England. It con-
fifts of two parifhes, one being in each county, and is 13 miles
diftant from Cambridge, and 61 from London. The houfes
are chiefly difpofed in one long and wide ftreet, in which are
the two parifh churches of St. Mary’s and All Saints. The
town has been twice nearly deftroyed by fire; the firlt time
in 1683, when the king, queen, and duke of York geishs

the

NE W

the races; the fecond eonflagration was about the commence-
ment of the laft century. According to the population re-
turn in the year 1811, Newmarket contained 332 houfes,
and 1917 inhabitants. A market is held on Tueldays; and
two fairs annually. When the town obtained its charter does
not appear ; the earlieft mention of it on record is in the
year 12273 and itis probable it took its name froma market
then recently eftablifhed.

Newmarket Heath has long been celebrated in the annals
of horfemanfhip as one of the fineft race-courfes in the
Kingdom. The diverfion of horfe-racing, though undoubt-
edly practifed in the country in the time of the Romans,
never made any confiderable progrefs, but rather became ex-
tinct, till the acceffion of James I., who again introduced it
from Scotland, where it came into repute from the {pirit and
fwiftnefs of the Spanifh horfes which had been wrecked in
the veffels of the Armada, and thrown afhore on the coafts
of Galloway. From this period it became more fafhionable ;
and Newmarket had probably a racing eftablifhment as early
as the reign of that monarch, who ere¢ted a houfe here,
which was deltroyed in the civil war, but was rebuilt by that
diftinguifhed patron of the turf, Charles II., and is ftill the
refidence of the fovereign, when he vifits Newmarket. The
idea of improving the breed of horfes has, in a certain de-
gree, induced the legiflature to encourage this fpecies of
gambling ; and even the throne feems to fanétion its conti-
nuance; for in addition to the plates given by the nobility,
the king gives two plates annually. The races are held feven
times in the year ; the whole of the race-courfe is in Cam-
bridgefhire.

At the diftance of about a mile and half from Newmarket,
crofling the London road, runs a remarkable excavation,
called the ‘* Devil’s ditch,’”’ which extends nearly in a ftraight
line for feven miles, from Wood-Ditton to Reach, in the
parifh of Burwell; the moft perfe part is for the {pace of
amile in the vicinity of Reach; the works here confift of a
deep ditch, with an elevated vallum, the flope of which
meafures 52 feet on the welt fide, and 26 feet on the ealt ;
the whole of the works are about 100 feet in width. From
the mode of difpofing the excavated earth, it is the opinion
of Dr. Stukeley, and other antiquaries, that the ditch was
made fome centuries before the time of Czfar, by the firlt
inhabitants who fettled ealtward, in order to fecure them-
felves from the attacks of the inland aborigines. Various
other conjectures have been formed refpecting the origin of
this and finiilar earth-works in this part of the country, which
are unqueftionably of very remote antiquity. The Devil’s
ditch at prefent ferves for the boundary between the diocefes
of Norwich and Ely. Lyfons’s Magna Britannia, vol. ii.

NewMArKET, a pott-town of the county of Kilkenny,
Ireland, 129 miles S.S.W. from Dublin, and about 12 miles
§. by W. from Kilkenny.

NeEwMARKET, a pott-town of the county of Clare, Ire-
Jand, fituated upon a river which falls into the Fergus, 108
miles W.S.W. from Dublin, 14 W. by N. from Limerick.

NewMarket, a {mall market town of the county of Cork,
Ireland, in the north-weitern part. It is fituated on the
siver Allo, which afterwards unites with the Dalua, and isa
confiderable thoroughfare to the county of Kerry; 129%
miles S.W. from Dublin, about 30 N. by W. from Cork.

NewMarkET, a polt-town cf America, in Rockingham
county, New Hampthire, N. of Exeter ; 13 miles W. of
Port{mouth ; incorporated in 1727, and containing 1027 in-
habitants. Shells of oytters, mufcles, and clams intermixed,
have been found near Lamprey river in this town at the depth
of 17 feet.—Alfo, a town of Shenandoah county in Vir-
ginia, containing 100 houfes ; zo miles S.W. of Woodltock ;
inhabited by Germans.—Alfo, a polt-town in Ambherit

NEW

county, Virginia, on the N. fide of James river, at the mouth
of Tye river; 100 miles above Richmond.—Alfo, a pott-
town in Rofs county, Ohia; 465 miles from Wahthington.

NEW MARLBOROUGH. See Martsornoucu.—
Alfo, a town in King George's county, Virginia, on the
W. fide of Patowmac river; 10 miles E. of Falmouth.

NEW MEXICO. See Mexico.

NEW MILFORD, a poft-town of America, in Litch-
field county, Conneéticut, on the E. fide of Houfatonick
river, 20 miles S.W. of Litchfield; containing about 500
houfes, a church for Epifcopalians, one for Congregation-
alifts, one for Prefbyterians, one for Baptifts, and one for
Quakers; alfo, feven forges, which manufaéture 300 tons
of iron, befides hollow ware.— Alfo, a pott-town at the head
of the tide on Sheepfcot river, in Lincoln county, Maine ;
10 miles N. of Wifcaffet.

NEW-MILLS, a place, with a poft-office, in Burlington
county, New Jerfey.

NEWMILNS, a confiderable borough of barony, and
a ‘market-town, is fituated in the parifh of Loudoun and
county of Ayr, North Britain. It is a place of great an-
tiquity, but did not receive its charter of ereétion till the
reign of James IV.; at which time it appears from the deed
itfelf to have been a town of no {mall importance. The fu-
perior lords were the earls of Loudoun, and in their right
the fuperiority is confequently now enjoyed by the countefs
of Loudoun and Moira. According to the population re-
turns of 1811, the parifh contained 461 houfes, and 3170 in-
habitants, of whom about oh may occupy the town, which
is not fo extenfive as formerly.

NEW MOON. See Moon and Neomenta.

NEWNHAM, in Geography, a {mall market-town in the
hundred of Weftbury, and county of Gloucefter, England,
is fituated on an eminence rifing from the weftern banks of
the river Severn, at the diftance of 11 miles from the city of
Gloucefter, and 117 miles from London. Its origin is re-
mote ; in the Norman times it appears to have been fortified
to reprefs the incurfions of the Welfh; and in the records ef
St. Bartholomew’s hofpital in Gloucetter, relative to grants
of certain lands in Newnham, frequent mention is made of a
caftle here ; but no remains of it are now to be traced. The
fortifications on the fouth fide of the town are probably of
Norman date ; the circumvallation on the back part muit be
referred to the time of the civil war, when Newnham was
garrifoned for the king by fir John Wyntour, whofe forces
were obliged to furrender to colonel Maffie. Newnham was
one of the five boroughs in this county returned on a man-
date from the crown, in the ninth year of Edward I., and
was then governed by a mayor and burgefles; but the au-
thority has long been vefted in two conttables, though a
formal election of a mayor has, till lately, been kept up.
A {word of ftate prefented by king John 1s ftill preferved as
a memorial of former greatnefs; it is of polifhed feel, highly
ornamented, and of exquifite workmanfhip, The former
importance of the town may likewife be inferred from many
names of {treets and lanes which appear in ancient grants, but
whofe fituations are now unknown. It was alfo diftinguifhed
by being appointed for the meeting between king Henry II.,
and earl Strongbow, on the return of the latter from his
conqueits in Ireland. The parifh church of Newnham
ftands on a commanding cliff near the river ; the arch lead-
ing into the chancel is ornamented with zig-zag mouldings 3
and is fuppofed to have been preferved from the ruins of a
more ancient {truéture, which {tood at a place called Nabb’s
Ends. The population of this parifh in the year 1811, was
reported to parliament as 952, occupying 155 houfes; the
latter are moftly ranged in one long itreet. The chief em-
ploy of the labouring inhabitants is furnifhed by a verdigris

5D 2 manufactory,

NE W

manufactory, and fome fhip-building. A glafs-houfe was
ereGted here in the reign of Charles I. but is now deftroyed.
A market is held on Fridays; and two fairs annually. A
quay for veffels of 150 tons burthen was built about the
middle of the laft century ; and fome trade is carried on with
Briftol, London, and other parts ; but the navigation of this
part of the river being unfavourable, a preference has been
given to Gatcombe, a port a few miles lower down the river.
Rudge’s Hiftory of the County of Gloucefter, two vols.
8vo. 1803. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. v.
NewnuamM, Cape. See NEWENHAM.
NEW NORTH-WALES. See New Britain and
WALES.
NEW ORLEANS. See Orveans and Louisiana.
NEW PALTZ, a townfhip of America, in Ulfter
county, New York, bounded E. by Fludfon river, S. by
Marlborough and Shawangunk, containing 3255 inhabitants,
including 308 flaves. The compact part contains about 250
houfes, and a Dutchchurch; 10 ihe from Shawangunk,
NEWPORT, a borough and market-town in the hun-
dred of Wentloog, and county of Monmouth, England,
is fituated 24 miles from Monmouth, and 147 from Lon-
don. It is called by Gyraldus Novus-Burgus, or New-town,
and arofe out of the declining greatnefs of Caerleon, and
was by the Welfh denominated Caftel-Newydd, or New-
caftle. Robert, earl of Gloucefter, natural fon of Henry I.,
ereSted a caftle here for the defence of his pofleffions.
This fortrefs defcended from the earls of Gloucefter,
through feveral noble families, till on the attainder of
Edward, duke of Buckingham, it was, together with the
lordfhip, feized by Henry VIII. The prefent proprietor
is William Kemeys, efq. of Mayndec. The fhell of the
caftle, which ftands on the bank of the Ufk, is a mafflive
ftruGiure, but not of large dimenfions, though it appears to
have been formerly of greater extent. The building forms
nearly a parallelogram, and is conftruéted with rubble,
coigned with hewn ftone. ‘The fide towards the town con-
fifts fimply of a plain wall, which has led to the conjecture
that it was ere¢ted folely for defending the paflage acrofs
the river, but it is evident that formerly the works were
much itronger on the fouthern fide. Toward the north, in
the centre, is a {quare tower, which ferved for the keep or
citadel: beneath this is a fally-port, facing the river, with
a pointed arch and a groove for a portcullis; and on each
fide is a large mafly tower. The centre contains a {pacious
apartment called the ftate-room adjoining to this are the
remains of the baronial hall. One of the collateral towers,
though in a dilapidated ftate, is fitted up as an habitation.
The towh was formerly defended by fortified walls, but
no veftiges now remain. Leland mentions three gate-houfes
as ftanding in his time: one by the bridge at the eaft end
of the town; another at the weft end, near the church;
and a third in the centre of the High-ftreet. The {cite of
the two firft may yet be traced; the central one has been
recently taken down. : p
Newport obtained a charter of privileges from Edward II.;
further grants were beltowed by fubfequent monarchs ; and
by a charter, dated in the 21{t year of James I., it is now
governed by a corporation, flyled ** The mayor, aldermen,
and burgefles of the borough of Newport in the county of
Monmouth.’’ This borough, conjointly with Ufk and Mon-
mouth, fends one member to parliament; the eleétive
franchife being vefted in the refident burgeffes. The town
confifts principally of one long, narrow ftreet, extending
from the flat bank of the Ufk up to the eminence on which
ftands the parifh church of St. Woolas, which Leland calls
St. Guntle Olave, and which is the only place of worfhip
on the eftablifhment. ‘This edifice confitts of a lofty, fquare

12

NEW

tower, a nave with two aifles, a chancel, and a {mall chapel,
now ufed only as a burial place. The church was ereéted
at different periods. Its tower was built by Henry EII.
as a memorial of his gratitude to the inhabitants of the
town for their fuccefsful oppofition to Simon Mountfort, earl
of Leicelter. The nave, which is the only part remaining
of the original ftruéture, was built, if not in the Saxon,
evidently in the earlieft part of the Anglo-Norman period,

Leland ftates “* ther was a houfe of religion by the key,
beneth the bridge."? This, Tanner conjectured was a mo-
nattery of friars preachers ; becaufe, at the diffolution, fuch
a one was granted to fir Edward Carn. Some remains are
itill: ftanding, and confift of feveral detached apartments,
and the northern tranfept of the conventua! church; the
gardens of the monattery are inclofed by the original wall,
Newport-bridge, a ftone firu€ture of five arches over the
Ufk, was built at the expence of the county, under the
direétion of the fon of the celebrated Edwards, who ereG@ted
the famous bridge of one arch, called Pont-y-Prydd.

The inhabitants of the town are principally fupported by
the commercial relations of the port, which confift of fo-
reign, coating, and inland trade. The foreign trade has
never arrived at any confiderable eminence ; but the coafting
trade is more important: the exports are chiefly coals, with
caft and bar iron from the different founderies in the weftern
mountains, brought to the quay by the Monmouthfhire
canal; the imports are deals, furniture, and all kinds of
fhop goods. The inland and home trade has been much in-
creafed fince the completion of the canal. The population
of Newport, according to the return to parliament in the
year 1811, was 2346, occupying 453 houfes. Four fairs
are held annually, and a market weekly on Saturday. Coxe’s
Hiftorical Tour in Monmouthfhire, 2 vols. 4to.

Newport, a borough in the parifh of St. Stephen, in
the north divifion of tht hundred of Eaft, in the county of
Cornwall, England, is fitnated 214 miles diftant from Lon-
don, in the vicinity of Launcefton, to which it appears as a
fuburb, and was anciently under the fame jurifdiGion; but
having been granted to the priory of St. Stephen’s, it ob-
tained fome diftinét privileges. After tie diffolution, the
inhabitants were enccuraged to challenge the feparate right
of returning members to parliament; and the property of
the borough being then velted in the crown, the privilege
was awarded without much inveltigation. ‘The firit return
was made in the fixth year of Edward VI., and two inem-
bers have ever fince been regularly chofen. The right of
eleétion is velted in two officers, called vianders, (who are
annually appointed at the court-leet held by the lord of the
manor,) and all the inhabitants paying {cot and lot; the
whole number fearcely amounting to thirty. The whole
borough is the property of the duke of Northumberland,
who has a feat in the vicinity. (See Launceston.) Pol-
whele’s Hiltory, &c. of Cornwall, two vols. 4to.

Newport, a large borough and market-town in the
half hundred of Welt-Medina liberty, in the Ifle of
Wight, and county of Southampton, England, is fituated
near the centre, and may be regarded as the metropolis of the
ifand. ‘This place has mfen upon the ruins of Carifbrooke,
which was formerly a very confiderable town. Rich de
Redvers, fecond earl of Devonfhire, granted the firft char-
ter of privileges to Newport in the reign of Henry II.,
but this contained little more than a grant of liberties in ge-
neral terms. ‘{he next deed was granted by the countefs Ifa-
bella de Fortibus, and confirmed by Edward I1L., and alfo
by feveral fucceeding monarchs, ‘This grant conferred the
privilege of a market and tolls, and many other immunities,
but the town was not incorporated till the reign of king
James 1., whofe charter was afterwards confirmed and ex-

tended

NEW
tended by Charles 1I. Under this laft deed the govern-

ment is vefted in a mayor, twelve aldermen, a recorder,
town clerk, and twelve burgeffes, who are chofen from among
the principal inhabitants. Two members are fent from this
borough to ferve in parliament; they are elected by the
corporation, and returned by the mayor. The firit return
was made in the 23d year of Edward [., but the privilege
was never again acted upon till the 27th year of queen
Elizabeth, when it was reftored throuzh the intereit of
fir George Carey, then captain of the ifland.

The fituation of Newport is lofty and extremely agree-
able, being watered on its eaftern fide by the principal
branch of the river Medina, (whence it was anciently called
the borough of Medina,) and on the welt by a {mall rivulet,
which rifes at Rayner’s-Grove, about three miles off, and
joins the Medina at the Quay, where it becomes navigable
for veffels of large burden. ‘I'he houfes of this town are
generally conftructed of brick, and are difpofed into five
parallel fireets running eait and weit, and interfected by
three others at right angles. According to the original
plan, it was intended that there fhould have been three large
{quares, at the croffings cf the {treets, to be appropriated as
market-places; but the uniformity of this defign has been
much impaired by varicus encroachments. In the largeft of
thefe openings itands the town-hall, where meetings of the
corporation, and the feveral courts of the borough, as well as
the knighten court, or curia militum, are held. This court
is under the prefidency of the governor’s fteward, or his de-
pyty. It was inftituted in the feudal times, as is commonly
fuppofed, by William Fitz-Ofborne, to whom the Ifle of
Wight was granted by king William I., foon after the con-
quelt. The original judges were fuch as held a knight’s
fee, or part of a fee i capite, from the proprietor of the
lordfhip. The prefent judges are freehclders holding of
Carifbrooke Caftle, who fit in rotation, three or more at a
time, and give their decifions without the intervention of a
jury. The Moziday of every third week is the day on
which this court meets for the difpatch of bufinefs; when it
is empowered to hold “pleas of all actions of debt and tref-
pafs, under the value of 4os.; and upon replevins granted
by the fleward, or his deputy. The proceedings are of the
fame nature as thofe in our courts of equity, and are carried
on by attornies admizted by the court. The actions for
debt are tried by proof of plaintiff or defendant; and ac-
ticns of trefpafs are determired by proof only.”

The church of this town, alfo ftanding in one of the
f{quares, is a low, ancient edifice, dedicated to St. Thomas,
and hence conje€tured to have been originally founded about
the time of Henry II. The different [tyles of its architec-
ture, however, evidently fhew it to have undergone very
material alterations, at various periods, fince its firlt erec-
tion. It is only a chapel of eafe to Carifbrocke. On the
pulpit, which is of wainfcot, is carved a number of figures,
reprefenting the cardinal virtues and the liberal arts.

Among the many diftinguifhed perfons buried here was
the princefs Elizabeth, fecond daughter of Charles I., who
was detained a prifoner in Carifbrooke Caftle, and died there
of a broken heart, at the age of fifteen. The leaden coffin,
containing her remains, was difcovered, fome years ago, in
a vault under the chancel. The principal monument, in
point of grandeur, is that of fir Edward Horfley, one of the
captains of the ifland in the reign of queen Elizabeth. Be-
fides the church belonging to the sett aR are
meeting-houfes in this town for the Roman Catholics, the
Methodilts, the Arminians, the Baptifts, and the Quakers,
Here is a free grammar-{chool for a limited number of boys,
which has now almo(t dwindled to a finecure. The {chool-
room is memorable for having been the place where the ne-

NEW

gociations between Charles I. and the parliamentary com-
miffioners were difcuffed. Another fchool for clothing and
inttructing girls has alfo been initituted, and two Sunday
{chools, all of them partly fupported by endowments, and
partly by fubfcription. ‘Ihe places of public amufement
are a theatre, and an elegant building lately erected, and
appropriated to aflemblies and concerts. A philofophical
fociety was eftablithed here about ten years ago.

Newport is a fcene of great buftle and aétivity. The
market days are Wednefday and Saturday, when provifions
of all kinds are abundant, except fifh, which are extremely
rare. This was formerly a great mart for grain, but the
fale of that article has confiderably diminifhed of late years.
According to the returns of 1811, the houfes in the town are
eltimated at 694, and the inhabitants at 3855 in number.

About a mile north from Newport ttands the Houfe of
Induftry for the Ifle of Wight, which was ereéted about
the year 1772. It is a large edifice, confifting of feveral
ranges of buildings, capable of accommodating 700 perfons.
The management of this charity is vefted in a corporation,
ftyled “* The Guardians of the Poor within the Ifle of
Wight,’’ and compofed of 24 direGtors, and 36 affiltants.
Ata fhort diftance hence are the Parkhurlt barracks and
military hofpital, which are fcarcely inferior to any fimilar
eftablifhments in th «kingdom. Carifbrooke Cattle lies
nearly a mile fouth-weft (a the borough, and is one of
the moft ancient fortreffes: mentioned in the annals of Englifh
hiftory. Its origin is by fome affigned to the Britons, and
by others to the Romans; but the firft authentic notice of
it occurs in the Saxon annals, A.D. 530, when it was bes
fieged and taken by Cerdic, the firft king of Weflex, whofe
nephew, Withgar, is faid to have rebuilt it. After the
Conquelt, it was much altered and enlarged, and fome for-
tifications were added by queen Elizabeth. King Charles I.
remained a prifoner here, before he was conducted to Lon-
don for trial; and is fuppofed to have written his * Sufpiria
Regalia,’”? during that period. The greater part of this
caftle is now in ruins, but the tower-gateway and parts of
the keep are tolerably perfe&t. The latter is occafionall
occupied by the governor of the ifland. The whole fortrefs
occupies an eminence, and, when in a perfect ftate, muit
have been very ftrong. Inthe keep is a very deep well,
from which the garrifon was fupplied with water. The vil-
lage adjoining retains few marks of its former confequence,
except its church, which was built by William Fitz-Ofborne,
already mentioned, and is a fpacious building, with a hand-
fome embattled tower at the weft end. Near the church
{tand the remains of a priory, alfo founded by Fitz-Ofborne,
and appropriated by him as a cell to the Benedidtine abbey
at Lyra, in Normandy. Albin’s Hiftory, &c. of the Ifle
of Wight, 8vo. Worfley’s Hiltory, Antiquities, &c. of
the Ifle of Wight, 4to.

Newport, a {mall market-town in the fouth divifion of
the hundred of Bradford, and county of Salop, England, is
fituated on the borders of the fhire, at the diftance of 12
miles from Drayton, and 139 from London. The Watling-
ftreet, or great Roman road, paffes within two miles of this
place, which anciently was the property of the Audleys,
and,afterwards of afamily of its own name, to whom it gave
the title of baron. It confilts chiefly of one principal ftreet,
of confiderable length, and a few narrow lanes diverging
from it. The church {tands-in the main ftreet, and is pres
bably the moft incongruous example of ecclefiaftical archi-
tecture in the kingdom. The body is an ancient ftone
ftructure of the 15th century, and retains enough of interior
embellifhment to evince its former magnificence, while the
fide aifles are of modern erection, and built with brick,

after the model of the Greeks. The abbot and Rrra
ts

NEW
St. Peter and St. Paul, at Stookta were the offginal

patrons of this church ; but it was purchafed from them in
the reign of Henry VI. by Thomas Draper, a citizen of
London, who made it collegiate, and placed in it a cuftos
and four fellows. The former was the parifh prieft.
William Adams, efg. 2 native of the town, founded the
free-fchool, which is a ftately edifice of brick, and has a

library attached to it for the ufe of the fcholars. The lands.

belonging to this inftitution are exempted from _parlia-
mentary, parochial, or any other kind of taxes, by virtue of
a grant from Oliver Cromwell. Pupils are qualified here
for the univerfity. Near the {chool ftand two handfome
alms-houtfes, ereéted and endowed by the fame munificent
founder, who likewife gave ss5o/. towards the building of a
town-houfe. Newport fultained very ferious damage from
fire on the 16th of May, 1665. One hundred and fixty
houfes, with their contents, were on this occafion confumed
by the deftroying element. The market-day is Saturday ;
and here are fix fairs annually. This town contends with
Shiffnal for the honour of having given birth to the celebrated
Thomas, or Tom Brown, who died in 1704, in extreme
indigence, and lies buried in the cloifters of Weftminfter
Abbey. His whole works were printed three years after
his death in four volumes, comprifing dialogues, effays,
fatires, letters from the dead to the livingS with a number of
tranflations, and other mifcellaneous pieces. Thefe writings
are perfectly charaéteriftic of the author’s mind; they are
replete with wit and humour, and difplay a fund of learning,
but are debafed by low puns and licentious imagery.

According to the parliamentary returns of i801, the
houfes contained in this parifh amounted to 323 in number,
and the inhabitants to 2307. In thofe of 1811, the former
are eltimated at 478, and the latter at 2114, being an in-
creafe of 155 houfes, and a decreafe of 193 males, for the
number of women 1s augmented. This indicates a very
grofs error in one of the reports, and, with many other
fimilar contrarieties, fhews how little dependence can be
placed on fuch documents as the bafis of ftatiftical or poli-
tical reafoning.

Tn the vicinity of the town, on the fouth, is the village
of Lillefhull, noted for its abbey, the ruins of which are
fituated in a retired and folitary pofition, and partly enve-
loped in trees. A large portion of the abbey church re-
mains, but fo mutilated, as to render it difficult to form a
juft idea of its original archite¢ture, except from the ftruc-
ture of its doors and windows. A. fine Norman arch, highly
secefled, with mbs and running foliage, forms the weltern
entrance, and feems to have alfo conitituted the bafis of a
tower. The fouth door, which communicated with the
cloifter, is one of the moft enriched early Norman arches in
‘the kingdom. ‘Lhe eait window is of large dimenfions,
with a beautiful pointed arch of the 14th century, but the
windows of the choir are narrow, plain, and round headed.
The whole meaiures 228 feet in length, and 36 in breadth,
exclufive of the fide aifles. ‘The other buildings are in a
much more ruinous condition than the church, though, from
what yet exills of them, they appear to have evidently been
of very conliderable extent. Chetwynd-park, a feat of the
noble family of Chetwynd, lies on the north fide of Newport,
and about two miles beyond this, and clofe upon the confines
of Staffordhhire, is a very large encampment, probably of
Roman origin, Beausies of England and Wales, vol. xiii.

Newrort, or Tréf Draeth, a borough, market-town,
and parifh, in the hundred of Cemaes, and county of Pem-
broke, South Waies, is fituated on the river Nefern, at the
diftance of eight miles fouth-welt from the town of Cardi-
gan. ‘This town was incorporated by one of the Martins,
lords of Cemaes, who, as barons marchers, enjoyed all the

NEW

privileges of fovereignty. The caftle, or *Caput Barenix,”
ftood on a knoll above the town, at the extremity of the
principal ftreet, and, though now a complete ruin, {till re-
tains marks of former ftrength and magnificence. The area
which it occupied is about 50 paces in diameter, and nearly
circular. The grand entrance was by a gateway between
two noble baftion-towers, facing the north. At the welt
end are the remains of another bold bation, whilft two
others are on the fouth and eaft fides. The ftate rooms and
family apartments appear to have formed the fouth-eaft por-
tion of the edifice, which was furrounded by a very broad
and deep moat, having a command of water. Under the
caftle was a gaol for the confinement of felons, who had
been apprehended by the lord's tenants; for the proprietor
of this caltle poffefled the power of life and death as abfo-
lutely as the monarch himfelf. Indeed the privileges of the
lord of Cemaes were greater than thofe exercifed even by the
lord palatine of Pembrokefhire. A writ of error ran out of
the king’s courts into the palatinate; but here the parlia-
ment renewed errors. Here the lord marcher had inteftates*
goods, which the earls palatine had not; and he was fworn
to perform contraéts like any free and abfolute prince,
whereas the earls bound themfelves by covenant as other
fubjeé&ts were accuftomed to do.

The fituation of Newport is highly pi@turefque. Behind
the cattle, the mountain of Carn-Englyn rifes with the ut-
moft boldnefs; and a view of the bay, which derives its
name from the town, opens beautifully in front. From the
diftribution of the ftreets, interfeCting each other at right
angles, this appears to have been once a very confiderable
place. About two centuries ago, the inhabitants carried
on an extenfive trade in woollens; but owing to a great
mortality, which happened towards the clofe of the 16th
century, the town fell fo much to decay, that even its
market was difcontinued. The market, however, has been
revived for many years; and, of late, trade has again begun
to flourifh, and fill up a few of the chafms in the depopu-
lated ftreets with new buildings. As the Nefern is navi-
gable for nearly two miles above the town, and forms a
commodious bay for the anchorage of fhipping at its con-
fluence with St. George’s Channel, the pofition of New-
port would be extremely favourable for commerce, but for
a bar of fand at the entrance of the bay. It has, befides,
the advantage of having in its immediate vicinity large
quarries of {late, capable of being rendered an important
article of traffic, as there is a deficiency of that material
throughout a great extent of the weftern coaft. The go-
verament of this town continues to be vefted in a mayar, a
recorder, two bailiffs, and tix conftables, in conformity to
its original charter. Thefe are empowered to hold courts
for the recovery of {mall debts, and alfo for the punifhment
of trivial offences. ‘The petty-feflions for the hundred are
held here. The market is weekly, and there is a fair for
catde on the 27th of July annually. Here was anciently a
large houfe of friars, of the order of St. Auguitine. In the
church, a very old edifice in the fhape of a’crofs, may be
feen two monuments, fuppofed to commemorate fir William
Martin and his lady, the lord Rhys’s daughter. ‘Uhe living
is a difcharged rectory. According to the parliamentary
returns of 1811, this parifh contains 355 houfes, and a po-
pulation of 1433 perfons,

To the eait of Newport, on the oppofite fide of the river,
is the village of Nevern, once a borough, and the refidence
of fome powerful chieftain, previous to the Norman conquett,
The remains of the caftle confitt of little more than its
foundations, but thefe are fufficient to point it out as having
been a fortrefs of great extent and ftrength, ‘The appear-
ance of this village 1s highly delightful, as it is feated on the

2 margin

ee a

NEW

smargin of a beautiful ftream, in the midft of rich meadows,
‘gardens, and orchards, and encompaffed by {welling hills,
profufely covered with wood. In the church-yard there is a
number of yew trees, which conceal, under their thick
foliage, one of the early ftone crofles, confifting of a tall
fhaft, richly ornamented, and having on the central com-
artment fome ftrange charaéters, not yet decyphered, not-
with{tanding the exertions of the late Dr. Lort to effeé
that obje&. Nevern had a portreeve, and courts for its
government, as well as a council of eighteen burgeffes, for
many years fubfequent to the foundation of Newport, which
rofe upon its ruins. About a mile from the latter town, on
the road to Fifguard, is a clufter of kiftvaens, furrounding
a cromlech, long fince overturned. All are inclofed by
the remains of a circle of large ftones. On the peninfula
‘of Dinas-head, formed by the bays of Fifguard and New-
port, ftands another cromlech, which, Fenton fays, is un-
queftionably the largeft Druidical relic in Wales. The im-
poft refts upon two columnar ftones, gently tapering to a
point, with one between, which does not touch, at the
fouth end, and a fingle upright at the north extremity;
there being but three actual fupporters. The incumbent
ftone is {till eighteen feet long, nine broad, and three thick ;
though another, lying on the ground, ten feet long, and
five broad at one end, has evidently been broken off from it,
fince it was placed in its prefent pofition. Many fallen
ftones, which probably formed a circle round the cromlech,
are feattered over the field where it is fixed. Hiftorical
Tour through Pembrokefhire, by Richard Fenton, efq.,
F.S.A., 1 vol. 4to., 1811. Carlifle’s Topographical Dic-
tionary of Wales, 4to.

Newrort, a polt-town of the county of Tipperary, Ire-
land, where is a charter-{chool. It is on the river Mul-
kerna, near the foot of the Keeper mountain. It is 86 miles
S.W. from Dublin, and 8 N.E. from Limerick.

Newrort, a townfhip of Nova Scotia, in Hants county,
on the river Avon.—Alfo, a townfhip in Chefhire county,
New Hamphhire, E. of Claremont ; incorporated in 1761,
and containing 1266 inhabitants.—Alfo, a maritime county
of Rhode ifland, comprehending Rhode ifland, Canonicut,
Block, Prudence, and feveral other fmall iflands. It is
divided into feven townfhips, and contains 14,845 inhabit-
ants.—Alfo, the chief town of this county, and the femi-
metropolis of the flate of Rhode ifland, fituated on the
S.W. end of Rhode ifland, five miles from the fea. Its
harbour, which fpreads weftward before the town, is one of
the fineft in the world, having a fafe and eafy entrance,
and fo {pacious, that a large fleet may anchor in it and ride
in perfe@ fecurity. The town lies N. and S. upon a gra-
dual afcent E. from the water, and exhibits a beautiful
view from the harbour and the neighbouring hills. ‘To the
W. of the tewn is Goat ifland, on which is Fort Wafhing-
ton. Newport contains about 1000 houfes, chiefly of wood,
and 6739 inhabitants. It has ten houfes for public worthip,
four for Baptifts, two for Congregationalilts, one for Epif-
copalians, one for Quakers, one for Moravians, and one for
Jews. The other public buildings are a ftate houfe, and an
edifice for the public library. In this town are an academy,
under the direction of a rector and tutors, and a marine
fociety, eftablifhed in 1752, for the relief of diftreffed wi-
dows and orphans, &c. This city, diftinguifhed by the
beauty of its fituation and the falubrity of its climate, is
abundantly fupplied with a great variety of excellent fith ;
and it has alfo a confiderable trade. A cotton and check
manufactory has been lately eftablifhed. The exports for
a year, ending September 1794, amounted in value to
311,200 dollars. The town was firft fettled in 1639; 30
miles S. by E. of Providence. N. lat. 41° 29’. W. long.

NEW

71° 17!.—-Alfo, a toypthip in Lower Canada, 20 miles E.
of Afcot, including about 30 inhabitants.—Alfo, a {mall
poft-town in Neweattle county, Delaware, on the N. fide of
Chriftiana creek, three miles W. of Wilmington ; contain-
ing about 200 inhabitants, and carrying on a confiderable
trade with Philadelphia in flour ; 31 miles S.W. of Phi-
ladelphia.—Alfo, a townfhip in Luzerne county, Pennfyl-
vania, on the S.E, fide of the E. bridge of the Sufque-
hannah lake Wilkfborough.—Alfo, a {mall polt-town in
Chelter county, Maryland; 94 miles S. by W. of Balti-
more.—Alfo, a very thriving fettlement in Liberty county,
site fituated on a navigable creek ; 34 miles S. of Sa-
vannah, This place, commonly known by the name of
** Newport Bridge,” is the rival of Sunbury, and commands
the principal part of the trade of the whole country. —
Alfo, a place, with a poft-office, in Cooke county, Ten-
neflee; 529 miles from Wathington.

New Port-Glafgow. See Port Guascow.

Newrort-Pagnell, a market-town in the hundred of
the fame name, in the county of Buckingham, England,
is fituated 15 miles diftant from the county-town, and 51
miles from London, on the road to Northampton, near the
banks of the river Oufe, and is divided into two unequal
parts by the fmall rjver Lovet. The town has been of con-
fiderable confequence from a remote period. The latter term
in its name was derived from the Paganells, or Pagnels, to
whom the manor defcended from William Fitzan{fculf, who
pofleffed it at the time of the Norman conqueft. The Pa-
ganells had a caltle at Newport, the {cite of which is {till
called the Cafthe Mead: Leland and Camden both mention
this edifice, but there were no remains of the building even
in Camden’s time. In the early part of the civil war of
Charles I.’s time, Newport was garrifoned by prince Rupert ;
but foon after the firft battle of Newbury it was abandoned
by the royalifts, and proved an ufeful itation to the parlia-
mentary army during the remainder of the conteft. Sir
Samuel Luke, the fuppofed Hudibras of Butler, was go-
vernor in the year 1645. The parifh-church of Newport
is an ancient and fpacious ftruéture. The vicar is always
maiter of an ancient hofpital, originally founded by John de
Somery, inthe year 1280, and dedicated to St. John: it
was refounded by Anne, queen of James I., and from her
named Queen Anne’s Hofpital. Two other hofpitals were
founded here at a very remote period, but the lateit accounts
relative to them reach no farther back thaniz70, In the
church-yard are feven alms-houfes, founded and endowed, in
1763, by John Revis, citizen of London, for four men and
three women, who receive .1o/. per annum each, befides
clothes and fuel. In addition to thefe charitable inftitutions
the diftreffes of the poor are mitigated by various donations
and legacies. In the return made under the population aé&
of the year 1811, this town was ftated to contain 556 houfes,
occupied by 2515 perfons. A market was either originally
granted, or confirmed by charter, to Roger de Somery, in
the year 1270, together with a fair of eight days ; the mar-
ket was again confirmed to John Botetort in 1333. The
market-day is Saturday ; the principal articles are corn and
provifions. Here are now fix annual fairs. The labouring
claffes of the people are chiefly fupported by lace-making :
it is eftimated that more lace is manufactured in this town and
its vicinity than in all the other parts of England: a {pee
cial market is held on every Wednefday for its fale ; and
great quantities are vended at the fairs.

\ At Tickford, adjoining to this town, a cell for Cluniac
monks was founded by Fulk Paganell, in the reign of Wil-
liam Rufus. King Henry VIII. fuppreffed this monaltery
in 1525, and gave it, with its lands, to cardinal Wolley.
It afterwards reverted to the crown, and was granted by

James
.

NEW

James I. to his phyfician Dr. Atking, and was the feat of his
defcendants. The {cite of the priory isnow occupied by a
neat modern houfe, called Tickford abbey, the property of

Mr. Hooton: there are no remairis of the conventual build-_

ings. Mr. Hooton’s family have a burial place in a retired
part of the garden, which is fuppofed to have been the ce-
metery of the cell: an obelifk has been ereéied there to
the memory of the late Mrs. Hooton. Tickford park, and
the manor of Tickford-end, which were part of the Atkins’
eftate, are now the property of Mr. Vanhagen. The manor
of Caldecot, (a hamlet of this parifh,) which belonged to
the priory of ‘Tickford, was fold by the Atkins’ family, in
1758, to William Backwell, efq. banker of London: he, in
1769, bequeathed it to William Harwood, efq., who had af-
fumed the name of Backwell, and is the prefent proprietor.

At Tyringham, about two miles from Newport-Pagnell,
is the feat of William Praed, efq. The maaor belonged to
an ancient family, who took their name from the village fo
early as the year 1170, and it continued in the family till the
year 1685, when the male line became extiné by the death of
fir William Tyringham : from his daughter it has defcended
to Mr. Praed, who has pulled down the old manor-houfe,
and ereéted an elegant modern manfion, from the defigns of
John Soane, efq. profeffor of architeGture to the Royal
Academy. The fame profound architeét alfo gave defigns
fora lodge, and a bridge acrofs the river which runs through
the park. In the ftair-cafe, hall, dining-room, and library,
the artift has difplayed confiderable tafte and judgment.
About a mile from Tyringham is Gothurit, in which parifh
is a fine old manfion, the feat of Mifs Wright, one of whofe
anceftors purchafed it in 1704. The houfe is large, and
its chief front appears to have been built in the time of queen
Elizabeth. It was poffeffed by the Digby family in the time
of king James I.; and contains fome curious portraits of
fir Everard and fir Kenelm Digby, alfo other branches of
that family. Lyfons’ Magna Britannia, vol. i.

Newport Pratt, a fea-port and poft-town of the county
of Mayo, Ireland, near the month of a fmall river, running
into the north-eaftern part of Clew bay. It isa place of
little trade. Newport is 123 miles W.N.W. from Dublin,
and g from Caftlebar.

NEWRAH Brincg, a village of the county of
Wicklow, Ireland, at which there is an inn, where thofe
who vifit the interefting f{cenes of this county often procure
lodging. It is about two miles N.W. from Wicklow, and
22 miles S, from Dublin,

NEW RIVER, amoft important artificial canal, or ftream
of water, pafling through parts of the counties of Hertford
and Middlefex, England, was contrived and principally exe-
cuted by an individual, fir Hugh Middleton, in order to
fupply the Britifh metropolis and its environs with frefh
water. That of the Thames, though extremely beneficial to
London, was fo liable to alteration, and fubject to foulnefs,
that a copious fupply of pure water was extremely defirable.
Befides; the Thames water mutt be forced to afcend by
machines, even for the lower parts of the city: whereas,
a ftream on the northern fide of London may be made to
flow, in a natural defcent, to almoft any quarter of the
widely extended metropolis. From thefe confiderations, in
the reign of James I., Hugh Middleton, citizen and gold-
fmith, projected the plan of bringing water out of Hert-
tordfhire, in a channel to London. Meeting with no co-
operation, he, at length, in the year 1608, commenced the
undertaking at his own expence ; and, after exhautting all
his refources, and being refufed aid from the corporation of
London, he was enabled, by the affiftance of the king, to
bring it to completion. On September 29, 1613, the
water was let into the New River Head, at Iflington ; but

NEW

the projetor was ruined by the expences, and it was long ~
before the {cheme was rendered ufeful and beneficial to the
public. The New River is formed by the colleé&ted waters
of feveral {prings, which rife at Chadwell, near Ware, Hert-
fordfhire, about 20 miles north-weft from London. Thefe
{prings are collected into a large, open bafin of confiderable
depth, near which a ftone is placed, with infcriptions, im-
plying that the ftream was opened in 1608, and that from
the Chadwell {pring the river flows 40 miles. The original
fupply of water having been found inadequate to the con-
fumption, the mill-ftream of the river Lea, which runs near
it, was reforted to; and after various difputes and litiga-
tions between its proprietors and thofe of the New River,
the mill has at length become the property of the latter com-
pany, who have now an unreftri€ted ufe of the water; fo
that the river Lea may be confidered as one of the fources.
On a fluice leading from it are flood-gates, with a building,
in whicha man is placed, whofe conftant employ is to vale
or lower them, according to the fulnefs of the river below ;
and that he may not errin the quantity fupplied, a gauge is
fixed acrofs the fluice, confifting of a ftone of great bulk,
under which all the water paffes ; fo that the current is re-
gulated with the greateft exa¢tnefs. To preferve a proper
level, the New River takes fuch a winding courfe, that the
length of the channel is nearly thirty-nine miles. Paffing
Ware, Amwell, Hoddefdon, and Chefhunt, it enters
Middlefex near Waltham-Crofs ; bending towards Enfield.
Chafe, ic returns to the town of Enfield; and at Bufh-hill
was formerly carried acrofs a valley, in a wooden aqueduét,
or open trough, 660 feet in length, fupported by arches;
but the improvement in canal making has fuggefted a better
mode to effeét the purpofe by means of a mound of earth,
over which the river paffes in a new channel, which was com-
pleted in the year 1785. Hence the river proceeds with de-
vious bends to Hornfey, between which village and High-
bury it was formerly conveyed in another wooden aqueduct,
now fuperfeded, like the other, by a bank of clay. Still
winding, it reaches Stoke-Newington, and pafles on to the
ealt fide of Iflington, where it has a fubterraneous channel,
for 200 yards beneath the ftreet. Juft before this part is a
building, whence feveral mains, or pipes, are fent to fupply
the eaftern fide of London. After pafling under the road,
the New River emerges and coafts the fouthern fide of Ifling-
ton, till it reaches its termination at the grand refervoir,
called the New River Head. The width of the river near
Iflington is fourteen feet and a half, the average depth
four feet and a half, but the depth decreafes on afcend-
ing towards its fource. The number of bridges which
crofs the river in its whole courfe is about two hun-
dred: in various places are fluices to let off the wafte water ;
which, with other works, excited admiration in the earlier
{tage of this branch of mechanics, but are now overlooked in
the wonders of canal navigation, Truly admirable are the
contrivances for diftributing the water through the various
parts of London. From a circular bafin, now thrice its
original fize, which firft receives it, the water is conveyed
by fluices into feyeral large brick cifterns ; whence it pafles
through large wooden pipes to the feveral diftri€ts, and is
conveyed into the houfes by leaden pipes. At the New
River Headis a building, containing two teams anda
water-engine for forcing the water to a higher refervoir near
Pentonville, and to another near Tottenham-court road, for
diftribution to the weftern parts of the town. Near the former
refervoir, ina field, a con{picuous obje& appears, the ufe of
which is little known. Itis an iron pipe, twelve feet high,
and four feet eight inches in circumference, with a wooden
tub placed on itstop. It aéts inthe double capacity of an
air and wa{te water-pipe, and is ufeful in preventing the burit-

ing

NE W

ing of the pipes, which was formerly very frequent from the
force of water, or from compreffed air. A new refervoir,
communicating with that at Pentonville, has been recently
conftruéted by the fide of Tottenham-court-road, for the
fupply of Mary-le-bone and its vicinity: the mains from it
are iron pipes of four feet eight inches circumference.

The property of this great concern was originally divided
into 72 fhares, of which 36 were vetted in fir Hugh Mid-
dleton, who was obliged to part with them to various per-
fons; thefe are termed adventurers’ fhares. The other
thirty-fix were vefted in the crown for the money advanced
by king James towards the undertaking. Thefe were
alienated by Charles I., and are called king’s fhares ; but as
the crown, had no concern in the management, fo the holders
of thefe fhares are excluded from the direction. The origi-
nal value of the fhares was 1oo/. each, but fo difcouraging
were the firft profpects, that they fell to a very low price.
At prefent they are worth an hundred times their firft value :
arife in property fcarcely to be parallelled, and demontftra-
tive of the increafe of buildings in the capital. The ma-
nagement of the company’s affairs is velted, by charter, in
twenty-nine holders of adventurers’ fhares, who form a
board. The officers are, a governor, deputy-governor, a
treafurer, and aclerk. Few public companies {urpafs this
in property and extent of concerns. ‘The conftant repairs
and improvements employ a va{t number of men and horfes ;
and the whole fyftem of the diftribution of the water is fo
complicated, as to require the utmoit fkill and attention on
the part of the furveyor and other officers.

The New River is a confiderable ornament to many feats
and pleafure-grounds in its courfe ; though it has too much ca-
nal-like regularity to be truly piGturefque. It is likewife of
great utility in affording a fupply of water for cattle, and
tor various other purpofes: Hunter’s Hiftory of Lon-
don and its Environs, 4to. 1808. Brayley’s Hiftory of
Middlefex and Lendon, 8vo. 1810-13.

New. River. See Kennaway. . See alfo THames.
See alfo New.

New River Jnlet, a channel between two {mall iflands,
on the coaft of North Carolina, leading to New river. N.
lat. 34° 27'._ W.long. 77° 31'. See New.

NEW ROCHELLE, a poft-town of America, in Wett
Chefter county, New York, in Long Ifland found, containing,
in 1790, 692 inhabitants ; 20 miles N.E. of New York city.
_ NEW ROSS. See Ross,

NEWRY, a confiderable fea-port and poft-town of the
county of Down, Ireland, fituated on the Newry water,
which falls into the bay of Carlingford, and which was
rendered navigable to this town. It was formerly a pafs
and military polt of confiderable importance, as well as the
feat of an abbey, whofe head wore a mitre, and the poffef-
fions of which were very extenfive. Thefe were granted
by Edward VI. to marfhal Bagnell, whofe name often oc-
curs in the hiftory of that period, and were formed into the
lordfhip of Newry, which ftill belongs to the Needham fa-
mily defcended from him. In 1689 it was burned by the
duke of Berwick to fecure his retreat to Dundalk, when
purfued by duke Schomberg. Since that time it has con-
liderably increafed, and ranks next to Belfaft amongift the
towns of Ulfter. This increafe has been chiefly owing to
its canal, by which a communication has been formed be-
tween lough Neagh and the bay of Carlingford, by means
of which veffels of 50 or 60 tons are enabled to pafs through
the heart of Ulfter. The linen manufacture was carried on
yery extenfively, and large quantities of linen were exported,
but this trade has been of late much injured. There is a
very confiderable export of butter, beet, pork, and grain,
efpecially of the frit, which is brought from the counties

Vor. XXIV.

NEW

of Cavan and Monaghap, andeven from that of Sligo. The
imports confift chiefly of thefe commodities which are
wanted to fupply the extenfive range of country, with
which, by its canal, there is a water communication 3 and
thefe articles in an opulent manufaGturing country are daily
increafing. Flax feed and coal are amongit the moft con-
fiderable. There are alfo fome extenfive manufa@tories and
other lucrative eftablifhments. Newry is what is called a
patwalloping borough, and returns a member to the parliament
of the united kingdom. The number of eleétors is con-
fiderable, but the influence of the proprietor generally pre-
vails at an eleétion. In confequence of the ¢raut before
noticed, the proprietor, lord vifcount Kilmorey, not only
receives the tithes, and grants marriage licenfes, but has alfo
great civil authority, though fome of his privileges have
been purchafed by the ftate. Newry is 50} miles N. from
Dublin. N. lat. 54° ro’. W. long. 6° 15’. Beaufort,
Coote, Wakefield, &c.

NEWS, Fatse. See Farse News.

News Shelf, in Geography, a fhoal on the N.W. coaft
of Riou’s ifland, in the Pacific ocean. §. lat. 8° solar EB
long. 220° 47/. ,

NEWSPAPERS; for an account of their number in
London, fee Lonpon. By the 44 Geo. III. c. 98. every
public newfpaper, contained in half a fheet or lefs double
demy, or in one fheet fingle demy, not exceeding 32 inches
in length, and 22 inches in breadth, is chargeable with a duty
of 33d.; and if larger than half a fheet of double demy, or
one whole fheet fingle demy of the fame fizes refpectively,
32d. By 37 Geo. III. c. go. a difcount is allowed, under
certain reftriftions, of 16/. per cent. to thofe who pay at
one time 1o/. or upwards: but by 49 Geo. III. c. 50. the
difcount fhall be made, provided the price of the new{papers
be not advanced more than one halfpenny above the price
at which they were entitled to the allowances of fuch dif-
count under the faid a& of 37 Geo. III. c.go. A penalty
of 20/. is impofed on thofe who do not print the fi price
on newfpapers. On every pamphlet contained in half a
fheet of paper, there is a duty of 1d. On every printed
copy of a pamphlet larger than half a fheet, and not ex-
ceeding a whole fheet, 1d. Above one fheet, and not ex-
ceeding fix fheets in o€tavo, or a leffer page, not exceed-
ing twelve fheets in quarto, or twenty fheets in folio, for
every fheet which fhall be contained in one printed cop
of it, 2s. (1toAnn.c.19. 44 Geo. IIT. c. 98.) Thefe
duties admit of certain exemptions. If any perfon fhall
write, print, or expofe to fale any pamphlet or newf-
paper, liable to the duties above-mentioned, the faid pam-
phlet exceeding one fheet only excepted, before the paper
fhall be ftamped, he fhall forfeit ro/. with fullcoits. If
any, containing more than one fheet, fhall be printed or
publifbed, and the duty not paid, and title regiftered, and
one copy itamped depofited where required fo to be, within
the time limited of fix days after printing, within the bills of
mortality, and without the bills at fourteen days, the au-
thor, printer, and publifher, and all other perfons con-
cerned, fhall lofe all property in it and in every copy of it,
and alfo forfeit 20/. with full colts. Nor fhall asy perfon
expofe to fale any fuch pamphlet, without the name and
place of abode of fume known perfon, by or for whom it
was printed or publifhed, written or printed thereon, on pain
of 20/. Pamphlets unfold fhall be cancelled by the com-
miffieners, and the like number of other fheets itamped
gratis fhall be allowed for them. (44 Geo. II]. c. 98.) Or,
inftead of thefe allowances ona cancelling of new{papers re-
maining unfold, there fhall be an abatement made to every
perfon who fhall pay at one time for newfpaper {tamps ro/.
or upwards, after the rate of 4/. in the roof, Nohawker

5 5 rs of

?

NEW

of newfpapers, or other perfon, fhall let out any newfpaper
for hire to any perfon, or to different perfons, or from houfe
to houfe, on pain of forfeiting 5/. (29 Geo. III. c. 50.) By
16 Geo. II. c. 26. any perfon conviéted of felling, or ex-
pofing to fale, any newfpaper, or any book, pamphlet, or
paper deemed to be a newfpaper, unftamped, may be com-
mitted to the houfe of correétion for any time not ex-
ceeding three months: and any perfon printing or publifh-
ing, and keeping in his cuftody any newfpaper, &c. or
paper not duly itamped, fhall forfeit for every fuch paper
zo/. over and above all other penalties. (38 Geo. III. c. 78.)
Nor fhall any new{paper be printed on paper exceeding 32
inches in length, and 32 in breadth. (44 Geo. III. c. 98.)
Any perfon printing or publifhing feditious matter, under
colour of its having been printed in a foreign-paper, fhall,
upon conviction, be committed to prifon for a term not ex-
ceeding twelve, nor lefs than fix months; and be liable to
fuch other punifhment.as may by law be inflicted in cafes of
high mifdemeanors. (38 Geo, II]. c. 78.) For every adver-
tifement in the Gazette, or other printed paper, publifhed
weekly, or oftener, or in any periodicak paper or pamphlet
publifhed at any time exceeding a week, fhall be paid by
44 Geo. III. c. 98. 35. But nothing herein fhall extend
to any fingle advertifement printed by itfelf.

NEW SALEM, in Geography. See SaLem.

NEW SHARON. See SHaron.

NEW SOUTH WALES. See Waters and New
BrIvAIN.

NEW SPAIN.. See Mexico. a

NEW STOCKBRIDGE. See StocksripGE.

NEW SWEDELAND), the name of a territory be-
tween Virginia’ and New York, when in poffeffion of the
Swedes, and which was afterwards, poffefled or claimed by
the Dutch: the chief town was called Gottenburgh,

NEWT, in Zoology. See Err, and Lacerta Aguatica.

NEW THAMES, in Geography. See THAMEs.

NEWTON, Tuomas, in Biography, who flourifhed in
the 16th and.17th centuries, was the eldeft fon of Edward
Newton of Preftbury, in Chefhire, where he was born.
He received the firft rudiments of grammatical learning un-
der John Brownfwerd, for whom he appears to have re-
tained the moft ardent affetion. In his encomium on feveral
illustrious men of England, he applies the following re-
markable diftich to him:

“ Rhetora, grammaticum, polyhiftora teque poetam
Quis negat ?—is lippus, lufcus, obefus, mers.”’

So great, indeed, were his refpect and attachment for the
memory of this gentleman, that he erected a monument to
him in the church of Macclesfield, in Chefhire, with a Latin
infcription. Newton, the fubjeét of this article, was fent
very young to Oxford, from whence, in a fhort time, he
removed to Cambridge, where he entered himfelf in Queen’s
college, and became {fo eminent for his fkill im Latin poetry,
that he was ranked among the moft celebrated modern poets
who have written in that language. , After this he returned
to his native county, and having obtained the warm and
zealous patronage of Robert, earl of Effex, he taught
fchool, and at the fame time pradtifed phytic with fuccefs at
Macclesfield. He was likewife in holy orders, and after-
wards became beneficed at Little Ilford, in Effex, where
he alfo exercifed his profeffion as a {choolmatter, and where
be continued till his death, which happened in 1607, He
was buried in the church belonging to that village, for the
decoration of which he left a confiderable legacy. He
wrote and tranflated many books, and among the latter was
the tragedy of Seneca, entitled ** Thebais.’’ He under-
took alfo the publication of the other tragedies of this
11

NEW Fin

poet, tranflated by Heywood, Neville, Nuce, &c. Biog.
Dram. :
Newton, Joun, an Englifh mathematician, and divine
of the eftablifhed church, was born at Oundle, in Northamp-
tonfhire, in the year 1612. Having attained a good fhare
of claffical knowledge, he was, at the age of fifteen, entered
a commoner at St. Edmund’s hall, Oxford. In the year
1641, he took his degrees of B.A. and M.A.; the latter
in precedence to many ftudents of quality, on account of
his diftinguifhed talents in the feveral branches of literature.
He was particularly attached to the ftudy of mathematics
and aftronomy, and had applied himfelf fo affiduoufly to
them, as to have obtained a high reputation in thofe depart-
ments of learning, of which he reaped confiderable advan-
tages during the civil wars, and the government of Crom-
well. The fciences, however, properly fo called, did not
engrofs fo much of his time as to prevent him from be-
coming great in his profeflion as a divine, which qualified
him for thofe preferments in the church, to which he was
fucceflively appointed. In the year 1661, immediately
after the reftoration, he was created doGor of divinity at
Oxford, and was nominated chaplain to his majefty, and pre-
fented to the re€tory of Rofs, in Herefordfhire, which he
held till his death on Chriitmas-day 1678, when he was
about 56 years of age. By Anthony Wood he is deno-
minated a capricious and humorous perfon ; but his writings
are a proof of his great application to ftudy, of which we
may mention the following: ‘ Aftronomia Britannica, ex-
hibiting the Doétrine of the Sphere, and Theory of Planets
decimally by Trigonometry ;”? * Help to Calculation, with
Tables of Declination, Afcenfion, &c.;?? ‘«* Trigonometria
Britannica, fhewing the Conftruétion of the natural aad
artificial Sines, Tangents, and Secants, &c.:’’ this confifts
of two books, one compofed by the author, and the other
tranflated from the Latin of Henry Gellibrand; ‘ Chiliades
centum Logarithmorum ;” “‘ Geometrical Trigonometry ;”’
‘“‘ Mathematical Elements ;” ‘ Defcription and Ufe of the
Carpenter's Rule;” “The Art of Gauging.” Befides
thefe, Mr, Newton was author of many popular works for
young perfons, which were probably extremely ufeful at that
time ; though they have long fince been fuperfeded by others
better adapted to the inftruction of youth of both fexes.
Newron, Sir Isaac, the moft illuitrious of philofophers
and mathematicians that the world ever produced, and who,
on account of his well-earned celebrity, has been denominated
the ‘ Prince of Philofophers,’” was born on Chriftmas-day
1642, ac Woolfthorpe, a hamlet in Lincolnfhire, about fix
miles fouth of Grantham. His father cultivated his own
paternal eftate, but is reprefented as being a very weak and
unfteady man, who died three months before the birth of his
only fon Ifaac, the fubjeét of the prefent article. Mrs.
Newton, though fhe married again, was particularly atten-
tive to the education of her firft-born, and had him carefully
inftruéted in the elements of learning. At the grammar-
{chool of Grantham he laid a folid foundation of claffical
learning, and gave decifive marks of his natural genius.
Dr. Stukely, in {peaking of him, fays, ‘ Every one that
knew fir Ifaac, or have heard {peak of him here, recount
the pregnancy of his parts when a boy, his ftrange inven-
tions, and_extraordinary inclination for mechanics; that,
inftead of playing with other boys, when out of f{chool, he
always butied himfelf in making knicknacks, and models of
wood in many kinds ; for which purpofe he had got little
faws, hatchets, and hammers, and a whole fhop.”? The
molt trifling circumitances, relating to fo valt a genius as
fir Ifaac Newton exhibited, are deferving of record : hence
may be mentioned his very early attention to natural ae i

and inveltigation. He had, for inftaice, when a very little
‘child,

NEWTON.

' child, a rude method of meafuring the force of the wind,
by obferving how much farther he could leap in the dire¢tion
of a trong breeze, than he could when he jumped againft
the wind. When he quitted the poem | he was
taken home to be in{ftruéted in rural affairs, in order that he
might hereafter be capable of managing his own eftate with
advantage. It was, however, foon difcovered that he had
higher objects in view than the mere cultivation of land, and
attending to domeitic concerns; he was perpetually found
reading books, which were fuppofed to be beyond his ca-
pacity. He had, previoufly to this, probably laid it down
as a maxim, that what one man could write, that was in it-
felf intelligible, another might, by a certain portion of ap-
plication, come to underftand. Being once fent to Gran-
tham market, he was difcovered by his uncle, in a hay-loft,
working a mathematical problem; which fatisfied this rela-
tion that his defire of knowledge was invincible, and that a
regard ought to be paid to the turn of his mind: he, there-
fore, without hefitation, was allowed to enter himfelf, in
the year 1660, of Trinity-college, Cambridge. He was
now 18 years of age, and entering upon his courfe with all
the ardour of enthufiafm, much might be expected from
him; but, as we fhall fee, he outran all expeétation, and
fet at defiance the calculations of his moft fanguine friends.
The aétivity of his genius, and excellence of his talents, ac-
quired for him the notice of the moft confiderable mathe-
maticians in the univerfity, among whom was Mr. (after-
wards Dr.) Barrow, at that time a fellow of Trinity-college.
The friendfhip thus begun between thefe two perfons, was
continued till the hand of death feparated them. Newton
began his ftudies with the « Elements of Euclid;’ but
thefe did not detain him long. To him there was no << Pons
Afinorum,”’ no difficulty that impeded his progrefs a fingle
-moment: he faw the truth of each propofition, it has been
faid upon unqueftionable authority, as foon as he had read
the enunciation, and examined the figure to which it re-
ferred. ‘The beautiful and fublime truths of common geo-
metry did not, to Newton, lie deep in a well: they feemed
inftantly to faften on his mind, and, as he thought, to urge
him on to more difficult fteps in the progrefs of fcience.
Afterwards, however, the ingenuoufnefs of his mind led him
to regret that he had not {topped longer at the gates of
‘Knowledge ;—that he had not refted a while in the avenues,
to contemplate the beauties and excellencies of the plans and
outworks, before he had proceeded into the interior ;—that
he had not éxamined with a more minute attention Euclid’s
method of demonftration, and the means by which he had
contrived to conneét every part of his book, fo as to make
a fyftem or feries of truths depending upon one another,
and the whole refting on definitions and axioms; though
the axioms themfelves will, if clofely examined, be found to
be only definitions: fo that the whole of Euclid’s Elements
may be fafely faid to depend entirely on definitions, which
proves how important it is for ftudents in geometry, not en-
-dowed with peculiar mathematical fagacity, to ftudy with
the utmoft care the definitions, and to proceed from one ftep
to another with the greateft deliberation. Newton, as we
have feen, did not itand in need of this precaution; yet he
regretted in after life, that «* he had committed a miftake
in the commencement of his mathematical ftudies, in ap-
plying himfelf to the works of Des Cartes, and other alge-
braical writers, before he had confidered the Elements of
Euclid with that attention which fo excellent a writer de-
ferves."’ At this period the works of Des Cartes were
much in fafhion, which of courfe led our author to ftudy
them, attending at the fame time to “ Kepler’s Optics,’
and to the ‘+ Arithmetica Infinitorum’’ of Dr. ;Wallis,
making improvements and marginal notes upon! them as he

went along, which was his wfual method of ftudying any
author. e treatife of « Infinites,” juft referred to, fet
his invention to work, and was probably that which led him
to his “¢ New Method of infinite Series and Fluxions,” and
which was publifhed in Latin; but which, in 1736, was
tranflated into Englifh by Mr. Colfon, and printed by him,
with a perpetual Commentary upon the whole book. In
the year 1664 he took his degree of B.A., and about this
pened he turned his attention’ to the improvement of tele-
copes. Des Cartes afluming the commonly received
opinion, that Hight was homogeneous, had, upon this prin-
ciple, difcavered the laws of refraGtion, and maintained that
the perfection of telefcopes depended on the difcovery of a
method ef making glafles in elliptic, parabolic, or hyper-
bolic figures. Newton, therefore, in the year. 1666, ap-
plied himfelf to the grinding of optical glafles of divers
figures; at that time not fiat that light was other
than an homogeneous fubitance. Not fucceeding in various
attempts which he made, he procured a glafs prifm, for the
purpofe of examining the phenomena of colours, which had
lately been difcovered by Grimaldi. The yivid brightnefs
of the colours produced by this experiment at firft afforded
him very great pleafure; but when his farprife was over,
and he came to examine them with philofophical accuracy,
he was aftonifhed at feeing them in an oblong form, which
he thought fhould be circular. He imputed the irregularity,
at firft, to fome accidental circumf{tance of which he was not
aware: when, however, he found the refult uniformly the
fame in every experiment, he purfued the inquiry, till at
length he difcovered an infallible method of deciding the
point, which produced his «¢ New Theory of Light and
Colours.” This theory, unexpected and wonderful as it
was, did not fatisfy him; but urged him on to inquire into
the ufe that might be made of it in improving telefcopes,
which was his firft defign. Having now afcertained that
light was not homogeneous, but a heterogeneous mixture of
differently refrangible rays, he computed the errors arifing
from this different refrangibility ; and finding them to ex-
ceed fome hundreds of times thofe occafioned by the circular
figure of the glaffes, he began to ftudy the fubjeét of reflec-
tion with the utmoft care. He was now convinced that
optical inftruments might be brought to any degree of per-
feGtion, provided a fubftance could be found which would
bear a polifh as finely as glafs, and refle&t as much light as
glafs tranfmits, and that the art of giving it a parabolic
figure could be attained. ‘Thefe defiderata he did not fup-
pofe could be realized ; but while his mind was intently oc-
cupied by the {peculation, the breaking out of the plague
at Cambridge, in 1665, obliged him fuddenly to quit his
ftudies and his books, and retire into the country. From
this time, for a {pace of about two years, Newton lived, in
a great degree, fecluded from the converfation and the fo-
ciety of thofe perfons, by whom he might have been affifted
in his ftudies ; but the adtivity of his genius would not per-
mit him to {pend this period without engaging in important
philofophical inquiries. It was, indeed, in the folitude now
referred to, that the hint occurred which gave rife to the
Syftem of the World, which is the main fubje& of his
«* Principia,” As he was fitting alone in a garden, an apple
falling from a tree, led his thoughts to the fubject of -gra-
vity ; and reflecting on the operation of that principle, he
began to confider that, as this power is not found fenfibly
diminifhed at the remoteft diftance from the centre of the
earth to which we can rife, neither at the tops of the loftieft
buildings, nor on the fummits of the higheft mountains, it
was reafonable to conclude that it muft extend much farther
than was ufually imagined. «* Why not,”’ faid he to him-
felf, ‘as high as the moon? and if fo, her motion mult be

sE 2 7 mnfluenced

NEWTON.

influenced by it. Perhaps fhe is retained in her orbit by it.
Though the power of gravity is not fenfibly weakened in
the little change of diftance at which we can place ourfelves
from the centre of the earth, yet it is very poffible that, as
high as the moon, this power may difler in ftrength much
from what it is here."” He made the calculation; but
having gone upon wrong data, in fuppofing 60 miles to
make a degree, inftead of 694, the refult did not come out
according to his expetations: he therefore concluded, that
fome other caufes muft be joined with the aGtion of the
power of gravity on the moon; and on this account he laid
afide, for that time, any further thoughts upon the fubject.
On his return to Cambridge, in 1667, he was eleéted fellow
of his college, and took his degree of M.A. He now was
anxious to improve the telefcope, and had made preparations
for his experiments, when his attention was interrupted by
the bufinefs conneted with the profefforfhip of mathematics,
which Dr. Barrow refigned to him in 1669. Having en-
tered upon the office, he made his difcoveries in optics the
fubjeét of his leGtures, for the firft three years after his ap-
politment to the mathematical chair: and having brought
his theory of light and colours to a confiderable degree of
perfection, he communicated it to the Royal Society, of
which he was a member ; and it was afterwards publithed in
their Tranfaétions, for the month of February 1672. The
publication gave rife to a controverfy that occafioned him
much uneafinefs, fo that he refolved not to publifh any thing
@further, for a time at leaft, on the fubje&t; and accordingly
he laid afide his optical leGures, although they were aCtually
prepared ready for the prefs. His alt by infinite feries
underwent the fame fate. He now refumed his telefcope,
and obferving that there was no abfolute neceflity for the
parabolic figure of the glaffes, he completed another inftru-
ment of this kind. This anfwered his purpofe fo well, that,
though it was only fix inches long, he had feen with it the
fatellites of Jupiter, and the different phafes of Venus.
This telefcope he fent to the ‘Royal Society, at their re-
queft, together with a defcription of it, publifhed in the
Philofophical Tranfa@tions for March 1672.
During this year Mr. Newton publifhed at Cambridge
‘* Bernardi Varenii Geographia generalis, in qua affeCtiones
generales Telluris explicantur ; auctaet illuftrata ab J. New-
ton.”” From this time till 1679 our author maintained a
correfpondence with Mr. Henry Oldenburg, fecretary of
the Royal Society, Mr. John Collins, Mr. Flamfteed, and
Dr. Halley. During this period, at the requeft of Leib-
nitz, he explained his invention of infinite feries, and fhewed
how far he had improved it by his method of fluxions,
which, however, he ftill concealed by a tranfpofition of the
letters that made up the fundamental propofitions of it into
an alphabetical order. The letters concerning this are in-
ferted in Collins’s ‘* Commercium Epiftolicum,’’ printed in
1712. In 1676-7, he difcovered the grand propofition,
that, by’a centripetal force acting reciprocally as the {quare
of the drltance, a planet mutt revolve in an ellipfis, about
the centre of force placed in its loweft focus, and, by a
radius drawn to that centre, defcribe areas proportional to
the times. About the year 1680 he made many aftrono-
mical obfervations upon the comet that then appeared ;
which, for fome confiderable time, he took not to be one
and the fame, but two different comets, contrary to the
opinion of Mr. Flami{teed. He next refumed his enquiries
refpe&ting the moon, As Picart had meafured a degree of
the earth in 1679, by ufing his meafures, Newton was led
to the inference that the moon is retained in her orbit
folely by the power of gravity, and, confequently, that this
power decreafes in the duplicate proportion of the dif-
tance, as he had formerly conjectured. Hence he found

the line defcribed by a falling body to be an ellipfis, having
one focus in the centre of the earth; and afcertaining, by
this means, that the primary planets really moved in fuch
orbits as Kepler had fuppofed, he had the fatisfaétion to
fee that the enquiry, which he had undertaken, at firft,
from motives of mere curiofity, was capable of being ap-
plied to the moft important purpofes. Upon this he drew
up, and afterwards demonftrated, about a dozen propofi-
tions relating to the motions of the primary planets round
the fun, which he communicated to the Royal Society ta-
wards the clofe of the year 1683. Shortly after this he fet
down to complete his great work, the ‘ Principia,’? which
was printed under the care of Dr. Halley, and publifhed
in the fummer of 1687, under the title of ** Philofophie
Naturalis Principia Mathematica.’? This treatife was com-
pofed by the illuitrious author from fearcely any other ma-
terials than the few propofitions above-mentioned, and in
the {pace of a year anda half: it has gone through a great
number of editions, though it did not at firit meet with that
fort of applaufe to which it was juftly entitled. One reafon
of this was, that Des Cartes had then got full poffeffion of
the world, and his philofophy was fuppofed to be better
adapted to common underftandings. The ‘ Principia,’
on the other hand, is in many places extremely difficult,
owing to the number of fteps which is left out in the de-
monttrations, fo that the befl mathematicians were obliged
to ftudy it with care, before they could pretend to become
mafters of this vaft treafure of human learning. And not-
withftanding the helps that we now have to the right under-
ftanding of the ‘* Principta,’’ in Maclaurin’s and Pember-
ton’s works; in the ‘¢ Excerpta’’ of Dr. John Jebb, and in the
Commentaries of the Jefuits, publifhed at Rome in four
volumes quarto ; {till it may be affumed that ‘ none but
mathematicians of a high order can completely comprehend
the reafonings contained in it. When, however, the true
value of this work came to be known, the approbation
which had been fo flowly gained became univerfal, and no-
thing was heard from all quarters, but admiration of what
feemed to be the production of a celeftial intelligence, ra-
than of a man.’”? ** Does Mr. Newton eat, or drink, or
fleep like other men ?”? faid the marquis de 1’ Hofpital, one
of the greateft mathematicians of the age, “I reprefent
him to myfelf,’* he added, ‘* as a celeitial genius entirely
difengaged from matter.”

A (hort time before this work went to the prefs, the pri-
vileges of the univerfity of Cambridge were attacked by
king James 11., who fent a mandamus to admit father Fran-
cis, an ignorant Benedictine monk, to a degree of M.A. On
this occafion Mr. Newton appeared among the moft zealous
and aétive defenders of that body, and was appointed one
of the delegates to the high-commiffion court, where they
maintained their caufe with fuch refolution and fteadinefs
that the king did not think it right to prefs the affair. New-
ton was, after this, chofen one of the reprefentatives of the
univerfity in the convention-parliament of 1688, the feffions
of which he attended till its diffolution. In 1696, Mr.
Newton was appointed to the office of warden of the mint,
and in this fituation he rendered very important fervice to
the nation, and was properly rewarded, in a few years, with
the appointment of mafter ef the mint, a place worth 1200/.
per annum, which he held during the remainder of his life.
Upon the promotion he refigned the mathematical chair at
Cambridge, and was fucceeded in it by Mr. William Whitton.
In 1699 he was cleéted a foreign member of the Royal Aca-
demy of Sciences at Paris, and in 1703 he was chofen pre-
fident of the Royal Society of London, and retained that
honourable office till his death, In the following year he
publifhed his ** Optics ; or A Treatife of the Reflections,

6 Refractions,

a

NEWTON.

Refraétions, Infectious, and Colours of Light." This work
was the refult of his occafional labours for thirty years in
bringing the experiments, on which his ‘* New ‘Theory of
Light and Colours’ is founded, to that degree of cer-
tainty and exa¢tnefs which alone could fatisfy himfelf. This
feems to have been his favourite invention: he was the firft
perfon who conceived the idea, and engaged in the fubtile
and delicate ftudy of the anatomy of light ; who diffected a
ray of light into its primary conftituent particles, which
then admitted of no farther feparation ; who difcovered the
different refrangibility of the particles thus feparated, and
that thefe conttituent rays had each its own colour inhe-
rent in it. Gn this fubject we could enlarge would our li-
mits allow. With the approbation of the author, Dr.
Samuel Clarke tranflated the ** Optics’’ into the Latin lan-
guage, and he did the bufinefs fo much to the fatisfaGtion
of Mr. Newton, that he prefented him with soo/. for his
labour. It was publifhed in 1706. With the firft edition
of his Optics, the author publifhed his “ Quadratures of
Curves,” which may be regarded as the earlieft appearance,
in print, of his Method of Fluxions, which he had invented
in the years 1665 and 1666. M. Leibnitz had, fince the
year 1684, endeavoured to imprefs the world with the per-
fuafion, that Newton had borrowed this invention from his
«: Differential Method ;?’ when, therefore, our illuftrious
countryman laid claim to his own difcovery it led to much
altercation, but the learned world in gencral decided in fa-
your of Newton ; and Fontenelle, in {peaking on the fubje&,
fays, “ Sir Ifaac was, by many years, the firit inventor.
M. Leibnitz, on the other fide, was the firlt who pub-
lifhed this method of calculation; and if he took it trom
fir Ifaac Newton, he refembled Prometheus in the fable,
who ftole fire from heaven that he might communicate it to
men.” See our article Ketii, John.

In the year 1705, queen Anne conferred on Mr. Newton
the honour of knighthood: two years after this, Mr.
Whilton, by our author’s permiffion, publifhed his Alge-
braical Lectures, under the title of ** Arithmetica Univer-
falis, five de Compofitione et Refclutione Arithmetice
Liber,” which work was tranflated into Englifh by Mr.
Raphfon. In 1711, ourauthor’s “ Analyfis per Quantita-
tum Series, Fiuxiones et Differentias, cum Enumeratione
Linearum tertii Ordinis’? was publifhed by Welliam Jones,
efq. ¥.R.S., who met with a copy among the papers of
Mr. Collins, to whom it had been communicated by Dr.
Barrow. It was publifhed in confequence of the difpute
relating te the invention of fluxions, which alfo occafioned
the printing, int712z, by the confent of fir Ifaac, a Col-
lection of Letters, already referred to, by him and others
in that controverfy, under the title of ‘* Commercium
Epiftolicum D. Johannis Collins et aliorum, de Analyfi
promota, juffu Societatis Regie in Lucem editum.””? In
the year 1715, M. Leibnitz, with the view of gaining credit
to the pretenfion that the ** Method of Fluxions’’ had been
borrowed from his ‘ Differential Method,’’ atteinpted to
baffle fir faac Newton’s mathematical fkill by his famous
problem of his Trajectories, which he propofed to the Eng-
lifth by way of challenge; but though it was the moft dif-
ficult propofition which his ingenuity, after much {tudy,
was able to devife, the folution of it proved fcarcely more
than an amufement to Newton. ‘he problem was received
by himat four o'clock in the afternoon, as he was return-
ing from the mint, and though he was extremely fatigued
with bufinefs, yet he finifhed the folution of it before he
retired to bed.

Upon the acceffion of king George I. to the Britifh
throne, fir Ifaac was particularly noticed at court, and was

{pecially introduced to the princefs of Wales, afterwards

queen Caroline, who took great delight in literary and phi-
lofophical enquiries, and in the converfation of men diltin-
guifhed by their talents and knowledge. With that of our
author fhe was always peculiarly gratified, deriving from
it that full fatisfaction in every difficulty, which fhe had in
vain fought for elfewhere, and fhe did not {cruple to fay
that fhe thought herfelf happy in coming into the world
at a juncture of time which put it in her power to con-
verfe with fir Ifaac Newton. At the folicitations of this
princefs he drew up an abftra& of his ‘* Chronology,” and
communicated a copy of it to the abbé Conti, upon the
promife of his keeping it fecret ; inftead of which he had
it tranflated and printed at Paris, under the title of « Abregé
de Chronologie de M. Le Chevalier Newton, fait par lui-
méme et traduit fur le Manufcript Anglois:'” a copy was
fent to fir Ifaac by the bookfeller aka printed it, under
the pretence of afking his confent to the publication ; but
though he gave a dire&t and moft explicit denial, the work
was ient into the world in the courfe of the year. He ac-
cordingly found it neceflary to enter into a vindication of
himfelt, which was inferted in the 34th volume of the Phi-
lofophical Tranfaétions, under the title of ** Remarks upon
the Obfervations made upon a Chronological Index of fir
Ifaac Newton, tranflated into French by the Obfervator, and
publithed at Paris.’’ Of this paper a tranflation appeared
at Paris in 1726, witha letter of the abbé Conti in an-
{wer to it. Inthe fame year, likewife, fome diflertations
were publifhed at Paris by father Souciet, againit the
‘* Chronological Index,’’ a reply to which, by Dr. Halley,
was given in the 397th Number of the Phil. Trani.

Our philofopher enjoyed a regular and pretty equal ftate
of health until he attained his eightieth year, when he be-
gan to decline: his illnefs was fuppofed to be occafioned by
a ftone in the bladder, which at times was attended with
fuch paroxyims of pain as caufed large drops of {weat to
roll down his face. During thefe attacks he was never
heard to utter the leaft complaint, nor to exprefs any im-
patience, and as foon as he had a moment’s eafe he would
{mile and converfe with his ufual cheerfulnefs. Till this
period he had always read and written for feveral hours in
a day, but he was now rendered incapable of much appli-
cation. On the morning of the 18th of March 1726-7, he
read the newfpaper, and converfed for a confiderable time
with Dr. Mead, his phylician, having then the perfe& ufe
of his faculties, of which he was, however, deprived“in the
courle of the following night, and he breathed his laft on
the 2oth of the fame month, being in the 85th year of his
age. Splendid funeral honours were paid to his remains, in
a manner, in every refpedt, fuitable to his extraordinary
merit, end that high eltimation in which he was defervedly
held in every part of Europe. His body lay in ftate in
the Jerufalem chamber, adjoining the houfe of lords; and
at the interment the pall was fupported by the lord chan-
cellor, the dukes of Montrofe and Roxburgh, and the earls
of Pembroke, Suffex, and Macclesfield,

In contemplating the charaGter and genius of this great
man, it is not eafy to determine whether fagacity, penetra-
tion, ftrength, or diligence had the greateft fhare in his com-
pofition. He entertained a very modeft opinion of his own
abilities, faying, when complimented on the extraordinary
powers of his mind, if he had done any thing worthy of
notice, and of fervice to the world, it was owing more to
his induftry and patience of thought, than to any extraor-
dinary fagacity. ‘1 keep the fubject conftanuy before
me,” faid he, “‘ and wait till the firlt dawnings open flowly,
by little and little, into a full and clear light.”” When en-

aged in the folution of difficult probiems, he was often

fo completely loft to the world as to forget the common
concerns

NEWTON.

concerns of life. He has been known to fit for hours on
the fide of his bed with his clothes half on and half off, ab-
forbed in thought; at other times he has gone through
the day without food, having forgetten the wants of na-
ture, in the contemplation of fome mathematical truth.
Our author’s temper is faid to have been fo mild and equal,
that fearcely any accident could difturb it. One inftance
in particular is mentioned of this difpofition. He had a fa-
vourite little dog called Diamond, which being left in his
ftudy, had overfet a lichted candle, among his papers, and
burnt the almoft finifhed labours of many years. This lefs
was irretrievable, yet the philofopher only exclaimed, «*O
Diamond! Diamond! thou httle knoweft the mifchief thou
haft done.”

It fhould.be noted that fir Ifaac Newton was candid and
affable, and always put himfelf upon a level with his com-
pany. He never thought either his own merit or reputa-
tion fufficient to excufe him from any of the common of-
fices of focial life ; and no fingularities, either natural or
affected, diftinguifhed him from other men. With refpeét
to his religious fentiments, he was unqueftionably a firm be-
liever in the truth of divine revelation, and a ferious, ra-
tional Chriftian. His difcoveries concerning the frame and
fyftem of the univerfe, he employed to demonftrate the ex-
iftence of a God, againft Atheifm of all kinds, and to il-
luftrate his power and wifdom in the creation of the world ;
and he applied himfelf with the utmoit attention to the
ftudy of the facred writings, and confidered the feveral
parts of them with uncommon exattnefs. He adhered,
outwardly, to the communion of the church of England,
though he did not believe in all its doétrines: with refpe&
to the perfon of Chrift, there feems no doubt that fir Haac
Newton was inclined to Unitarianifm; for this we have the
teftimony of his friend and co-operator in the mint, Mr.
Hopton Haynes, independently of his own writings. Sir
Ifaac was never married, and Fontenelle fays he never had
time to think of it, taken up as he was, at firft in pro-
found and continual ftudy, and afterwards employed in an
important and confiderable poft, which left no vacancy in
his life, nor any occation for domeftic fociety. He died
rich, and inteftate. His library has defcended to the prefent
times, in his own family, and at the moment of writing
this article (March 27, 1813,) it is felling by au€tion in
Londen, by order of the executors of Mrs. Ann Newton.
(See NewroniAn Philofophy.) For a notice of our au-
thor’s works not mentioned in this article the reader is re-
ferred to the Biographia Britannica: the moft complete
edition of them, collectively, was given to the public by Dr.
Horfley in 1785, in 5 vols. royal 4to. See Horstey.
Biog. Brit. Pemberton’s and Maclaurin’s Views, &c.

Newton, RicHarp, a learned divine of the church of
England, the founder of Hertford college, Oxford, was
born at Yardley-Chafe, in Northamptonfhire, in the year
3675. He was educated at Weftminfter fchool, and at a
proper time was eleéted to a ftudentfhip of Chriftchurch
college, Oxford. ‘Here he took his degrees of M.A. and
B.A., but at what particular period is not known : he pro-
ceeded door in divinity in the year 1710. For fome
time he filled the office of college tutor, during which he
acquired a high reputation, and afterwards became private
tutor in the family of lord Pelham, having under his care
the two brothers of his lordfhip, who were afterwards dif-
tinguifhed as ftatefmen, viz. the duke of Neweaftle and
Mr. Pelham; and both thefe illuftrious perfons ever after
entertained for him a very high regard. Dr. Newton had,
however, an independent and noble fpirit, which prevented
him from foliciting a favour, even from his own pupils,
when they had the power of ferving him. Mr. Pelham,

when prime minifter, it has been faid, employed him, more
than once, to draw up the king’s {peeches ; and when that
ftatefman was afked why he did not place Dr. Newton in
a {tation worthy of his merits? he replied, ‘* How could
I doit? He never afked me.” Such is the gratitude of
prime minifters!! If his labours as a tutor and politician
did not obtain for him the debt of juitice ; his reputation
for learning, and the excellence of his character as a clergy-
man, were the means of his preferment. Dr. Compton,
bifhop of London, collated him to the rectory of Sudbury,
in Northamptonfhire, and in 1710 he was, through Dr.
Aldrich, indu&ed principal of Hart-hall, which he re-
tained with the living of Sudbury, where he refided feveral
years. At this time Hart-hall was an appendage to Exeter ~
college: from a {tate of dependence, Dr. Newton conceived
the projet of refcuing it, and of ereting it into an inde-
pendent college. In the purfuit of this laudable purpofe
he’ had to encounter much oppofition, particularly from
Dr. Conypeare (fee his article).. The ftruggle between
them lafted fome years, and it has been faid, that in no con-
teft were two able men more equally matched, and that the
papers which pafled between them, like Junius’s letters, de-
ferved to be colle€ted, on account of the beauty of their
ftyle, and the ingenuity of their arguments. Dr. Newton
did, however, fucceed in accomplifhing the object which
he had in view, and in the year 1740 obtained a charter,
converting Hart-hall into Hertford college; of which,
at a great expence to himfelf, and with confiderable aid
from his friends, he was the founder and firft head. He
was afterwards promoted to a canonry of Chriitchurch,
and held it with his principalfhip of Hertford college till his
death, which happened in the year 1753, when he had at-
tained to the 78th year of his age. He was as polite a
{cholar, and as accomplifhed a gentleman, as almoft any
perfon of the age in which he lived. With the modern lan-
guages, as well as with the ancient ones of Greece and
Rome, he was intimately acquainted. In clofenefs of
argument, and perfpicuity of ftyle, he had no fuperior.
‘ Never,” fays his biographer, ‘* was any private perfon
employed in more trufts, nor were trutts ever difcharged by
any man with more integrity.’’ ‘Though attached to the
church of which he was a member, he lived in habits of
friendfhip with many who diflented from that church: he
vifited and highly efteemed the celebrated Doddridge. He
faw, and with pleafure admitted, that they both aimed at
the fame great end in fitting young men for the important
work of the Chriftian miniftry. On his death-bed, Dr.
Newton ordered all his writings to be deftroyed, excepting
a fele& number of fermons which he intended for the prefs.
Thefe, with three or four others that had been publifhed
in his lifetime, were publifhed in an e¢tavo volume in 1754:
he was author alfo of « A Scheme of Difcipline, &c. for
Hart-hall;"’ ‘* Univerfity Education, or an Explication
and Amendment of the Statute which prohibits the Admuif-
fion of Scholars going from one Society to another, &e. 3”
<¢ Pluralities Indefenfible &c.;’? and after his death, his
fucceffor, Dr. Sharp, publithed from his manufcripts “* The
Charaétens of Theophraftus, with a ftriétly literal ‘Tranfla-
tion of the Greek into Latin, &c. with Notes.’? Gent.
Mag. 1783-4.

Newton, Tromas, a learned Englith prelate, was born
at Lichfield in the year 1704. He received the firft part
of his education in grammar learning at the free-fchool of
his native town, whence he was remoyed to Weltminiter
{chool in 1717, and was nominated a king’s {cholar. _Hay-
ing continued there fix years, he was eleéted to Trinity
college, Cambridge, where he refiged eight months jn

every year, affiduoufly occupied in. his ftudies ull he bad
taken

NEWTON.

taken his degree of B.A. after which he obtained a fellow-
fhip of his college, and then came to fettle in London.
He was ordained deacon in December 1729, and prieft in
the following year by Dr. Gibfon, bifhop of London. For
fome time he officiated as curate at St. George’s church,
Hanover-fquare. His firft preferment was that of reader
and afternoon preacher at Grofvenor-chapel, in South And-
ley-{treet ; 10 which fituation he became acquainted with
lord Carpenter, who took him into his family as tutor to his
fon, who was afterwards created earl of T'yrconnel. In
1738 he was appointed, by Dr. Pearce, morning preacher at
the chapel in Spring-gardens, which gave him an opportunity
of becoming acquainted with feveral families of confequence,
among whom was that of Mr. Pulteney, and thus opened
his way to preferment. When Mr. Pulteney was created
earl of Bath, Mr. Newton was appointed his firft chaplain,
and through his lordfhip’s intereft, in 1744, he was pre-
ferred to the rectory of St. Mary-le-Bow, in Cheaptide.
Upon this promotion he quitted the chapel in Spring-
gardens ; and his fellowfhip at college became vacant. At
the Commencement in 1745 he was admitted to the degree of
D.D._ During the rebeliion of this year, he was diftin-
guifhed by the zeal with which he defended the caufe of his
king and ‘country in the pulpit; and he publifhed a fer-
mon which he preached before the houfe of commons, and
two others. In 1747 he was chofen le&turer of St. George’s,
Hanover-{quare. In 1749, Dr. Newton publifhed, by fub-
{cription, his {plendid edition of Multon’s Paradife Loft,
in 2 vols. 4to. accompanied with notes ; and he prefixed to
it a life of the author, intending to include the fubftance of
all the preceding lives of Milton, with improvements and
additions. This was an extremely popular work, and paffed
through eight impreffions during the life of the editor.
After this Dr. Newton publithed the « Paradife Regained,”
and other poems of the divine Milton, in the fame manner,
with notes, the refult of the communications of perfons of
the greateft eminence in the republic of letters. From thefe
editions of Milton he gained more in a pecuniary way than
the author did from all his works together, but his greateft
gain, in his own eftimation, was that which he acquired
by their introducing him to the friendfhip and intimacy of
two fuch men as bifhop Warburton and Dr. Jortin. In
1751, Dr. Newton preached a fermon at St. George’s,
Hanover-fquare, upon the occafion of the death of the
prince of Wales, which was the caufe of his being ap-
pointed one of the chaplains to her royal highnefs the
princefs of Wales. In 1754 he loft his father, at the age
of 83, and within a few days he met with a ftill more
fevere affliGtion in the death of his wife, at the early age of
38, with whom he had lived molt happily about feven years.
This, he faid, was the fevereft lofs he had ever met with, and
it had nearly overwhelmed him. ‘At this time he was for-
tunately engaged in writing his ‘« Differtations on the Pro-
phecies,”? an employment which he found well calculated
to draw him from himfelf, and thus alleviate his forrows.
The firft volume of this work was publifhed in the follow-
ing winter, but the others did not appear till about three
years afterwards. In the mean time the author was ap-
pointed to preach the lecture founded by Mr. Boyle. His
« Differtations”’ were originally drawn up in the form of
fermons, but were afterwards new-modelled, and confirmed
by proper authorities. They met with a favourable recep-
tion both at home and abroad, have gone through a great
number of impreffions, and have been tranflated into fe-
vera] languages. In 1757, Dr. Newton was nominated one
of the chaplains in ordinary to his majety, while he was
permitted to retain his ftation in the princels of Wales's
houfhold, and foon afterwards he was made prebendary

of Weftminfter. This preferment was {peedily followed
by his appointment to the office of fub-almoner to the
king, for which he was indebted to the unfolicited fa-
vour of Dr. Gilbert, archbifhop of York, who alfo gave
him the precentorfhip of his church. In 1761 he was no-
minated bifhop of Bri(tol, and canon-refidentiary of St. Paul’s,
with a‘permiflion to hold his city-living incommendam. In
1764 he was thought of by minifters as a proper perfon to
fill the vacant fee of London, but the king had given that
kind of promife for bifhop Terrick, during lord Bute’s ad-
miniftration, which he thought himfelf now obliged to fulfil.
In the fame year he was preffed to accept the primatefhip of
Ireland, but being turned of 60 years of age, he thought
Proper to decline the offer, thinking it was too late in life
to change his country, and to form an entirely new fet of
connections, and the more fo as his health was very pre-
carious. In 1768 he was made dean of St. Paul's, when his
ambition was amply fatisfied, and he immediately refigned
the reGtory of St. Mary-le-Bow. Scarcely had he taken
poffeffion of his deanery-houfe when he was feized with a
very ferious attack, which had nearly proved fatal, but he
recovered fo far as to be able, for feveral years, to go
through the duties of his offices with fome degree of regu-
larity. In 1776 he retired to a houfe at Kew-Green, which
he purchafed for the fake of getting out of the buftle of the
world. Here his principal exercife was walking in his rooms,
which he did repeatedly in the intervals between reading and
writing. Company he did not ftand in need of; belides, he
had refources in himfelf, and poffeffed a never-failing fund
of employment and entertainment in his books, prints, and
pictures. Thefe were the moft expenfive articles of his life,
and in pictures it may be faid he indulged to fome kind
of excefs. As a lover of the fine arts, the Royal Academy
applied to him, reprefenting that the art of painting would
never grow up to maturity and perfeGtion, unlefs it could
be introduced ito churches as in foreign countries; that
to make a beginning, they offered their fervices, free of ex-
pence, to the dean and chapter to decorate St. Paul’s with
Scripture hiftories. The dean was delighted with the offer,
and communicated it to his majefty, whofe approbation he
readily obtained. But the archbifhop of Canterbury, and
the bifhop of London, difapproved of the meafure, as likely
to excite much clamour and prejudice in the multitude, and
to be reprefented as au artful {tep towards the introdution
of popery. It was alfo oppofed upon the ground of its ap-
titude to divert the minds of the auditors from the proper
fubjeé&ts of attention in fich places. To his regret and ‘mor-
tification, therefore, our worthy prelate was obliged to
abandon a {cheme into which he had entered with much ar-
dour. He died fuddenly on the 14th of February 1782,
having long fuftained, with refignation and patience, the in-
firmities of old age, added to continual fits of fevere pain
and ficknefs. He had juit rifen and dreffed, ‘and then en-
quired the hour ; being anfwered that it was upon the ftroke
of nine, the bifhop made an effort to take out his watch, to
fet it right, but funk down in his chair, and expired without
afigh, or the leaft vifible emotion. The life of this excel-
lent prelate was an exemplary pattern of piety and dili-
gence: he was particularly diftinguifhed by a fimplicity of
mind and manners, but he was much under the dominion of
prejudice, and thought very unfavourably of thofe whofe
fentiments were different from his own in religion and poli-
tics. Neverthelefs, he himfelf did not admit all the doc-
trines of the church to which he belonged: he was an
enemy to the fyftem which inculcates the eternity of hell-
torments, and wrote in defence of the final reftitution of all
things. The value of the writings of the bifhop of Briftol
has been thus eftimated in the Monthly Review: * They

may

NE W

may be reckoned among the moft ufeful, if not the moft
learned and brilliant produétions of this or of any other
country. They are plain, rational, and inftructive. They
bear marks of great induftry, piety, and a good under-
ftanding. If they have nothing to gratify a metaphyfical
genius, and little to inform the deep {cholar ; if fancy 1s not
much charmed by their novelty or elegance ; if no addition
is made by them to the great ftores of criticifm or erudi-
tion, yet they can boaft a higher merit, and are likely to
produce an effeét that will outlive the inventions of genius,
and the accumulations of learning.’? They confift of the
« Differtations on the Prophecies ;” ninety Differtations on
various parts of the Old and New ‘Teftament, and on va-
rious moral and theological fubjects; and ‘* Sermons?’ and
“Charges.’’ The whole were colleéted by the author,
and printed in 3 vols. 4to. with his life prefixed to them,
drawn by his own hand. They have fince made their ap-
pearance in 6 vols. Svo. To the life juft mentioned, the
Brit. Biog , and the 68th volume of the Monthly Review,
we refer for other particulars relating to bifhop Newton.

Newton, in Geography, a pleafant townfhip in Mid-
dlefex county, Maflachuletts, on Charles river, incorpo-
rated in 1691, and containing 1491 inhabitants; 9 miles
W.. of Bolton.—Alfo, a fmall town in Chetter county,
Pennfylvania ; 22 miles S. of Philadelphia.—Alfo, a town-
fhip ia Rockingham county, New Hampfhire, on Powow
river, adjoining Amefbury, in Maffachufetts, 10 or 12 miles
S. of Exeter ; incorporated in 1749, and containing 450
inhabitants. : :

Newron-Bu/bel, a market-town in the hundred of Teign-
bridge, and county of Devon, England, is fituated 12 miles
diftant from Exeter, and 187 miles from London. It con-
fills of two parifhes, now united, 7. e. Newton-Bufhel and
Newton-Abbot. The houfes are very indifferently built,
and the ftreets badly paved. The principal {treet 1s much
obftruéted by an old market-houfe and fhambles, faid to be
erected by Waller, after the civil wars, as a kind of in-
demnity for his having attempted to deprive the inhabitants
of their eftablifhed market. The parifh church ftands
about a mile to the weft of the town; but there are two
chapels of eafe within it. The population furvey of the
year 1811, returns this town as containing 193 houfes, oc-
cupied by 1001 perfons. Four annual fairs are held; and
a weekly market on Wednefdays.

About a mile fouth of the town is Ford, a houfe built
in the reign of king James I. by fir Richard Reynell, an
eminent lawyer. In 1625 Charles I, took up his abode
here. The houfe, which now belongs to the Courtenay
family, ftands in a retired lawn, and oppotite to it isa {mall
deer-park. Contiguous to it is a charitable inititution,
called the ‘* Widowes Houfe,” founded by lady Luey,
wife of fir Richard Reynell, for the reception of four
clergymen’s widows.

To the wef of Newton, about a mile, is Bradley, an

NE W

ancient manfion, formerly belonging to the Buffels or Bufhele
from whom the town derives its fecond appellation, and now
the property of Lane, efq. The houfe difplays fome
interefting {pecimens of ancient architecture ; and the fur-
rounding fcenery is highly pi€turefque and romantic. Pole
whele’s Hiftory and Antiquities of Devonhhire.

Newton-Douglas, a confiderable borough of barony in
the fhire of Wigton, Scotland, is feated on the river Cree
which is navigable within two miles of the town. 7 This
place owes its origin to a younger branch of the Stewarts,
earls of Galloway, who gave it the name of Newton. gic
wart. The fuperiority of the village, and neighbouring
eftate, however, having come into the pofleffion of Wil
liam Douglas, efq., he granted to it a charter, under the
chancery feal, conttituting it a burgh of barony, by ‘its
prefent appellation. A very. flourifhing manufa@ture of
cotton is carried on here; and here are a number of tan-
works, and a carpet manufactory. Over the river is thrown
a bridge, which affords a ready communication with the
country on the eaft; and as itis nowa ftage town on the
great road from Edinburgh, in addition to its other advan-
tages, there is every reafon to conclude it will fhortly be-
come one of the firft towns in this portion of Scotland.
According to the parliamentary returns of 1811, it contains
524 houfes, anda population of 2847 perfons. Beauties of
Scotland, vol. it.

Newton in the Willows, a borough-town in the parifh of
Winwick, hundred of Welt Derby, in the county, of
Lancafter, England, is fituated eight miles diftant from
Wigan, and 192 miles from London. It formerly had a
market, which has long been difufed, though the market-
crofs is fill flanding. Newton is a borough by prefcrip-
tion, and has returned two members to parliament from the
firft year of queen Elizabeth. The town confilts chiefly
of one broad itreet. Here is an old hall built of wood,
with much painted glafs {till remaining in its windows: it
ftands on a rocky foundation ; and behind it the rock is
hollowed out in a very fingular manner; appearing to haye
had fubterraneous paflages, which, by removing the furface
of the rock, are now laid open. Adjoining to this hall is
a freall rifing ground, which was formerly nearly furrounded
by a moat, of which here is ftill a {mall remnant. The
tradition is, that it was, at fome remote period, the refidence
of aking. Newton contained in the year 1811, according
to the parliamentary furvey, 1589 inhabitants, occupying
269 houfes. Four fairs are held annually ; and here is a
confiderable manufaéture of fuftians and Manchetter goods.
At a place called the ‘* Red Bank,’ near Newton, in
Auguft 1648, a detachment of Cromwell's army defeated
a party of Highlanders on their march from Prefton; and
the greater part of the prifoners were hanged in a field
near the fcene of aétion, which ftill bears the name of
Gallows Croft. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. ix.,
by J. Britton, F.S.A.

END OF VOL. XXIV.

Strahan and Prefton,
New-ftreet Square, London,

sort hs lena Mn a Meaty Sa Pal fF

AE Rees, Abraham
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